MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

Space Race and Arms Race in the Western Media and the Czechoslovak Media

Bachelor thesis

Brno 2017

Thesis Supervisor: Author: Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. Věra Gábová

Annotation

The bachelor thesis deals with selected Second World War and Cold War events, which were embodied in arms race and space race. Among events discussed are for example the first use of ballistic missiles, development of atomic and hydrogen bombs, launching the first artificial satellites etc. The thesis focuses on presentation of such events in the Czechoslovak and the Western press, compares them and also provides some historical facts to emphasize subjectivity in the media. Its aim is not only to describe the period as it is generally known, but to contrast the sources of information which were available at those times and to point out the nuances in the media. It explains why there are such differences, how space race and arms race are related and why the progress in science and technology was so important for the media.

Key words

The Second World War, the Cold War, space race, arms race, press, objectivity, censorship, propaganda

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Anotace

Tato bakalářská práce se zabývá některými událostmi druhé světové a studené války, které byly součástí závodu ve zbrojení a závodu v dobývání vesmíru. Mezi probíranými událostmi je například první použití balistických raket, vývoj atomové a vodíkové bomby, vypuštění první umělé družice Země atd. Práce se zaměřuje na prezentaci těchto událostí v Československém a západním tisku, porovnává je a také uvádí některá historická fakta pro zdůraznění subjektivity v médiích. Cílem práce není pouze popsat toto období jak je všeobecně známo ale srovnat zdroje informací, které byly v příslušné době dostupné a poukázat na rozdílnost v médiích. Práce vysvětluje, proč jsou zde takové rozdíly, jak spolu závod ve zbrojení a závod v dobývání vesmíru souvisí a proč byla vědecký a technický pokrok pro media tak důležitý.

Klíčová slova

Druhá světová válka, studená válka, závod v dobývání vesmíru, závod ve zbrojení, tisk, objektivita, cenzura, propaganda

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Table of Content

Introduction ...... 8 1. Beginnings of the Rocket Science and Space Traveling ...... 10 2. The Second World War ...... 10 2.1. V-1 and V-2 Production ...... 10 2.1.1. V-weapons in Legal Press of The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia ...... 11 2.1.2. V-weapons in The Western Press ...... 11 2.2. V-2 Attack and its Real Impact ...... 12 2.2.1. V-2 Attack in Legal Press of The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia ...... 12 2.2.2. V-2 Attack in Illegal Press of The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia...... 13 2.2.3. V-2 Attack in the Western Press ...... 14 3. Victory of the Allies ...... 15 3.1. The Czechoslovak Press after the Victory of the Allies ...... 15 3.2. Manhattan Project ...... 15 3.2.1. Voluntary Press Censorship in the United States ...... 17 3.3. Soviet Project to Develop an Atomic Bomb ...... 18 3.4. The First Use of the A-bombs ...... 18 3.4.1. “Little Boy” in the Western Press ...... 19 3.4.2. “Fat Man” in the Western Press ...... 20 3.4.3. A-bombs in the Czechoslovak Press ...... 21 4. Cold War Period ...... 23 4.1. Causes of the Cold War ...... 23 4.2. Situation at the Beginning of the Cold War ...... 23 4.3. Arms Race during the Cold War ...... 24 4.3.1. Development of A-bomb in the Soviet Union ...... 24 4.3.1.1. Communism in Czechoslovakia and its Impact on Czechoslovak Press ...... 25 4.3.1.1.1. First Soviet A-bomb in the Czechoslovak Press ...... 25 4.3.1.2. The Western Press during the Cold War ...... 26 4.3.1.2.1. American Authorities Learn about Soviets A-bomb Test ...... 27 4.3.1.2.2. Soviet Atomic Bomb in the Western Press ...... 27 4.3.2. Development of H-bomb in USA ...... 28 4.3.2.1. The Western Press about H-bomb Test in USA ...... 29

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4.3.2.2. The Czechoslovak Press about H-Bomb Test in USA ...... 30 4.3.3. Development of H-Bomb in USSR ...... 31 4.3.3.1. The Western Press about H-bomb test in USSR ...... 32 4.3.3.2. The Czechoslovak Press about H-bomb Test in USSR...... 32 4.4. Beginnings of the Space Age ...... 33 4.4.1. Development of ICBMs ...... 34 4.4.2. Development of Artificial Satellites in the United States and the Soviet Union ...... 35 4.4.2.1. Sputnik I ...... 35 4.4.2.1.1. Sputnik I in the Czechoslovak press ...... 36 4.4.2.1.2. Sputnik I in the Western Press ...... 37 4.4.2.2. Sputnik II ...... 40 4.4.2.2.1. Sputnik II in the Western Press ...... 40 4.4.2.2.2. Sputnik II in the Czechoslovak Press ...... 41 4.4.2.3. Vanguard TV-3 ...... 42 4.4.2.3.1. Vanguard TV-3 in the Western Press ...... 42 4.4.2.3.2. Vanguard TV-3 in the Czechoslovak Press ...... 44 4.4.2.4. Explorer I ...... 44 4.4.2.4.1. Explorer I in the Western Press ...... 45 4.4.2.4.2. Explorer I in the Czechoslovak Press ...... 45 4.4.3. First Man in Space ...... 46 4.4.3.1. Vostok I ...... 47 4.4.3.1.1. Vostok I in the Western Press ...... 48 4.4.3.1.2. Vostok I in the Czechoslovak Press ...... 49 4.4.3.2. Freedom 7 ...... 50 4.4.3.2.1. Freedom 7 in the Western Press ...... 50 4.4.3.2.2. Freedom 7 in the Czechoslovak press ...... 51 4.4.3.3. Friendship 7 ...... 51 4.4.3.3.1. Friendship 7 in the Western Press ...... 52 4.4.3.3.2. Friendship 7 in the Czechoslovak Press ...... 53 Conclusion ...... 54 Bibliography ...... 56

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Declaration

I hereby declare that this thesis is my own, that I have worked on it independently and that I used only the sources listed in bibliography

March 26, 2017 Věra Gábová

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Acknowledgement

I wish to thank Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D., the supervisor of this bachelor thesis, for his precious and helpful advice and guidance on the whole work. I would also like to thank my family for their patience and support.

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Introduction

It is generally known that wars accelerate scientific research. Since the Second World War, however, the development of science and technology accelerated more than ever before. In just three decades people witnessed the first use of remote controlled rockets, ballistic missiles, atomic bombs and hydrogen bombs. Exploring of outer space was not running late. Between 1957 and 1969 the launch of the first artificial satellite, the first man performing an orbit of the Earth and the first human spacecraft landing on the Moon were observed and discussed by millions all around the world. That was possible thanks to mass media, which influenced the way of thinking of many. During the Second World War and the Cold War one of the most common way of giving the information was via press.

This thesis studies how were the events discussed presented in different countries by the press. Namely it focuses on British and American newspapers, which represent the Western media i.e. mass media of the Western world, characteristic feature of which was criticism of Nazism and later communism. They are compared to the Nazi-controlled press of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and subsequently to the Czechoslovak press, which was censored by communists.

The aim of the thesis is to prove that the newspapers of either side were not completely objective by showing the differences in description of some key events of the Second World War and the Cold War, connected with space race or arms race. The thesis also provides some historical and scientific facts to point out the inaccuracy in the media. To introduce the situation and also to emphasize some nuances, the historical background including the testimony of those who participated research or played any other important role in events discussed are stated. To achieve objectivity more sources describing one particular event from different points of view are used.

The paper is divided into four parts. Firstly, it briefly outlines first thoughts of space travel and the beginnings of rocketry.

Secondly, it describes the Second World War period, namely the production and use of the very first ballistic missiles, so called V-weapons. It shows the difference between the

8 censored press of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and The Western press. The fundamental contradiction between censored and illegal communistic press is also explained.

Third part of the thesis deals with a short period of enthusiasm, which accompanied the victory of the allies in the Second World War. Whereas in Europe the War was already over, in Pacific it continued until August 1945 and ended up only by destruction of two Japan cities. How the absence of Nazi censorship changed the Czechoslovak press is illustrated on the way of presenting this key moment of the Second World War and the changed way of picturing Nazism in general. The chapter also describe the development of atomic bomb and in the United States and the Soviet Union and its presentation to public.

The last part of the paper focuses on the first years of the Cold War. The chapter summarizes the causes of the Cold War, illustrates how communism was enforced in Czechoslovakia and how this political system influenced the press. It also explains how space race and arms race, which were integral to this period, were related. Subsequently it describes propaganda in media, which also was inseparable part of the Cold War.

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1. Beginnings of the Rocket Science and Space Traveling

Although arms race and space race are usually connected with the Cold War, their beginning can be found many years prior this period. Development of remote-controlled rockets, ballistic missiles and atomic weapons had already started during the Second World War. The very first thoughts about space travel appeared even in early 1920s in Germany. Many young Germans became very passionate about the use of rockets to achieve space travel, as in 1920s several books explaining how rockets could possibly work were published. As an example can be stated The Rocket into Interplanetary Space, which was written in 1923 by the physicist known as one of the fathers of rocketry, Herman Oberth. (Herman Julius Oberth, n. d.) Subsequently the first science fiction movies appeared. Fritz Lang, who is said to be one of the greatest German film director of that time, presented several movies of this genre. Best known is Woman in the Moon, a movie based on a script by his wife Thea von Harbou, which Lang consulted with Hermann Oberth. (Price, 2014) It described the adventure of space travelling and also suggested that it was possible to gain gold or other precious metal in outer space. This was another good reason for young people to pursue this new area of science. (ibid.)

2. The Second World War

2.1. V-1 and V-2 Production

Among these people was also a talented student Magnus Maximilian Freiherr von Braun, who played key role not only in German, but later also US space program. He, as a member of Nazi party and well qualified man, was in charge of development of remote control rocket known as V-1 and later also the very first ballistic missiles, so called V-2. Both of them were produced during the WW2 in concentration camps. (Dungan, n. d.) Most of the work was done by the prisoners. Many of this people, living under appalling conditions, with no daylight, little sleep, food or proper sanitation, died of diseases, hunger, or were executed for attempted sabotage. (Hollingham, 2014) Paradoxically more people died when

10 constructing the rockets, than later, when the rockets were used for attacking Germany enemies. Nevertheless the conditions in the concentration camps were not considered important, as Hitler was convinced he would win the war thanks to this weapons and victory was only what mattered. As soon as the rockets were ready he used them against many of his enemies, including Great Britain. (Barber & Keuer, 2011) Naturally, the attack, which lasted for approximately six months, was discussed in various newspapers.

2.1.1. V-weapons in Legal Press of The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

Although many people in Protectorate disagreed with the use of so-called Buzz bombs or Flying bombs and the policy of Nazi Germany in general, the legal newspapers do not correspond with this fact. When reading for example Lidové noviny, which were censured by Germans, it appears that everybody was supporting Hitler´s regime without any doubts. Every success German army had was highlighted and their failure was never admitted. The failure of the allies, however, was discussed in many issues. Even the V-1 attack on London, which started in June 13, 1944 and lasted approximately eight months, (Cleary, 2011) was in legal press in The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia described as a justified revenge.

