Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies

Volume 32 Discussion of Nathaniel Roberts, To Be Cared For: The Power of Conversion and Article 5 Foreignness of Belonging to An Indian Slum.

2019

Christ-Centered Bhakti:A Literary and Ethnographic Study of Worship

Nadya Pohran University of Cambridge

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Recommended Citation Pohran, Nadya (2019) "Christ-Centered Bhakti:A Literary and Ethnographic Study of Worship," Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies: Vol. 32, Article 5. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1731

The Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies is a publication of the Society for Hindu-Christian Studies. The digital version is made available by Digital Commons @ Butler University. For questions about the Journal or the Society, please contact [email protected]. For more information about Digital Commons @ Butler University, please contact [email protected]. Pohran: Christ-Centered Bhakti:A Literary and Ethnographic Study of Worsh

Christ-Centered Bhakti:

A Literary and Ethnographic Study of Worship

Nadya Pohran

Abstract: Bhakti (loving devotion) centered on commonly known expressions—most of which and directed to Jesus Christ—or what I here are in Hindu contexts. call "Christ-centred bhakti"—is an The second half of this paper focuses on increasingly popular religious practice in Christ-centered bhakti, drawing from both and elsewhere. The first half of this ethnographic fieldwork and literary analysis, paper seeks to explore some of the roots of the and explores how Christ-centered bhakti can contemporary spiritual practice of bhakti be situated within bhakti’s broader historical poetry which has been written and/or is being and literary expressions. I highlight some of sung in India. An overview of bhakti in a the expressions of Christ-centered bhakti broader sense provides the necessary through focusing specifically on one bhajan, foundation so as to then explore and ‘Man Mera,’ and reading it alongside bhajans contextualise the emerging practice of Christ- by the 16th-century Rajasthani poet-saint centered bhakti poetry—often called ‘Yeshu’ Mirabai. The focus on Christ-centred bhakti (Jesus) or ‘Khrist’ (Christ) bhajans (devotional documents and demonstrates some of the hymns)—within the broader theological and ways in which bhakti is being practiced with experiential frameworks of Hindu bhakti. To Christian idioms and in Christian contexts. structure this contextualization, I draw upon a And, significantly, it reveals the various ways helpful observation by Jessica Frazier: scholars that some Christians grapple with their faith generally approach bhakti as either a concept, in Jesus and embrace an existential a historical movement, or an experience. The uncertainty with regard to their sense of God. first half of this paper interacts with each of these understandings of bhakti in order to VRINDI1 tossed the end of her dupatta over her provide the reader with some necessary shoulder and pulled back her long, dark hair, context of bhakti in its broader and more securing it with a hair clip. Her sister handed

Nadya Pohran is a PhD candidate at the University of Cambridge. Her research broadly falls within the anthropology of with a specific interest in the way that religiosity and spirituality are experienced within contemporary lived traditions. She particularly interested in the way that “religious” beliefs and “spiritual” experiences form and inform individuals’ understandings of themselves and the society around them. Pohran’s Master’s thesis (2014-2015) is an ethnographic study of spiritual healing in a Charismatic Protestant community in Canada. In it, she explores the way that an individual’s beliefs surrounding trauma and healing influence other aspects of their lives. Her PhD dissertation (2015-2018) is an anthropological study of a Protestant Christian ashram in the North of India (established in 1930.) Through tracing its history, she engages with questions of Hindu-Christian relations, religious conversion, Indian Christianity, inculturation, and religious syncretism.

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her an assortment of colourful material that written and/or is being sung in India. An she had just measured and cut, and after a few overview of bhakti in a broader sense provides adjustments Vrindi began slowly feeding the the necessary foundation so as to then explore material through the sewing machine. There and contextualise the emerging practice of were four women, and myself, in the small Christ-centered bhakti poetry—often called room, surrounded by metres of fabric, sewing ‘Yeshu’ (Jesus) or ‘Khrist’ (Christ) bhajans patterns, an assortment of scissors, thread, (devotional hymns)—within the broader and sewing pins, and the one coveted sewing theological and experiential frameworks of machine. Two of the women came from a Hindu devotion (bhakti.) Recent theological nearby slum, to which they had returned after and anthropological studies of Khrist bhakti, ceasing their involvement with a local sex- as well as some of my preliminary fieldwork in trafficking trade. Vrindi and her sister were parts of North India, have suggested that from a nearby Christian church which ran a Christ-centered bhakti is on the rise as a form ministry targeted at helping slum dwellers— of spiritual practice.3 Christ-centered bhakti is particularly former sex-workers—to learn not a monolithic devotional form but has skills such as sewing or handicrafts so that many diverse expressions. It has been they could work toward supporting suggested that the increasing popularity of themselves and their families financially. The Christ-centered bhakti is due to its unique pastor of the church rented out the space for combination of traditionally-Hindu forms of the women to work in; the room was small and bhakti spirituality and some Christian the building was rundown and rickety, but it teachings.4 The four women mentioned in the served its purpose in allowing women to learn above vignette all grew up in Hindu families. various handicrafts, which they could then While Vrindi and her sister have come to sell. identify with a Christian church community in Vrindi began humming a quiet tune, and many ways, the other two women shy away her sister joined in after a few moments. from Christian institutions because they Before long, the other two women in the room perceive Christian teachings as an outright were also singing along as the five of us rejection of their Hindu traditions.5 The measured, cut, pinned, and stitched: practice of Christ-centered bhakti offers an Bhajo nam, bhajo nam, bhajo nam, Yeshu interesting middle-ground to such individuals, nam. as it exists as a sort of dynamic ‘hybridization’ Yeshu nam, Yeshu nam, Yeshu nam, Yeshu of some aspects of both Hindu and Christian nam. spiritualties. Sab bhakti karo mil gao Yeshu nam re. A helpful article by Jessica Frazier raises important questions about the ways in which (Praise the name, praise the name, praise Western scholars have often approached the name, Jesus’ name. bhakti. Frazier prompts scholars to examine Jesus’ name, Jesus’ name, Jesus’ name, their assumptions regarding bhakti. She asks, Jesus’ name. ‘Is [bhakti] really a distinct ‘movement’ with We all sing Jesus’ name with devotion.)2 discrete boundaries […]? Is it a category of This paper first seeks to explore some of identity, an attitude to god, a cultural the roots of the contemporary spiritual grammar of practice, or a particularly intense practice of bhakti poetry which has been and vital tone of religious life?’6 Summarising

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol32/iss1/5 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1731 2 Pohran: Christ-Centered Bhakti:A Literary and Ethnographic Study of Worsh Christ-Centered Bhakti: A Literary and Ethnographic Study of Worship 29

