DOCSLIB.ORG

Behavior Analysis and the Good Life

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Behavior Analysis and the Good Life Behavior Analysis and the Good Life Henry D. Schlinger, Jr. Keywords: behavior analysis, Aristotle, good life, B. I further argued that the main reason psychol- F. Skinner ogy has made such little progress is its continued For this reason also the question is asked, whether hap- emphasis on mental or cognitive events; in other piness is to be acquired by learning or by habituation or words, psychology has not escaped the philosophi- some other sort of training, or comes in virtue of some cal dualism from which it sprung. Additionally, divine providence or again by chance. Now if there is psychology has relied on research methods that any gift of the gods to men, it is reasonable that hap- have precluded the discovery of cause-and-effect piness should be god-given, and most surely god-given relations, which are necessary for technological of all human things inasmuch as it is the best. But this innovation and application. question would perhaps be more appropriate to another inquiry; happiness seems, however, even if it is not god- A notable exception to psychology’s failure sent but comes as a result of virtue and some process to become a science, and one that can claim to of learning or training, to be among the most god-like have significantly improved the lives of humans things; for that which is the prize and end of virtue by offering practical solutions to behavioral seems to be the best thing in the world, and something problems, is the discipline of behavior analysis. godlike and blessed. (Aristotle 350 BCE) Furman and Tuminello (2015) argue specifically that the applied branch of behavior analysis—ap- plied behavior analysis (ABA)—has enabled some people diagnosed with autism to recover and, atural scientists (i.e., physicists, thus, to flourish in Aristotelian terms. I would go chemists, and biologists) can claim to further and suggest that ABA has enabled a much have contributed significantly to the im- N wider range of individuals to flourish by reducing provement of the human condition through such problematic behaviors and increasing healthy, technological advances as electricity, the steam productive behaviors. This has happened because engine, antibiotics, vaccinations, semiconductors, Watson’s (1913) prescription for behaviorism as and gene therapy, to name a handful. Unfortunate- “a purely objective experimental branch of natural ly, with very few exceptions, psychology cannot science” (p. 158) came to fruition. Specifically, boast similar claims. In fact, as I argued several beginning in the 1930s, behavior analysts discov- years ago, psychology has not kept its promise to ered a set of basic principles or laws governing become a science. Specifically, “psychology has the relationship between environment (defined produced very few noteworthy discoveries: it has broadly as all the stimuli that affect behavior at a offered few if any satisfactory explanatory con- given moment) and behavior. In the 1960s, these cepts and, therefore, has not advanced in the same laws began to be applied to ameliorate a wide way as the other sciences” (Schlinger 2004, 124). © 2016 by The Johns Hopkins University Press 268 ■ PPP / Vol. 22, No. 4 / December 2015 range of behavioral problems in both typical words, we still do not know what caused her to and atypical populations. In this commentary, I behave in those ways, and without knowing the would like to suggest that behavior analysis can causes, it would be difficult to teach others to act be applied even more widely in society to create in similar ways. But this is exactly where behavior conditions that will encourage people to flourish analysis can help. as Aristotle defined it. According to Furman and Tuminello, for Behavior Analysis and “Aristotle, human flourishing requires perform- Flourishing ing certain sorts of actions—acts that fulfill our function as humans” (2015, 253). Although The first step in a behavior analytic approach to many actions could be said to fulfill our function getting people to flourish is to identify the behav- as humans, according to Aristotle, reason, which iors that lead us to say that someone is courageous, distinguishes humans from nonhumans, and which friendly, modest, patient, intuitive, prudent, wise, led to what eventually became Cartesian dualism, and so on. We do so by asking what behaviors is central among them. Furthermore, the two must occur for society to describe a person with realms in which reason operates are matters of these modifiers. Then, the behaviors themselves character (e.g., courage, friendliness, modesty, pa- must be described in terms that would not only tience, temperance, and truthfulness) and matters permit us to observe them, but to agree that they of thought (e.g., intuition, scientific knowledge, have occurred. This latter requirement is known craftsmanship, prudence, and wisdom). Thus, as interobserver reliability. If two or more people for