Also the information about the possibility of using V-2 was given in compliance with the censorship as something positive or even admirable. The enhanced rocket, termed for example “Hitler´s new magical weapon” (Anglický strarch z V2, 1944, p. 4, own translation) was said to be a disaster for Germany enemies and articles about it similarly to the others supported the idea that Germany was certainly going to win this war.

2.1.2. V-weapons in the Western Press

The development of remote-controlled rockets was observed and discussed also in western countries. The message, which either the British or the American press gave about it, however was very different from what people in Czechoslovakia could have read. The fact that V-1 was being used and enhanced V-2 could have soon appeared was not denied. In addition to speculation about how the rocket worked and how it could have been possibly used it was also said that maybe V-2 rocket would not be even used before the end of the war.

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(Germany´s enhanced bomb, 1944) Also, contrary to legal press of Protectorate, this article mentions V-2´s weaknesses. “The rockets are so huge, that it would probably require railroad flat cars for transportation. Manufacture, assembly, storage and transportation are all problems that Germans cannot easily meet.” (Baldwin, 1944, p. 3)

2.2. V-2 Attack and its Real Impact

Just a few weeks after this information was published it became clear that the concerns were justified. At night between 7th and 8th September 1944 Germany launched their first V- 2 rockets. The first target was Paris and Hague, London followed. The exact number of victim is not known, nevertheless it is estimated that only in England 2, 754 people were killed and 6, 523 seriously injured. (Risbey, 2002) Although the V-2 rocket was definitely more advanced and dangerous technology, as it was supersonic, which made it impossible to detect and stop and also carried bigger amount of explosive, the number of victims do not correspond with this fact. Much primitive rocket V-1 killed and injured approximately three times more people. The damage caused by V-2 was not as strong as Germany expected and hoped, as only about 700 of these rockets were made per month. Moreover a lot of them exploded before they reached their target, since they were of a bad quality. (Wilmot, 2011)

2.2.1. V-2 Attack in Legal Press of The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

After 8th September the legal press continued with its criticism of Germany enemies and continuously tried to convince its readers that Germany was going to win this war as it did before. The use of V-2, however, was not commented with such enthusiasm as the use of V-1. Also the information came later, only in November. “Since September 15 London is, with only short breaks, under fire of new weapon V-1. For a few weeks the firing has been growing stronger by deploying of explosives even more effective- V-2. (Nová odvetná zbraň „V2“, 1944, p. 1, own translation) Another article rephrased Churchill´s statement, who according to it claimed that the impact of the V-2 was stronger than the impact of V-1. Churchill was also accused of withholding the information about the attack. His explanation, according to which he did not want to make any statement earlier in order to prevent the enemy from abusing the information, was presented as an excuse. (Nejtěžší ničivá palba na

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Londýn, 1944, p. 2, own translation) The same reason was stated in British press. It was, however, presented as reasonable explanation.

2.2.2. V-2 Attack in Illegal Press of The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

In Czechoslovakia there were many illegal journals and newspapers. Reading or writing those was strictly forbidden and anyone who was doing so risked being arrested or executed. An example of illegal press is Rudé právo, which was published by members of Communist party. The communists published the last legal issue in October 20, 1938. Afterwards the daily was dissolved and since September 1939 (the exact date is not known) first illegal version of Rudé právo appeared. (Rudé právo 1939- 1945, 1971, p. 7) In following years the paper was published irregularly, in various forms, sometimes even hand-written. One such form was illegal journal called Předvoj. (Bednařík, Jirák & Kopplová, 2011. p. 210) As the illegal organization did not have full access to foreign press, the information published were not always reliable. What is more, all issues are not extant so it cannot be said whether or not there were any mentions about either V-1 or V-2. For sure, the paper tried to encourage young people to fight against fascism and Hitler, emphasized that it is possible to defeat him and presented The Red army as guiding light, which is the exact opposite of what the legal press said. (Rudé právo 1939-1945, 1971, pp. 499-500)

Regarding to the journalists who wrote against Hitler´s regime, many of them were arrested and subsequently executed. (Bauer, n. d.) Only after the Second World War, the daily Rudé právo and also some other communistic ones were restored and as discussed later, during the Cold war, when Communists came to power in Czechoslovakia, became the most favored newspapers.

2.2.3. V-2 Attack in the Western Press

The British press described the whole situation as less serious. It was not denied, that V-2 rockets landed in Britain, but this fact was, contrary to the description in the Czechoslovak legal press, given as something, which was not going to destroy the country. As an example can be seen a statement of the Prime Minister Churchill, who according to

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The Manchester Guardian said: “the casualties and damage caused have not been heavy.” (Wadsworth, 1944, p. 2) According to the article Churchill also claimed: “The use of this weapon is another attempt by the enemy to attack the moral of our civil population in the vain hope that he might somehow by this means stave off the defeat which faces him in the field." (ibid.) This is an example of how not only the press censored by Germans, but also the British one was used for convincing the inhabitants that the situation in their country was better than the situation on the other side. In this case, however, the information published was based on facts, as in November 1944 Germany was really losing its power.

The British press also commented on the damage caused by V-2 and compared it´s power to the power of V-1. “All the same, considering the noise it made V2´s marks were not as great or as savage as one feared. The blast area was smaller than the flying bomb´s. Sound was widespread, but damage concentrated.” (ibid.) As written before, the damage caused by V-2 was in the end really less serious than the damage caused by V-1. But on the other hand this fact was not known in November 1944. What was known is that one V-2 caused bigger explosion than V-1, as it was much bigger contained more explosives. Also it was not known when the attack was going to stop. Therefore this information can be considered misleading and trivializing the problem.

On the other hand it is possible to find articles according to which V-2 was more dangerous than V-1. British newspapers quoted some witnesses, who very often explained why they think so. It was because of the fact that this rocket did not make any sound except the explosion itself. Consequently it was not possible to predict where and when the next V- 2 was going to explode. The explosion, on the other hand, was said to be extremely loud. “I heard nothing and saw nothing coming. Suddenly I saw houses opposite rise in the air and there was the most terrible noise and explosion I have ever known.” (Smithson, 1944, p. 3)

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3. Victory of the Allies

3.1. The Czechoslovak Press after the Victory of the Allies

The victory of the Allies changed many things including the censure in the Czechoslovak press. Suddenly it was possible to openly criticize the conditions in which people lived and died during the war and also it was admitted that Germans were responsible for it. Moreover the moral character of Germans was condemned, which was something unthinkable before the war ended in Europe.

As an example can be stated an article by Dr. Jiří Beneš, who lived in both Buchenwald and Dora concentration camps. On one half of a page he describes his experiences, especially the sabotage which was very common there, and explains the differences between V-1 and V-2. “V-1, the bomb, that Germans used to attack London, was a small bomb, which looked like a toy. It was a tiny plane, approximately 5 meters long. V-2 was a real giant compared to V-1. If the lack of a good material and constant sabotage did not lead the whole production to fiasco, it would be really bad for England.” (Beneš, 1945, p. 8, own translation) The fact that the sabotage was really crucial is proved with its specific example. Mr. Beneš wrote about one of his colleague who, as well as him, was lucky enough to get a job as a typist. Thanks to him some thousands valves, essential to production, were crushed as rejects, and so the production was stopped for three days. Another fact, which according to the report led to Germany´s failure were paradoxically the Germans who were in charge of the production. They were stealing everything, which was possible to stole, not bothering with further impact on their own country.

3.2. Manhattan Project

Even before the beginning of the Second World War American President Roosevelt was informed about the possible danger of atomic technology in the hands of the Axis powers. At that times spontaneous nuclear fission was known, as it had already been discovered in December 1938 in Germany. (Gordon, n. d.) The breakthrough spread quickly around the world and so that the theoretical possibility of developing an atomic bomb was

15 not a secret. That is why in August 1939, Hungarian physicist Leó Szilárd wrote Roosevelt a letter, which said that the Nazis were working on a new and powerful weapon- an atomic bomb. (Dannen, 1998) The letter, signed by Albert Einstein, made Roosevelt to create a team of scientist and engineers who would develop this new weapon for the United States. In late 1941 the American attempt to build an atomic bomb received its code name- Manhattan project (because of where the research began). Later, it took place not only in US, but also in The United Kingdom and Canada. (Manhattan Project, n. d.) Among other things the project was extraordinary by its size. At its peak in June 1944, there were 125,310 active employees. (Wellerstein, 2013)

Many sources state the project was secret and only very few of these people knew what exactly they were working on. "Probably no more than a few dozen men in the entire country knew the full meaning of the Manhattan Project, and perhaps only a thousand others even were aware that work on atoms was involved." (Wickware, 1945, p. 111) George Turner, one of the managers working in Oak Ridge after the war said:

"Well it wasn't that the job was tough ... it was confusing. You see, no one knew what was being made in Oak Ridge, not even me, and a lot of the people thought they were wasting their time here. It was up to me to explain to the dissatisfied workers that they were doing a very important job. When they asked me what, I'd have to tell them it was a secret. But I almost went crazy myself trying to figure out what was going on." (Wellerstein, 2012)

On the other hand some leaks of information are known. People who were not sure about what was happening in places like Los Alamos, where the first atomic bomb was made, created their own theories and shared them with their colleagues. Moreover, some information also leaked out via press. “New Mexico has a mystery city, one with an area from 8 to 20 square miles, according to guesses…And it is even more difficult for a non- resident to enter than for a resident to leave” (Raper, 1944, p. 1). The article did not say anything particular about the progress in research of atomic energy, but it suggested that the inhabitants of the city could have been working on some new weapon against Germany, and made it sound very suspicious. It also encouraged the readers to try to discover some new information. “…and if you succeed in learning anything and then making it public you will satisfy the hot curiosity of several hundred thousand New Mexicans.”(ibid.)

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3.2.1. Voluntary Press Censorship in the United States

Such articles were not common in the American press, as the publishers were told to keep it secret. During the Second World War the United States had a program of voluntary press censorship. That means there were no fines or threats attached to it, just stern official rebuke. (Wellerstein, 2013) This strategy turned out to be working, as leaks of information such as the one stated before were exceptions. After the Second World War the publishers were even awarded for keeping certain information secret. Even though some of them thought the code of censorship could violate free speech and free press, most of them agreed that winning this war was more important and that not commenting on certain events including the development of atomic bomb could have helped. (Sweeney, 2008)

Only after the detonation of the first bomb were people officially informed about the new weapon and also could have read the explanation for not publishing any information about the research before. The reason was not to inform enemies, who could have been spying in the US.

Regarding to the press influenced by Nazi Germany, the topic of the Manhattan project was not discussed, which is by most historians explained by the fact, that it cannot be proved that Germans at that time had much knowledge about it, if any. (Wellerstein, 2013) Another possible explanation is that even if they had known something about it, they would not have wanted the ordinary people to know that any of Germany´s enemies was working on something, which could destroy Germany. Even after the victory of the Allies in May 1945, when the way of describing Americans´ actions changed and suddenly they were seen as those who were fighting for a good thing and also those who were going to win the war, atomic weapons and their development were not discussed.

