Notes 1 Introduction 1. James Adams, The Financing of Terror: Behind the P.L.O., I.R.A., Red Brigades, and M-19 Stand the Paymasters: How the Groups That Are Terrorizing the World Get the Money to Do It (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986), 4. 2. Rohan Gunaratna, Inside Al Qaeda: Global Network of Terror (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 19. 3. Friedrich Schneider, “Macroeconomics: The Financial Flows of Islamic Terrorism,” in Global Financial Crime: Terrorism, Money Laundering, and Offshore Centres, ed. Donato Masciandaro (Aldershot, Hants, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004), 102. 4. C. Boucek, “The Battle to Shut Down Al-Qaeda’s Finances” (Jane’s Terrorism Intelligence Centre, 2002). 5. Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 229–40. 6. Paul Pierson, “Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics,” American Political Science Review 94, no. 2 (2000): 261. 7. Joshua Sinai, “New Trends in Terrorism Studies: Strengths and Weaknesses,” in Mapping Terrorism Research: State of the Art, Gaps and Future Direction, ed. Magnus Ranstorp, Cass Series: Political Violence (London: Routledge, 2007), 33. The closest the international commu- nity has come with regards to a consensus on a definition of terrorism is the one found in the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999). It makes it illegal for a person to provide or collect funds to be used in prosecution of any of the international con- ventions pertaining to specific terrorist attacks (hijacking and so forth) as well as “Any other act intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to a civilian, or to any person not taking any active part in the hostili- ties in a situation of armed conflict, when the purpose of such act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a govern- ment or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing an act.” Paul Allan Schott, Reference Guide to Anti-Money Laundering and 170 Notes Combating the Financing of Terrorism, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: World Bank: International Monetary Fund, 2006), 1–4. 8. Daniel Byman, Deadly Connections: States That Sponsor Terrorism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 9. 9. Ibid., 7. 10. Title 22 of the US Code, Section 2656f(d) defines terrorism as “pre- meditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncom- batant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.” This definition is contained in Title 22 of the US Code, Section 2656f(d). Paul R. Pillar, Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), 13. The first difference between my definition and that of the original is the addition of the word “individuals.” Its inclusion is explained in the following paragraphs. The second change is that this book will not consider acts committed by clandestine agents of a state to be terrorist attacks. Instead, I restrict the definition to only encompass nonstate actors. 11. Ibid. 12. Bard E. O’Neill, Insurgency and Terrorism: From Revolution to Apocalypse, 2 ed. (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2005), 34. 13. Pillar, Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy, 14. 14. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 43. 15. Pillar, Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy, 14. 16. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 25. 17. See, for example, Walter Laqueur, The Age of Terrorism (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1987), 146, Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 25. 18. Jessica Stern, “The Protean Enemy,” Foreign Affairs 82, no. 4 (2003): 34. Language has been added to some aspects of U.S. Law stat- ing that terrorism can be conducted by individuals, but the State Department definition has not changed. For example, Section 6001 of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, PL 108–458 amended the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act to add the category of a lone wolf to its statutes. According to this law, a lone wolf is “a non-United States person who engaged in international terrorism or activities in preparation for international terrorism.” Elizabeth B. Bazan, “Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004: “Lone Wolf” Amendment to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act” (Library of Congress Congressional Research Service, 2004). 19. Bonnie Cordes, “When Terrorists Do the Talking: Reflections on Terrorist Literature,” in Inside Terrorist Organizations, ed. David C. Rapoport, Cass Series on Political Violence (London: Frank Cass, 2001), 154. 20. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 199. 21. Cordes, “When Terrorists Do the Talking,” Pillar, Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy, 13, Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 199. Notes 171 22. Daniel Byman, Peter Chalk, Bruce Hoffman, William Rosenau, and David Brannan, Trends in Outside Support for Insurgent Movements (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2001), 3. 23. Not all terrorist groups necessarily seek to establish themselves over the long run. For example, the perpetrators of the London subway bomb- ings in 2005 only intended to organize themselves for that one suicide mission. In such cases, obviously, long-term resourcing support will not be sought. 