A Compilation of Essays Written by Students in the ALESA Program Pensado

April 2021 Issue 8

PensadoA compilation of essays written by students in the ALESA Program Pensado

Cover Image Matsudaira Toshogu Shrine (detail) Photo by Bong Grit CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Source: Flickr

Editors Eric Vanden Bussche John Pazdziora

Editorial Assistant Chloe Anastasia Lim

ALESA Faculty (2020) Naomi Berman, Ph.D. Britton Brooks, Ph.D. Alex Bueno, Ph.D. Greg Dalziel, Ph.D. Richard Dietz, Ph.D. Natsuno Funada, Ph.D. Candler Hallman, Ph.D. Catherine Hansen, Ph.D. Diana Kartika, Ph.D. Akiko Katayama, Ed.D. Daisuke Kimura, Ph.D. Raquel Moreno-Peñaranda, Ph.D. Rajalakshmi Nadadur Kannan, Ph.D. John Pazdziora, Ph.D. Shang-yu Sheng, Ph.D. Aurora Tsai, Ph.D. Eric Vanden Bussche, Ph.D. Joanne Yu, Ph.D.

ALESA Program Center for Global Communication Strategies (CGCS) College of Arts and Sciences 4th Floor, KIBER Building, Komaba Campus The University of Tokyo 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8902 Japan 153-8902

東京都目黒区駒場3-8-1 東京大学教養学部附属グローバルコミュニケーション研究センター駒場国際教育研究棟 4階 ALESAプログラム

http://ale.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp [email protected] (03) 5465–8221

The copyrights to the individual research papers published herein are retained by the original authors. All other text is Cop- yright © Active Learning of English for Students of the Arts (ALESA) Program + Center for Global Communication Strat- egies + Department of English Language, College of Arts and Sciences, The Univer- sity of Tokyo, Komaba . All rights reserved. 2019

In This Issue

4 A Word From the Editors to ALESA Students

Sho Kuno 5 Thinking by Writing as Much as Thinking to Write

Nagisa Kanokogi 8 Haussmann and Art: Modern Beauty in Paris in the Late Nineteenth Century after the Reconstruction

Yuki Tanaka 13 René Sieffert’s Role in the History of the Understanding of Noh in France

Mayu Takeda 17 Is Japan’s Education Towards Foreigners Sufficient? State Intervention Versus Community Support

Kanano Yokogawa 21 Teacher Gender Balance: Why Japan Has the Smallest Proportion of Female Teachers in Senior High School among OECD Countries

Kanami Konishi 24 Fashion Moving Beyond the Gender Binary

Nobuya Aoki 28 Current Problems with Braille Blocks in Japan and Possible Solutions

Shuhei Onozaki 32 The Role of the Internet in the Umbrella Revolution

Yuki Ito 35 The Role of ICT in Africa’s Sustainable Development

Luana Ichinose 38 Should Sri Lanka Hold a Referendum to Determine Its Future Relationship with Chinese Investment?

Naho Komuro 42 Human Rights in a Data-Driven Society

Yuki Matsuura 47 The Conservation, not the Elimination, of Great White Sharks for the Marine Ecosystem Pensado 2021

A Word From the Editors to ALESA Students

he 2020 academic year was marked by adjustments in the late nineteenth century, the introduction of traditional T in teaching and learning triggered by the COVID-19 Japanese theater in France, Africa’s sustainable development, pandemic. This issue of Pensado, the eighth in the series, and Chinese investment in Sri Lanka. Some essays draw atten- speaks to the uncertainties of the current times through tion to broader challenges affecting the globe, such as the interwoven essays that examine the broader themes of tran- threat of surveillance technologies to socio-political institu- sitions and transformations. These essays, penned by first- tions in one-party states and Western democracies, as well year students in the ALESA program, critically engage with as the dangers that the possible extinction of the great white complex and provocative topics in the humanities and social sharks could pose for marine ecosystems. Controversial social sciences through a diversity of disciplinary lenses, methods, issues are also examined, such as teacher gender imbalance and genres, adding their authors’ voices and sophisticated in Japanese schools, gender nonconformity in fashion, digi- insights to the current academic debates. They are the prod- tal activism in protest movements, and the need for greater uct of the rigorous but rewarding processes that students levels of support for people with disabilities. Students will develop in the ALESA classroom: evidence-based research, learn a great deal about academic writing from these essays writing, peer feedback, and revision. Through this collection, if they carefully consider the similarities between them and new cohorts of first-year students will gain an understand- note the ways they articulate different perspectives through ing of the structure and stylistic elements of an academic evidence-based research and analysis. essay and begin to recognize the breadth of research methodologies and modes of engagement with different kinds Selecting the essays for this issue proved a wonderfully of sources. challenging task. Pensado received a record number of high-quality submissions, a testament to the hard work of The essays in this issue showcase multiple approaches to the students and instructors during the difficult pandemic critical inquiry and academic discourse, but at the same time year. Amid global upheavals and the frustrations of online are conversant with one another. Spanning wide geographical university in a pandemic, ALESA students studied, thought, and temporal scope, these essays consider societies in transi- and wrote with intelligence about the world as they saw it tion and change. They investigate topics such as the relation- around them. We hope that these essays will encourage ship between French art and the urban modernization of Paris students to research and write with curiosity undimmed.

Eric Vanden Bussche John Pazdziora

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Thinking by Writing as Much as Thinking to Write

Sho Kuno

Practicing the Concept of “Reportage” Abe lists “the analytical inclination” (13: 145), “the literary uniqueness, that is the recognition based on sensibility” (146), “the involvement of denial” (147) as the main factors of “Reportage,” all of which the novel fulfills. Anten’s experience of self-disunion into a raccoon dog and eyeballs happens parallel with the author’s analysis of “writing.” On the other hand, Abe fascinates the readers by the nonsensical, humorous style of the novel and creates a virtual “exterior reality that works on to destroy the balance [of readers]” (146). As a result, readers actively participate in Abe’s thought experiment where surrealism is denied and “Reportage” necessarily Figure 1. “Various imaginations and plans derive from those equa- replaces it. tions” (Abe 2: 85). Taken by the author, on November 14, 2020, at CALZEDONIA Tokyo Shibuya, with all permission. Analytical Inclination of the Novel. The remarks by Anten, the narrator, from a meta-viewpoint reflect Abe’s self-projec- Introduction tion into him. Anten is aware of the readers when, on the n the second sentence of the article “Hand of Computer for first encounter with the raccoon dog, he requests the read- I Heart of Beast,” Abe Kobo declares, “I will write the method ers, “would you please simply take a look at the next picture, of writing a novel, which is there is no such thing as a method rather than my describing [its appearance] verbally” (Abe 2: of writing a novel1” (13: 105). This apparent intellectual bank- 86). Here, Abe built a direct relationship between Anten and ruptcy is solved in one of his written works. In “Raccoon Dog the readers. In “The Crime of S. Karma,” Abe “made an effort of the Tower of Babel [バベルの塔の狸]” written in 1951 (Toba to depict him as specifically along his actions as possible, 306), Abe depicts the process of creating, writing in his case. It while at the same time, portray the route with which he puts is a practiced artistic creation that records the thoughts about his idea into action… I [Abe] attempted to make [the novel] novel writing that Abe constructed in parallel with the writing a comedy… by depicting the subject as it is. The first-person process. Confirming the parallelism between the novel and narrative is a form adopted necessarily” (206). The novel was Abe’s concept of artistic creation is followed by exploring the written two months before “Raccoon Dog of the Tower of novel’s characteristic as a paradigm of “Reportage” by Abe’s Babel” (Toba 306), and Abe states “these three parts [‘The definition, and unravelling Abe’s thought on the relationships Crime of S. Karma’, ‘Raccoon Dog of the Tower of Babel’, and of writer with reader and novel. ‘Red Cocoon’ in Wall] …were written under a generally consistent purpose” (qtd. in Toba 118). Similarly, Abe depicted Anten The Raison d’etre of the Novel as a “poor poet” (Abe 2: 85) who pursues the ideal image of “Raccoon Dog of the Tower of Babel” is a record of Abe’s writ- a creator on his behalf. This way, he succeeded in objectively ing process in which he recursively pursues the ideal artistic depicting the relationship between writer and reader. creation through creating a novel with such a theme. Mean- while, it provokes the active participation of readers to follow Abe depicted Perseus as “the ideal image of a creator” his experience of the exploration. Abe defines artistic creation (Munegumi 22) that realizes the “dialectic unification of writer as “something that cuts the homeostatic state [of readers] and reader as confronting beings” (Abe: 13 119). His “cool between language and reality, the safety zone of stereotype mind that is never moved even by the beauty of Medusa” surrounded by a wall called language, and create a novel (Abe 2: 85) and the nature as “an invisible poet” (100) are system of language (which is needless to say the discovery of compatible. A raccoon dog introduces himself to Anten as the new reality at the same time)” (15: 190). In this sense, Abe “your will, your behavior, your desire, your raison d’etre” (99) introduced “Reportage” as “one of the most modern artistic and deprives him of the shadow to have “grown up, become movements” (13: 144), which is a realized unification of “analyt- independent, and achieved to have my own will and behavior” ical feature” (145) and “recognition based on sensibility” (146), (99), making Anten’s body invisible except for the eyeballs. both necessary to “destroy the stereotype” (146) of readers. Munegemi indicates these motifs embody the two opposing