3.3. Soviet Project to Develop an Atomic Bomb

the Soviet Union was aware of the possibility to construct nuclear weapons as well. Soviet project to develop an atomic bomb was a top-secret research and development, which, as well as Project Manhattan, had started already during the Second World War. (Soviet

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Atomic Program, n. d.). Similarly to American project it started with a letter by the scientist (Georgy Flerov) to the leader (Stalin). (Zuberi, n. d.).

Georgy Flerov was a Soviet physicist who dealt with spontaneous nuclear fission of uranium. As mentioned before, the theoretical possibility of constructing an atomic bomb was generally known by this time. Nevertheless Flerov arrived to the conclusion that other countries are a step ahead in their research of atomic energy and its possible usage as a weapon. That is why in April 1942 he wrote a letter to Stalin, in which he urged him to start the research in the Soviet Union. Stalin did not ignore this fact and so that in February 1943 the Soviets began their own program led by nuclear physicist Igor Kurchatov and political director Lavrentiy Beria. (Georgy Flerov eminent physicist, n. d.) Regardless of how many spies did Stalin have in Manhattan project it was still very difficult not to run late, because of the bloody war with Nazi Germany. (Holmes, 2009) That is why until the end of the Second World War Soviet´s equivalent of Manhattan project achieved noticeably less progress.

Regarding to comments on this project in both the Czechoslovak and the Western press there were no mentions about it. Western countries, although expecting Stalin to work on his own atomic device, definitely were not interested in making it public and causing panic, as even their own research was meant to be secret. The Czechoslovak media, still strictly censored by Germans, would never admit publishing information such as “the enemy works on something destructive for us”.

3.4. The First Use of the A-bombs

The first testing bomb was successfully detonated on July 16, 1945 in Alamogordo, New Mexico. (Walker, n. d.) By this time the original target, Germany, was no longer a threat, because they had already surrendered. The only enemy remaining was Japan, which ignored a call to surrender, so called Potsdam Declaration. This document explained the terms of surrender and also clearly said that “The alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction.” (Walker, 2004, p. 10) On the other hand many people including General Eisenhower or the secretary of war Henry Lewis Stimson doubted the necessity of using atomic bombs: “Japan had no allies; its navy was almost destroyed; its islands were under a 18 naval blockade; and its cities were undergoing concentrated air attacks.” (Mason, 2014) Was the attack necessary or not, on 6th August 1945 United States Army Air Forces dropped the first atomic bomb called “Little Boy” on Hiroshima and demonstrated the power of atomic weapons to the whole word.

On August 9, 1945 another bomb was dropped, this time on Nagasaki. Opinions on why the second bomb had to be used differ. Some say it was nothing but a demonstration of power which cost approximately 50, 000 lives (The Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, n. d.), others that Truman decided to drop the bomb as Japanese did not accept the Allies´ terms of surrender. It is a fact that Japan authorities were not unanimous and did not announce their decision sooner than on August 10. The second atomic bomb was dropped right at the moment, when the negotiations were underway. (Gibert, 2006, p. 801) Nevertheless the final decision was to surrender, so the only reason for using the second bomb was probably that the information was not delivered to American authorities on time. (Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, n. d.)

3.4.1. “Little Boy” in the Western Press

The western press dealt with dropping of the atomic bombs more than the Czechoslovak one. Just a day after the use of the first bomb the topic of atomic bomb and atomic energy in general was discussed in many articles. Firstly, however, it was reminded who was responsible for the beginning of the war.

“Since the industrial revolution that began two centuries ago and has developed at an accelerative pace, each great war has been more disastrous predecessors. But this fact has still not prevented mankind from resorting for war for the settlement of differences. It did not affect the childish and irresponsible minds of the Mussolini and Hitler.” (Heard Round the World, 1945, p. 1)

It was announced that people should really be careful about using atomic weapon as it could let to the utter destruction. Also it was emphasized, that all possible reasons for another war must be eliminated. According to the article one reason for the fact that people want the war is that they are not fully aware of its consequences. Therefore people should be well

19 informed about what a war and weapons used in it may cause, and no government should be allowed to “feed its own people on propaganda of lies and prevent them from knowing the facts until it is too late.”(ibid.) On the other hand the development of the atomic was in the same article described as “enormous secret preparations”. (ibid). Even if the explanation for why the research was secret is reasonable it still contradict the information given before, as no ordinary citizen was familiar with an impact of the atomic bomb.

On 7th August 1945 people could also read that “So far only one of these bombs has been dropped on Japan, just to demonstrate its power.” (Our answer to Japan, 1945, p. 1) It was announced, that atomic bombs are in mass production and even more powerful bombs are on the way. On the other hand, the article also said that the Allies were going to give the Japanese government another chance to surrender, before the second bomb was dropped. Nevertheless if they refuse to do so, they “may expect, as president Truman says, a rain of ruin from the air the like of which has never been seen on this earth.” (ibid.)

3.4.2. “Fat Man” in the Western Press

After the second detonation of an atomic bomb many articles emphasized the fact that the Japanese had been well aware of the fact, that if they did not surrender, the bombs would be dropped on their cities. The surrender, of course, was not something an ordinary citizen could decide. Nevertheless, according to The New York Times, all inhabitants of industrial cities were strongly recommended to leave.

“…the President urged all Japanese civilians to evacuate all their industrial cities and save themselves from destruction and added “If Japan does not surrender, bombs will have to be dropped on war industries and, unfortunately, thousands of civilian lives will be lost.” (Old speculation on Air Attack Revived, 1945, p. 1)

What had President Trumann said was rephrased many time, appeared even a whole transcript of his radio speech. What was not mentioned was the fact that there were some people who disagreed with using bombs. This information came later, the use of A-bombs was for example publicly criticized by Albert Einstein. (Einstein Deplores Use of Atom Bomb, 1946, p. 1)

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Next issue discussed was the explanation of why the bombs were used. “Bombs Used to Shorten War” (Belair, 1945, p. 2) said one of the headlines. Text which follows reminds the attack at Pearl Harbor and also describes how horribly were the American prisoners treated by the Japanese etc. The American press tried to convince people that Japanese many problems and dropping the bombs was the only way to stop them. Many times it was emphasized that the intention of the USA was not to kill civilians. Nevertheless US government insisted on the surrender and threatened Japan with another bomb attack. “Atomic bombs will be used until we completely destroy Japan´s power to make war and only a Japanese surrender will stop us.” (War News Summarized, 1945, p. 6) Only after this information, the broadsheets mentioned how many people were killed, what exactly happened to them, how the cities looked like after the attack etc. This kind of information was much more discussed in tabloids.

3.4.3. A-bombs in the Czechoslovak Press

The bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were in the Czechoslovak press discussed less than in the western press. Nevertheless the articles about it prove, that in summer 1945 the Czechoslovak press was not any more influenced by Germany, as the message it gave was very similar to what in the western press said.

In two days after the bombing of Hiroshima people in Czechoslovakia could have read for example about the first detonation of atomic bomb in New Mexico, which was described as a success. As another example can be stated Truman´s explanation of what let him to drop the first bomb:

“In order to save Japan nation from utter destruction, we agreed on giving them an ultimatum until July 26 in Potsdam. Japan authorities, however, refused it immediately. If they do not accept our conditions now, they can expect a rain of ruin, which has never been seen before.” (Atomová energie uvolněna, 1945, p. 1, own translation)

It was also mentioned that civilians in Japan were informed about the possible attack and therefore could have save themselves, which is again the same message that American press gave. Another fact proving that Germany was not any longer influencing Czechoslovak

21 newspapers is this statement from Svobodné noviny, which describe German´s research of atomic energy as not fast enough.

“We were aware of the fact that Germans were working on this feverishly. Nevertheless they were not successful. We can thank God, that Germans had their V-1 and V-2 only late and in limited amount and we can be even more grateful, that they did not possessed atomic bombs.” (ibid.)

Some articles also claim that even during the Second World War Czechoslovakia was collaborating with Great Britain a the United States, which, according to them, was very helpful for the country. Except the information about Hiroshima and Nagasaki Czechoslovak newspapers also commented on atomic energy itself and suggested that it could be used not only in war, but also as for example propellant. (Druhá atomová puma svržena, 1945, p. 1, own translation)

To sum up the description of the first use of atomic weapon was not different, which correspond with the fact that after the end of the Second World War Czechoslovakia and the United States were both winners of the war and had common enemy to criticize.

4. The Cold War Period

4.1. Causes of the Cold War

Almost immediately after Germany was defeated, new hostilities emerged between the United States and the Soviet Union. The fact that both winners of the Second World War wanted to control the majority of the rest of the world can be seen as the main cause of forthcoming Cold War. As another reason can be stated the difference between USA and USSR, namely between their ideologies, which influenced political and economic systems of both countries. (Reeves, 2000, p. 141) In the Soviet Union people had to face Stalin´s dictatorship and flourishing communism, whereas in the United States dominated democracy and capitalism. American authorities saw themselves as protectors of democracy and their actions against the Soviet Union during the Cold War explained as protecting the world from spreading communism. Soviets on the other hand wanted to prevent the world from

22 destructive impact of capitalism and imagined Americans as dangerous imperialists. Each country feared the other and consequently, in order to defend itself, produced more and more weapons. The rising amount of destructive devices on the other side caused even more fear and so that the arms race accelerated and continued during following decades.

4.2. Situation at the Beginning of the Cold War

At the beginning of this conflict the United States undoubtedly leaded the competition. It became the strongest economic power of the whole world, thanks to their minimal involvement in the Second World War. It also was the only power, which possessed atomic weapons. What is more, most of the scientist, who during the Second World War worked for Hitler (including previously mentioned von Braun) decided to surrender to Americans and to continue in their research in the USA. Soviets, who were interested in their knowledge as well, captured noticeably less German scientist. By the time they arrived to a particular place where the scientist were expected to be, top German rocket engineers had been long gone, and majority of equipment and documents related to rocketry removed or destroyed. (Zak, 2016)

4.3. Arms Race during the Cold War

4.3.1. Development of A-bomb in the Soviet Union

Nevertheless USSR did not lag behind for a long time. After the denotation of Little Boy and Fat Man the soviet research speeded up. Many believes that for Soviet authorities the detonation of the A-bombs was not an act of the Second World War but an unofficial declaration of the Cold War. (Kapoun, 2003) Stalin, who thought the same, decided to destroy the American monopoly on atomic bombs and authorized Igor Kurchatov to develop the new weapon for the Soviet Union, cost it what may. The physicist, being well aware of how difficult this would be, did not dare to oppose. (ibid.)

The research took place in Arzamas-16 (earlier known as Sarov) a town located approximately 450 km from Moscow, which in 1947 disappeared from map. (Arzamas 16, n.