some of the key trends in the current which contemporary Christ-centered bhajans literature on bhakti, she offers three different build from medieval expressions of bhakti. ways through which one can approach the phenomenon: (1) bhakti as a concept related 1) Bhakti as a concept to philosophical notions such as Bhakti has been defined as ‘the offering of transcendence, and what it might mean to one’s heart fully to the divine in everything ‘share in,’ or to be part of, a bigger whole; (2) one feels, thinks, and does.’7 While there is bhakti as a movement that occurred in distinct some ambiguity surrounding terms like ‘heart’ geographical places at distinct times in and ‘the divine,’ this definition is helpful in history; (3) bhakti as an experience, yoga, and gaining a broad understanding of bhakti. emotion in which individuals embody and live However, further nuancing is required in out the concept of sharing in or being united order to gain an understanding of the with a transcendent sacred, generally though conceptual ranges of bhakti. This first section the means of adoration and devotion. explores three key features through which These three distinct categories are bhakti has been conceptualised. These include: important conceptual tools for approaching bhakti as an embodied expression that relies the topic of bhakti, but I think it is more useful on an individual’s corporeal experiences; to think of them as somewhat-discernible bhakti as an act of single-minded (ekanta) love threads that interweave and overlap to and longing which can be understood comprise a bigger whole. That is, each of the analogically as the love of a woman for her three categories are deeply connected and beloved; and bhakti as devotion which naturally interwoven with the other two. In perseveres in the midst of divine absence. this paper, I approach the contemporary experience of Christ-centered bhakti as part of i. Embodied expression a larger concept that has been influenced by The term bhakti, often translated as several historical movements. Though I make devotion or devotional love, is derived from an effort to distinguish between the concept, the word bhaj. Crucially, bhaj is an the experience, and the historical movements embodied concept: the term bhaj could be of bhakti, the reader will note that they are used to refer to the taste of something, or to interwoven together throughout this paper. describe the act of distribution or sharing, or Likewise, while I focus specifically on one participating in something.8 Most bhajan (‘Man Mera’) that is centered on the interestingly, the nuances of this term can be figure of Jesus in order to highlight some of the reflected in the devotional self-offerings of expressions within Christ-centered bhakti, it bhakti. Bhakti often involves somatic will become clear to the reader that such processes that are visible to an outside viewer. bhakti poetry cannot be totally extracted and While, as this paper will go on to suggest, high isolated from the broader expression of forms of bhakti require mental resolve and bhakti. In particular, I refer often to one could thus be said to exist within a mental or expression of bhakti within a 16th century emotional, rather than a physical, realm, Hindu context—that of the Rajasthani poet- bhakti is itself an embodied concept in that it saint Mirabai. A consideration of Mira bhajans makes use of an individual’s physical body. as well as some other bhajans within Hindu Engaging one’s body in loving acts of devotion bhakti contexts helps to elucidate the ways in such as bowing low to touch the feet of a guru

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or deity, bathing a statue of the deity in water, (gopis) have for . This five-chapter milk, or ghee (rarefied butter), presenting a lila—referred to as the Rasa Lila—symbolises camphor flame during an aarti (worship the ‘boundless love between divinity and ceremony) are some of the ways through devotee’ and is often pointed to as an eternal which embodied bhakti occurs. archetype of the bhakti that present-day An individual’s physical body also plays a bhaktas ought to aspire to.12 The Rasa Lila crucial role in bhakti poetry more generally. revolves around a particular style of dance As an aesthetic form, bhakti poetry is that was often performed in South Asia during performed: it is presented almost exclusively harvest time. In this narrative of the rasa, orally, rather than as a written product, and several gopis in the picturesque landscape of bhajniks (bhajan singers) who travel pastoral Vraja hear the sound of Krishna’s throughout rural and semi-urban India flute. At the moment of hearing the music, continue to perform many of the bhajans their minds become captured by Krishna, and composed centuries ago.9 Referring to the they are enraptured by him (10.29.1-4.) The ways in which bhajans were either composed women leave behind their household duties on the spot or created in a fashion that did not and rush to find Krishna and his music in the require written forms, Indian poet Dilip Chitre forest. In a mysterious way, Krishna multiplies uses the term ‘orature’ to encapsulate this himself so that each woman experiences a oral-based art form. In this sense, bhajans not dance with him simultaneously. only assume an oral quality when being The gopis experience an intense love for performed to an audience, but indeed rely on Krishna, whom they view as their one true lord the oral delivery as a fundamental component and divine lover, and they seek to devote of the creation of the bhajans.10 Furthermore, themselves solely to him. Their love for him is the content of bhajans was often reflected in described as so deep that they are willing to do the poets’ lives; the poets ‘embodied bhakti in anything within their means to please their own experiences, their visions […], their Krishna, even if it would result in great pilgrimages […], and the community of personal hardship for themselves. There is a bhaktas.’11 In this sense, bhajans—especially in popular legend which encapsulates this their embodied performances—can be seen as sentiment: Krishna has a headache and a practice of bhakti that is itself acted out in requires dust from a devotee’s feet in order to the poets’ lives; embodiment is thus crucial to cure it. While a number of Krishna devotees bhakti. shirked from this thought, the gopis were eager to give the dust from their feet, even ii. The femininity of bhakti though they assumed that doing so would Graham Schweig explores the way in negatively affect their karmic status by which bhakti is associated with femininity transferring karmic demerit.13 This sort of through focusing on the Purana self-sacrificing devotional love could be (BhP), a central devotional Hindu text (c. 1000 understood as the essence of bhakti.14 To CE). Schweig centres in on one particular practice this form of bhakti is to be so madly in divine drama (lila) within the BhP which has love that one does not consider any negative been championed by some Vaisnava traditions consequences that one might accrue from the as exhibiting one of the most intimate forms of act of loving.15 bhakti: the love which the cowherd maidens

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol32/iss1/5 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1731 4 Pohran: Christ-Centered Bhakti:A Literary and Ethnographic Study of Worsh Christ-Centered Bhakti: A Literary and Ethnographic Study of Worship 31

The exaltation of feminine devotion to a a gopi—if he wished to truly embody Krishna- high spiritual status within bhakti contexts is bhakti.18 particularly evident in the above-mentioned Schweig argues that this call to ‘feminise’ portrayal of the gopis’ love for Krishna, but it oneself in order to fully submit to God does not can be further noted in bhakti contexts more necessarily entail that women are depicted as broadly. For example, many of the female being socially subordinate to men. Far from bhakti poets proclaim the divine Lover as their this, he claims, ‘[the feminine] role of the husband both in and outside of their bhajans. Gopis is itself evidence of a culture attempting The poet Mahadeviyakka (c.1130-1160) writes to break out of the constrictive social norms in that ‘my lord, white as jasmine, is my which it has been ensconced.’19 In other words, husband.’16 Likewise, Mirabai (c. 1600), a according to Schweig, the femininisation of widely recognised female bhakti poet, also bhakti can be viewed as encouraging women proclaims Krishna as her only true husband in to step outside of the traditionally-female role, her poetry. Mira further challenged the emphasised by normative texts such as the gendered duty (dharma) of a Rajput female Manusmrti (c. 200 CE), of being a wife and through devoting herself to Krishna alone: mother. In this sense, bhakti enables although she did marry, she refused to individuals (males and females alike) to focus consummate her marriage with her earthly strictly on their own spiritual state rather husband nor did she perform the self- than being concerned with social or family immolation of a Hindu widow (sati) at her matters; bhakti can therefore be understood as husband’s death.17 ‘the best and easiest path to liberation,’ and it This association of one’s lord with one’s is revered above other paths to liberation such husband is reflected in some of the languages as those of knowledge (jnana) and action used in modern Indian contexts more (karma).20 broadly—for instance, that the Hindi word pati Nevertheless, the femininisation of Hindu is used for both husband and lord/master, bhakti causes one to consider whether this thus blurring the lines between the human analogy of God (as a husband to whom human and divine identities. However, within beings submit themselves in feminised discussions of bhakti, it is more common to devotional love) might further contribute to a emphasise the extent to which any hierarchy of gender in which women are individual—no matter his or her biological viewed as subordinate to men, thereby sex—adopts a female posture in reference to perpetuating a social hierarchy between males God. There is a popular tale which illustrates and females. this notion: when Mirabai visited the holy city of Vrindaban (a famous pilgrimage site for iii. The highest form of bhakti devotees of Krishna), she was not permitted to Without entering into a detailed meet with a male ascetic (sadhu) who had discussion of the gendered-question of female taken a vow that he would not speak with subordination, the femininisation of bhakti women. Commenting on this vow, Mira further leads us to consider not simply the act retorted, ‘Are there any men in Vrindaban of expressing devotion to a husband or lord, except Lord Krishna?’ Mira’s striking question but the very concept of devotion itself. That is prompted the sadhu to recall how he, too, to say, one must ask the questions ‘What does ought to conceptualise himself as a female—as true devotion look like?’ and ‘Ought one’s