1 All the Japanese texts are translated by the author.

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factors of the ideal creator: the “cool mind” and the “eyeballs” Comments from the professor as the representations of the “hand of computer” or the “reader’s demand,” and the “invisible poet” and the “raccoon dog” This is an elegantly conceived and strongly developed essay. It as the representations of the “heart of beast” or the writer’s ably demonstrates competence in writing about literary topics “spontaneous desire” (Munegumi 19–22; Abe 13: 119). and handling materials from multiple languages. Sho Kuno is meticulous in documenting his claims from the primary texts When Anten encounters the raccoon dog, Abe discovers and shows adroit handling of the secondary sources as well. The a new recognition of writing as a product of his analysis. Abe paper is carefully structured, starting with a single, clear idea states “in order to be analytical, you have to touch the real- and unfolding its layers of complexity - which, considering the ity directly, slit its ordinary, accepted skin, and make a new subject, is very complex indeed. Kuno has rightly not attempted discovery out of the darkness” (13: 145). Anten describes his to oversimplify Abe’s ideas but rather helps the reader begin to feeling on the first encounter with the raccoon dog as “a sense apprehend their subtlety. This is truly thought-provoking work. of blankness as if I was cut off of half of the brain” (Abe 2: 87), and he makes “an unexpectedly long shriek like an ape from John Pazdziora primeval forests” (88) when he finds out that he has become “invisible” (88) . Here, Anten discovers the “reader’s demand” and the writer’s “spontaneous desire” (Abe 13: 119), which initially appear as “the pure object(s) that is (are) unhistorical, accidental, and brutal, which accept(s) no existing language” development of plot to meet the “reader’s demand” (Abe 13: (Abe 15: 190). 119), one of the concepts depicted in the novel.

Humorous Wordplays. Abe adopts the nonsense develop- The Method of Finding an Object. The denial of surrealism ment of the plot that Lewis Carroll practiced throughout in the novel expresses the subversive nature of “Reportage.” Alice’s Adventure in the Wonderland and Through the Look- Abe classifies the methods of discovering an object into ing-Glass to appeal to the readers’ emotion. As Martin Gard- “materialistic concept of existence”, “the concept of existence ner asserts, “many characters and episodes in ALICE are a in existentialism”, and “the concept of objet in surrealism” (13: direct result of puns and other linguistic jokes, and would 147). Moreover, he “introduced the concept of ‘Reportage’ (of have taken quite different forms if Carroll had been writing, course as a denying medium) in order to use their common say, in French” (8). The Mad Hatter and the March Hare, which grounds as a lever, surmount three, and find ‘an object’ that were created after “the phrases ‘mad as a hatter’ and ‘mad as is even newer” (147). a March Hare’” that “were common at the time Carroll wrote” (90), and the Mock Turtle which derives from the “Mock turtle Surrealism seeks to “acquire a purer recognition of the soup” (124) exemplify Gardner’s point. reality through the expression of unconsciousness that is never censored by rationality” (Munegumi 23) and does not Abe followed such wordplays when designing the char- accomplish balancing the “reader’s demand” and the “[writ- acter of the raccoon dog. Anten’s encounter with it happens er’s] spontaneous desire” (Abe 13: 119). The limitation of surre- immediately after he narrates that he named the notebook alism is depicted as Anten’s self-disunion into eyeballs and a in which he recorded his “imagination and plan” (2: 86) “とら raccoon dog. Before the discovery of them, Anten narrates ぬ狸の皮 [the pelt of a raccoon dog never caught]” (86). The that “the legs of women are horrific curved lines. After she naming of it is a direct result of a Japanese proverb “Counting has left, there remains a horrific equation…various imagi- [the pelt of] Raccoon Dogs Before They Are Caught (捕らぬ狸 nations and plans derive from those equations” (Abe 2: 85). の皮算用)” (Lee and Son 14), which means planning and imag- Shuzo Takiguchi, whom “Abe was influenced by” (Munegumi ining about something before you have acquired it. Moreover, 15), describes that the surrealist “attempted the unconscious Lee Choung Hee mentions the pun Abe plays on the raccoon recognition of object by actually creating or discovering the dog; “とらぬ狸 ” (Abe 2: 86), pronounced toranu-tanuki in Japa- ‘object’” (qtd. in Munegumi 15). By his definition, Abe depicted nese, could be interpreted from the sound as “a raccoon dog Anten as a surrealist in the early stage of the novel. never caught” (Lee 137) and “a raccoon dog that is not a tiger” (137). Lee speculates this made Anten describe the raccoon Anten then splits into the raccoon dog, who claims that “we dog as “unfamiliar animal… that is not a tiger” (137; Abe 2: 86). [the raccoon dogs] are surrealists” (Abe 2: 105), and eyeballs. Anten enters the Tower of Babel by “a method of surrealism” Nancy K. Shields notes that “Just as Carroll appealed to (108). In the Tower of Babel, the raccoon dogs force him to intricate nonsense in order to convey the meaning, Abe “deposit your eyeballs with the bank, lose your weight, and adopted an extraordinary approach towards the reality” (23). go to heaven” (113), because “eyeballs are poisonous to the Abe makes clear that throughout Wall “the purpose was to raccoon dogs” (122). After Anten succeeds in escaping from show not how the wall makes humans desperate, but how it the tower, he returns to the opening scene of the novel and becomes a good movement for human mentality and leads “rolled my notebook and threw it to the raccoon dog” (126). humans to the healthy humor” (qtd. in Toba 118). Donald Here, Abe concludes that “surrealism is not a method to Keene points out Abe’s talent as a novelist and a play writer “to become the ideal creator” (Munegumi 24). Simultaneously, avoid diverting the attention of the audience from beginning Abe represented the process to deny surrealism which to end” (qtd. in Shields 67). Abe adopted Carroll’s nonsense completes the discovery of “Reportage” recorded in the novel.

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Recognition and Expression of “Reportage” ―. “猛獣の心に計算機の手を [Hand of Computer for Heart of Abe explains that writing a novel is “a particular recogni- Beast].” 安部公房全作品 [Kobo Abe’s Anthology], vol.13, 新 tion” (Abe 13: 111) that the writer “adopts” (111). “The desire to 潮社 [Shinchousha], 1973, pp. 105–122. express derives from the desire to recognize” (115), and thus a writer satisfies his “spontaneous desire” (119) through creat- ―. “まず解剖刀を [An Analytical Scalpel for a Starter].” 安部公 ing a novel. Specifically, he “objectifies his desire and reviews 房全作品 [Kobo Abe’s Anthology], vol.13, 新潮社 [Shinchou- it [as a reader] just as he views a desire of others” (122), and sha], 1973, pp. 144–148. aims the “dialectic unification of writer and reader as confronting beings” (119), which takes a form of novel. Meanwhile, ―. “S・カルマ氏の素性 [The Antecedents of S. Karma].” 安部公 “the structure of a novel… derives from the structure of the 房全作品 [Kobo Abe’s Anthology], vol.13, 新潮社 [Shinchou- general recognition of reality” (116), and as the writer pursues sha], 1973, pp. 204–206. the reformation of his recognition by writing, the structure of the work is determined accordingly. “The Raccoon Dog of the ―. “映像は言語の壁を破壊するか [Does the Picture Destroy the Tower of Babel” secures its structure as “Reportage”, which Wall of Language].” 安部公房全作品 [Kobo Abe’s Anthol- reflects the identity between the structures of recognition ogy], vol.15, 新潮社 [Shinchousha], 1973, pp. 187–190. and expression. Carroll, Lewis. The Annotated Alice: Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland & Through the Looking Glass, edited by Martin Gardner, 1963. The New American Library, 1974.

Lee, Choung Hee. 「影」をくわえて逃げ去る「狸」 ―安部公房の“ 『バベルの塔の狸』論― [The ‘Raccoon Dog’ that Runs Away with the ‘Shadow’: An Essay on Abe Kobo’s ‘Raccoon Dog of the Tower of Babel’ ].” 文学研究論集 [A Collection of Essays on Studies of Literature], vol. 13, 筑波大学比較・理論文学会 [The Association of Comparative and Theoretical Literature of The University of Tsukuba], 20 Mar. 1996, pp. 127–142, hdl.handle.net/2241/14151.