23 d.) The secrecy of this place is indicative of the fact that it´s existence was made public only in 1994. (ibid.) Many workers and scientists who worked there, although treated like prisoners, believed they are helping their country. One of the Soviet physicist, German Goncharov recalls: “On one hand we were surrounded by barbed wire and were not allowed to leave, on the other hand this helped our complete concentration on the work.” (Groot, 2005, p. 142)

The success finally came in 1949, when the first Soviet atomic device, although by many said to be a copy of “Fat Man”, was created. (Angelo, 2004, p. 59) The Soviets successfully tested the bomb, called RDS-1 or "First Lightning" (codenamed "Joe-1" by the United States), at Semipalatinsk on August 29, 1949. (Soviet Atomic Program- 1946, n. d.)

4.3.1.1. Communism in Czechoslovakia and its Impact on Czechoslovak Press

After the end of the Second World War many people in Czechoslovakia sympathized with communists, as they were grateful for liberation and believed that communists would lead the country well. That is why in February 1948, when communists officially established a totalitarian country, there was no protest against it, except an unsuccessful demonstration of approximately 5, 000 students. (Totev, n. d.) It did not take a long time and many controversial rules, including the censorship of press, were enforced. Even before the February revolution it was forbidden to call domestic or foreign policy into question in media. After that, however, the censorship became much stronger. The aim of the communist authorities was to annul all meaningful discourse in society and to replace it by ideological clichés. (Čulík, n. d.) That is why the message all articles in legal press gave was that nothing but communism is acceptable, as only this ideology is a guarantee of worldwide peace and prosperity in all fields.

4.3.1.1.1. First Soviet A-bomb in the Czechoslovak Press

At the beginning of the Cold War the arms race was not commented in the Czechoslovak media much. Instead, it focused on successful agriculture or industry in Czechoslovakia and other communistic countries and compared it to declining economy of

24 the capitalistic ones, mainly the United States´. Even the test of the atomic bomb was not introduced with much enthusiasm. The information came only on September 27, 1949. Exactly the same article was printed in Lidové noviny, Rudé Právo and Mladá Fronta. It informed about Truman´s announcement of the test and said that the news caused panic in many capitalistic countries. After that TASS (Soviet news agency) was quoted:

“As known, the constructions of a large extend are under way in the Soviet Union- building of hydroelectric power stations, mines, canals and roads, which involve blasting works and use of the most advanced technologies. Since these works took place and very often take place in various areas of the country, it is possible, that they could have attracted attention of some foreign countries. (Prohlášení TASS ke zprávám o atomovém výbuchu, 1949, p. 4, own translation)

TASS also stated, that the Soviet Union had known the method of constructing atomic weapon long ago, namely since 1947. Molotov´s announcement published that year was, according to this article, by American authorities termed as fanciful idea. In closing the article said that although the atomic device is available in the Soviet Union, Soviets “still insist on their previous attitude-that is unconditional prohibition of the use of atomic weapons.” (ibid.) In other articles the United States was accused of “atomic blackmailing” and it also was termed as instigator of war. (Krach politiky atomového vydírání, 1949, p. 3, own translation)

Regarding to Molotov´s statement from 1947, according to which the Soviet Union had possessed atomic device since then, inhabitants of the Soviet Union believed it and therefore were not surprised by the test in 1949. “Of course we have an atomic bomb, I have never doubted it.” (Wittner, 1993, p. 147) Answered one of the soviet responded when asked about her opinion on the explosion by editor of The New York Times in 1949. People in Czechoslovakia could have assumed that Soviets either possessed or knew how to construct an atomic bomb as well since Molotov speech was also commented in press. “It is known that policy of the United States is based on the cognizance of the fact that only they know the secret of atomic bomb. This secret, however, cannot be considered as secret anymore.” (Molotovův projev k výročí revoluce, 1947, p. 3, own translation)

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4.3.1.2. The Western Press during the Cold War

It is generally known, that the press in communistic counties was strictly censored and nothing but articles praising communism was possible to publish. The western press, however, was not completely free and objective as well, as it was used to defend Western economic and military interests and it tried to gain the public support for their government’s actions against the foreign enemy. Even the Western Allied governments could never have produced or maintained sufficient public support and jingoism for the long conflict without the media’s contribution. (Stafford, 2013) Therefore communism was constantly pictured as something terrifying and consequently the articles related to arms race and later space race caused paranoia and mass fear of possible nuclear war. The public´s fear of spies, communist aggression, and nuclear war, combined with the willingness of politicians and their allies in the media and elsewhere to exploit these fears, produced the Second Red Scare. (Reeves, 2000, p. 149

4.3.1.2.1. American Authorities Learn about Soviets A-bomb Test

The American scientist, who detected radioactive traces in the area of explosion, immediately communicated it to American president. American authorities were shocked, as most of them really expected the Soviet Union to come up with their own atomic device much later. Some estimated that it would take even several decades. Among them was also President Truman, who refused to believe the news and even required his experts to recheck the data. (Truman Announces Soviets Have Exploded a Nuclear Device, n. d.) Nevertheless after receiving the confirmed report he had to face facts- the United States lost their monopoly on Atomic bombs.

4.3.1.2.2. Soviet Atomic Bomb in the Western Press

Not sooner than in September 23 Truman issued a statement to the media and made headlines when announcing that Soviets secretly tested their own A-bomb. Truman started his statement with saying that in his opinion all people are entitled to be aware of the development in the fields of atomic energy and continued as follows: “Ever since atomic

26 energy was first released by man, the eventual development of this new force by other nations was to be expected. This probability has always been taken into account by us.” (Woolley & Peters, n. d.) The statement was quoted not only in nationwide press but also in many local newspapers and journals, so that almost every American citizen became familiar with it. In press appeared even concerns about the possibility of new war- World War III. However, these were said to be exaggerated and unfounded, as “Soviets would be wary of starting an atomic struggle in which retaliation could be so swift.” (A-bomb Monopoly Broken, 1949, p. 2) This article also pointed out, that even if Soviets had the A-bomb, the United States still were four years ahead.

4.3.2. Development of H-bomb in USA

Although the message, which American press gave about “First Lightening” was that there is in fact no reason to worry, it caused panic and created a stir of activity in scientific and political circles. (Kirkland, 2000) As Americans did not want to lose the lead in arms race, they decided to intensify the production of the atomic bombs. Some scientists, for example Teller, Lawrence, and Alvarez did not consider this to be enough and promoted producing of so-called hydrogen bomb. Others, including Oppenheimer, Conant and Lilienthal, believed that the hydrogen bomb was a weapon of mass genocide (even more so than the atomic bomb) and its development would ultimately threaten the future of the human race. (Hydrogen Bomb- 1950, n. d.) Whether to construct or not to construct the hydrogen bomb became the subject of negotiation for following months. Only in January 1950 Truman announced his final decision.

“It is part of my responsibility as commander in chief of the Armed Forces to see to it that our country is able to defend itself against any possible aggressor. “Accordingly, I have directed the Atomic Energy Commission to continue its work on all forms of atomic weapons, including the so-called hydrogen or super bomb.” (Woolley & Peters, n. d.)

So that, the research based on Teller theory noticeably accelerated with full attention of eminent physicists.

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Only a day after this statement was issued, its parts were quoted and commented in press. “Truman gave the Green light to super-bomb shortly after the atomic commission had revealed in the report to Congress that it has been experimenting with the hydrogen nuclei.” (For Peace Sake Get Hellbomb, 1950, p. 2) This Truman´s announcement was termed as warning for Russians. Czechoslovak press did not comment on this statement.

After less than three years, namely on November 1, 1952, the first series of thermonuclear tests conducted by the United States took place. So-called Operation Ivy took place on the small Pacific island of Elugelab at Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands. (Hydrogen Bomb- 1950, n. d.) The explosion, nicknamed the "Mike Shot", was considered to be a huge success, as it vaporized a whole island. The explosive force was equivalent to 10.4 million tons of TNT (Operation Ivy, 1999)

4.3.2.1. The Western Press about H-bomb Test in USA

The fact, that the first H-bomb was detonated, was not meant to be published. The United States wanted to keep it secret, similarly to their possession of atomic bomb in 1945. The reason not to inform the enemies suggests itself, however there are many of other speculations disproving this proposition. Firstly, it must have been clear that the disappearance of the whole island in Pacific Ocean caused by the explosion, would not be possible to camouflage. Secondly, by this time the Soviets were working on their own hydrogen bomb, even though they did not managed to learn about the American test in full details. This fact must have been assumed by US authorities, as by the 1952 many Soviet spies had already been revealed and questioned. (Holmes, 2009) It is possible, that the real reason for making such confidentiality was accidental death of the Air Force pilot who took fallout samples. The pilot did not died from the radiation, but crashed the plane because of the lack of the propellant. Historian of science Alex Wellerstein (2012) suggests there could have been more such accidental deaths. Another possible reason for Truman to create a media blackout about the test was that he hoped it would not became an issue in the upcoming presidential election. (Mike Device Is Tested, n. d.)

However it was, the information about the test leaked out almost immediately and before many interviews and statement were made and subsequently quoted in press, some 28 articles communicated only that the government refuse to comment on suspicious actions in Pacific. “The Atomic Energy Commission maintain its silence today on nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific, specifically refusing to comment on a report the world´s first hydrogen bomb had been exploded there.“ (H-Bomb Test Story Meets AEC Silence, 1952, p. 3) Afterwards The Atomic Energy Commission issued a statement, which did not clearly said that scale hydrogen bomb was detonated. The information was given rather indirectly "experiments contributing to hydrogen bomb research had been completed recently during tests in Eniwetok atoll in the mid-Pacific.” (Walz, 1952, p. 1) Another declarations, however, helped readers to learn what happened.

“In Chicago, Dr. Harold C. Urey, Nobel Prize winner and a key figure in the wartime development of the atom bomb, said he believed the A.E.C. announcement meant that the United States had successfully exploded its first hydrogen bomb. “It sounds like official language for a successful H-bomb." (ibid.)

4.3.2.2. The Czechoslovak Press about H-Bomb Test in USA

It the mid twentieth century it only was possible to print articles which complied all requirements Communistic party had and so that the information about hydrogen bomb test was conveniently omitted. The Czechoslovak press focused mainly on events happening in Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union and some other communistic countries. If there was any mention about the United States, it was a criticism of its ideology, economy or, regarding to the Cold War, its actions in The Korean war. One such article termed Americans as “…imperialists, inheritors of Hitler, who continue in their bestial ravaging in Korea. (Mír musí být zachován, 1952, p. 3) Afterwards the article claimed that Americans “…intensity their frantic arms race and force their satellite countries to do the same.” (ibid.) The topic of the arms race was not discussed in further details, instead the article followed with saying that more and more countries are disgusted by the expanding of the United States and their constant and systematic interference in other countries affairs.