Aristotle, for humans to flourish, they must cannot agree whether a behavior has occurred, it live virtuous lives of both character and thought. would be difficult to teach that behavior. Although the natural science of behavior analy- Of course, simply identifying behaviors is not sis might seem at first glance to be incompatible sufficient to get people to engage in them. Phi- with Aristotelian philosophy, they have at least one losophers have struggled for centuries with the feature in common: the emphasis on behavior or question of how to flourish, or become happy. action. For Aristotle, flourishing requires perform- For example, Alexander Bain recommended the ing certain actions, and behavior analysis is the “voluntary repetition of morally desirable actions science that can explain why we act the way we if they are to become habitual and automatic” do. The problem with Aristotle’s concepts of char- (Fancher 1996, 254). Following from Bain, the acter and thought, and with such terms as cour- American psychologist/philosopher William age, friendliness, prudence, and wisdom, is that James, who suffered from depression, willed they are not scientific concepts and do not specify himself to think more positive and less depressive any actual behaviors. In the absence of knowing thoughts, that is, from a behavioral perspec- exactly what behaviors define these abstract con- tive, to talk (to himself) more positively and less cepts, it is almost impossible to achieve the goal negatively. Both Bain and James are intellectual of getting people to engage in the behaviors that descendants of Aristotle who said the following: would lead us to say that they are flourishing. A Virtue, then, being of two kinds, intellectual and related problem with these concepts is that using moral, intellectual virtue in the main owes both its birth them to explain behavior often results in circular and its growth to teaching (for which reason it requires reasoning. Consider an example by Furman and experience and time), while moral virtue comes about Tuminello in which a woman is confronted with as a result of habit, whence also its name ethike is one a dangerous situation and then behaves in such that is formed by a slight variation from the word ethos (habit). From this it is also plain that none of the a way that enables her to remain safe, but also moral virtues arises in us by nature; for nothing that to contact the police. It would be circular to say exists by nature can form a habit contrary to its nature. that she moved to a safe place and contacted the (Aristotle, 350 BCE) police because she was courageous; these acts In this quotation, not only does Aristotle at- are what lead us to call her courageous. In other tribute intellectual virtue to learning and moral Schlinger / Behavior Analysis and the Good Life ■ 269 virtue to habit, at the same time he offers an early which have been replicated numerous times in the commentary on the nature–nurture issue coming ensuing decades. Applied behavior analysts have down squarely on the side of nurture. However, now tackled a broad array of behaviors, includ- it is not easy to simply will one’s self to behave ing chronic pain, addiction, self-injury, academic in a way different from a lifetime of behaving in skills, and sustainable behaviors in diverse popu- contradictory ways, and most people will fail in lations, including nonhuman animals, infants, such an attempt. the developmentally disabled, psychotics, school Thus, the second step to behaving in a virtu- children, the elderly, employees in business and ous manner is to structure the environment so as industry, and people in the community, to men- to increase the likelihood of virtuous behavior. It tion but a few. is perhaps no surprise, then, that definitions of Manipulating suspected variables that deter- flourishing include developing in a healthy way mine an individual’s behavior is not sufficient, as the result of a favorable environment. Because however, because there is no assurance that the behavior analysis is the science of environment– manipulation will work or that, if the behavior behavior interactions, the technology derived does change, it was a result of the manipulation. from the science—ABA—involves altering an in- Therefore, a final step in the process of getting dividual’s environment (defined previously) to pro- people to flourish is derived from the analysis part mote healthy, productive behaviors and to reduce of ABA, and requires experimentation to confirm unhealthy, unproductive ones. Before moving on, that the behavior did in fact change significantly it is important to point out three important impli- and that the change was due only to the interven- cations of a behavioral conception of environment tion. Experimentation is, thus, the hallmark of the that distinguish it from traditional, nonscientific science of behavior analysis and its technological conceptions: 1) the environment is both outside application.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • CHAPTER Personality TEN Psychology