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devotion continue when the one to whom for her Lord: ‘I look at the road / for his devotion is directed has gone?’ As the above- coming. / If he isn’t coming, / I pine and waste mentioned lila within the BhP suggests, the away. […] When he’s away / I cannot wait / to gopis have deep bhakti while Krishna is get a glimpse of him./ […].’24 present. However, the narrative continues to In the accounts of Mira’s bhakti to Krishna, unfold with a crucial moment that is most Mira is also portrayed as being deeply aware of pertinent to gaining an understanding of the the sense of God’s absence. In a Mira bhajan concept of bhakti: Krishna disappears. collected by Parita Mukta, Mira tells of her This disappearance of the divine is crucial acute loneliness. She sings, ‘I have given of my because it leads to a higher degree of bhakti mind and body/ I want to reach the door of the for the gopis. Later on, after re-appearing to beloved./Giridhar, I have left the marjad the gopis who had been lamenting in his [honour] of the kul [clan] for you.’25 In her absence, Krishna explains: analysis of the bhajan, Mukta points out that ‘…in order/ to strengthen their love, / I Mira is in pain not because of the loss of her may not return even the love / of those social status and family ties, or even because who love me; / Like a poor man who of her lack of material wealth, but from her obtains / a treasure and then loses it, / discovery ‘that the instances of seeing her Such a person knows nothing else, / filled Beloved on her veil are momentary.’26 with no other thought / than regaining Countless Mira bhajans profess that her love is that treasure. […] It was out of love for you for Krishna alone (i.e. preferring ‘saffron / that I became invisible / though you robes’ to ‘rubies’ and desiring the company of were never removed from my sight.’21 ‘sadhus’ over ‘princes’27 or stating that ‘there This alternating spiral of presence and is no feeling for [the Rana] in [Mira’s] heart absence suggests that the highest expression today.’28 These bhajans repeatedly speak to the of bhakti is not simply to have attained union human experience in which, despite all one’s with the divine and to show loving devotion in best efforts and spiritual pursuits, God seems the midst of that experience of divine absent. The highest bhakti is achieved in presence, but to persevere in seeking ‘the continuing in devotional love despite absent beloved’ (BhP 6.11.26) even in the midst experiencing the absence of God. of being tormented by the divine absence.22 In lived traditions of bhakti, there can be This phenomenon is what Nancy Martin calls immense difficulty in enacting this persistent the ‘paradox of union and separateness in devotion. This might be because human intimacy,’ which, she argues, is the most nature has a certain fallibility to it that, intimate manner in which bhaktas express despite the best of intentions and the highest their full devotion to God.23 And so, while of aspirations, makes persevering in the face many bhakti poems describe a deep sense of of doubt rather difficult. While Mira is, for the intimacy with God, these are themselves most part, championed as a bhakta who stood contextualised within broader stories of strong in her devotion despite any lapses of autobiographical voices which speak of doubt, experiencing divine presence, some loss, and longing for the intimacy that they contemporary expressions of bhakti suggest once felt. For example, alongside attestations that this depth of devotion is difficult to of intimacy with Shiva, the bhakti poet maintain in the midst of divine absence. This Mahadeviyakka writes of the feeling of longing painful paradox between the doctrinal ideal

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and the lived-out practice of religion is an Hindu family, was introduced to some ongoing focus of study that anthropologists teachings about Jesus Christ when she was in note when exploring lived religious her early twenties and was living in Mumbai. traditions.29 Upon hearing stories from other individuals Within the ethnographic literature on who had devoted themselves to Jesus and Krishna bhakti, there is a case study that begun to experience positive changes in their effectively demonstrates this dialectic lives that they attributed to the blessings of between divine presence and divine absence. Jesus, Mahima began to wonder whether she Shrivatsa Goswami and Margaret Case draw too ought to devote herself to this god. After from their ethnographic work in Vindraban to all, she reasoned, some of the stories seemed describe a group of Krishna bhaktas who quite remarkable. One of Mahima’s friends, believe they have witnessed the reappearance Rupesh (who I later spoke with separately) had of Krishna in the form of a bhramara (a small also grown up in a devout Hindu family and bumblebee like insect.)30 The community knew little about Christian teachings. When attributes this reappearance to their long Rupesh’s paternal aunt was diagnosed with history of Krishna-bhakti. One can note here HIV and was given only a few months left to the belief that bhakti can lead to miraculous live, his family tried to do whatever they could signs and even tangible glimpses of God. Thus, to extend her life. When none of their efforts there is a certain reciprocity at play between seemed to be working, a distant relative told such experiences of divine presence and them that he had heard of a Christian church continuation of bhakti. That is, it is not a one- on the outskirts of Mumbai that was way influence in which bhakti leads to apparently renowned for miraculous sightings of God, but rather a feedback loop in healings—they could take the aunt there, he which sightings of God also prompt one to suggested. After some deliberation, Rupesh’s develop more and more bhakti. Certainly, in father consented, and he and Rupesh brought the case of the above-mentioned Krishna Rupesh’s aunt to the church. Within days after devotees, their experience of Krishna’s their visit, the aunt’s physical condition reappearance ultimately strengthened and seemed to be improving. Within weeks, she increased their bhakti but, importantly, the began to gain weight to fill in her at-that-point fleeting moment of divine presence and the skeletal/fragile frame. Rupesh explains that subsequent experience of divine absence also his entire family now devotes themselves to left them in a state of longing (in which they Jesus Christ. Rupesh attends a Protestant desired to experience an even-more tangible Christian church on a weekly basis and is an sighting of God) and bewilderment established part of a Christian community, (wondering if what they had experienced was while other members of his family continue really God.)31 going to Hindu temples or various churches; I now turn to a case study from my thus, they identify as Yeshu (Jesus) bhaktas. fieldwork on Christ-centered bhakti to It was stories such as those of Rupesh and illustrate the way in which this ‘highest form’ his family that attracted Mahima to the idea of of bhakti in which an individual retains his or devoting herself to Jesus. Suspecting her her devotion to God even in the midst of God’s family would not condone her regular seeming-absence can be an extraordinarily attendance at a Christian church, Mahima difficult task.32 Mahima, who grew up in a continued going to a small Hindu shrine close