Lidové noviny, dissolved in February 8, 1952, were replaced by Literární noviny, which were censured by communists as well. (Dokoupil, 2002) The daily dealt mainly with literal, cultural but also political topics. Another important issue was education and science. Articles

29 such as “Science is basis of Socialism” (Věda je základem socialism, 1952, p. 4)” or “Klement Gottwald on Science and Art” (Klement Gottwald o vědě a umění, 1952, p. 3) emphasized not only its importance, but also the suggested that they are essential for achieving worldwide peace, which the higher priority. Alike in Rudé právo, this articles made no particular mention about the hydrogen bomb in hands of Americans. The omission of information about the hydrogen bomb can be seen also in Mladá Fronta, since this newspaper was censured by Communistic party as well.

4.3.3. Development of H-Bomb in USSR

Soviet authorities expected Americans to work on stronger weapon than A- bomb was. Since they did not want to lag behind any more, Soviets started to fully concentrate on own their hydrogen bomb. The Teller theory was available, as Klaus Fuchs had sent this information to the Soviet Union already in 1948. Regardless of how much of a help the theory brought by the spy was, the construction of the H-bomb became the subject of the main interest and the work of Soviet scientists resulted in successful test soon. (Arnold, 2001, p. 24)

Many new talented physicists were involved in the project. Not all of them, however, shared government´s excitement about it. In the United States, thanks to strong anti- communist propaganda not only in media but also for example at schools, it was believed that all Communists want nothing but to destroy the country and rule the whole world. (Stafford, 2013) Andrei Sakharov, often called “The father of Hydrogen bomb” proves otherwise. On one hand he was very patriotic and considered it vital not to let the United States be the only country possessing hydrogen bombs. In one interview he recalled: “No one asked whether or not I wanted to take part in such work. I had no real choice in the matter, but the concentration, total absorption and energy that I brought to the task were my own.” (Sakharov on his Intellectual Evolution, n. d.) Nevertheless after seeing the real impact of the work he and his colleagues were doing, he issued warnings against the consequences of arms race and published several articles, such as for example “Progress, Coexistence and Intellectual Freedom.” (Progress, Coexistence and Intellectual Freedom, 2011) In 1975

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Sakharov was awarded the Peace Prize for his opposition to the abuse of power and his work for human rights. (Andrei Sakharov- facts, n. d.)

In 50s, however, he undoubtedly contributed the Soviet´s research and so that, the first hydrogen bomb, or forerunner of hydrogen bomb, was detonated on August 12, 1953. So- called RDS-6s or “Joe-4” was not literally a hydrogen bomb, as part of energy arose from fission of uranium. (The Soviet Nuclear Weapons Program, 1997) Nevertheless the device still had many aspects of H-bomb and therefore attracted attention of many.

4.3.3.1. The Western Press about H-bomb test in USSR

Articles related to the hydrogen bomb often started similarly.

“The atomic energy commission said tonight it has received information the Soviet Union conducted an atomic test on Wednesday 12, and it indicated the test involved both fission and thermonuclear reactions. Thermonuclear is a term scientists use to describe a hydrogen explosion.” (US Confirms Blast Set of a Week Ago, 1953, p. 1)

Subsequently it was stated that the information was firstly given in Moscow newspaper Pravda. Out of this paper, known for being strictly communistic, many claims were quoted. Most of them were related to the strength of the H-bomb. The short clear sentences such as for example “The test showed the power of the hydrogen bomb is many times greater that the power of atomic bombs.” (Pravda Cites Great Strength of New Experiment, 1953, p. 2) make the impression that the Soviets wanted to demonstrate the power of their country. On the other hand it was also reminded, that the United States possessed this kind of a weapon for more than a year as well. Also it was emphasized, that the Soviet authorities immediately issued a statement about the test terming it as a bomb, whereas the US authorities called their test rather a “thermo-nuclear experiment-involving fission and only enough hydrogen for experimental purposes.” (AEC Declares Both Atomic, Hydrogen Test Recorded, 1953, p. 1) Such comparison gives an impression that the Soviets are more aggressive that the Americans and consequently it instigate the fear of the Soviet Union.

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4.3.3.2. The Czechoslovak Press about H-bomb Test in USSR

Czechoslovak newspapers brought the information about Hydrogen bomb on August 21. The beginning of the articles giving this information was the same as the American version. After announcing what exactly happened daily Pravda was quoted, saying that the hydrogen bomb is much stronger than the atomic one. Contrary to American newspapers it was stated:

“Certain foreign countries, which earlier based their policy on American monopoly of an atomic and later hydrogen bomb, now want to threaten nations by the fact, that the Soviet Union knows how to construct a hydrogen bomb and are trying to provoke uneasiness within their feverish armament. The government of the Soviet Union considers it vital to announce that as well as previously, there is no reason to worry.” (Zpráva sovětské vlády o zkoušce vodíkové pumy v Sovětském svazu, 1953, p. 2, own translation)

4.4. Beginnings of the Space Age

In following years the arms race continued and another hydrogen bombs were tested by both the Soviet Union and the United States. In 1955, however, the arms race was supplemented with the beginning of the space race.

Already in 1952 it had been decided that so called The International Geophysical Year (IGY) would be organized between 1957 and 1958. The aim of this event was to unite the scientists from around the world (including those from countries belonging either to NATO or the Warsaw pact) and coordinate their efforts to collect the basic data needed to understand the earth's environment, as at that times virtually nothing was known about space beyond the earth's atmosphere. (Wade, n. d.)

In July 29, 1955 it was announced that the president Eisenhower approved plans for “going ahead with the launching of small earth-circling satellites.” (Peters & Woolley, n. d.) These satellites were said to be part of the United States participation in the International Geophysical Year. Also it was claimed that this was nothing but a research project and that

32 scientist from all over the world (including the Soviet ones) would have access to its results. (Taubman, 2005, p. 122)

The Soviet Union was interested in launching of their own first artificial satellite as well. TASS reported this aim on July 30, i. e. only a day after the United States announcement was published. (“Korolev and Freedom of Space”, n. d.)

The prestige from being the first one, however, was not the only or the major reason for both countries to concentrate on their space programs. What really mattered was the development of weapons. As the arms race was still in progress, the military use of the knowledge gained was considered crucial. (Launius & McCurdy, 1997, p. 22) Americans wanted to launch a “civilian” satellite first and only after the establishment of the legal basis for freedom of space they intended to launch so called Corona, which was meant to be used for espionage. (Wade, n. d.) The Soviet scientist Sergei Pavlovich Korolev had to convince the Soviet authorities about possible military use of satellites in order to even get permission for constructing them. (Siddiqi, n. d.)

4.4.1. Development of ICBMs

The fact, that the arms race was in full swing in this period indicate also the development of so called Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Such device can be used to deliver for example nuclear warheads on large distances such as from one continent to another. (Definition of ICBM, n. d.) The development of satellites was therefore related to the development of ICBMs. In the United States this research started in late 40´s. It was, similarly to the development of artificial satellite, based on von Braun and his team´s work. (ICBM, n. d.) Soviets based their research on work of Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky. The most important figure of the whole project became Korolev. Nevertheless even in Soviet research participated many captives from Germany, who previously worked for Hitler. Alike its American equivalent Soviet development of ICBMs started already in late 40´s. (Visingr & Kotrba, 2009)

Out of the series of tests, which were organized by the Soviet Union, the most important was the test of so-called R-7, as this was the very first intercontinental ballistic missile

33 successfully launched. (ibid.) The missile, which was tested on May 15, 1957 was crucial for the launch of Sputnik 1, which followed only a few days later.

4.4.2. Development of Artificial Satellites in the United States and the Soviet Union

In the end the United States chose for launching of their very first artificial satellite project Vanguard. Its competitor, project Orbiter, was rejected as it was designed by von Braun, who was still remembered for his role in the Second World War. The first launch was planned for June 1, 1957. (Pacner, 2006, p. 125)

The leader of the Soviet Union, Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev, intended to overhaul the Americans cost it what may. He kept urging Korolev, and so that the first attempt to launch an artificial satellite in the Soviet Union should have taken place already on May 1, 1957. This date was rejected and the first attempt took place later in May. (Pacner, 2006, p. 129) It was, however, not successful. Several other unsuccessful attempts took place in both the Soviet Union and the United States. The United States, contrary to the Soviet Union did not try to keep their failure secret. (Taubman, 2005, p. 129)

4.4.2.1. Sputnik I

History changed on October 4, 1957, when the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik I. The world's first artificial satellite measured 58 cm in diameter and weighed 83.6 kg. The device orbited the Earth on its elliptical path in 98 minutes and in the end it returned to the atmosphere, where it burned. (Garber, 2007)

The American authorities as well as the civilians were shocked, as they did not expected the Soviets to succeed that early. The public feared that the Soviets' ability to launch satellites also translated into the capability to launch ballistic missiles that could carry nuclear weapons from Europe to the United States. (ibid.) Thus there was even more pressure on scientists to hasten the development of both ICBMs and the satellite.

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After October 4, the Soviet authorities fully realized the impact of propaganda related to the space race. In the world's mind the launch of Sputnik I established a Communist power as preeminent in an advanced technology. That surprised Khrushchev and the Soviet leadership, who had tolerated Korolev's little satellite project only so long as it did not interfere with ICBM development. (Wade, n. d.) This fact can be proved by the content of all communistic newspapers published on October 5, 1957. Rauschenbach, a preeminent Soviet physicist and rocket engineer evaluated this situation as follows "Look up the pages of Pravda for the first day after the launch. It got only a few paragraphs. Then look at the next day's issue, when the Kremlin realized what the world impact was." (Initial Soviet Reaction to Sputnik 1 Launch, n. d.)

4.4.2.1.1. Sputnik I in the Czechoslovak Press

Czechoslovak press, still strongly influenced by communists, gave the information in compliance with the Moscow newspaper Pravda. The first day after the launch the news was not considered more important than for example the good harvest of fruit or tremendous principles of socialistic economy. Only on October 6, that is two days after the launch, the information appeared on the front pages. After giving the description of the device and its trajectory the journalist tried to convince the readers that the Soviet science is the most advanced of the world. In order to do so they compared it to American science, which was obviously lagging behind. It was claimed that no one in the United States expected that the Soviet Union would succeed so early. That was because the idea of artificial satellites was actually firstly presented by American scientists, who therefore “are quite disappointed”. (Svět je vzrušen a obdivuje se, 1957, p. 1, own translation) On the other hand it was claimed, that American scientists admired the Soviets´ achievement. Another article commemorated the Contribution of Tsiolkovsky and suggested that the artificial satellite is “remarkable contribution to world´s quarry of science and culture.” (Sovětská umělá družice krouží kolem Země, 1957, p. 1, own translation) The article also stated that artificial satellites are going to make interplanetary flights possible.