    10/14/08 CHAPTER Personality TEN Psychology Psychology 370 Sheila K. Grant, Ph.D. SKINNER AND STAATS: Professor California State University, Northridge The Challenge of Behaviorism Chapter Overview Chapter Overview RADICAL BEHAVIORISM: SKINNER Part IV: The Learning Perspective PSYCHOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM: STAATS Illustrative Biography: Tiger Woods Reinforcement Behavior as the Data for Scientific Study The Evolutionary Context of Operant Behavior Basic Behavioral Repertoires The Rate of Responding The Emotional-Motivational Repertoire Learning Principles The Language-Cognitive Repertoire Reinforcement: Increasing the Rate of Responding The Sensory-Motor Repertoire Punishment and Extinction: Decreasing the Rate of Situations Responding Additional Behavioral Techniques Psychological Adjustment Schedules of Reinforcement The Nature-Nurture Question from the Applications of Behavioral Techniques Perspective of Psychological Behaviorism Therapy Education Radical Behaviorism and Personality Theory: Some Concerns Chapter Overview Part IV: The Learning Perspective Personality Assessment from a Ivan Pavlov: Behavioral Perspective Heuristic Accendental Discovery The Act-Frequency Approach to Personality Classical Conditioning Measurement John B. Watson: Contributions of Behaviorism to Personality Theory and Measurement Early Behaviorist B. F. Skinner: Radical Behaviorism Arthur Staats: Psychological Behaviorism 1 10/14/08 Conditioning—the process of learning associations . Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning . 1849-1936
    [Show full text]
  • A(Nthony) Charles Catania Curriculum Vitae August 2018
    A(nthony) Charles Catania Curriculum Vitae August 2018 Date of Birth, New York, NY: 22 June 1936 Married: Constance Julia Britt, 10 February 1962 Children: William John, 3 February 1964 Kenneth Charles, 5 November 1965 Educational History P.S. 132, Manhattan; Bronx High School of Science, Class of 1953 A.B., Columbia College, 1957 New York State Regents Scholarship; Phi Beta Kappa; Highest Honors with Distinction in Psychology M.A., Columbia University, 1958 Ph.D. in Psychology, Harvard University, 1961 (March) National Science Foundation Fellow, 1958-60 Professional History Columbia College Teaching Assistant, 1956-58 Bell Telephone Laboratories Research Technician (under H. M. Jenkins), Summer 1958 Harvard University Research Fellow in Psychology (supported by B. F. Skinner’s NSF Grant), 1960-62 Smith Kline and French Laboratories Senior Pharmacologist (under L. Cook), 1962-64 University College of Arts and Science, New York University Assistant Professor, 1964-66; Associate Professor, 1966-69; Professor and Department Chair, 1969-73 University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC) Professor, 1973-2008; Program Director/CoDirector, Applied Behavior Analysis MA track, 1998- 2007; Professor Emeritus, Departmental Curmudgeon, 2008- University of Wales (formerly University College of North Wales) Professorial Fellow and Fulbright Senior Research Fellow, 1986-87; Visiting Research Fellow, 1989- Keio University, Tokyo, Japan Visiting Professor, July 1992 Office: Department of Psychology (Emeritus Faculty office, Sondheim 012) University of
    [Show full text]
  • On Spirituality Century with the Rise of Secular Views on Spirituality [10, 11]
    February 2008 The Irish Psychologist ARTICLE historical and conceptual coupling between religiosity and spirituality, a conceptual coupling that has been thrown into disarray over the past On Spirituality century with the rise of secular views on spirituality [10, 11]. I recently asked a group of third year Part 1: Deconstructing, students, "Do you think psychologists should study spirituality?" Some of grappling, and moving in the them said, "No, spirituality cannot be observed or objectively measured – it has no place in psychological field of others science." I wondered if this reply reflected a misunderstanding of Michael J. Hogan the goals of psychological science - a curious negation of certain Mike Hogan is a lecturer in psychology at the National University of Ireland, categories of human experience as a Galway. Correspondence regarding this article may be addressed by email to focus of inquiry - or simply a dislike [email protected]. for entertaining ideas that are in some way associated with orthodox religion. In truth, I cannot claim to have direct The highest activity a human being can and every attempt to construct an access to the minds of my students, attain is learning for understanding, objective account of consciousness and I can only speculate as to why because to understand is to be free struggles with the problem of human they think the way they think. At the Baruch Spinoza, Ethics subjectivity [6, 7]. Consciousness same time, even though the students itself - coupled with our prolific failed to tell me what spirituality is, We are staggeringly lucky to find imaginations - can offer us a sense many students did at least consider ourselves in the spotlight.