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to her family’s home, but she also began to I here seek to contextualise contemporary sporadically visit a prominent Christian expressions of bhakti within central Hindu church in the area. At this church, Mahima texts and within the historical bhakti bowed down before a figure of Jesus, lit a movements. camphor flame and held it toward the figure as an offering. On her way to the church, she i. Bhakti within foundational Hindu texts purchased garlands of marigolds and other The practice of bhakti has been traced flowers to leave at the shrine, in a way that is back to classical Hindu texts such as the Rig common to many Hindu expressions of Veda (c. 1500 BCE) which, as Lorenzen points worship. Mahima then began to express her out, contains ‘many quite personal hymns’ and devotion to Jesus in this way, and began to ‘manifest[s] bhakti to gods such as Indra, identify herself as a Yeshu-bhakta. As time Varuna, Agni, Rudra, and .’33 One form went on, she devoted herself to Jesus with of bhakti has also been noted within the fervour. But, after a period of about six Upanisads (c. 600 BCE), even though the actual months, when she still did not experience word ‘bhakti’ occurs only once in the entirety miracles of the sort that had first attracted her of the early Upanisads—toward the end of the to Christ, she slowly abandoned her devotion Svetasvatara Upanisad (6.23.)34 Here, one finds to Jesus and instead directed her religious a number of themes which heavily influenced devotion to gods other than Jesus. Mahima the subsequent development of what we now explained, ‘[Rupesh] and his family, they had refer to as ‘bhakti movements,’ such as its that miracle [of the aunt’s healing of HIV], and rejection of Vedic sacrifices and its focus on [Rupesh] talks with Jesus every day in his internal sacrifices which are directed toward a bedroom even, but not me—I do not feel supreme deity, whether Vishnu or Shiva.35 [Jesus.]’ A more prominent expression of bhakti in I think that both the case of the Krishna classical Hindu texts can be found in the bhaktas in Vrindaban as well as the case of (c.400 CE); the Gita is the first Mahima are good examples of the ways in text which introduces bhakti as ‘a method of which the performance of bhakti in the midst religious experience that leads to liberation.’36 of divine absence or seeming-separation is One section in the fourth chapter of the Gita indeed a persevering task. Both cases suggest depicts a key component of bhakti—that of the that, while this highest form of bhakti may avataras of Vishnu—and the latter chapters of continue to be strived for, individuals also the Gita explain how Krishna-bhakti will lead want to experience occasional glimpses of an to spiritual liberation.37 In its discussion of incarnate Lord so as to motivate a bhakti as a means of spiritual liberation, the continuation of bhakti. Gita does not discriminate against individuals from lower castes or between genders.38 The 2) Bhakti as historical movements writings of the medieval Maharashtra poet- Having now explored bhakti as a concept, saint Tukaram demonstrate the belief that we can turn to exploring bhakti as a set of bhakti is a central spiritual path to the divine. historical movements. The historical bhakti Specifically, his poems ‘The Ascetic,’ ‘I’ve Not movements have a notable breadth and depth a Single Fraud,’ ‘He’s Not a Brahmin Who to them and are interwoven throughout a Abhors,’ and ‘If You Don’t Keep the Ashramas’ wide variety of cultural histories of . all express the sentiment that the practice of

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bhakti is the truest form of spirituality, while centuries must be explained treating each case the lives of Brahmins and even ascetics are in its own historical context.’43 For such inadequate when compared to the fervent reason, even though they share some essential devotion that characterises bhakti.39 features, we must be cautious when referring The most central bhakti text is the to ‘the historical bhakti movements’ in , which, as mentioned sweeping terms; rather, we must be certain to above, has been championed by some emphasise its internal pluralities. Vaishnava traditions as exhibiting one of the Many of the historical bhakti movements most inspirational forms of bhakti. In addition are understood as developing as complex sets to outlining the gopis bhakti for Krishna, the of responses to Vedic traditions.44 Bhakti BhP attributes ‘the ease and wide availability movements rejected the divisions of bhakti as a means of liberation’ to the traditionally placed in Brahmanical Hindu current time period of the Kali Yuga (dark cultures between higher and lower caste period), thereby ascribing a redeeming quality individuals based on caste norms. Such bhakti to the cycle of time traditionally thought of as movements have been referred to as the worst part of Hinduism’s linear cycle of ‘avarnadharmi movements’ in that they reject time.40 Lorenzen provides an excellent the notion that individuals should follow summary of the works of several academic certain socio-religious duties (dharma) on the scholars (e.g. Friedhelm Hardy 1983 and J.A.B. basis of the caste (varna) they are born into.45 van Buitenen 1968) who distinguish between These avarnadharmi movements emphasised ‘emotional bhakti’ and ‘intellectual bhakti.’41 that spiritual liberation by means of bhakti was available for all individuals, regardless of ii. The development of bhakti movements gender, caste, or social status.46 Many bhakti Though bhakti as a devotional practice did poet-saints are originally from a low-caste or not truly flourish until the 4th-6th centuries CE reject their high-caste status and purposefully in Northern India, scholars have noted the disregard inter-caste boundaries.47 For numerous places in which bhakti slowly arose example, although Mira was born into a high- across the Indian continent. Some scholars caste family of good social standing, Mira have portrayed these bhakti movements as endured social alienation from her clan (kul) being transmitted from one region to another due to her rejection of the ruling Rajput (e.g. Ramanujan 1973). An old Sanskrit saying, lifestyle through refusing to consummate her quoted in the introduction to an anthology of marriage with the Rana. She additionally bhakti poetry, also encapsulates this declared Rohidas, a leather-worker from an sentiment: ‘Bhakti took birth in Dravidian ‘untouchable’ caste, as her guru, thus lands/ ripened in Karnataka, came to/ furthering the ways in which peasants and womanhood in Maharashtra, and grew/ other low-caste member society could relate crone-like in Gujarat. / Reaching Vrindavana to her devotionally-reconfigured identities. In she re-emerged/a nubile young woman.’42 this way, Mira became ‘a symbol through However, Lorenzen in particular emphasises which [low-caste individuals] have voiced the differences of each of these regional their rejection of the authority of the Rana.’48 movements, stating that ‘the appearance of It is therefore not surprising that the vast powerful sociocultural movements based on majority of Mira bhajans that are sung today bhakti in different regions in different continue to portray her as a woman from a

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high-caste background who challenged the one of the most frequently-sung Mira bhajans caste norms and disregarded the social she encountered during her ethnographic boundaries it tried to enforce.49 research was a bhajan which opens with the perspective of Mira’s family members. In these iii. The rise of bhakti poetry50 lines, they admonish her: ‘Mira, leave the The historical contexts of the bhakti company of the sadha [renouncers]. Your movements gave rise to the creation of bhakti Merto is covered with shame. Mewar is poetry and bhajans. Stephen Taylor describes covered with shame.’54 The bhajan continues how music has been used in Hindu religious to shift back and forth between the voice of rituals for centuries, especially in morning Mira, who asserts her reasons for remaining rituals at temples, as a sonic medium to reach among the renouncers and ascetics rather the sacred.51 Bhakti poetry and bhajans than living the life of a Rajasthani princess, continue in the tradition of utilising music as and the voices of her indignant family a sacred medium, but focus on the diction and members. All of this, Mukta observes, is themes contained within the words rather traditionally performed by a single individual. than on the style of music itself.52 Bhakti Bhajans tend to focus on the experiences poetry, written in the vernacular, often and feelings of the poet-speaker, rather than centres around vivid imagery and sometimes simply being a praise song to a deity.55 In blunt statements by the poet-speaker. particular, bhajan compositions of North India Schelling identifies six features that frequently include a “signing” of the poet’s characterise bhakti poetry. These include: the name within the text of the bhajan itself as a authority and character of the poet’s voice (in means of implicating the poet directly into the that many early bhajans were composed bhajan.56 Many of the poets accomplish this by spontaneously by the poet-speaker, and even concluding the bhajan with a couplet that composed works were rarely written down begins with the words “[Poet’s name] says until centuries later), the ‘highly-developed […].”57 Although much of the bhajan focuses on process of thinking in images,’ an intensity of the poet-speaker, they also repeatedly invoke passion and honesty, a listening-audience who a name of the deity throughout the bhajan.58 figuratively enters the poem and becomes a This can be traced to a prominent Hindu belief part of its narrative, an ‘animal-body in which an individual can receive total rootedness’ (the poem incorporates both body spiritual liberation simply by repeating and and spirit), and a willingness to view the poet focusing on the Name (Nam) of a particular as a ‘shaman.’53 deity. For example, the Bhagavata Purana The style of bhakti bhajans sometimes (BhP) stipulates that any individual can includes multiple points of view within one partake in, and benefit from, bhakti: ‘even a song. Even when an entire bhajan is sung by dog-eater […] even a Pulkasa, […] Antevasayins one sole individual—which it often is— are purified by hearing about you, singing experienced listeners can easily discern the about you, and meditating on you … Bhakti bhajan’s shifts between vantage points. In dedicated to [Krishna] purifies even dog- many Mira bhajans, one line is attributed to eaters of [the stigma of their] birth.’59 The BhP Mira while the next is understood to be the tells of the saving power of simply hearing the voice of the Rana or perhaps of a member of purifying name of Vishnu, claiming that, upon Mira’s family. For example, Mukta notes that merely hearing his name, ‘one’s heart is