Lee, Sunyoon, and Juyeon Son. “Vision and Ethics in East Asian Science Fiction: Kobo Abe and Liu Cixin.” Interdisciplinary Studies of Literature, vol. 1, no.3, Knowledge Hub Publish- ing Company Limited Hong Kong, 1 Sep. 2017, pp. 12–23, www.isljournal.com/uploads/soft/171011/1-1G0111F448.pdf. Figure 2. Why don’t you think about who writes who writes who writes you? Or why? Meaning, why not? Aya Odagiri, November 15, 2020. Munegumi, Fusako. “安部公房「バベルの塔の狸」論 : 理想の創作者とシュールリアリム [An Essay on Abe Kobo’s “Raccoon Dog of the Tower of Babel” records the analytical ‘Raccoon Dog of the Tower of Babel’: The Ideal Creator thought experiment by the author who explored the illusive and Surrealism].” 稿本近代文学 [Draft on Modern Litera- concept of creating, while it is a device fascinating enough ture], vol. 39, 筑波大学日本文学会近代部会 [The Associa- to encourage readers to follow his experience. The narrator’s tion of Modern Literature of Japanese Literature of The behavior reflects Abe’s process of discovering “Reportage” as University of Tsukuba], 25 Dec. 2014, pp.14–26, hdl.handle. a means of recognizing writing as an object. The nonsense net/2241/00123645. humor was adopted to draw the attention of the readers. Carroll’s influence on Abe, discussed in the previous studies Shields, Nancy K. 安部公房の劇場, FAKE FISH: The Theater of on “The Crime of S. Karma,” is also present in “Raccoon Dog Kobo Abe. Translated by Taiyu Anbo, 新潮社 [Shinchou- of the Tower of Babel,” which reinforce the consistency of the sha], 1997. author’s purpose throughout three parts compiled in Wall. As a writer that “must think by writing as much as he thinks Toba, Kouji. 運動体・安部公房 [A Moving Body: Kobo Abe]. 一 to write” (13: 206), Abe resulted in uniting the structures of 葉社 [Ichiyousha], 2007. recognition and expression of “Reportage” through writing a novel. Abe proposed that the method of writing is rooted in the writer’s particular motive. Therefore, writing a novel about writing was necessarily given a recursive structure where the author discovered the theory on writing by writing.

References Abe, Kobo. “バベルの塔の狸 [Raccoon Dog of the Tower of Babel].” 安部公房全作品 [Kobo Abe’s Anthology], vol.2, 新潮社 [Shinchousha], 1972, pp. 85–126.

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Haussmann and Art: Modern Beauty in Paris in the Late Nineteenth Century after the Reconstruction

Nagisa Kanokogi

Our Paris, the Paris in which we were born, the Paris of the manners of 1830 to 1848, is disappearing. And it is not disappearing materially but morally. Social life is beginning to undergo a great change.

―Edmond de Goncourt, Journal, 18601

Introduction n the late nineteenth century, Paris saw drastic changes in I many aspects. One of these was Haussmann’s great reconstruction of the city. As prefect of the Department of the Seine, he planned to widen and straighten the old streets, made twelve boulevards that spread from the center, constructed new aqueducts and railways around the city, and built several cultural facilities. This reconstruction was so massive that by 1870 one-fifth of the streets in central Paris were of Hauss- mann’s creation.2

At the same time in Paris, a revolution in the field of art was taking place. Jean-François Millet and Gustave Courbet had proclaimed realism and focused on people’s real life rather than mythical or biblical figures. After a while, led by Édouard Manet (1832–1833), young and active painters called “impressionists” also pioneered new themes and techniques of painting.

Among those painters was Luigi Loir (1845–1916). As a French painter born in Austria, he devoted almost his entire life to painting various aspects of Paris, focusing on the build- Figure 1. Luigi Loir, The Night Café, ca. 1910. Private Collection. Source: ings and boulevards. The Night Café is among those paintings Wikimedia Commons. produced in Paris. At first sight, what is impressive is the clear contrast between light and shadow. While inside the café is filled with lights, the people in front of the building outside century to early twentieth century depicted the renovated are painted in black. All subjects appear blurred, which makes city. This paper aims to reveal the association between art the spectator feel as if looking at an illusion. and Haussmann’s reconstruction. It suggests that Haussman- nization deeply connected the capital and its residents with Loir seems to have been one of the painters enchanted aesthetics, rendering them subjects of modern art. by modern Paris. Numerous painters from the late nineteenth Paris with a New Order 1 Goncourt, Edmond de. Journal. In Pages from The In 1850, before his declaration of the Empire, Louis Napoleon Goncourt Journal, 53. had called to “open new roads, open up popular quarters 2 Clark, T. J. The Painting of Modern Life Paris in the Art which lack air and light so that sunlight may penetrate every- of Manet and his Followers, 37–38. where among the walls of the city just as the light of truth

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illuminates our hearts.”3 On June 23, 1853, he made Georg- es-Eugène Haussmann the prefect of the Department of the Seine with the task of renovating Paris.

In the mid nineteenth century, the city had problems both with sanitation and security. Several people were suffering from cholera, and slums were a common sight around the city. Moreover, in spite of the rapid population growth (from 786,000 in 1831 to more than 1,000,000 in 1846) and industrial development, the city had only medieval infrastructures. Under such circumstances, the reconstruction of the city was needed to improve its living environment and meet the requirements of capital accumulation.4

Haussmann placed new aqueducts near Paris, opened sewers, constructed railways around the city, built several cultural buildings such as the Opéra, and organized police Figure 2. Camille Pissarro, Avenue de l’Opéra, soleil, matinée d’hiver, forces and night patrols.5 Nevertheless, the core of his plan 1898. Musée des beaux-arts. Source: Wikimedia Commons. lay in the construction of some ninety miles of wide boulevards regularly lined with trees and gaslights.6 Those new streets and buildings were planned on a large scale and introduced in the Place de la Concorde in 1840 and increas- created by straight lines and symmetries, whereas the old ing interest for electric lighting reached its peak around 1880, Paris embraced crumbling buildings and streets that were marked by the Exposition Universelle (World’s Fair) and the “narrow and inhospitable to movement.”7 In these ways, the Exposition Internationale de l’Électricité (International Exhibi- capital was remodeled to be systematic and eye-catching, tion of Electricity). With the rapid introduction of electric-arc reflecting the Emperor’s wish to display the imperial city to lamps, which co-existed with gaslights rather than having foreigners in order to enhance his authority.8 Paris, which had completely replaced them, Paris in the nineteenth century been just a collection of worn-out districts, became trans- became the “the City of Light” in a true sense, not just in formed into a well-ordered city. This shift seemingly spread terms of a center of ideas and thoughts as described in the the notion that the city is not only worth seeing but at the eighteenth century.10 same time supposed to be seen; in other words, in need of being kept nice-looking by its residents. During this time, Parisians actively made use of this lighting sometimes in order to attract bourgeois customers and Impressed with this reformation, many painters captured to fascinate foreign visitors. For example, several department new boulevards and buildings in the late nineteenth century. stores introduced electric chandeliers, while street shops were To put it another way, the cityscape came to be depicted illuminated with bulbs. During the Exposition Universelle, an as something spectacular in a work of art for the first time. electric beacon was installed at the crown of the Eiffel Tower, One example is Avenue de l’Opéra, soleil, matinée d’hiver by which gave off tricolor lights with a range of 120 miles.11 At Camille Pissarro (1830–1903). In the work, observing the city night, streets were flooded in a blaze of light. In these ways, from the window of hotel rooms,9 the painter introduced a illuminated Paris was mesmerizing and spectacular. dynamic perspective technique and emphasized the scale of the avenue and the buildings. Moreover, the street appears One painting that depicts illumination in Paris is Boule- clean and bright, allowing the residents a comfortable vard de la Madeleine by Édouard Cortes (1882–1969). In this passage. work, both sides of the boulevard are lined with shops lit with electric lamps, which makes a beautiful contrast between the “The City of Light” in the Nineteenth Century natural twilight and artificial brightness. Thus, elegantly illu- Along with boulevards and buildings, widespread use of minated cityscapes drew many artists’ attention. illumination also seems to have had a great influence on the spectacle of Paris. Through the late nineteenth century, Gentrification in the City Center gaslights were installed city-wide for the first time, thus estab- As a result of improvements such as the introduction of gas lishing its position as the symbol of the new metropolitan and electric lighting, the land prices of the city center rose life. At the same time, electric-arc lights were experimentally dramatically. This then forced low-class workers to migrate from the city center, where slums had been completely 3 Harvey, David. Paris, Capital of Modernity, 107. cleared, to the suburbs. The city was separated into two areas: 4 Ibid., 93–96. one with middle-class in the west and center, and the other 5 Clark, 38. 6 Harvey, 113. 10 Karasoulas, Margarita. Clayson, Hollis. Electric Paris. 7 Ibid., 96. 12–16. 8 Clark, 41. 11 Reddy, Emma Elizabeth. Modernist Aesthetics and the 9 Courthion, Pierre. Paris des temps neuveux. Artificial Light of Paris: 1900 to 1939. 14–15.