24. These four categories are based upon a five-category classification of capability created by RAND. Kim Cragin and Sara A. Daly, The Dynamic Terrorist Threat: An Assessment of Group Motivations and Capabilities in a Changing World (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2004). 25. Byman, Deadly Connections, 15. Situations where a terrorist organiza- tion is able to compel compliance from a population in a failing of col- lapsed state will generally fall under the category of shell state, though in rare circumstances, it could also be the case of a state sponsoring group. 26. The most integrated are state-proxies, which are state agencies and clan- destine agents conducting attacks on behalf of that state. Because these attacks are carried out clandestinely by government personnel, they are probably best considered as a type of special operations, a more tradi- tional military operation that is beyond the scope of this book. 27. Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 188. 28. Loretta Napoleoni, Terror Incorporated: Tracing the Dollars Behind the Terror Networks (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2004), 66–80. 29. Bruce Hoffman, “Redefining Counterterrorism: The Terrorist as C.E.O.,” RAND Review 28, no. 1 (2004): 15, Peter. L Bergen, Holy War, Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama Bin Laden (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), 83–4. 30. Byman, Deadly Connections, 187–218, Ahmed Rashid, Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (New Haven, CN: Yale University Press, 2000). 31. Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson, Globalization in Question, 2nd ed. (Malden, MA: Polity Press, 1999), 11. 32. Audrey Kurth Cronin, “Behind the Curve: Globalization and Interna- tional Terrorism,” International Security 27, no. 3 (2002/3): 46–51. 2 Terrorism Cannot Live on Idealism Alone 1. Adams, Financing of Terror, 251. 2. On August 11, 2001, three PIRA members, James Monaghan, Martin McCauley and Neill Connolly, were arrested in Bogata, Colombia with 172 Notes false passports and traces of explosives in their belongings. They were charged by Colombia with training FARC. James “Mortar” Monaghan is believed to have designed the PIRA homemade mortar, and McCauley and Connolly are believed to be some of PIRA’s best explosives experts. Neither Sinn Fein nor PIRA have admitted that the three individuals were sent to Colombia to train the FARC. After the capture of the PIRA members, FARC tactics, especially those involving urban war- fare, improved markedly, including the use of car bombs, secondary devices (explosive devices used to ambush responding personnel) and longer range mobile mortars, all which bore striking similarities to PIRA weapons and tactics. Mark Burgess, “Globalizing Terrorism: The F.A.R.C.-I.R.A. Connection” (CDI Terrorism Project, June 5, 2002). 3. Laqueur, The Age of Terrorism, 99–101. 4. For instance, Islamist fighters in Chechnya reportedly provide no death benefits to the families of their suicide bombers. Napoleoni, Terror Incorporated, 185. 5. For example, al Qaeda members were paid salaries of 500–1200 USD per month while located in Sudan. Such a salary was substantial in a country as poor as Sudan. The Irish Republican Army has reportedly paid £12,000 per year and higher to members to maintain the cease fire. Hizbullah, by its own accounting, provides aid to 1,284 families of Hizbullah members who were “martyrs” through their Philanthropic and Social Martyrs’ Institution. Bergen, Holy War, Inc., 83, Naim Qassem, Hizbullah: The Story from Within, trans. Dalia Khalil (London, UK: SAQI Books, 2005), 85, Nick Kochan, The Washing Machine: How Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing Soils Us (Mason, OH: Thompson, 2005), 81. 6. Benjamin J. Cohen, The Geography of Money (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 11. 7. Byman et al., Trends in Outside Support, 87. 8. Cohen, The Geography of Money, 14–16. Cohen’s “currency pyramid” contains seven categories, ordered from most dominant and widely accepted to least dominant. Depending on a terrorist organization’s geographic location and specific needs, other currencies are certainly used. 9. Napoleoni, Terror Incorporated, 56. 10. “National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism” (Washington, DC: U.S. Defense Department Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2006), 16. 11. Phil Williams, “Warning Indicators and Terrorist Finances,” in Terrorism Financing and State Responses, ed. Jeanne K. Giraldo and Harold A. Trinkunas (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 81. 12. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 200. Though the FMLN were terrorists in the 1980s, today, they are a legitimate political party in El Salvador. 13. Michael Moss and Souad Mekhennet, “An Internet Jihad Aims at U.S. Viewers,” New York Times (October 15, 2007), Notes 173 http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/15/us/15net.h . 8470- a8aqID3BQkeSI0xrLjqALQ&pagewanted=print. 14. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 207–9, Weedah Hamzah, “Hezbollah Launches Another Anti-Israel Computer Game,” EUX.TV (August 15, 2007), http://www.eux.tv/article.aspx?articleId=12774.