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moved, tears comes to one’s eyes and the hairs appropriately labelled as either a Hindu or as a on one’s body stand erect.’60 Christian practice—or perhaps both at once. Indeed, as has been discussed above, bhakti is 3) The experience of bhakti a spiritual practice that emerges from Having first contextualised bhakti as a traditionally-Hindu contexts and remains concept through which one positions oneself dominantly associated with Hinduism, but its as a devotee to God, and then summarised Christ-centered expressions suggest some of the key historical bhakti movements affiliations with Christian theological and that led to the rise of bhakti poetry and ecclesiological ideas about the nature of God bhajans, I now turn to the experience of and the people of God. Accordingly, this bhakti. It is at this point that the paper shifts results in Christ-centered bhakti having a from exploring bhakti in a more general sense, somewhat ambiguous ‘hybrid’ religious status. to looking specifically at how it can be The question of whether a particular expressed through Christ-centered bhakti. ‘Indian Christian’ spiritual practice ought to be As suggested by this paper’s opening viewed either as being of Indian origin (and, as vignette in which the women sang bhajans such, claim at least some affiliation with Hindu while working on a sewing project, Christ- practices) or as the result of foreign centered bhakti extends beyond the walls of a importation remains an intensely debated church building or even any sort of topic in scholarly discourse and social media.62 specifically-religious gathering. While the There is tension about whether Indian bhajans which express and embody bhakti can Christian communities can be regarded as sometimes be heard being sung in a defined truly ‘Indian,’ or whether they ought to be Christian context (i.e. at a church service, a regarded as the result of foreign cultures.63 Yeshu satsang or at another spiritual Further, the crossovers between the life- gathering), the singing of bhajans often moves worlds of Hinduism and Christianity through out into secular spaces, thereby suggesting a the conduit of bhakti have been seen as sites of sort of disintegration or blurring of the line active opposition from the standpoints of between ‘sacred’ and ‘profane’ space. As certain Hindu nationalist organizations. As a mentioned above, this type of all-pervading result, the religious identity of Christ- spirituality has an established history within centered bhakti enters long-standing debates many bhakti movements—notably in the ways in the fields of Indian Christianity, Indian in which the vast majority of the bhakti poets , and Hindu-Christian studies more reject Vedic rituals that were the preserve of generally regarding the alleged ‘foreignness’ upper-caste Hindus. Instead, the spiritual of Christianity in Indian contexts. practice of bhakti was to be pursued by Bhakti expressions of spirituality, and individuals regardless of gender, caste, or bhajans in particular, have been gradually social class—and, indeed, it did not absolutely woven into some Indian Christian contexts require a religious institution for its and are thus an interesting phenomenon enactment.61 through which to pose the above-mentioned question of religious affiliation. It is difficult to i. Christian or Hindu? ascertain the precise time period when A pertinent question in the study of Christian communities began to incorporate Christ-centered bhakti is whether it can be traditional bhajans into their worship

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practices. H.A. Popley has argued that Indian Indian bhajans versus Western-style music in styles of music were used in Syrian Christian64 Indian Christian churches today, bhajans worship services until at least 1835, but that certainly continue to be used in some the quality and frequency of traditional Indian Christian contexts. It was at a Protestant bhajans has significantly decreased in most church in Mumbai in 2013 where I first came Christian churches, especially those in urban across the use of traditional-sounding bhajans areas. Popley suggests that urban churches in a Christian worship context. Since the have been influenced by the European church was predominantly English-speaking missionaries’ efforts to limit the use of bhajans and had a significant expatriate community, and other spiritual traditions thought of as too the majority of the songs were contemporary ‘Indian’ for proper Christian practice, and western worship songs. But one of the worship have also preferred Western music in their leaders in particular sought to incorporate own efforts to assimilate into Western more-traditional bhajans into the church’s cultures.65 On the other hand, some historians liturgical time. He explained this choice as, document the ways in which Indian Christian ‘using Indian sounds, Indian words, and Indian worship contexts slowly transformed from feelings in our worship.’68 strict Anglicised styles of worship music to Perhaps somewhat ironically, some of the musical genres that were more traditional to bhajans that appear to be most popular among Indian cultures. For example, Hephzibah Israel Indian Christians, at least among younger explores the ways in which Protestant individuals who are often described as more devotional hymns became an integral part of ‘Westernised” than their parents’ generation, South Indian Christian worship cultures. Due are actually composed by westerners. Chris to the presence of European missionaries, Hale, the lead musician of the band Aradhna, South Indian Christian worship in the 18th and has composed over three albums of Christian 19th centuries consisted largely of English or bhajans which are widely sung inside and German hymns translated into the Tamil outside of India.69 Hale is a Canadian of non- language while maintaining their original Indian origin who grew up in Nepal and then Western-European melodies, and these were moved to India in his early twenties, and is played with Western musical instruments.66 quite familiar with traditional music styles. He Alongside this style of music, Protestant has trained as a classical Indian musician and Tamils began to compose their own devotional now has his own music school in Canada hymns, and set them to music that was more where he teaches students.70 His music fitting to traditional Tamil musical embodies a notable combination of Hindu and conventions such as the use of rhythmic Christian themes and includes lyrics in both metre. Though these hymns steadily grew in English and Hindi (and, sometimes, Sanskrit.) number during the 18th and 19th centuries, it The bhajans have been praised by many was not until the middle of the 19th century pastors and lay-people who I have spoken with that such hymns began to be included in the in Mumbai as an exemplary merging of Indian printed hymnals of various churches—up until tradition with worship of Jesus Christ; one this point, the missionaries had resisted the individual even praised Aradhna’s music for circulation of Tamil hymns.67 ‘teaching Indians how to worship Christ in [an] While I am at present uncertain about the Indian way.’ relative proportion between traditional-