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Figure 3. Édouard Cortès, Boulevard de la Madeleine, 1906. Private Collection. Source: WahooArt.com. with low-incomers in the east and north. Whereas the outly- traded within the boundaries of their own quartiers, so the ing districts were filled with factories, the center of Paris, relationships between sellers and buyers were intimate which had become a district of the bourgeoise, became and based on mutual trust. However, through the remod- decorated lavishly mainly in order to please their eyes, as eling of the whole city, Haussmann erased the boundaries partially described above. For example, the Champs-Elysées between quartiers and thus united them. With the develop- was furnished with fountains, kiosks and café-concerts.12 New ment of transportation, industry and the economy started to stores endeavored to draw customers by creating enchant- be carried out on a citywide scale, as represented by the ing windowscapes and decorating both the interior and the establishment of grands magasins, large shopping malls in exterior with marble, glass and copper.13 Parks were planted the center of the city.17 with pampas grass and tobacco which “looked well from a distance.”14 Accordingly, the scope of Parisians’ activities expanded, and they came to interact with strangers in their daily lives. However, some Parisians seemed to deplore this shift, The upper classes came to gather in clubs, the lower classes insisting that the new capital, which turned to be visually in cafés.18 Interestingly, it seems that the installation of illu- gorgeous, was “something made by speculators and monop- mination accelerated this change, keeping the city safe after olists,” filled with “ostentation, not luxury; frippery, not fash- dark and enabling the residents to stay out late at night.19 ion; consumption, not trade.”15 This is well represented by the Additionally, with increased traffic, many places including article a reporter wrote in 1871 for an English Tory newspa- boulevards became overcrowded and it became difficult to per: “it is disgusting to see the cafés filled with the votaries of maintain one’s privacy. Thus, life became public rather than absinthe, billiards, and dominoes, female profligacy peram- private. The city became a place of display and negotiation, bulating the boulevards, and the sound of revelry disturbing as people engaged in showing themselves and watching the night from […] fashionable restaurants.”16 Indeed, gentri- others.20 Increased illumination enhanced that kind of sensi- fication of the city center was deeply connected with capital- bility by ensuring visibility from morning to night, whether ism, which modernized Parisians’ life alongside the city itself. inside or outside.21

Change in Society and Morality One example of a place where Parisians came in contact Capitalism rapidly spread throughout Paris in the late nine- with strangers was the ball. In Bal masque à l’Opéra, Édouard teenth century. Until then, the city’s economy had been mainly Manet clearly and boldly described this new form of social based on quartiers, small districts inside the city. Residents life. The hall is crowded with bourgeois men in black tuxe- dos, some of whom are courting women with masks. Julius 12 Clark, 45–46. Meier-Graefe, a German art critic, referred to the gestures of 13 Rideout, Amy. “Beyond the Façade: Haussmannization individuals in the painting: in Paris as a Transformation of Society,” 182. 14 Clark, 67. 17 Clark, 51–54; Harvey, 109–110. 15 Ibid., 47. 18 Clark, 23–78. 16 Quoted in Hutton, John. “The Clown at the Ball: Manet’s 19 Reddy, 15. Masked Ball of the Opera and the Collapse of Monarchism in 20 Clark, 47–49, 63. the Early Third Republic,” 80. 21 Reddy, 204.

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Figure 4. Édouard Manet, Bal masqué à l’Opéra, 1873. National Gallery of Art. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

the scarcely-concealed lust of the gestures of the solicit- ing men, the women offering themselves (while parrying certain offers), the calculating glances, groping hands, brutal winks, all the typical gestures of the proceedings metropolitan in every nature, are employed to create 22 a style. Figure 5. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, La Loge, 1874. Courtauld Institute Galleries. Source: Wikimedia Commons. Honoré de Balzac even compared those at the ball to ants, which were continuously moving around, and pointed out that in “seeing” others, in a society in which people are always the balls were as incomprehensible as the Stock Exchange, surrounded by and interacting with each other. which was ironically the symbol of the capitalism that emerged around that time. It is thus symbolic that sexual dealings at As already stated, lighting technology had much to do the balls sometimes involved monetary transactions.23 It could with this visuality. Besides rendering the city as attractive and be said that, at the balls, bourgeois men assessed women spectacular, illumination enhanced visibility even indoors or as if they were merchandise, and women, conscious of their late at night, and thus it could be supposed that Parisians’ customers, in turn tried to decorate themselves accordingly. consciousness of being seen in their daily lives was reinforced Thus, the balls came to be the places where people displayed by it. In addition, in places of entertainment such as theaters, themselves and exchanged superficial interactions with each circuses, nightclubs and café-concerts, spotlights came to be other. introduced in order to illuminate entertainers at the center of spectators’ attention,25 a subject often chosen by Degas. Whereas Manet painted balls, Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841– To put it another way, illumination sometimes functioned 1919) focused on the scenes in theaters, which increased in to highlight what was supposed to be seen. In these ways, number from eleven in 1828 to 23 in 1882 with the emergence the expansion of the lighting system influenced Parisians’ of the middle class. In La Loge, an elegantly-dressed woman aesthetic sensibility. taking her seat in a balcony is shown beside a gentleman with opera glasses in his hand. What is interesting is that they are Conclusion depicted as seen by another spectator, just as the gentleman It is true that the great tradition had got lost, and that seems to be watching others, rather than the opera, through the new one is not yet established. [...] We may assert his opera glasses. At that time, observing people in boxes was that since all centuries and all people have had their one of the amusements of spectators, and balconies some- own form of beauty, so inevitably we have ours. [...] The times became the source of fashion and scandal, whereas life of our city is rich in poetic and marvelous subjects. it was also there that single ladies displayed their beauty to We are enveloped and steeped as though in an atmo- get future husbands.24 In this painting, Renoir depicted those sphere of the marvelous; but we do not notice it. who are conscious of “being seen” by others and absorbed ―Charles Baudelaire, Salon in 1846, 1846 22 Quoted in Hutton, 76. 23 Quoted in Hutton, 79. As early as 1846, Baudelaire criticized contemporary artists 24 van Claerbergen, Ernst Vegelin, et al.. Masterpieces of for putting themselves into a salon-oriented mold and just Impressionism: The Courtauld Collection [コートールド美術館展魅惑の印象派展], 140–154. 25 Karasoulas, Margarita. Clayson, Hollis. Electric Paris, 54.

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Courthion, Pierre. Paris des temps neuveaux [Paris in our time: Comments from the professor from impressionism to the present day]. c. 1957. Translated by Stuart Gilbert. Lausanne: Skira, 1957. This paper is an excellent examination of the context around some works by a relatively unknown painter. By relying on her Goncourt, Edmond de. Journal, 1860. In Pages from The remarkable grasp of the literature on modernization in late Goncourt Journal. Translated and Edited by Robert Baldick. nineteenth-century Paris and nuanced analysis of a selection London: Oxford University Press, 1962. of paintings, Nagisa revealingly argues how the introduction of artificial lighting in the city was represented by this artist and Harvey, David. Paris, Capital of Modernity. New York: Rout- what it seems to have meant to him by citing influential artists ledge, 2003. of the time. She is able to successfully link her description of details in the paintings to both contemporary discourse and Hutton, John. “The Clown at the Ball: Manet’s Masked Ball of modern scholarship, to arrive at a deeper understanding of the the Opera and the Collapse of Monarchism in the Early artist’s works and through them a sense of the artist’s reception Third Republic.” The Oxford Art Journal 10, no.2. (1987): of the changes seen then in Paris. 76–94.

Alex Bueno Karasoulas, Margarita. Clayson, Hollis. Electric Paris. Green- wich: Bruce Museum, 2016.

Mariani, Angelo. Claretie, Jules. Brauer, A, Quesnel, D, Sorensen, H, Prunaire, A. Figures contemporains tirées de focusing on ancient subjects. It seems that, however, the l’album de Mariani, Paris:Librarie Henri Floury, 1899–1902. Haussmannization of the late nineteenth century allured artists to find a modern beauty in city life by making Paris spectacular, Reddy, Emma Elizabeth. Modernist Aesthetics and the Arti- both the city itself and its residents. ficial Light of Paris: 1900 to 1939. Leicester: University of Leicester, 2017. Behind the reconstruction was the emperor’s wish to display the magnificent capital to the rest of Europe. Paris, Rideout, Amy. “Beyond the Façade: Haussmannization in Paris which had been a collection of different quartiers, was as a Transformation of Society.” In Pursuit-The Journal of converted into one unified city with regularly organized Undergraduate Research at the University of Tennessee 7, boulevards, which gave painters wide perspectives. Aided no.1. (2016): 177–187. by illumination, department stores, cafés, theaters and balls were decorated lavishly, drawing the attention not only of Editor’s note: Citation styles vary according to the discipline. the bourgeoise but also of artists. Parisians came to spend In this essay, the author employs Chicago style citations, which their time with strangers instead of families or neighbors and is the preferred format in history and the arts. engaged in displaying themselves in daily life. Here again, the introduction of artificial lighting seems to have acceler- List of Images ated Parisians towards discovering and embracing a modern Figure 1: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Luigi_ aesthetic sensibility through enhancing visibility. Loir_-_The_Night_Caf%C3%A9.JPG.