    [Show full text]
  • 175 Alexandra Rutherford's Major Premise, She Tells Us, Is That B.F. Skinner Has Had an Enduring Impact on American Society An
    Behavior and Social Issues, 18, 175-177 (2009). © Peter Lamal. Readers of this article may copy it without the copyright owner’s permission, if the author and publisher are acknowledged in the copy and the copy is used for educational, not-for-profit purposes. FROM RATS AND PIGEONS TO CULTURAL PRACTICES: A REVIEW OF BEYOND THE BOX: B. F. SKINNER’S TECHNOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR FROM LABORATORY TO LIFE, 1950S TO 1970S BY ALEXANDRA RUTHERFORD (2009). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9774-3. 224 pp. $55.00. Alexandra Rutherford’s major premise, she tells us, is that B.F. Skinner has had an enduring impact on American society and her book describes the how, when, where, and why of this impact. Furthermore, although the experimental analysis of behavior and the philosophy of radical behaviorism continue to be vibrant areas, Rutherford’s thesis is that Skinner’s lasting impact is due to his development of, and adoption by others, of his technology of behavior, “Skinner’s most enduring achievement was to treat human behavior change like any other technological problem” (p. 10). At the same time, however, Rutherford reminds us that Skinner’s system was and continues to be rejected by many on philosophical grounds and by others on ethical grounds. This book outlines the evolution of Skinner’s behavioral technology by describing several projects undertaken during the 1950s through the 1970s. The development of the experimental analysis of behavior relied heavily upon experiments with pigeons and rats in free operant chambers, the latter often referred to as Skinner Boxes, after their inventor.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 11: Behaviorism
    Chapter 11: Behaviorism Megan Davis, Nicole Pelley and Stephanie Quinlan Behaviorism (1892-1956) ● Psychology has been the study of the mind since the Greeks ○ The definition of the mind has been debated extensively ○ 20th century: Shift from what the mind was to what it did ■ Mind causes behavior ● New field of research ○ Psychology was redefined with help from animal psychology ○ People started believing humans evolved from animal forms ○ Had to rethink Descartes’ definition of the mind New Directions in Animal Psychology New Directions in Animal Psychology Animal psychology as Romanes begun it, used 2 methods: 1. Anecdotal Method → Collect data 2. Method of Inference → Interpret data Close examination in late 19th, early 20th century. Anecdote → Experiment From Anecdote to Experiment ● Experiment replaced anecdotes and informal, naturalistic experiments ● Aim of animal psychology - produce natural science and anecdote not the path to science ● Two important research programs: ○ Thorndike ○ Pavlov From Anecdote to Experiment Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949): ● Initially wanted to study children ● Not many readily available, took up animals ● Studied with William James ● Developed “connectionism” ○ Methodological and theoretical approach to animal learning ○ Formulation of an S-R psychology he called “connectionism” ○ Anecdotal method overestimated animal intelligence From Anecdote to Experiment Thorndike’s Puzzle Boxes ● Trap cat inside box ● Each box opened by cat in different way ● Rewarded with salmon for escaping ○ Ex. of instrumental
    [Show full text]
  • Biologicau Co~Ntrir~Utio~Rne to the Development Of
    ,- B BiologicaU Co~ntriR~utio~rneto the Development of Psychology KARL H. PRIBRAM AND DANIEL N. ROBINSON INTRODUCTION This chapter concerns several important influences that biology has had on the development of psychology as a science. Specifically, we attempt to account for an apparent paradox: In the nineteenth century, rapid advances were made in relating biology in general and brain func- tion in particular to the phenomena of mind. Throughout much of the first half of the twentieth century, however, these same relationships were all but ignored and the foundations for a scientific psychology were sought in the environment. The biological aspects of psychology, perhaps more than other special branches of the discipline, resist historical compression. Psychobiology, as we shall call the subject,' is deeply rooted in both philosophy and 4 ' There is still no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing among the terms physiological psychology, psychobiology, neuropsychology, and biopsychology. A grow- ' ing convention would reserve the term neuropsychology to theory about the human ; nervous system based on research involving complex cognitive processes, often in settings in which clinical findings are directly relevant. Physiological psychology strikes many as too restricted, for much current work falls under headings such as biophysics, computer science, or microanatomy that are synonymous with physiology. Thus, psychobiology is used here to refer to the broadest range of correlative studies in which biobehavioral investigations are undertaken and referenced to phenomenal experience. 345 POINTS OF VIEW IN THE Copyright 0 1985 by Academic Press, Inc. MODERN HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY All rights of reprod~lctionin any form resewed. ISBN 0-12-148510-2 346 Karl H.