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ii. A literary analysis of one Christ-centered Indeed, it is through considering the allusions bhajan to both of these rich traditions that we can use I now turn to one bhajan (‘Man Mera’) of ‘Man Mera’ as a window through which we can Hale’s which I have heard performed at a glimpse at a recent expression of Christ- number of local churches in and around centered bhakti. Mumbai and which I consider to be in keeping Man Mera with other bhajans I have heard in Christian Man mera, kyon dole re contexts. It would be difficult to classify any Naina nir se bhare re one bhajan as totally ‘representative’ of Moh bandhan ne ghera re Christ-centered bhakti, since the phenomenon Man mera, kyon dole re? covers a vast number of theological and Maharaj biraaje aasan me experiential themes, but this bhajan is by no Surya Chandra uski goda dhare means an outlier. As such, it can be understood Bhanvar se tujhe vahi tare re as reflective of Christ-centered bhakti. Man mera kyon dole re? Considered on its own, ‘Man Mera’ Kshatra nakshatra uski parikramaa kare may not initially appear to be ‘Christian,’ as it Tej ko uske surya naman kare speaks of God with many idioms and imageries Gaharaai uski koi na naap sake that are traditionally-Hindu. But one must Ishvar mere ati aananda, ati aananda, ati consider it within the context of other songs aananda written by the same artist and in the light of the author’s own specifically-Christian Oh my soul, why do you waver? religious identity, and one must note it has Oh my eyes that are weighted with water been taken up for worship use in specifically- I am captivated by Him; I am enclosed by Christian religious contexts. As such, one fetters. begins to grapple with the ways in which this Oh my soul, why do you waver? bhajan can appear simultaneously Hindu and The great king presides on his throne. Christian—readers and listeners are prompted The sun and moon are seated at his lap. to consider what it might mean to direct From the whirlpool of your suffering he devotion to Jesus Christ through idioms and will save you. imageries that have been traditionally Oh my soul, why do you waver? recognised as ‘Hindu.’ Through this melding of All the celestial bodies revolve Hindu and Christian aspects, we are invited to continuously around him. look at it, to call upon the words of Francis The sun bows at his radiance. Clooney, ‘without the safeguards of familiar No one can measure his profoundness. interpretation and settled theological God is my supreme bliss, my supreme bliss, expectations, and […] without the comfort of my supreme bliss.72 any sure sense where things will end up.’71 This bhajan opens with the poet-speaker Through applying a form of reader response addressing his ‘man’ (soul) and asking why it theory and adopting a ‘theopoetics’ of the sort wavers.73 In doing so, the poet-speaker applied by Clooney in his analysis of Hindu and recognises the wandering nature of human Christian poetry, we can engage with this individuals: we are easily-distracted creatures bhajan in terms of the dynamic interplay who can find it difficult to keep our eyes, much between Hindu and Christian traditions. less our devotional love, fixed on any one

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thing. And, while simultaneously recognising times in the bhajan, the poet-speaker asks ‘Oh the wavering nature of the soul, the poet- my soul, why do you waver?’ This leitmotif speaker also invokes his eyes, weighed down resonates with some biblical texts and also by tears. The semantic alignment of the soul traditional bhajans. Firstly, this act of and the eyes as highlighted in the bhajan addressing one’s soul is reminiscent of Psalm imply a conceptual link between the two: the 42 in which David poses the question, ‘Why art wavering soul and the tearful eyes seem to thou downcast oh my soul, and why art thou either share a common cause or are perhaps disquieted within me?’76 But, secondly, this reciprocally-related; one feeds into the other. self-interrogative feature also shares its style As the soul wavers, sadness ensues, and as with traditional bhajans which are not just sadness intensifies, the soul wavers all the hymns sung directly to God, but rather are more. about God, the Great King (‘Maharaj’), with In the third line we have the first mention particular attention being paid to the of a Being other than the poet-speaker—there emotions and experiences of the poet-speaker. is Someone who has captivated the poet- This pattern of self-inquiry within devotional speaker. While the words ‘captivated’ and contexts is in keeping with traditional bhakti ‘enclosed’ can be ambiguous in their poems in Hindu traditions, since ‘in bhakti the meanings, they have certainly been used by poem’s emotion and its drama stay focused on other Christian poets in a specifically positive the poet. They are rarely simple praise poems light.74 For example, a classic Christian hymn to a deity.’77 Interpreting the bhajan in this ‘Come, Thou Fount of Every Blessing’ written sense, the reader can learn about the poet- by Robert Robinson in the 18th century speaks speaker’s understanding of God’s majesty of the benefits of being bound and fettered to through focusing on the complementing God. Robinson writes, ‘Let Thy goodness, like a imagery which fills the poem, and on the fetter,/ Bind my wandering heart to Thee.’ The emotions expressed by the poet-speaker. imagery of being ‘captivated’ also has In line six of ‘Man Mera,’ the poet-speaker resonances with the works of the 17th century states that the sun and the moon are seated metaphysical poet John Donne who, in one of (‘dhare’) at the lap of God. In Hindi, the word his ‘Holy Sonnets,’ pleads with God to ‘dhare,’ from the verb ‘dharna,’ is one of the ‘imprison’ and ‘enthral’ him, claiming that this words used for the English ‘to sit.’78 But given is the only way for him to truly be free. ‘Man the availability of more common verbs for ‘to Mera’ similarly portrays the act of being sit’ such as ‘baithana,’ it is interesting to note bound to or imprisoned by God as desirable the artist’s selection of ‘dharna.’ ‘Dharna’ and positive: specifically, the poet-speaker’s holds particular connotations that seem use of ‘moha’ (to be captivated by) and ‘ghera’ important in the context of this hymn— (to be enclosed by) suggests this entrapment namely, ‘dharna’ in modern Hindi is a form of by divine love to be a positive state. In non-violent protesting. ‘Dharna’ was one of particular, the Hindi word ‘moha’ holds the styles of civil disobedience used by Gandhi undertones of endearment and affection.75 during India’s anti-colonial movement, and it And yet, while works such as Robinson’s remains an ongoing political practice and Donne’s are clearly addressed to God, the throughout India as a means of showing poet-speaker in ‘Man Mera’ addresses submission and respect while seeking justice.79 himself—or, rather, his soul (‘man’). At three Overall, ‘dharna’ is a purposeful act which

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involves concentration and determination of high praise. And yet the poet-speaker the mind, rather than simply a bodily position. continues to waver and wander away from this With this understanding of ‘dharna’ as a God, and cannot hold steadfast in devotional contemplative and yet active form of waiting, love. Where the Psalmist David commands his one might deduce that the poet-speaker soul to ‘put your hope in God,’ the poet- portrays even the sun and the moon as being speaker here instead reminds himself of the oriented toward the throne of God, perhaps profound depths of God, the divine bliss. There emphasising that worship of God occurs on a seems to be a certain level of acceptance with cosmic level. the wavering of the soul, as if the poet-speaker While I have translated line nine as ‘all the has resigned himself to this aspect of human celestial bodies revolve continuously around fallibility. While there is no direct mention of him,’ the original Hindi contains slightly more feeling the absence of God (which accounts for nuance that cannot be adequately captured in much of the ‘wavering’ found within the an English translation. In Indian folklore, bhakti tradition), the very act of wavering ‘kshatra’ encapsulates divine power and indeed resonates with expressions of bhakti. A ‘nakshatra’ is the place where the moon and bhakta, after all, is one who recognises the other planets orbit.80 As such, while there are supremacy and the profound depths of God, connotations of ‘sun’ and ‘moon’ contained and who desperately desires to devote oneself within this phrase, the poet-speaker describes to God on account of this recognition, but who more than just the sun and the moon; the very still struggles to be fully suffused with divine arenas in which the sun and moon exist love.83 revolve around God and his divine power. The And yet, even while recognising the reader is reminded of line six, which temptation to wander away from God, bhakti specifically describes the sun and the moon as poetry revolves around the individual who sitting at God’s lap. It is a rather striking image recognises their ‘wandering’ and ‘wavering’ to envision God as the great king at whose lap but continues to re-orient themselves to God even the sun and moon sit down at, but also in the midst of their uncertainty. Indeed, this around whom the entire universe revolves. mental resolve to persevere is the highest For the reader familiar with Hindu folklore level of bhakti. Certainly, in this bhajan, the and mythic narratives, the imagery of celestial poet-speaker can be understood to re-orient bodies might bring to mind stories from the himself to God through the three-fold Bhagavata Purana of the infant Krishna whose reminder that God is ‘my supreme bliss (ati mother looked in his mouth and gasped in awe aananda), my supreme bliss, my supreme on seeing the entire universe contained bliss.’ therein.81 The poet-speaker concludes that the Conclusion profoundness (‘gaharaai’) of God is This paper began by exploring and immeasurable (or, perhaps even more summarising some of the key themes and key accurately to the original Hindi, ‘without expressions of bhakti in a more general size’).82 God is portrayed as a great king who is sense—that is, bhakti as it is often practiced in both separate from the universe and Hindu contexts. This set the stage for intimately present to it. He is someone worthy exploring bhakti as it is practiced in Christ- of being captured (‘moha’) by and is worthy of centered contexts—the knowledge of the first