References Figure 2: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Camille_ Angélil, Marc. Siress, Cary. “The Paris Banlieue: Peripheries of Pissarro_-_Avenue_de_l%27Opera_-_Mus%C3%A9e_des_ Inequity.” Journal of International Affairs 65, no.2 (Spring/ Beaux-Arts_Reims.jpg. Summer 2012): 57–59. Figure 3: https://en.wahooart.com/@@/8XXTP6-Edouard- Baudelaire, Charles. “Salón de 1846 [Salon in 1846],” 1846. In Cortes-Boulevard-de-la-Madeleine. The Mirror of Art: critical studies, 38–130. Translated and Edited by Jonathan Mayne. New York: Doubleday, 1956. Figure 4: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edouard_ Manet_093.jpg. Clark, T. J. The Painting of Modern Life Paris in the Art of Manet and his Followers. Princeton: Princeton University Press, Figure 5: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pierre-Au- 1986. guste_Renoir,_La_Loge,_Courtauld_Gallery.jpg. van Claerbergen, Ernst Vegelin. Serres, Karen. Miura, Atsu- shi. Nagaï, Takanori. Koizumi, Masaya. Ohashi, Natsuko. Masterpieces of Impressionism: The Courtauld Collection [コートールド美術館展魅惑の印象派展], Asahi Shimbun Company, 2019.

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René Sieffert’s Role in the History of the Understanding of Noh in France

Yuki Tanaka

Introduction oh is a traditional Japanese theatre, but it is now appre- N ciated in many foreign countries, among which France is the one especially favourable to Noh plays. This essay will therefore focus on the acceptance of Noh in France. The goal of this essay is to show that it is René Sieffert (1923–2004), a French Japanologist who wrote La Tradition Secrète du nô [The Secret Tradition of Noh] to encourage French people to study on Noh plays in French, who gave a positive value to their reading of Zeami’s Noh theory. In order to demonstrate this, the argument of this paper will take the form of comparison: it will first explain how Noh was understood and appreciated in France before Sieffert and then discuss the uniqueness of Sieffert in relation to Noh. Analytically comparing the two will reveal Sieffert’s role in the history of the understanding of Noh in France.

The reason for focusing on France This essay will focus on Noh in France because, as René Sief- fert said in his La Tradition Secrète du nô, France is the country where Noh is more appreciated and liked than in other countries in Europe. “More than in any other country in the Western World,” said Sieffert, “it is in France that people are interested in Noh and that people are being interested in it more and more” (author’s translation). In the twenty-first century, too, no one can possibly forget the Japonismes 2018, a festival of Japanese culture and arts in Paris held in celebration of the 150 years since the Meiji Restoration and also the 160 years of friendship between Japan and France, where various Figure 1. Yamakawa Shūhō. “Noh dance prelude (Jo-no-Mai)” (1932). Color painting on silk. The National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo. Noh plays were acted, including okina, the one said to be the Public Domain. Source: Wikimedia Commons. origin of Noh. That was the first act in foreign countries with authentic stage settings such as hashigakari (covered bridge passageway connecting the backstage to the main stage). The History of the Understanding of Noh in France before Sieffert Sieffert attributes this particular liking of Noh in France to It was in 1895 when a Noh play was, for the first time, trans- the classicism in France, saying that Noh is in fact an art essen- lated into French by Arthur Arrivet, though a document which tially classic and the classicism of Zeami, the author of the shows some detail about it is not found. He did not offer any dramas, can be defined by the same criteria as that of Aeschy- significant explanation about Noh; just to introduce Noh plays lus and Racine (9). Nishino Haruo, a Japanese researcher of in French was a big accomplishment in his time. Noh, also points out that, Noh seems popular in those countries where culture and arts have well developed and which Arrivet’s introduction was followed by more academic put great importance on tradition, like France and Italy (Okada research. Noël Péri (1865–1922) was a French Catholic mission- 2). Though neither of them gave any justification about their ary sent to Matsumoto, Nagano. He was highly interested in observation above, it is possible, if not natural, that French Japanese culture, reading for example studies of Buddhist people like Noh plays because they like classics. history and mythology, but his attitude which relativizes the

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Catholic perspective caused conflict with some members Claudel and the “Rising Sun” Japan, this book is a kind of of his missionary community, and he was finally expelled. It travel journal in Japan. In this book is a chapter named was after that that Péri decided to focus on research on Japa- simply “Nô,” and though this is rather poetic an essay than nese culture and started to continually visit Japan. As a trained academic, it includes very suggestive insights and Claudel musician, he was asked to teach Western music at Tokyo interpreted Noh in a new way in it. One of the most famous College of Music, and at the same time he continued writing phrases of Claudel concerning Noh is: “Drama is something early Western works on Japanese opera and music theory, which happens; Noh is someone who appears” (author’s and Noh drama. The most important book he published translation), the very first sentence of the chapter “Nô.” This concerning Noh is Etudes sur le Nô Drame lyrique japonais sentence is often cited in Japanese books on Noh to shortly [Research on the Japanese lyric drama Noh], which consists explain the difference between Noh and occidental dramas. mainly of introduction of Noh by himself and five Noh texts This implies that Noh is, unlike many European theatres, an translated to French. Péri was different from earlier foreign “imaginative” art with which to dig down the essence of human, commentators of Noh like A. Arrivet and E.F. Fenollosa, in not a banal imitation of real lives. Moreover, Claudel is a key that he did not only offer translation of Noh scripts but also person because, unlike most Japanese Noh researchers who deep explanation of Noh in French with the help of his Japa- did not give serious consideration to waki (the supporting nese friends like Sugiyama Naojiro. In fact, his introduction actor), he re-interpreted waki a dramatically significant actor is held in high regard by later researchers from both Japan that symbolizes live people in general, defining shite (the and France. For example, Paul Claudel is said to have clearly main actor) as a “diplomat from the unknown” beyond the affirmed that Péri’s Cinq Nô [Five Noh Plays] was much better real world. This new interpretation of Noh, which is partly than any other Noh book written by non-Japanese research- influenced by his Catholicism (in his mind, waki is to shite ers, comparing it with Arthur Waley’s The Nō plays of Japan what human is to God), still has a great impact on the study and criticizing that the latter had many insufficient and sloppy of Noh both in France and Japan. points (Yoshinaga 89). Also, “since we have Péri’s significant introduction,” said Gaston Renondeau, a later French Noh Gaston Renondeau (1879–1967) was a French writer, trans- researcher who is sometimes called “Small Péri” with a little lator, and military officer. It was in the army that he stayed in despise, “we do not have any more important things to say” Japan two times, each time lasting four years. He felt passion (Yoshinaga 83; author’s translation). Though it is just an exag- in researching Noh during the second visit to Japan. As geration so as to be modest about his work, anyway, Péri’s mentioned above, he appreciated Péri’s work so highly as to impact on the history of the interpretation of Noh in France say that he could not add any new point to it, but in fact it was cannot be denied. In this highly-appreciated introduction, Péri not right: Gaston Renondeau is the first French researcher who regards as admissible the fact that Western people tend to focused on Buddhism in Noh and that was something which articulate Noh to Greek tragedies, but underlines the differ- Péri had not achieved. He justifies his interest in Buddhism, ence between the two, saying that Noh is essentially a lyric not Shintoism, in Noh with the fact that, though both appear work which does not intend to represent a tragic event with in virtually all the Noh plays, Shintoism is not presented as a actions but with songs, unlike Greek dramas (Péri 253). profound, philosophical element, while Buddhism is. The fact

Figure 2. Scene from Shinji Ueda’s 2019 production of Marie-Antoinette, a modern Noh by Minoru IV Umewaka about the notorious French queen. Source: Opera-Comique.com.

Paul Claudel (1868–1955) was an ambassador in Japan who that the relationship between Shintoism and Noh had been became fond of Japanese culture or even Japan itself as a already sufficiently mentioned by Gundert in Der Shintois- whole, saying, “The classic civilization of Japan in which I am mus im Japanischen Nô-Drama (The Shintoism in Japanese interested so much must not disappear” (Mondor 221). He Noh dramas) is also a reason for not discussing the Shin- wrote an essay named “L’Oiseau Noir Dans le Soleil Lerant” toism in Noh. In Renondeau’s Le Bouddhisme dans les Nô [The Black Bird in the Rising Sun]. As “Black Bird” symbolizes [The Buddhism in the Noh plays], he first explains the general

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some universal, aesthetic principle (Sieffert 8). Concerning the Comments from the professor applicability of Zeami’s Noh theory, he argues that Zeami has a useful influence on the Western arts in general and that it This remarkable essay is a fine example of original research. is for this reason that the study of Noh has a model value in Yuki Tanaka writes from a strong research background and a universal range. balances a competent overview of key thinkers against a clear, forward-looking academic argument. His argument Sieffert’s translation not of scripts of Noh but of its theory is addressed to other researchers on Noh reception but is can therefore be considered as something which gave histor- explained in a way to interest the nonspecialist. He has well ical context to the scientific research on Noh which Noël Péri thought through ideas both about the nature of Noh and its had launched and the “emotional understanding”1 (Nishino reception abroad, which he artfully uses to support his main 174; author’s translation) of Noh which Paul Claudel and other idea. Despite the boldness of his claim, he maintains academic French Noh lovers had achieved. That is to say, introducing tentativeness throughout, concluding with a modest suggestion the theory of Zeami, the very pioneer of Noh together with for reappraising Sieffert’s importance. Tanaka has grasped an his father Kannami, Sieffert succeeded in providing earlier essential truth about academic writing: a convincing claim must Noh studies done by French researchers with evidence on be carefully researched, carefully stated, and indicate a clear which one can rely to judge the validity of each essay and in path for other scholars to follow. making more valuable the earlier emotional understanding of Noh, giving them the relativizability, the comparability with John Pazdziora the beauty, the “Flower,”2 which was originally aimed by Zeami.

