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American Society and Coded Racism: from Nixon to Clinton

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American Society and Coded Racism: from Nixon to Clinton _________________________________________________________________________Swansea University E-Theses American society and coded racism: From Nixon to Clinton. Morgan, Rachel How to cite: _________________________________________________________________________ Morgan, Rachel (2004) American society and coded racism: From Nixon to Clinton.. thesis, Swansea University. http://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa42772 Use policy: _________________________________________________________________________ This item is brought to you by Swansea University. Any person downloading material is agreeing to abide by the terms of the repository licence: copies of full text items may be used or reproduced in any format or medium, without prior permission for personal research or study, educational or non-commercial purposes only. The copyright for any work remains with the original author unless otherwise specified. The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holder. Permission for multiple reproductions should be obtained from the original author. Authors are personally responsible for adhering to copyright and publisher restrictions when uploading content to the repository. Please link to the metadata record in the Swansea University repository, Cronfa (link given in the citation reference above.) http://www.swansea.ac.uk/library/researchsupport/ris-support/ American Society and Coded Racism: From Nixon to Clinton Rachel Morgan M.A. (Wales 1998) 2004 i ProQuest Number: 10807541 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10807541 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 >^ < l ib r a r y DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed ... __ _ _ _ r ......................................................... (candidate) D ate IS.j..V |P.1r........................... STATEMENT 1 This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed .... ^ f ........................................................... (candidate) D ate ............................................. STATEMENT 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed................. (candidate) D ate 15. Acknowledgements This research was funded by a University of Wales Swansea working bursary and was supervised by Dr. Steven Sarson. Of the libraries and archives in which the research for this dissertation was carried out, I would particularly like to thank the staff at the University of Wales Swansea Library (especially Jo), Keele University Library, the Colindale Newspaper Library and the staff at the Library of Congress Newspaper and Current Periodical Reading Room, Washington D.C. In respect of the latter, I would also like to express my deep gratitude to the David Jones Memorial Fund for aiding my research trip to the U.S. On a more personal note, the production and completion of this dissertation was greatly aided by the support I have received from family and friends. In particular, I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my parents for their continuous support, and also to my Grandparents and to my sister Claire. I am indebted beyond words to Jack for the immeasurable amount of support he has given. Similarly, Judith (and James) helped out in so many ways - thank you! Mat also deserves particular thanks for his generosity during my research trip to the U.S. A number of other friends supported and helped me through the process of completing this research: you know who you are and you know that I thank you too! Summary The issue of race and racism in contemporary America is a widely debated subject. Many scholars argue that race remains a significant barrier to socio­ economic equality between African Americans and whites. Yet, many other scholars disagree. This dissertation explores the way in which racism is maintained in American society in coded form. The election of Richard Nixon in 1968 heralded the beginning of the conservative ascendancy in American politics and society and also a new political realignment in which race was a definitive factor. One of the principal ways in which this was achieved was through the use of coded racial politics. Yet, the use of coded words, symbols and phrases to refer to racial issues, helped legitimise and maintain racism in post-Civil Rights America. The dissertation, through the method of discourse analysis, provides an analytical history of the codification of racism between the Nixon and Clinton administrations. Through an analysis of presidential and public discourses surrounding eight pivotal events, the dissertation examines the reproduction of coded racism in American society. Contents Declaration ii Acknowledgements iii Summary iv List of Tables vii Introduction 1 Chapter 1: The Significance of Race: 42 The Socio-economic Status of African Americans 1968-1997 Chapter 2: African-American Urban Riots: 61 The Transition of Racism in the Late 1960s and Early 1970s 2.1 The African-American Urban Riots 62 2.2 White America: The Politics of Reaction 77 Chapter 3: Nixon and Law and Order: 89 The Attica Prison Riot, 1971 3.1 The Nixon Presidency: 1968 - 1974 89 3.2 The Attica Prison Riot, 1971 111 Chapter 4: Carter and Preferential Treatment: 144 The Miami Riot, 1980 4.1 The Carter Presidency: 1977 - 1981 144 4.2 The Miami Riot, 1980 160 Chapter 5: Reagan and the Fear of Crime: 191 Bernhard Goetz, 1984, and Howard Beach, 1986 5.1 The Reagan Presidency: 1981 -1989 191 5.2 The Bernhard Goetz Subway Shootings, 1984 219 5.3 Howard Beach: The Michael Griffith Killing, 1986 236 v Chapter 6: Bush and Soft on Crime: 248 The Central Park Jogger, 1989, and The Carol Stuart Murder, 1989 6.1 The Bush Presidency: 1989 - 1993 248 6.2 The Central Park Jogger Case, 1989 274 6.3 The Carol Stuart Murder, 1989 292 Chapter 7: Clinton and Reverse Racism: 310 Rodney King, 1991, The Los Angeles Riots, 1992, and the O.J. Simpson Case, 1994-1995 7.1 The Clinton Presidency: 1993 - 1997 310 7.2 Rodney King and the Los Angeles Riots, 1991-1992 326 7.3 The O.J. Simpson Case, 1994-1995 342 Conclusion 361 Bibliography 371 vi List of Tables Figure 1: Percentage of Black/White Unemployment, 1968-1997 43 Figure 2: Percentage of Whites Holding Racial Stereotypes, 1963-1978 57 Introduction The issue of race and racism in post-Civil Rights America, particularly its significance, is a much-debated subject. Numerous scholars have argued that race remains significant in the post-Civil Rights era. Alphonso Pinkney’sThe Myth o f Black Progress argues that race continues to be an ever-present aspect in American life despite the Civil Rights legislation of the 1960s.1 Andrew Hacker’s bestseller, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile and Unequal, also argues that race remains the defining feature of America, as it has for the past 400 years. Scholars such as Robert C. Smith in Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era: Now You See it, Now You Don't have argued that racism is the fundamental cause of the plight of the black urban poor. Furthermore, Ellis Cose’s The Rage o f a Privileged Class and Joe R. Feagin and Melvin P. Sikes’ Living With Racism: The Black Middle-Class Experience , demonstrate how race continues to be a salient factor in the lives of the black middle-class and assert that racism continues to hinder those who have supposedly ‘made it’ in American society.4 Yet, since the mid-1960s some scholars have argued that racism is no longer a significant barrier to socio-economic equality between whites and African Americans. Congruent with the belief in the declining significance of race and 1 Alphonso Pinkney, The Myth o f Black Progress (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). 2 Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile and Unequal (New York: Ballantine Books, 1995). 3 Robert C. Smith, Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era: Now You See it, Now You Don’t (New York: SUNY, 1995). 4 Ellis Cose, The Rage o f a Privileged Class (New York: Harper Collins, 1993); Joe R. Feagin and Melvin P. Sikes, Living With Racism: The Black Middle-Class Experience (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994). 1 racism in determining the life chances of African Americans has been antipathy towards race specific measures by government, from social welfare programs to policies such as affirmative action in education and employment. While a number of scholars have claimed that from the early 1970s the socio-economic gulf between African Americans and whites has narrowed considerably, for example, Ben J. Wattenberg and Richard M. Scammon, “Black Progress and Liberal Rhetoric”, Nathan Glazer Affirmative Discrimination: Ethnic Inequality and Public Policy, George Gilder, Wealth and Poverty , and Abigail Themstrom and Stephan Themstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible , others who share a less positive view of the progress of African Americans, particularly when considering the growth of the black ‘underclass’, nonetheless agree that the significance of race as a barrier to progress has declined.5 Many scholars have advanced the notion that since the Civil Rights movement ended legally sanctioned racial discrimination the greatest barrier for African Americans, like whites, is class.
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