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formed the foundation on which an bhakti reminds us that the alleged boundary of understanding of Christ-centered bhakti could religious devotional expression is not as be formulated. An understanding of bhakti— impermeable as some discourses of religions that is, as it is traditionally expressed in Hindu and interreligious relations seem to portray. contexts—is needed so to explore the Indeed, bhakti does not belong uniquely to expressions of Christ-centered bhakti; indeed, Hindu contexts, but can be found to exist we can see various resonances of traditional strongly in other religious expressions. We bhakti in the context of expressing worship see, through the written lines of Christ-bhakti and devotion to Christ. And yet, at the same poetry, as well as in the lived realities of time, Christ-centered bhakti can further act as individuals who strive to practice bhakti an interpretive and informative lens that we directed toward Jesus, the struggle to come to can now use in our understanding of bhakti terms with the ineffable mystery of faith; to more broadly—and this, among other reasons, embrace existential uncertainty; and to can act as a motivation to conduct further continue in devotion and longing, even when explorations of other ways that Christ- the Lord appears to be silent or absent. centered bhakti is being practiced throughout India and elsewhere.84 Firstly, Christ-centered

Notes 7 Graham Schweig, ‘The Rasa Lila of 1 Pseudonyms have been used throughout. Krishna and the Gopis: On the Bhagavata’s 2 Author’s fieldwork (Mumbai, December Vision of Boundless Love’ in The Bhagavata 2015). Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (New 3 Ciril J. Kuttiyanikkal, Khrist Bhakta York: Columbia University Press, 2013) 117. Movement: A Model for an Indian Church? 8 David Lorenzen, ‘Bhakti’ in The Hindu Inculturation in the Area of Community World (New York: Routledge 2007) 185. Building (Germany: Lit Verlag, 2014) & Darren 9 It should here be noted that many Todd Duerksen, Ecclesial Identities in a Multi- classical bhajans were not written down until Faith Context: Jesus Truth-Gatherings (Yeshu centuries after they had been originally Satsangs) among Hindus and Sikhs in composed. For a general discussion of this Northwest India (Cambridge: The Lutterworth with regard to bhajans, see Andrew Schelling Press, 2015). (2011.) See also Muchkund Dubey (1997) who 4 Kuttiyunikkal, 2015. notes this to be the case for the bhajans of the 5 See, for example, Chad Bauman, Bauls in the region of Bengal. Pentecostals, Proselytization, and Anti- 10 Lorenzen, 2007, 185. Christian Violence in Contemporary India 11 Karen Pechilis Prentiss, The (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015) in Embodiment of Bhakti (New York: Oxford which he discusses the ways in which some University Press, 1999) 7. Hindus perceive Christianity to be a rejection 12 Schweig, 2013, 118. of Hindu traditions and practice. 13 Traditional religious conceptions of 6 Jessica Frazier, ‘Bhakti in Hindu Cultures,’ purity in India would inhibit something from in The Journal of Hindu Studies (2013) Volume the feet of an individual of lower status to 6, Issue 2 (101-113) 101. https://doi.org/ come into contact with the head of someone of 10.1093/jhs/hit028 a higher status. In addition to defiling the individual whose head it came into contact

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with, such an act might negatively affect the especially notable since dogs traditionally individual of lower status by giving them hold a rather low status in Indian society. For negative karma (paap) which would affect an example of this sort of imagery in bhakti their rebirth status. poetry, see the poem ‘God’s Own Dog’ by This is a popular legend within Hindu Tukaram. 19 contexts and I have heard it several times in Schweig, 2013, 127. 20 varying contexts during former visits to India. Lorenzen, 2007, 192. The story has been recounted in print by This uplifting of bhakti above other paths Frederique Apffel Marglin (1985). to spiritual liberation does not exist in a 14 While it is beyond the scope of this paper cultural vacuum. Indeed, there is a to go into an in-depth analysis of this possible complicated social meta-narrative at play th comparison, it might be fruitful for future within ~6 century Indian society. In the midst studies to concentrate on a possible link of the somewhat wide-spread rejection of the between the notion of sati (in its original sense violent sacrifices and hierarchical structures of ‘good wife’ rather than the present-day use innate to Vedic Hinduism as well as the which refers almost exclusively to the act of simultaneous uprise of shramanic (world- self-immulation) and the embodiment of renouncing) religions of Buddhism and bhakti. Both are acted out (albeit, allegorically Jainism, bhakti spirituality became in the case of bhakti) from female postures in conceptualised as a sort of spiritual middle- reference to one’s husband and lord, and both ground in which an individual could devote uplift absolute devotion to one’s husband/lord themselves to God and spiritual practice even when doing so comes at great self- without totally renouncing their social/family sacrifice. responsibilities. It is for this reason that 15 While in India, I have heard the Hindi Mirabai, who radically rejected her word ‘pagal’ (crazy) used to describe bhaktas, social/family responsibilities as a Rajput and so the phrase ‘madly in love’ seems most woman, suffered harassment and apt here. In English conversations, I have ostracisation at the hands of others. 21 heard some individuals refer to themselves as Bhagavata Purana, 10.32. See Schweig, ‘crazy for God’ when they describe their Graham. Dance of Divine Love. India’s Classic spiritual devotion. See also the work of Sacred Love Story: The Rasa Lila of Krishna. Muchkund Dubey (1997) who notes that the Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2018. Baul people, famous in the Bengal region for https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv301g6v 22 their bhajans, draw their name from the The Narada bhakti sutras (circa ~800 CE) Bengali word ‘baula’ which means describes a state of “high bhakti” as selfless crazy/possessed (pp. 142). love in which the act of bhakti is itself the fruit. 23 16 Quoted in Schelling, 2011, 48. Martin, 1999, 212. 24 17 Parita Mukta, Upholding the Common Quoted in Schelling, 2011, 49-50. 25 Life: The Community of Mirabai (Delhi: Oxford Mukta, 1994, 167 26 University Press, 1994) 65. Mukta 1994: 168. 27 18 In other bhakti poems, the poet-speaker Ibid., 166. 28 describes the bhakta as a “dog” who brings Ibid., 138. 29 himself low before God and even eats from the Robert Orsi, ‘Everyday Miracles: The hand of God in an act of humility. This is Study of Lived Religion,’ (Princeton, N.J.:

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47 Princeton University Press, 1997), 3-18; A notable exception to this is the poet Meredith McGuire, Lived Religion: Faith and Tulsidas, who believed that the effort to Practice in Everyday Life (Oxford: Oxford establish equality amongst the different castes University Press, 2008), was one of the biggest wrongdoings of his 30 Shrivatsa Goswami, and Margaret H. time. (Tulsidas attributed this effort to the kali Case, “The Miraculous: The Birth of a Shrine” yuga [age of spiritual darkness.]) See Schelling (in Parabola: The Magazine of Myth and (2011) pp. 149-153 as well as Lorenzen (2007) Tradition. University of California Press, 2006.) pp. 200-201 for discussions of this. See also the 31 Ibid. work of Mukta (1994) who discusses in detail 32 Author’s fieldnotes. December 2015. the ways in which bhakti movements rejected 33 Lorenzen, 2007, 187 caste hierarchies. However, it should also here 34 Ibid., 188. be noted that David Lorenzen points out the 35 Lorenzen draws his readers’ attention to way in which even avarnadharmi movements, the way in which not all bhakti movements such as the bhakti associated with , emphasise a total rejection of animal sacrifice. continue to implicate caste-specific practices. Rather, Lorezen argues, the Devi Mahatmya As such, Lorenzen argues, even the (The Greatness of the Goddess) text avarnadharmi movements do not fully and demonstrates that animal sacrifice was not completely reject the caste system (pp. 186). 48 incongruent with bhakti practices. Instead, it Mukta, 1994, 86. 49 is only the ritual and inherent hierarchy There is only one bhajan collected by innate to Vedic sacrificial rites that was Mukta which portrays Mira as a low-caste unanimously rejected by bhakti movements individual, in which it describes her as a (2007: 190-2). weaver. See the bhajan on page 114. 50 36Karen Pechilis Prentiss, The Embodiment The scope of this paper does not allow a of Bhakti (New York: Oxford University Press, more detailed overview of bhakti poetry. For 1999) 5; Nancy Martin, ‘Love and Longing in an overview of some of the most renowned Devotional Hinduism’ (Oxford: Oneworld bhakti poetry and bhajans throughout India Publications, 1999.) over the past few centuries, one can turn to 37Lorenzen, 2007, 188-9 Andrew Schelling’s excellent anthropology of 38 Ibid., 193 bhakti poetry. In addition to Schelling’s 39 Wendy Doniger and Jack Miles (eds), anthology, Lorenzen (2007) provides a good ‘Tukaram of Mahrashtra Says No,’ in The overview of some key bhakti poets. Like Norton Anthology of World Religions: Schelling, Lorenzen seeks to span the Indian Hinduism (India: Viva Books Private Limited, continent and include poets from North, 2015) 459-479. South, and central India. Lorenzen helpfully 40 Lorenzen, 2007,194. categorises the poets into not only their 41 Ibid., 195. regional context but also by the social content 42 Schelling, 2011, xviii. of their poems and their theological 43 Lorenzen, 2007, 196. conception of God. 51 44 Prentiss, 1999. Stephen Taylor, “The Experience: 45 Lorenzen, 2007, 186. Approaching God” in The Life of Hinduism 46 Ibid., 189-193. (California: University of California Press,

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol32/iss1/5 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1731 18 Pohran: Christ-Centered Bhakti:A Literary and Ethnographic Study of Worsh Christ-Centered Bhakti: A Literary and Ethnographic Study of Worship 45

2006) 38. https://doi.org/10.1525/california/ 016/05/many-hindus-in-new-zealand-accept- 9780520249134.001.0001 jesus.html 63 52 This is not to say that the metre and Julia Kuhlin, ‘Hindu-Christian Relations rhythm of bhakti bhajans do not follow a in the Everyday Life of North Indian particular style that is itself conceptualised as Pentecostals,’ Journal of Hindu-Christian emotionally evocative and/or spiritually Studies (Vol. 28, Article 6. 2015.) powerful; indeed, bhakti music is thought of in https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1605 64 this way. See Mukta (1994), Norman (2008), Syrian Christian refers to the ‘St. and Popley (1957) for a more in-depth Thomas Christians’ in Kerala, India. 65 discussion of the quality of music itself. H.A. Popley, “The Use of Indian Music in 53 Schelling, 2011, xxi-xxii. Christian Worship.” The Indian Journal of 54 Mukta, 1994, 91-92. Theology 6(3): pp. 80-88, 1957. 66 55 Schelling, 2011. Israel, 2015, 88. 67 56 Lorenzen, 2007, 199. See also the work of Ibid., 89. Karen Pechilis Prentiss (1999) for her Such expressions of bhakti are found not discussion of this in Tamil bhakti poetry. only in some Christian contexts within India, 57 In her study of Mira bhajans, Mukta but in the Indian diaspora as well. Joy Norman points out that Mira often “signed” her name (2008) explores the historical significance of by incorporating herself as a character into bhajans and the ways in which they have the poem. Mukta speculates that this might be become a part of Christian worship in Indian so that Mira could effectively not be diasporic communities. She suggests that the eradicated from the poem without losing some Christian use of bhajans can be seen as a bridge of the poem’s content. in two distinct ways: between Hindu and 58 Although this is more common in saguna Christian forms of religiosity, and between bhajans (bhajans directed toward a God who is India and diasporic nations. 68 perceived to be ‘with form/attributes’), this At a later visit to the same church in can also be found in nirguna bhajans (bhajans 2015, a guest pastor concluded his sermon by directed toward a God who is perceived to be singing a bhajan that he had written. When I ‘without form/attributes.’) For an example of spoke with him afterward, the pastor this see the work of Namadeva, a Varkaris poet emphasised to me the importance of who uses the name “Ram” to refer to “the incorporating what he considered to be “the same transcendent, formless Ram praised by essence of India” (by which he meant nirguni poets, such as Kabir, Raidasa, and traditional bhajans, etc.) into Christian Nanak” (cited in Lorenzen, 2007, 199.) worship. “How can it Indian worship without 59 Cited in Lorenzen, 2007, 193. the bhajan?” he asked rhetorically. 69 60 BhP 2.3.20-24, quoted in Lorenzen, 2007, I have heard Aradhana’s bhajans being 194. sung by several church communities in India. 61 The exception of Tulsidas when it comes Hale and his wife continue to host monthly to the rejection of caste has been noted earlier. satsangs in the Canadian city of Toronto where 62 For a summary of this within scholarship individuals of several nationalities meet up see Kunniyanikal (2015). For an example of and sing the bhajans with fervor. 70 this being emphasised within social media see Author’s fieldnotes. December 2015. http://www.thegospeltruthnewspaper.com/2

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78 71 Francis Clooney, His Hiding Place is The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary, Darkness (California: Stanford University 525 79 Press, 2014) 31. For a June 2014 case of where dharna was 72 This translation bears resemblance to held in an Indian village to protest the murder the English translation provided by the artist of teenaged girls, see: Chris Hale, but I have made minor changes http://indianexpress.com/article/india/polit with the aim to reflect some nuances of the ics/family-members-hold-dharna-under- original. tree-where-girls-were-hanged/ 80 73 The word ‘man’ is here translated as The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary, ‘soul’, could perhaps be more accurately 540. 81 translated as ‘mind-heart,’ as the Hindi word Described in the Bhagavata Purana ‘man’ connotes both thinking with one’s 10.8.37-39 82 intellect and feeling with one’s emotions. In The use of Ishvar as the term for God is this sense, ‘man’ is not simply the immaterial especially striking in this regard. Whereas I part of an individual, but the part of an have observed many Indian Christians use individual that engages with the world both some form of Prabhu Yeshu Khrist (Lord Jesus rationally and logically as well as emotionally. Christ) when referring to God, the use of 74 It is also described positively in the Rasa Ishvar connotes Supreme Soul, or Highest Lila of Krishna in which the gopis’ minds Reality, in a similar manner to the use of become ‘captured by Krishna’’ (BhP Book 10, Brahaman in some ancient Hindu and Chapter 29: Act 1, scene 1). See Schweig, medieval Sanskrit contexts. 83 Graham. Dance of Divine Love. India’s Classic This same sentiment is captured by Sacred Love Story: The Rasa Lila of Krishna. Robinson’s hymn only a few lines after the Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2018. above-quoted phrases. He writes, ‘Prone to 75 The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary wander, Lord I feel it, prone to leave the God I (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006 love.’ 84 [1993]), 837. Kerry San Chirico, Israel Selvanayagam, 76 Psalm 42:11. Darren Todd Duerkson, and Ciril Kuttiyanikkal 77 Schelling, 2011, xviii. have all produced thought provoking scholarship in this area.

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol32/iss1/5 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1731 20