Sieffert’s reinterpretation of the Noh theory of Zeami as a history and development of the Buddhism in Japan and then general aesthetic theory gave Zeami’s theory higher value; it discusses which sect affects which Noh play in what way, with is no more a secret formula which should be passed down translation of eight plays which he thought were the ones only within the family of Noh actors, though it was originally especially strongly affected by the Buddhism. This is how he aimed to be (Zeami wrote so and in fact until the Meiji period arrived at the idea that the base of Noh plays is Japanese his books had not been published).3 Zeami’s books are now Buddhism sects developed in the Middle Age, which aimed universally readable and it is Sieffert’s reinterpretation of the at a universal salvation for every social status, unlike sects in Noh theory of Zeami as a general aesthetic one that gave a the ancient time targeted only on aristocrats. meaning to foreigners’, or non-Noh-actors’ in fact, reading of it, because, even if there is a piece of translation of Zeami’s The Role which Sieffert Played in the History of the theory in French, it is well nigh senseless to most French Understanding of Noh in France people unless readers consider it as something which is at As can be understood from the above, there had already least not only applicable to Noh. For instance, a famous quote been relatively well-done translation and introduction of Noh from Zeami “If it is hidden, it is the Flower” (Fushi Kaden; trans- plays before René Sieffert, so he cannot be said to be the lated by W. Wilson) was originally a lesson for Noh actors to first French person to show interest in Noh, nor can one find keep secret a particular method of demonstrating the beauty characteristic in his translation of Noh texts or explanation of in order to win in Noh battles, but this can also be under- the history of Noh. What is unique to Sieffert, instead, is that, stood as a universal principle of importance of secret. Sief- in showing proper respect to Noël Péri, whom he thought fert encouraged this kind of transformation of the meaning had started scientific Noh research of which no one after of Zeami’s words in France, looking at the generality of Noh, him could make considerable progress, he translated six of while French researchers before him mentioned above have Zeami’s books on Noh theory, not only of Noh texts, loudly all focused on its difference from Western dramas. That is why declaring, “The time has come, no doubt, to rethink the ques- the author thinks that this reinterpretation is more important tion raised by the examinations of Zeami’s theory, which even than the translation itself. Péri could not use” (Sieffert 7; author’s translation) in the introduction to his The Secret Tradition of Noh. In short, Sieffert Conclusion is the first one who introduced thoroughly, if not correctly, Based on the arguments above, the role which René Sieffert Zeami’s aesthetic philosophy in Fushi Kaden [The Flowering played in the history of the understanding of Noh in France Spirit] and Kakyo [A Mirror of the Flower] in French, and that was to give a social context to French people’s reading of is the specificity of his work. Zeami’s Noh theory. Until this paper, René Sieffert has long been considered as just a translator of Noh theory and plays. Sieffert also reinterpreted the Noh theory which Zeami In fact, there was more than that to him; his reinterpretation presented in Fushi Kaden, Kakyo, among others, as a universal, of Zeami’s Noh theory as a general, aesthetic principle made aesthetic principle that could be applied to all the domains of his own translation much more significant to French read- the arts, not as a lesson only for the small community of Noh ers. This is something which the French researchers of Noh (Yasunaga 12). That is why, he says, Noh is interesting even before Sieffert could not have achieved, because they had to non-Japanese people who cannot understand the beauty focused on the uniqueness of Noh rather than its generality, of Noh dramas as deeply as a native, saying that the West- some underscoring Japanese religion and some comparing ern public could not be interested in an art which is totally Noh with European theatres. It is time to reevaluate Sieffert’s strange for them unless the interpretation of it makes evident achievements.

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Notes Wilson, Wiliam. The Flowering Spirit. Kadokawa, 2006. 1. The point of Nishino’s essay is that Paul Claudel is the first foreigner who understood Noh in his emotion, not in his head, Editor’s Note: Citation styles vary according to the discipline. and that he encouraged others to enjoy it emotionally rather In this essay, the author employs MLA style citations, which is than consider it as just an object of a study. widely used in literature and language arts studies.

2. This is a term launched by Zeami which means a kind of grace in a performance impressing the audience with its uniqueness. Virtually all the works he wrote, including Fushi Kaden and Kakyo, are the ones in which he develops insight about the Flower.

3. Zeami annotates in his Fushi Kaden that it should be conferred on one person every generation in an “extremely secret transmission” (translated by Wilson). It was in 1909, the year Yoshida Togo published Zeami’s works as Zeshi jyuroku bushu [16 works of Zeami], that his books came to be known by the public.

References Claudel, Paul. L’Oiseau Noir dans le Soleil Lerant. Gallimard Publication, 1989.

Mondor, Henri. Propos familiers de Paul Valér. Bernard Gras- set, 1957.

Nishino, Ayako. ポール・クローデルのエッセイ『能』とその反響 −1930年代以降の西洋における能の受容史の中で [Paul Clau- del’s essay “Noh” and the reaction to it]. Journal of Art and Letters, 2012.

Okada, Mitsuo. 能楽に魅せられる外国人たち、なぜ「分かりにくさ」が好まれる？ [Foreigners attracted by Noh, why do they like “vagueness”?]. https://diamond.jp/articles/-/218001?page=4. Accessed 28 November 2019.

Péri, Noël. Cinq Nô. Maison Franco-Japonais, 1923.

Péri, Noël. Le Nô. Maison Franco-Japonais, 1946.

Renondeau, Gaston. Le Bouddhisme dans les Nô. Maison Franco-Japonais, 1950.

Renondeau, Gaston. Nô. Maison Franco-Japonais, 1950.

Sieffert, René. La Tradition Secrète du Nô. Gallimard Publi- cation, 1960.

Tanaka, Yutaka. 世阿弥芸術論集 [Annotated texts of Zeami’s Noh theory]. Shincho, 2018.

Yasunaga, Ai. ルネ・シフェールの能楽論翻訳をめぐって:鏡の中の芸道論 [Concerning René Sieffert’s translation of Noh theory: aesthetic theory in the mirror]. Translation of Culture, 2011.

Yoshikawa, Hisashi. 欧米人の能楽研究 [Research of Noh by Westerners]. Academic Association of Tokyo Woman’s Christian University, 1962.

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Is Japan’s Education Towards Foreigners Sufficient? State Intervention Versus Community Support

Mayu Takeda

Introduction is inadequate for foreign residents, before turning to examine ccording to the Japan Broadcasting Corporation, Gifu, the situation in other countries. A a Filipino student in the second grade of Sonan junior high school in Kago-city, has been absent from school for a Underlying Causes of the Problems with while. His grades were actually good in the Philippines, but it Language Education for Foreigners in Japan was hard for him to cope with the Japanese education system Japan’s educational system, especially the language educa- and make Japanese friends. His mother visited the school tion policy for foreign residents, still faces some issues that to tell that her son strongly wishes to leave school, and she need to be tackled. The “no-immigration policy,” which is also does agree with his idea that there is no way to solve accepting people only as labor but not as an immigrant, is the problem (Japan Broadcasting Corporation, 2019). What one of the fundamental causes of the situation. To assess should be noted is that, in this situation, the school cannot the education towards immigrants in Japan, the definition of hold them back from their decision since the compulsory the term “immigrant” needs to be clarified. According to the education law does not apply to foreigners according to the Cambridge English Dictionary, an immigrant is “a person who constitution (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science has come to a different country in order to live there perma- and Technology, n.d.). This highlights the insufficiency of the nently” (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d., Definition 1). The Inter- Japanese education system toward foreigners. national Organization for Migration (IOM) defines a migrant as any person who is moving or has moved across an inter- According to the Ministry of Justice, the number of foreign national border or within a State away from his/her habitual residents was 2,829,416 in June 2019, an increase of 3.6% place of residence, regardless of (1) the person’s legal status, from last year, marking the highest number ever recorded (2) whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary, (3) what (Ministry of Justice, 2019). Moreover, Japan has decided to the causes for the movement are, or (4) what the length of put “Specified Skilled Worker” as a new Status of Residence in the stay is (IOM UN Migration, n.d.). April 2019, and it is expected to further increase the number of foreigners in Japan. Therefore, there is an urgent need to In the discussion in the House of Councilors in November improve the educational system. This paper argues that Japa- 2018, the Minister of Justice Takashi Yamashita emphasized nese education towards foreigners is inadequate. This paper that the amended immigration control act enforced from April will first assess the “no-immigrant policy” as an underlying 2018 is not an immigration law. He also defines immigration cause of the problems with language education for foreigners policy as follows, “I think, for example, it can mean a policy in Japan, then address the reasons that language education to maintain a nation by accepting some masses of foreigners and their families without time limitation or some kind of certifications” (translated). These statements clearly show Comments from the professor the immigration policy of Japan, which is accepting foreign population as a form of labor but not as a citizen. This paper is a well-considered research that investigates the structural systemic factors driving commonly observed prob- How could this be a root cause of the educational problems. It demonstrates how commonly discussed problems such lems? First, without clearly defining who an immigrant is, as inadequate language education for foreigners in Japan in neither policies for immigrants nor policies for foreigners who fact have their roots in the laws and constitution of the coun- are not immigrants can be established effectively. Second, try. Following this analysis, Mayu then utilizes a case study accepting foreigners only as labor could be an excuse for comparison to highlight current problems and opportunities the government to offer them an inferior support network for Japan. This paper delivers a critical analysis in a highly compared to those for immigrants. objective manner and strategically uses a variety of credible sources to construct a well-balanced and persuasive argument. Moreover, as mentioned before, foreign students have a right to receive an education, but their parents are not under Diana Kartika any legal obligation to ensure they attend school according to the Japanese constitution. Research of the Ministry of Health,

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Labor and Welfare in May 2019 has shown that 19,654 foreign Indeed, the Japan Times reports that “[t]he enactment of a students who are at the age of compulsory education are not new law that spells out the government’s responsibility to going to any kind of schools. ensure adequate Japanese-language education for residents from overseas is a step forward. Policy actions and funding to back it up must now follow” (Japan Times, 2019). As such, it is certain that there is a need for the nation to give out subsidies and lead the language education project.