In following days there were more articles related to Sputnik I. Their main aim was to degrade Americans as they were constantly presented as those, who are lagging behind,

35 contrary to their previous naive expectations. One such article provides even a list of achievements, which Soviets managed earlier than Americans. (Senátoři žádají vysvětlení americké porážky, otřes ve Washingtonu, 1957, p. 3, own translation)

Also appeared speculations about the reason of Americans´ failure. Literární noviny suggests, that the main problem is declining capitalistic economy, which does not enable the government to put enough money into the space program and consequently the research stagnate. Subsequently the social conditions in the United States were criticized, as it “does not enable careful and systematic upbringing of experts.” (Kubka, 1957, p. 4, own translation)

Also it was condemned how the Soviet Union had been presented to Americans. According to Literární noviny people in the United States, being misinformed by the press, considered the Soviet Union to be underdeveloped, made fun of local housing or fashion etc. Sputnik I, however, changed everything and therefore the capitalistic west finally realized what the truth really was. (Sputnik a studená válka, 1957, p. 4, own translation)

Also appeared quotations of the western press. As even the Western media did not deny the existence of Sputnik I and admitted that the Soviet Union is a step ahead, the articles were described as “positive and objective”. (Jak to přijali v USA a ve Velké Británii, 1957, p. 4, own translation) Nevertheless, according to this article “it is noticeable that the Americans are quite out of tune as they had been again overtaken by the Soviet Union.” (ibid.)

4.4.2.1.2. Sputnik I in the Western Press

In the western press Sputnik became a sensation almost immediately. It was discussed in both nationwide and local press. After giving the basic information about the launch, the articles related to this event commented on technical specifications of Sputnik. The description of the device was objective, as the numbers given differed only minimally. (The New York Times described Sputnik as “a satellite with diameter of twenty- two inches and a weight of 184 pounds” (Jorden, 1957, p. 1) whereas The Los Angeles Times stated “twenty- three inches and weight of 185 pounds”( First “Moon“ Sent 560 Miles High, 1957, p. 1)) The numbers also correspond with data those published in the Czechoslovak press.

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The next issue discussed was the possibility of observing Sputnik I. Radio transmitters were continuously sending signals, which were said to be strong enough to be picked up by amateur radio operators. Also it was announced that the signals “sounding as a deep beep, beep, beep, were picked up by electronic engineers of the National Broadcasting Corporation.” (ibid.) As people in the United States did not expect Soviets to launch their satellite so early, some could have assumed that Soviets made the satellite up, so as to demonstrate their power and level of advancement. This information, however, proved otherwise.

The broadsheets also commented on propaganda. Some American newspapers described the launch of the first artificial satellite as a Soviets´ victory and admitted that the Soviet Union is a step ahead. “The Soviet Union has won the race into outer space by launching mankind´s first earth satellite and triumphant Moscow broadcast today hailed the victory as the first stage of projected flight to the moon.” (Red Made Satellite Flashes Across the U.S., Soviet Claims Big Victory, 1957, p. 1) Nevertheless the victory and its meaning was much more emphasized in media influenced by communists, including the Czechoslovak press. The American journalists did not hesitate to point it out. “Launching of the satellite was a tremendous victory for science. It was a more tremendous victory for Soviet propaganda to be able to trumpet to the world the Russians were the first to break through the frontiers of space.” (Gilmore, 1957, p. 1) The fact that this statement was published a day before Soviet authorities realized the propagandistic meaning of Sputnik suggests, that Americans contrary to Soviets assumed it from the very beginning.

Also appeared several quotations of TASS. These were often related to communism and socialism “…people now could see how "the new socialist society" had turned the boldest dreams of mankind into reality.” (Jorden, 1957, p. 1) For western capitalistic society such statement was alarming and fear provoking, whereas for those who really believed in communism it was a simple statement summarizing general truth.

Subsequently people were informed that the Soviet Union was going to launch more, bigger and heavier artificial satellites during the International Geophysical Year. (ibid.) Such information could have evoked the same emotions. On the other hand, appeared also articles describing the whole situation from more positive point of view, for example The Daily

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Telegraph expressed a hope, that the United States would soon outdo the Soviet Union in the Space race.

Regarding to possible military use, TASS was quoted announcing satellites cannot be used to deliver atomic or hydrogen bombs, however “study of such satellites could provide valuable information that might be applied to flight studies for intercontinental ballistic missiles.” (Jorden, 1957, p. 1)

After the Soviets´ success the press started to ask unpleasant questions. How was it possible that the United States´ science was beaten by the Soviet Union´s one? Why project Vanguard was chosen instead of project Orbiter? Etc. (Taubman, 2005, p. 137) The fact, that the development of ICBMs and artificial satellite was separated (contrary to Soviet development) was stated as the possible reason for “losing the race with Russia.” (Split program blamed for U. S. Losing Race, 1957, p. 1)

The White House tried to present the whole situation as not so serious. It was announced that there was not such a thing as a competition between the United States and the Soviet Union. Sherman Adams, White House Chief of Staff, stated that the United States are not interested in playing a “cosmic basketball” with the Soviet Union. (Taubman, 2005, p. 216) Magazine Time responded to this thesis when claiming that in the mind of the whole world the United States are competing with the Soviet Union, no matter whether they want or not. (Project Vanguard: Why It Failed to Live Up to Its Name, 1957 p. 5)

The persisting trivialization of the problem made an impression that the government is not fully aware of a real meaning of Sputnik I. In press appeared even caricatures of Eisenhower playing golf or sleeping, meanwhile the Soviets were exploring the universe. (Taubman, 2005, p. 216) This, however, was not true as Eisenhower realized its psychological impact very well. He urged the scientist to launch the U.S. first satellite until the end of the year, so as to say that both countries launched their satellites in 1957. (Pacner, 2006, p. 258) Regarding to the public fear of the possible military use of the device, Eisenhower was not so concerned, as he had information about the soviet development of ballistic missiles thanks to espionage. This fact, however, could not be published. (Tindal, Shi & Faltýsková, 2010, p. 682)

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4.4.2.2. Sputnik II

It did not take a long time and the Soviet Union launched their second artificial satellite. Sputnik II, which was launched on the modified version of R-7 as well, reached the outer space on November 3, 1957. The difference between Sputnik I and Sputnik II was not only in their size, (Sputnik II was a 4 meter high cone-shaped capsule with a base diameter of 2 meters.), but also in their crew. (Knap, 2007) Laika, the dog chosen out of many candidates, died after approximately six hours (contrary to expected ten days) after launch. The main reason was overheating caused by technical difficulties. The dog was also extremely stressed. (ibid.) The aim of sending the dog to space was clear- to find out whether it would be possible for a living creature to survive in local conditions or not. Regardless of the fact that Laika died sooner than expected, it was proved that a living creature can survive in outer space.

4.4.2.2.1. Sputnik II in the Western Press

Sputnik II made headlines already on November 3, 1957. The New York Times reported that the new space satellite was not only bigger and heavier but also it carried a dog, which according to the Russians, was living. (Animal Still Is Alive, 1957, p. 1) Regardless of the fact that the Soviets never intended Laika to come back alive and as discussed later they did not even conceal this information, the Soviet authorities, and therefore also all press influenced by communists, refused to admit that the real cause of her death were technical difficulties. This fact was officially released only in 2002 (Whitehouse, 2002)

On November 4, more articles discussing Sputnik II appeared. In general the news did not differ from those published after Sputnik I. According to the Daily Herald President Eisenhower did not personally comment on the second satellite, but his spokesman announced that the satellite carrying dog was, in Eisenhower´s opinion, not any surprise. As another example of persistent trivialization can be stated a direct quotation of President Eisenhower relating to Sputnik I. The article commemorated the press conference, which took place on October 9, 1957, where Eisenhower said of the military significance of Russia's first satellite: "That does not raise my apprehension, not one iota." (ibid.)

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It still was a mystery for American authorities and civilians how the Soviets could have overtaken them. The desire for winning the race again was obvious. “Meanwhile in Washington the President was urged to call a special session of Congress and to take drastic steps to put the United States out in front in the race to outer space.” (Bi partizan senators to ask facts, 1957, p. 2)

4.4.2.2.2. Sputnik II in the Czechoslovak Press

Although the launch of the second artificial satellite was not as shocking as the first one, it still attracted noticeable attention. Firstly the Czechoslovak press commented on technical specifications of the device emphasizing that Sputnik II is six times heavier than Sputnik I and pointing out it was orbiting the Earth two times higher than its forerunner. Many following paragraphs did not bring any other meaningful information, as it only focused on the fact that the whole world, including the United States admired the Soviet Union and its unbelievable achievements.

Criticism of Americans followed. Rudé právo stated that their main problem is propellant. When giving this information, it was also highlighted that all the American rockets are designed by rocket engineer von Braun, “Hitler´s former expert on V- weapons.” (Druhá umělá družice Země vzrušuje celý svět, 1957, p. 1, own translation). The fact that in Soviet research participated several constructors, who previously worked for Hitler as well, was conveniently omitted.

The Czechoslovak press also tried to convince its readers that the Soviet Union contrary to the United States wanted nothing but peace. Mentioning von Braun gave the opposite impression of the Americans, as his past was not secret. In order to make the Soviet Union look like a peaceful nation, articles headlined such as “Soviet satellites, guarantee of peace” (Sovětské družice, záruky míru, 1957, p. 2, own translation) appeared. According to this article “The second artificial satellite is another guarantee that the worldwide peace would not be violated.” How exactly was Sputnik II going to guarantee newer ending worldwide peace, however, was not explained.

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Another subject of interest was Laika. The fact that the dog was not going to come back alive was not denied. By contrast it was stated in quite morbid way “Who know what will happen to her. Maybe her blood will freeze in outer space. Maybe her hearth will not stand the furious flight.” (Pes, 1957, p. 3, own translation) The whole fact was presented as if the dog itself decided to lay its life down in favour of socialistic science.

4.4.2.3. Vanguard TV-3

Americans worked very intensively in order to equal the Soviets. Even though the test of ICBMs, which took place at the turn of the 1957 and 1958 turned out to be successful, it still was considered as late. What is more, program Vanguard was delayed and so the first American satellite launch took place long after the Soviet Union had already succeed. As Eisenhower wished, Vanguard TV-3 was launched the same year as the Soviet satellites, namely on December 6, 1957. Nevertheless the launch was not successful. American humiliation in the world´s mind was complete when the device exploded on launching pad. (Vanguard, Rushed to Launch, Explodes on Pad, 2016) Moreover the explosion was broadcasted live on TV. This fact shows another difference between the Soviet Union and the United Sates. The American project was not secret and on December 6 not only journalists from various countries but also many ordinary people came to see the start. The Soviet Union kept the information about the launch secret until they could announce successful launch. (Taubman, 2005, p. 233) On the other hand even the United States was not always completely honest with the inhabitants, because, as mentioned before, the satellites which were meant to be used for espionage were kept secret very carefully.