    [Show full text]
  • What Interbehavioral Psychology Has to Offer Education--Now
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 288 755 SO 018 331 AUTHOR Cornwell, David; Hobbs, Sandy TITLE What Interbehavioral Psychology Has To Offer Education--Now. PUB DATE 87 NOTE 27p.; Paper and Appendix Two presented at the Annual Conference of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior Group (Fife, Scotland, 1986). PUB TYPE Viewpoints (120) -- Speeches/Conference Papers (150) EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Behavioral Science Research; *Educational Psychology; Educational Research; Experimental Psychology; Learning Processes; *Learning Theories; *Psychoeducational Methods; Psychological Studies; Psychologists IDENTIFIERS EKRIB System of Analyzing Teaching; *Interbehavioral Psychology; Kantor (J R); Skinner (B F); Thyne (J M) ABSTRACT B. F. Skinner's influence on various applications of psychology in education has been greater than J. R. Kantor's, the founder of interbehaviorism. However, the field of education might benefit from a greater input of Kantorian, as apposed to Skinnerian, theory. Policymakers, administrators, and teachers have failed to totally adopt Skinner's educational proposals, which focus heavily on programmed instruction and do not consider how teaching is actually practiced or how educators discuss educational goals. Two examples of interbehavioral educational approaches are presented. One, based on "The Psychology of Learning and Techniques of Teaching" by J. M. Thyne, explains learning as the adoption of a new response to a situation. The second example, the EXRIB System of Analyzing Teaching, was developed as an indisciplinary endeavor and as part of the Classroom Interaction Project (CIP) at Jordanhill College. Project participants analyzed statements about teaching and observations of actual teaching situations and devised a model based on teaching as a goal-oriented activity. Appendices include an explanation of the EICRIB system and a report entitled "An Interbehavioral Perspective on Applied Behavior Analysis." Figures and tables are included.
    [Show full text]
  • Methodological Behaviorism As a Radical Behaviorist Views It
    Behavior and Philosophy, 39/40, 145-202 (2011/2012). © 2011 Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies METHODOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM AS A RADICAL BEHAVIORIST VIEWS IT J. Moore University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee ABSTRACT: Methodological behaviorism is a stance on verbal processes and the meaning of “psychological” terms and concepts that are deployed in theories and explanations of behavior. According to this stance, all such terms and concepts should be based on observable stimuli and behavior. Over the years, psychologists have interpreted the phrase “based on” in at least three different ways. One interpretation was that psychologists should remain formally silent on causal mental terms, and not speak at all about unobservables. A second interpretation allowed psychologists to appeal indirectly to mediating mental terms, provided the psychologists could logically connect the terms to observables through operational definitions, where those definitions were exhaustive. A third interpretation again allowed psychologists to appeal indirectly to mediating mental terms, provided the psychologists could logically connect the terms to observables through operational definitions. This time, however, the definitions need be only partial instead of exhaustive. We argue the interpretations lead to an incomplete psychology, if not also an institutionalized mentalism, because they fail to recognize private behavioral events. None of the interpretations are consistent with the radical behaviorism of B. F. Skinner. Key words: methodological behaviorism, radical behaviorism, operationism, logical positivism, theoretical terms, psychological terms Methodological Behaviorism as a Radical Behaviorist Views It Skinner (1964) opened one of his canonical articles with the following paragraph: Behaviorism, with an accent on the last syllable, is not the scientific study of behavior but a philosophy of science concerned with the subject matter and methods of psychology.
    [Show full text]
  • Willis and the Virtuosi
    Forum on Public Policy The Scientific Method through the Lens of Neuroscience; From Willis to Broad J. Lanier Burns, Professor, Research Professor of Theological Studies, Senior Professor of Systematic Theology, Dallas Theological Seminar Abstract: In an age of unprecedented scientific achievement, I argue that the neurosciences are poised to transform our perceptions about life on earth, and that collaboration is needed to exploit a vast body of knowledge for humanity’s benefit. The scientific method distinguishes science from the humanities and religion. It has evolved into a professional, specialized culture with a common language that has synthesized technological forces into an incomparable era in terms of power and potential to address persistent problems of life on earth. When Willis of Oxford initiated modern experimentation, ecclesial authorities held intellectuals accountable to traditional canons of belief. In our secularized age, science has ascended to dominance with its contributions to progress in virtually every field. I will develop this transition in three parts. First, modern experimentation on the brain emerged with Thomas Willis in the 17th Century. A conscientious Anglican, he postulated a “corporeal soul,” so that he could pursue cranial research. He belonged to a gifted circle of scientifically minded scholars, the Virtuosi, who assisted him with his Cerebri anatome. He coined a number of neurological terms, moved research from the traditional humoral theory to a structural emphasis, and has been remembered for the arterial structure at the base of the brain, the “Circle of Willis.” Second, the scientific method is briefly described as a foundation for understanding its development in neuroscience.