Second, the support for young learners and schools are far from ideal. At this moment, according to a study on “Research about acceptance of students who need Japanese language education in 2019” published by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), one in five foreign students who need Japanese language education does not have access to it (MEXT, 2019).

Figure 1. Kindergarten teacher testing a Filipino student, photo by Emram Kassim. Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ emrank/3291284521/in/album-72157614095364776/.

Inadequate Language Education Towards Foreign People Currently, the education provided for foreigners in Japan, especially Japanese language education towards non-Japa- nese speakers, is not sufficient. The recent research directed by the Agency for Cultural Affairs in 2016 and 2017 shows that the number of students who need Japanese language Figure 2. The survey about the ways of studying Japanese. Source: education was about 44,000 in 2016; the number of Japa- Adapted from survey done by the Agency for Cultural Affairs [文化 nese language learners not belonging to the group above 庁], 2002. was about 240,000 in 2017 (Agency for Cultural Affairs, 2016- 17). Moreover, according to a survey conducted, 24.7% of Cases in Other Countries foreigners raised the inconvenience of speaking with little There are some countries where the government is leading or no Japanese as a problem of living in Japan, marking the the language education program such as Germany. Accord- highest score in the research (City of Yokohama, 2013). ing to the German government, the migrant population amounts to 17.1 million, comprising 21% of the total popula- In contrast, compared to the need for support in Japa- tion (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2015) nese language education, the resources Japan provides to them are not enough. First, Japan requires employers to Historically, Germany has accepted a large number of support foreign employees in acquiring Japanese following immigrants. After World War II, when Germany started accept- the amendment of the border crossing control act. However, ing foreign labor especially from Italy and Turkey, its policy very basic things like simply recommending Japanese was based on the premise that Germany is not a country for language classes are counted as a support, which is inad- immigrants. However, it has changed its policy since the late equate because it does not guarantee the classes provide 1990s, by revising the immigration law to legally accept large the language skills that employees need, nor does it ensure numbers of immigrants. Thus, the integration of the immi- that foreigners do acquire Japanese just by attending them. grants to the society has attracted much interest. The situ- According to the survey carried out by the Agency for Cultural ation in Japan is considered similar to the one in Germany: Affairs, 59.9% of people answered that they learn Japanese a decrease in birthrates and an aging population has led at a local Japanese language school as shown in Figure 2 the country to accept foreign labor to supply its declining (Agency for Cultural Affairs, 2002). Although the data might workforce. be outdated, it is difficult to think that the situation where the Japanese language education for foreigners is dependent on Germany’s language education consists of two courses: Japanese language school has changed drastically since 2002. first, a course that offers basic language education for employ- Therefore, the importance of preparing Japanese language ment,and second, an orientation course that offers information schools should be recognized. about the history, culture, and laws of Germany. Both courses have examinations at the end, and passing the certification However, there is a regional deviation in the distribution test is legally necessary for valid employment and acquiring of the language schools, and in many cases the organization German citizenship. This makes the courses more effective for of the schools are highly dependent on the local government. social integration. Moreover, since the implementation of an

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amended social integration course order (Integrationskursver- on education for foreign residents. For the benefit of the ordnung) in 2012, Germany has increased the types of the increasing foreign population in Japan and Japanese soci- courses by adding an advanced course, a preschooler course, ety and economy, there should be greater state intervention and an introduction program for newly arrived immigrants in improving the education situation for foreign residents. to the country. References The main characteristic of these courses is that they provide Agency for Cultural Affairs [文化庁]. (2002). Nihonngoni education for immigrants to give them the same chances as taisuru zaijyuugaikokujinnno isikini kannsuru jittaityousa[日 Germans in employment, which is an approach that Japan 本語に対する在住外国人の意識に関する実態調査. Research does not have. In addition, the huge difference between the about the foreign residents’ awareness toward Japanese language education system in Japan and in Germany is that language]. Retrieved October 25, 2019 from https://www. the latter is government run. Since the government directs the bunka.go.jp/tokei_hakusho_shuppan/tokeichosa/nihon- project, it offers consistent and a higher quality of education gokyoiku_jittai/zaiju_gaikokujin.html. compared to that of Japan. Moreover, the teachers involved in the project are trained and paid, in contrast to the teachers Agency for Cultural Affairs [文化庁]. (2019). Gaikokujinn ukei- in Japan, who are mainly local volunteers. rekakudaini taiousita nihonngokyouiku/gaikokujinnjidou- seito touheno kyouikunojyuujitu2 [外国人受入れ拡大に対応 Another important point is that the Japanese government した日本語教育・外国人児童生徒等への教育の充実2. Improv- does not offer support to foreigners for Japanese cultural ing the Japanese education/education for foreign students education. According to Kashiwazaki (2013), this can be corresponding to the expanding acceptance of foreigners]. explained by the concept of multicultural politics in Japan, Retrieved October 25, 2019 from http://www.bunka.go.jp/ whereby “the ‘multicultural’ aspect of society is attributed to seisaku/bunkashingikai/kokugo/kokugo/kokugo_70/pdf/ the presence of ‘foreigners’ and not to ethnic diversity among r1414272_10.pdf. Japanese citizens.” Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Immigrant. Retrieved November 20, 2019 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/ english/immigrant.

Federal Statistical Office [Statistisches Bundesamt]. (2016). [Bevölkerung mit Migrationshintergrund auf Rekord niveau- Pressemitteilung Nr. 327 vom 16. September 2016. Population with a migrant background at record high – Press release No. 327 of 16 September 2016]. Retrieved November 3, 2019 from https://www.destatis.de/EN/ Press/2016/09/PE16_327_122.html.

The House of Representatives [衆議院]. (2018). Naika- kushuushitsu hyakukyuujyuuroku daihyakuyonngou [内閣衆質一九六第一〇四号. The Cabinet and the House Figure 3. Empty classroom in Heiwa Elementary School. Public of Representatives Q&A]. Retrieved November 15, 2019, Domain. Source: Wikimedia Commons. from http://www.shugiin.go.jp/internet/itdb_shitsumon. nsf/html/shitsumon/a196104.htm. Conclusion Japan stands strongly by its “no-immigrant policy” without Iino, N. [飯野奈津子]. (2019, February 14). Semaru gaikokujinn clearly stating who is an “immigrant.” It accepts masses of ukeire kakudai dousuru nihonngokyouiku [迫る外国人受け population not as an “immigrants” but as labor. This means the 入れ拡大どうする日本語教育. Expanding the acceptance system gets away with only offering inferior support to “labor- of foreigners soon: how the Japanese language education ers” compared to “immigrants.” This is one of the fundamen- should be]. Message posted to Japan Broadcasting Corpo- tal causes of the educational problems toward immigrants ration News Commentators Bureau. Retrieved November 3, in Japan. At the moment, the language education policy for 2019 from https://www.nhk.or.jp/kaisetsu-blog/700/314353. foreign residents is highly dependent on Japanese schools html. run by local governments, which does not necessarily offer high quality education to every immigrant in every region. IOM UN Migration. (n.d.). Key Migration Terms. https://www. By looking at the case in Germany, the need for the Japa- iom.int/key-migration-terms#Migrant. nese government to lead the educational project is further emphasized. For the reasons above, this paper concludes that Japan Broadcasting Corporation. (2019). Rupo gaikokujinn Japanese education towards foreigners is inadequate, and roudoushano kodomotati [Report: Children of foreign the government needs to lead the initiative. Although much workers. ルポ外国人労働者の子どもたち]. Retrieved needs to be considered regarding securing the budget for it, October 25, 2019 from https://www.nhk.or.jp/gendai/arti- there is a definite need for higher government expenditure cles/4329/index.html.