4.4.2.3.1. Vanguard TV-3 in the Western Press

The description of this failure illustrates the fundamental difference between the western press and the Czechoslovak one. In Czechoslovakia it was strictly forbidden to criticize anything happening in socialistic countries. So that, if there was some unsuccessful test in the Soviet Union it was never publicly admitted. In the United States the journalists did not hesitate to point the failure out. That is why the message about Vanguard TV-3 in the Czechoslovak press and in the western press does not differ much. The articles published in

41 the western newspapers were so ignominious that it was enough only to copy them without adding many degrading comments, as it was common earlier. Appeared many ironical nicknames and headlines, such as for example “Oh, What a Flopnik” (Daily Herald) or “U. S. Calls it Kaputnik” (Daily Express). “Puffnik” was a nickname used by The Daily Mail and Stayputnik appeared in The Daily Chronicle. (Taubman, 2005, p. 236) Not only the journalists, but also the authorities publicly admitted that the explosion was a real failure. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson spoke for millions when he termed the situation “most humiliating.” (From Sputnik I to TV-3, n. d.)

For Johnson, however, the situation was on the other hand quite opportune. That is because he as a member of Democratic Party had something to criticize on current Republican president Eisenhower. Since the launch of Sputnik I Johnson and other Democrats constantly castigated the Republican leader. The voters were concerned about the situation and realized that the United States was losing its power. Newspapers supported this idea as articles summarizing facts about space race and arms race usually arrived to conclusion that the United States are not save any more. For example on December 20 Washington post stated, that the country is in danger as it never was before. According to the article the Soviet Union would be probably able to attack the United States with hundreds of intercontinental ballistic missiles in 1959. (Taubman, 2005, p. 269) What is more, president Eisenhower was constantly pictured as quite passive and ignoring the obvious problem. All these facts could have influenced voters and could have been a reason of why since 1961 election there were two Democratic presidents, among them also Lyndon Johnson himself.

4.4.2.3.2. Vanguard TV-3 in the Czechoslovak Press

The aim of the articles published in the Czechoslovak press was to discredit Americans as much as possible. Although there were not many articles related to Vanguard TV-3, their content can be summarized as a mockery of American science. Rudé právo for example termed Vanguard TV-3 as a “grapefruit satellite”, as it only weighted 2 kilograms. (Americká raketa s družicí vybouchla při startu, 1957, p. 4, own translation) Insinuations on the weight and size of the satellite can be found also in other Czechoslovak newspapers. Subsequently it was announced that American scientists themselves were not sure whether the satellite

42 would orbit the Earth or not. The fact that it did not leave the Earth surface and exploded after no more than two seconds was termed as a big disappointment even for them. (ibid.)

Mladá fronta mentioned L. Johnson and his criticism of Republican president. The article described the government of the United States as not unanimous and therefore not able to lead the country well. The disunited government was, according to the article, the reason why the United States is not able to achieve such success as the Soviet Union did. (Vybouchla, 1957, p. 2, own translation)

4.4.2.4. Explorer I

Von Braun was convinced, that his team could have made the United States the first country to launch an artificial satellite. (Wade, n. d.) Firstly the U.S. authorities were careful not to make it look like the former member of Nazi party is the most important figure of their research. After the failure of project Vanguard, however, the investigation of who was responsible for choosing this program was started and subsequently von Braun was authorized to redress the lag behind the Soviet Union. (ibid)

No matter what his role in the Second World War was, thanks to him and his team the United States finally witnessed the first successful launch of their artificial satellite. So called Explorer I was launched between January 31 and February 1, 1958. It stopped transmitting when its batteries ran out on May 23, 1958. (Howell, 2012)

4.4.2.4.1. Explorer I in the Western Press

The next morning the news press, many with extra editions, announced the achievement with blazing headlines. (Mudgway, 2008, p. 80) It was not denied that after the Vanguard failure the army was in charge of the development of the satellite, it even was presented in headlines and so was the fact that rocket Jupiter-C was used. “U.S. Satellite Rings Earth: Army Launches Moon into Space” said the headline of Los Angeles Times. “Army Launches U.S. Satellite into Orbit President Promises World Will Get Data” claimed The New York Times, according to which “the launching appeared perfect.” (ibid.) The statement of President Eisenhower also was published. He announced that “the launching is

43 part of our country´s participation in the International Geophysical Year. All information received from the satellite promptly will be made available to the scientific community of the world.” (Dickson, 2011, p. 175)

The fact, that one of the key figure of the research was von Braun was published. The Arizona republic termed him “a father of the baby moon” (Satellite orbiting 230-2,000 Miles up, 1958, p. 2) His past, however, was not commemorated. Subsequently appeared photos of von Braun together with Pickering and Van Allen, who also were key figures of the project Orbiter. The picture of three men, smiling and holding model of Explorer I, appeared in many newspapers.

People in the United States were excited and many celebrated the American success in streets. (Taubman, 2003, p. 236) The government, however, was well aware of the fact that one successful launch does not mean the end of the race with the Soviet Union.

4.4.2.4.2. Explorer I in the Czechoslovak Press

Czechoslovak newspapers tried to present American´s success in not very enthusiastic way. The launch of Explorer I was for example termed as “One of the United States´ attempts to catch up witch science and technology of the Soviet Union.” (Ve Washingtonu pouze mírné uspokojení, 1958, p. 3, own translation) As usually the Czechoslovak press compared American and Soviet science, claiming that the tiny satellite made by Americans, which does not even carry any living creature cannot be, by no means, compared to Soviet satellites, especially to Sputnik II, which carried Laika. In Mladá fronta appeared even a table summarizing technical specifications of Sputnik I, Sputnik II and Explorer I. Among other things it stressed the difference in weight and height, which particular satellites achieved. (Porovnejte, 1958, p. 3, own translation)

Another article, ironically headlined “Finally” (Konečně, 1958, p. 4) commemorated recent explosion of Vanguard TV-3 and stated that before the successful launch of Explorer I there were several unsuccessful attempts. The article also explained that so called Jupiter- C, a rocket, which was originally not constructed for launching satellites, was used. It was

44 stated, that if the satellite was heavier (as for example the Soviet one) it would not have been possible to launch it. (ibid.)

Rudé právo pointed out that the rocket was made by von Braun and mentioned his past. Subsequently the former German engineer was quoted saying that in his opinion the launch of Explorer I does not mean that the United States draw abreast of the Soviet Union. (První americká družice vypuštěna, 1958, p. 4, own translation)

4.4.3. First Man in Space

Since the Sputnik II was launched, the theoretical possibility of surviving in outer space was known. Both the Soviet Union and the United States expected their competitor to come up with a device, which would be able to send a man to outer space. Now both countries realized the impact of propaganda related to the space race, therefore the government of both sides gave the research high priority.

Korolev suggested to construct a spacecraft which would carry the first Soviet man into outer space on July 1, 1958. Kremlin immediately approved the suggestion and so the development of Vostok, the first generation of Soviet spacecraft started. (Pacner, 2006, p. 148)

The development naturally included several unsuccessful tests. The safety of the cosmonauts was considered very important which is why tests with animals again played important role. On July 28 a group of potential astronauts witnessed the explosion of a rocked with two dogs aboard. The Soviets wanted to camouflage it as usually and so TASS did not publish any statement about it. Nevertheless the Americans revealed what was happening in the Soviet Union thanks to espionage. Of course, they did not learn full details, nevertheless the main point was known and as also journalists gained some information, inhabitants of the western countries learned about the Soviet unsuccessful tests contrary to inhabitants of countries belonging to the Eastern Bloc. (Pacner, 2006, p. 157)

In the United States Project Mercury was approved in October 1958. The project was designed to put an astronaut into Earth orbit at the earliest date and test his ability to function

45 in extreme acceleration ("g-forces") and weightlessness. For many in the public, Congress, and NASA, these limited goals represented a first step in human exploration. (Humans in Space, n. d.) American research involved several unsuccessful tests and unexpected explosions as well. For example Mercury-Atlas 1 (MA-1), which was conducted in July of 1960, exploded about a minute into flight. (White, 2013) The causes of the failure were examined, and the information was not kept secret. (Atlas-Mercury 1: Complete Failure, n. d.)

4.4.3.1. Vostok I

In the end this round was again won by the Soviets. The Americans lost their chance to place a human in space before the Soviet Union on April 12, 1961, when Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made a 108-minute orbital flight in his Vostok 1 spacecraft. (Dunbar, 2011)

The Soviets were careful not to publish any information about Gagarin until he successfully achieved Earth Surface. (Pacner, 2006, p. 177) Nevertheless the west knew that a man was orbiting the Earth long before TASS made an official statement as the espionage was still in progress.

Immediately after the return Gagarin became a national hero and worldwide known celebrity. A few days after his return hundreds of journalists welcomed him at press conference. When asked any question Gagarin answered always briefly and circumspectly. It was even noticed that close to him was sitting a man, who seemed to advise him what to say. Later it turned out that it was a KGB censor. (Pacner, 2006, p.184)

4.4.3.1.1. Vostok I in the Western Press

First man in space attracted noticeable attention all around the world. American authorities did not try to disprove the information and many comments on Vostok I were made. For example NASA director James Webb recognized that nobody likes to be overtaken. Nevertheless the fact that the Soviet Union succeed earlier than the United States was in Webb´s opinion not surprising, as Soviets started working on human spacecraft earlier. (Pacner, 2006, p. 183) The press summarized the basic facts about the flight and Gagarin

46 and published how the news was evaluated by American authorities. It was for example announced that President Kennedy sent congratulations to the Soviet Union and stated that it would be “some time” before the US could match the Soviet launch vehicle technology. (Man in Space, 1961, p. 1) The press also expressed concerns about the spaceflight's potential military implications in forthcoming years.

Later appeared suggestion that the flight was nothing but hoax. Previously mentioned press conference supports this idea. Moreover some information announced by Soviet authorities were considered misleading from the very beginning. One such information was the place from which Vostok I was launched. The soviets insisted on Bajkonur, regardless of the fact that Americans claimed they know Vostok I was launched from Tjuratam, which is approximately 320 km distant. (Pacner, 2016, p. 423)

The fact, that Vostok I could have been a hoax was taken into a consideration already in April. Palm Beach post termed the Soviets “past masters at deception” (Red Space Flight a Hoax, 1961, p. 3) and suggested that possibly the spacecraft crashed and Soviets wanted to camouflage it. Another article summarized that “U. S. officials and scientists in the best position to know say they are sure Gagarin did orbit the Earth and on that basis president Kennedy cabled congratulations.” (Did Gagarin orbit Earth?, 1961, p. 2)The rest of the article deals with doubts, which “the skeptics raised for numerous reasons.”(ibid.) One such reason was for example the landing. The article state, that Gagarin was firstly reluctant to describe clearly how did he landed and his later explanation differed from what was written in Soviet newspapers Izvestia.