    [Show full text]
  • Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology
    Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology Edited by Claude E. Buxton Department of Psychology Yale University New Haven, Connecticut 1985 ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers) Orlando San Diego New York London Toronto Montreal Sydney Tokyo Passages from the following are reprinted by permission of the publishers: Newell, Α., Duncker on Thinking, in S. Koch & D. Leary (Eds.), A Century of Psychology as Science. Copyright 1985 by McGraw-Hill. Neisser, U., Cognitive Psychology. © 1967 by Prentice-Hall. COPYRIGHT © 1985 BY ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY, RECORDING, OR ANY INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHER. ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. Orlando, Florida 32887 United Kingdom Edition published by ACADEMIC PRESS INC. (LONDON) LTD. 24-28 Oval Road, London NW1 7DX LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION DATA Main entry under title: Points of view in the modern history of psychology. Includes indexes. 1. Psychology— History. I. Buxton, Claude E. BF81.P57 1985 150\9 85-4010 ISBN 0-12-148510-2 (alk. paper) PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 85 86 87 88 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contributors Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors' contributions begin. Mitchell G. Ash (295), Department of History, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242 William Bevan (259), John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, Chicago, Illinois 60603 Arthur L. Blumenthal (19, 51), Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts at Boston, Boston, Massachusetts 02125 Claude E.
    [Show full text]
  • An Introduction to the Philosophy Called Radical Behaviorism Stephen F
    ntroduction to Radical ehaviorism 25 An Introduction to the Philosophy Called Radical Behaviorism Stephen F. Ledoux he work of B.F. Skinner simply did not follow the majority views of his time. In this he was not the first. He stood, as the saying goes, on the shoulders of giants. He ad- vanced another major step in a trend whose continuity in the West began nearly years ago. That trend is one of replacing what could be characterized as humanity’s self– centeredness with an increasingly more effective natural science perspective about people’s place in the order of things. This trend got a big push when Copernicus reit- erated what Aristarchus of Samos and the ancient Ionian Greeks had discovered much earlier but which had been lost in the intervening centuries: the Earth, and thus hu- manity, were not the center of everything. Later, Darwin showed that our bodies (our physical forms, structures, and functions) are also products of the same natural laws that apply to all other living and non–living things. Then Skinner, through the behav- iorology discipline arising from his work, demonstrated that our very being, our con- sciousness, our conduct, our behavior, is also necessarily and properly within the reach of natural science. From that demonstration, and its associated applied technologies, arises an increased opportunity for humanity to solve its problems: from day–to–day personal difficulties, through challenges such as the crisis in education, to the global problems threatening survival itself. To benefit from that opportunity, people must ex- pand their behavior repertoires with respect to behaviorology, the discipline responsible for the relevant science and technology.
    [Show full text]
  • We Are All Methodological Behaviorists
    Behavior and Philosophy, 41, 1-10 (2013). ©2015 Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies WE ARE ALL METHODOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISTS Marcus Bentes de Carvalho Neto Universidade Federal do Pará ABSTRACT: Methodological and radical behaviorisms have been contrasted not only with respect to their consideration, or lack thereof, of private psychological events, but also with respect to their criteria for scientificity. Skinner (1945), in particular, dismissed the criterion of scientific truth by agreement (an inherently social criterion) and argued for its replacement by a form of individualistic pragmatism. In this article I argue that truth by agreement remains as fundamental to science as it ever was. In this sense, and regardless of indirect validations of claims about private events, we are all methodological behaviorists. Key words: methodological behaviorism, radical behaviorism, agreement, replicability, science Behavior analysts are acquainted with a traditional and unqualified division between two types of behaviorism, the (merely) methodological and the radical one (Skinner, 1974/1976; for a detailed analysis of methodological behaviorism see Moore, 1981, 2001). A keystone of the methodological-vs.-radical distinction rests on the kind of data to be included in our scientific understanding of behavior. Methodological behaviorism, it is argued, adheres to a rigid and naive version of operationalism that was already present in the traditions of logical positivism and realism. As a consequence, methodological behaviorism deals exclusively with what can be publicly observed: Observation thus became (...) fundamental to [methodological] Watsonian Behaviorism1: Observation defines the category of behavior as a subject matter. Behavior is what is observable, but only observable by the other one (...). To qualify as subject matter for a behaviorist, behavior must affect the senses of other organisms; it must be available for measurement and recording by others.
    [Show full text]