The fact is that because of technical difficulties Gagarin did not land exactly where he was supposed to and therefore he did not orbit literally the whole planet. What is more The Soviets lied about the manner of his landing, claiming that he had touched down inside the capsule itself when in fact he landed separately via parachute. (Osborn, 2011) Reason for insisting on this version was to circumvent strict rules that would have prevented them from officially registering the flight as a world record. (ibid)

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4.4.3.1.2. Vostok I in the Czechoslovak Press

Such concerns would never be possible to publish in press censored by Communists. In Czechoslovakia the event was presented as another victory of not only socialistic science, but also whole socialistic society. Rudé právo pointed out that it would never be possible to achieve such a goal in the past as “underdeveloped tsarist Russia could not even dream about making such a progress and achieving such a success.” (Po letu kolem Země přistál Major Gagarin s kosmickou lodí ve stanovené oblasti, 1961, p. 1, own translation) The Czechoslovak press also commented on how the information was accepted in the west. It was criticized, that many western authorities expressed concerns about possible military use of Vostok I, since the main aim of the Soviet Union had always been persistent peace. Regarding to this issue it also was mentioned that it is the United States who keep boasting about their missile stockpile. (ibid.)

Literární noviny emphasized the importance of team work when stating that Gagarin, who undoubtedly was a national hero, would never succeed without the support of the comrades who were helping him and who therefore are heroes as well. (Frýd, 1961, p. 2, own translation)

The Czechoslovak newspapers often published transcripts of conversation between Gagarin and some Soviet authority, usually Khrushchev. The content of the dialogues can be summarized as a praise of socialism. As an example can be stated a transcript of a phone call when Khrushchev, after telling Gagarin how amazing it is what he did and that now all countries can see what the Soviet Union is able to manage Gagarin allegedly answered: “Let the other countries close the gap on us!” (Ať nás dohánějí, 1961, p. 2, own translation)

4.4.3.2. Freedom 7

On May 5, 1961 that is only three weeks after Gagarin orbited the Earth, US Navy Commander Alan B. Shepard became the second man and the first American who travelled in space. Although Freedom 7 brought noticeable optimism, it was obvious that it cannot equal to Vostok I. Comparison of these two flights shows it clearly. Gagarin had flown around the Earth; Shepard´s spacecraft stayed on ballistic trajectory, Gagarin's Vostok spacecraft had

48 weighed 10,428 pounds; Freedom 7 weighed 2,100 pounds. Gagarin had been weightless for 89 minutes, Shepard for only 5 minutes. (The Soviet Challenge Renewed, n. d.)

4.4.3.2.1. Freedom 7 in the Western Press

In western countries the information about Shepard flight was presented as a positive step to equal the Soviet Union. Even though the Soviet Union succeed earlier, it was clear that this flight would increase Americans self-confidence. So that the newspapers presented it with the similar enthusiasm as Soviets did when Gagarin orbited the Earth. For example The Daily Chronicle introduced the sensation as follows: “The U. S. achievement made headlines and arose admiration throughout Western Europe...Radio stations broke into their scheduled programs with a direct relay from the United States.” (Listeners around World Hear Space achievement, 1961, p. 1)

Shepard´s flight was objectively compared to Gagarin´s flight as it was admitted, that the distance travelled by Soviets was greater and also their speed was higher. Contrary to the Czechoslovak press, the western press also mentioned positives of the flight. “Commander Shepard maneuvered his craft in space--something the Russians have not claimed for Major Gagarin.” (Witkin, 1961, p. 1) This was a right point, as Gagarin really did not maneuvered Vostok I.

The flight was termed success not only by American authorities and journalists, but also by Shepard himself. After mentioning several difficult moments during the flight, he stated “everything went like clockwork.” (Witkin, 1961, p. 5) Appeared more Shepherd´s lightweight comments. His first words after landing “Boy, what a ride” were quoted almost in every newspapers. (ibid.)

The optimism, which the mission brought later encouraged President Kennedy to make a following statement: “I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to earth” (Gilruth, n. d.)

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4.4.3.2.2. Freedom 7 in the Czechoslovak press

In Czechoslovakia the information was given in rather plain way. The press only summarized basic facts about the flight and stated that everybody, including citizens of western countries, surely realize that Freedom 7 cannot be even compared to Vostok I. After listing numerous reasons for this the conclusion that the Soviet Union was still winning the race was made. (USA vypustily raketu s člověkem, 1961, p. 3, own translation)

It was pointed out that Shepard landed 22 km from the place where he was expected to land and also the landing was described as “relatively great crash” (ibid.) Rudé právo added comparison of Gagarin´s and Shepard´s landing when claiming that Soviet astronaut landed on the ground whereas American one in the ocean. (USA uskutečnily let člověka po balistické dráze, 1961, p. 5, own translation) Not surprisingly, the unclear information about how and where exactly Gagarin landed were not explained.

4.4.3.3. Friendship 7

The American scientists, bolstered by the recent success and supported by President J. F. Kennedy continued with their work on project Mercury. The Soviet Union of course was not idle. Soviet authorities tried to figure out what else would be possible to manage sooner than the Americans. Except for the plans of reaching the Moon surface appeared idea about sending the first woman into space. Many engineers including Korolev were against, nevertheless Khrushchev realized the importance of being the first and therefore finding the right candidate was one of the main subject of interest in early 60´s. (Pacner, 2006, p. 223) In the United States the possibility of sending women in space was also considered, nevertheless in the end it was rejected. So that, On June 16, 1963, Soviet Cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman to travel into space and the Soviet Union gained another point. (Sharp, 2013)

Meanwhile American effort finally resulted in successful launch of Mercury Friendship 7. John Glenn piloted the spacecraft on the first American manned orbital mission on February 20, 1962. During 4 hours and 55 minutes he completed three orbits around the Earth. (Lift off!, n. d.) During the flight appeared technical difficulties and there was even a

50 moment when technicians and engineers observing Glenn from the Earth were convinced that Friendship 7 would burn down and the astronaut´s life would be lost. In the end, however, Glenn managed to land safely. (Pacner, 2006, p. 278)

4.4.3.3.1. Friendship 7 in the Western Press

The fact that Glenn´s life could have been lost was not denied. The New York Times assessed the situation as follows: “The astronaut's safe return was no less a relief than a thrill to the Project Mercury team, because there had been real concern that the Friendship 7 capsule might disintegrate as it rammed back into the atmosphere.” (Witkin, 1962, p. 1) As shown later, the Czechoslovak press emphasized this fact in compliance with their usual criticism of American science. The Western media, contrary to the Czechoslovak one, presented Glenn as a national hero, who together with his colleagues managed to cope with the unexpected situation very well.

Glenn was reported to reach Earth surface with minor injury, only with “two barked knuckles” (Dood, 1962, p. 1) In addition to this, Glenn was quoted saying he was “in excellent condition”. (ibid.) According to the Chicago Tribune, after landing he summed up the situation with words “it was hot in there” and asked an ice tea. (ibid.) In fact the temperature in the spacecraft reached 41 degrees and at one moment it really was not sure whether he would survive or not. (Pacner, 2006, pp. 276-277). Such quotations therefore trivialize the situation.

Subsequently Glenn´s flight was objectively compared to Soviet´s previous achievements. “Colonel Glenn's flight was two orbits more than were flown by Maj. Yuri A. Gagarin, the Soviet space man, last April 12 but fourteen less than another Russian, Maj. Gherman S. Titov, flew on Aug. 6.” (Witkin, 1962, p. 3)

4.4.3.3.2. Friendship 7 in the Czechoslovak Press

“Glenn lived to see” (Glenn se dočkal, 1962, p. 1, own translation) says the headline from Literární noviny, indirectly reminding that the Soviets had managed long ago. The information about how many times the flight had been postponed was followed by a list of

51 technical difficulties, which accompanied not only previous tests, but also Glenn´s flight. It was said that the temperature inside Friendship 7 rose to 41 degrees and it was not sure, whether Glenn would managed all three planned orbits around the Earth. Instead of lightweight comments the astronaut made the article presents Americans as uncaring when claiming that “Several American specialists predicted Glenn stood fifty-fifty chance even to come back to the Earth.” (ibid.)

To demonstrate the power of the Soviet Union, Rudé právo also announced that it is believed that Soviet rockets are two times stronger than American ones, as Vostok I and Vostok II weighted approximately 4.5 tons, whereas Freedom 7 only 1.3 tons. (Americký kosmonaut obletěl třikrát Zemi, 1962, p. 1)

Lastly, Glen´s flight was termed “American success” nevertheless the fact that Gagarin was first and Titov second was reminded immediately. (ibid.)

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Conclusion

The thesis introduced selected historical events connected with space race and arms race and explained that the reason for exploring outer space was not only to gain information for scientific research but also to develop new weapons and methods of espionage. The thesis demonstrated how the selected events were depicted by the media and showed how propaganda was used to persuade people´s attitude. Selected western and Czechoslovak media were compared to show that the newspapers of either side were not completely objective. To achieve that not only the newspapers but also secondary sources such as historical books or websites were used.

The first event discussed was the development and subsequent use of V- weapons, which were the very first ballistic missiles. As during the Second World War the media of The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia were censored by Nazis, it was not possible to criticize Hitler or any of his decisions. The strength of the attack was therefore emphasized as something admirable and the weapons themselves were presented as a true miracle. The aim of the articles published in the Nazi-controlled press was to convince people that Hitler was certainly going to win this war. The western press tried to convince its readers on exact opposite, i. e. that Hitler was losing his power and the victory of the Allies was coming soon. So that the weaknesses of the weapon were pointed out and its impact trivialized. Nevertheless the western press was more objective than the press of the Protectorate, as by the time V-weapons were used Hitler was really losing his power.

Subsequent victory of the Allies led to many changes, including the end of Nazi censorship. Suddenly it was possible to castigate Hitler and Nazism in general. All the United States, the United Kingdom and Czechoslovakia were winners of the Second World War and had common enemy to criticize. Therefore, when President Truman decided to use A-bombs against Japan in August 1945, the message the western and the Czechoslovak press gave was basically the same. It was emphasized that the aim of the United States was not to kill civilians and that the bombs were used to bring the war to an end. The attack was publically

53 criticized only later. Nevertheless the truth was, that many people disagreed with the use of A-bombs before they were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The period of enthusiasm which accompanied the end of the Second World War did not take a long time. Thanks to incompatible ideologies of the United States and the Soviet Union the world was divided into two parts, one based on democracy and capitalism, the other on dictatorship and communism. Czechoslovakia, mainly because of the lack of protest, became part of so called Eastern Bloc. Communists enforced many new rules, including the censorship of the press. They were obsessed with hiding all failures and mistakes, which are unavoidable when developing something new. It was possible to publish only positive news, praise of communism or criticism of capitalism. In the western countries it was common to point out the failures which accompanied the scientific research and also it was possible to publicly criticize the decisions or statements which politicians made. On the other hand there was one common feature. Both the western press and the Czechoslovak press pictured the other side as dangerous and aggressive so as to confess the inhabitants that the “bad ones” are one the other side.

In conclusion, the thesis showed that the press was always influenced by the government and the ideology of particular country. Each country highlighted their own or they allies´ successes and depicted their ideology as the only acceptable. All media insisted on the fact that the danger was on the other side and many times conveniently omitted certain information about the development of weapons or espionage against the enemy. Moreover communists strived to camouflage all their mistakes and therefore at that times many believed that they are infallible. Whereas in the fifties communists definitely gained from propaganda nowadays the western press is considered more objective since Americans at least did not try to hide their failures.

54

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