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Japanese Center for International Exchange [日本国際交流センター]. (2017). Doitsuno iminn nannminn seisakuno aratana chousenn [ドイツ移民・難民政策の新たな挑戦. New challenges that the German immigrants/policies for immigrants are facing]. Retrieved November 3, 2019 from http://www. jcie.or.jp/japan/cn/german-research/final.pdf.

Kaneda, T. [金田智子]. (2011, August). Kaigaini okeru iminnni- taisuru genngo kyouiku [海外における移民に対する言語教育. Language education for immigrants in foreign countries]. In Monthly publication of Agency for Cultural Affairs [文化庁月報]. Retrieved November 20, 2019 from http://www. bunka.go.jp/pr/publish/bunkachou_geppou/2011_08/ special/special_04.html.

Kashiwazaki, C. (2013). Incorporating immigrants as foreigners: multicultural politics in Japan, Citizenship Studies, 17(1), 31-47. doi:10.1080/13621025.2013.764216, Retrieved Octo- ber 22, 2019 from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/1 0.1080/13621025.2013.764216.

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technol- ogy [文部科学省]. (2019). Nihonngo sidouga hituyouna jidouseitono ukeirejyoukyoutou nikannsuru tyousa nokek- kanituite [「日本語指導が必要な児童生徒の受入状況等に関する調査」の結果について. Results of the research about the acceptance of students who need Japanese tutoring]. Retrieved October 25, 2019 from https://www.mext.go.jp/ content/1421569_001.pdf.

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Tech- nology [文部科学省]. (n.d.). Gaikokujinnno kodomono kouritugimukyouikushogakkouheno ukeirenituite [外国人の子どもの公立義務教育諸学校への受入について. About the acceptance of foreign children to public compulsory schools]. Retrieved November 15, 2019 from http:// www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chousa/shotou/042/ houkoku/08070301/009/005.htm.

Ministry of Justice [法務省]. (2019). Reiwagannnen rokuga- tumatu gennzainiokeru zairyuugaikokujinnsuuni tuite[令和元年６月末現在における在留外国人数について. The current number of foreign residents – the end of June 2019]. Retrieved November 22, 2019 from http://www.moj.go.jp/ nyuukokukanri/kouhou/nyuukokukanri04_00083.html.

Opinion: Helping foreign residents learn Japanese. (2019, June 27). In The Japan Times. Retrieved November 3, 2019 from https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2019/06/27/ editorials/helping-foreign-residents-learn-japanese/#. XfyNCi3AO1s.

United Nations. (2019). [Global Issues: Migration]. Retrieved December 17, 2019 from https://www.un.org/en/sections/ issues-depth/migration/index.html.

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Teacher Gender Balance: Why Japan Has the Smallest Proportion of Female Teachers in Senior High School among OECD Countries

Kanano Yokogawa

Introduction and gender inequality in enrollment at colleges and grad- ccording to the Organization for Economic Co-opera- uate schools. A tion and Development (OECD, 2020), the ratio of female teachers among all teachers tends to decrease in higher Data Incompatible with the Status Quo: the education among most OECD countries, and Japan is no Relative Merits of Working at Senior High School exception (Figure 1). However, there is a significant difference This paper points out that there are factors that discourage between the ratio in Japanese senior high schools and that females from teaching at senior high school in Japan, more in the other OECD countries’ upper secondary education. so than the relative ease of females teaching at those schools. In Japan, the proportion of female teachers in senior high Admittedly, there is data pointing to the relative ease of work- schools is only 31%, while in the other OECD members, even ing as senior high school teachers in comparison to those that in upper secondary schools is around or greater than 50% teaching at other levels. Firstly, as the Benesse Educational (Figure 1). To provide an additional explanation, Japanese Research and Development Institute (BERD) reported in 2016, elementary school, junior high school, and senior high school on average, elementary school teachers work for 11 hours and are equivalent to primary school, lower secondary school, and 54 minutes a day, junior high school teachers for 12 hours and upper secondary school respectively. 30 minutes, and senior high school teachers for 11 hours and 33 minutes. In addition, elementary and junior high school teachers are suffering the most from lack of preparation time for classes, which senior high school teachers rank as the fifth biggest concern (BERD, 2016). This suggests that the workload of elementary and junior high school teachers is generally perceived to be heavier than that of their senior high school counterparts, and that teachers at elementary and junior high school generally face a more acute shortage of time than those at senior high school.

Comments from the professor

Figure 1. Distribution of female teachers in some OECD countries in Overall, this is a well-structured argumentative paper with high 2017. Source: OECD (2020). research originality. Kanano uses appropriate academic phrases and style to communicate her ideas and research in a direct The current situation where male teachers are the majority and easily understood manner. This paper is also striking for in Japanese senior high schools is usually overlooked. Never- its perceptive observation of gender issues in teacher recruit- theless, it has been actually exerting negative influence on ment at the senior high school level. Kanano’s research was female teachers and students there (Miyajima, 2008). It is driven by her personal interactions with teachers at her previ- evident from this indifference that the reasons Japan has the ous senior high school, where she began questioning what was lowest proportion of female teachers at the upper second- causing this situation. With this strong curiosity, she undertook ary level among OECD countries has not been adequately research, analyzed and organized credible data to construct a considered. This paper will argue that, despite the relative strong and persuasive argument, written in proper academic ease of females in working as senior high school teachers, conventions. Japan has such a remarkably low percentage of female repre- sentation among senior high school teachers because of Diana Kartika gender imbalance in the choice of majors at the university

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Secondly, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Gender Inequality in College and Graduate School Science and Technology (MEXT) shows that in 2016 that the Enrollment monthly salary of female elementary school teachers on aver- Women’s relative lack of access to higher education may also aged was ¥322,100, that of female junior high school teachers contribute to the low percent of female teachers at the senior was ¥326,200, and that of female senior high school teachers high school level. This section will demonstrate it by a combi- was ¥335,600. These figures indicate that women are likely to nation of two factors. earn more as a senior high school teacher than as an elementary or junior high school teacher. Considering these two Firstly, the gender disparity in higher education results in points, in the present situation where “an employed woman gender imbalance among potential teachers at senior high is expected to fulfil dual roles as a caretaker [of her family] and schools. In Japan, an education gap still exists between men an ideal worker” (Nemoto, 2012, p. 512), it is generally easier and women. According to the Gender Equality Bureau Cabi- for women to work for senior high schools because they can net Office (2016), the college-going rate of boys is 55.6% and work shorter hours for more money. that of girls is 48.2%. Data from the Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office (2016) also shows that the graduate school Yet there seems to be an inconsistency with this analy- enrollment rate of men is 14.7%, whereas that of women is sis. Women, in fact, occupied 51.4% of the employment test 5.9%. In addition, pathways to obtain a senior high school takers for elementary school, 37.7% of those for junior high teacher’s license are limited almost exclusively to colleges school, and only 29.8% of those for senior high school (MEXT, and graduate schools. Taking these things into consideration, 2019). That is to say, becoming a senior high school teacher women are already the minority among the possible senior is probably the last option for women who are thinking of high school teachers. becoming teachers.

In sum, some factors do not merely negate the advantages of a job at senior high school over one at elementary or junior high school, but also hinder women in Japan from becoming senior high school teachers. The next sections will examine these factors.

Gender Imbalance in College Major Choice It could be argued that one such factor is the student gender imbalance in universities’ specific faculties. According to MEXT (2019), women accounted for nearly 60% of those who Figure 2. The proportion of those who want to be a teacher. Source: entered the faculty of education and just 18% of those who Aichi University of Education. entered the faculty of science or the faculty of engineering.

Furthermore, many humanities teachers at senior high Secondly, there seems to be little difference between men schools graduated from the faculty of education and many and women in the proportion of those who aspire to become teachers of the sciences graduated from the faculty of science teachers. Figure 2 shows the proportion by gender and by or engineering. Although many colleges provide training educational level as reported by Aichi University of Education courses required to get a science teacher’s license in the (n.d.). According to this data, it may be true that the gender faculty of education, science, and engineering, the faculty gap in the proportion of those who are thinking of being a of education in most colleges is only for students major- teacher is wide at primary and lower secondary level, but it ing in humanities. Moreover, the faculty of education can gets narrower at the higher level and at the upper second- hardly provide aspiring teachers with sufficient training in ary level it almost disappears. Considering this, it could be the sciences needed to teach lessons in these subjects in inferred that the gender difference at the university level and senior high school. Consequently, those who work in senior graduate school in the percentage of those who try to be a high schools as science teachers are likely to have graduated teacher is negligibly small. from the faculty of science or engineering. To sum up the two points above, gender inequality in Given that senior high schools have just as many human- higher education creates a situation where men are the ities teachers as science teachers and that all humanities majority among potential senior high school teachers, and teachers are from universities’ faculty of education and all this imbalance leads to the low ratio of females among senior those in science are from universities’ faculty of science or high school teachers partly because there can be no obvious engineering, three-fifths of the humanities teachers and gap between men and women in the proportion of those who one-fifth of the science teachers are female. The result of try to become a teacher. Ultimately, the gender gap in higher adding the two up indicates that women take up roughly education may be worse than the teacher gender imbalance 40% of senior high school teachers, which is close to the in senior high school. real figure. This suggests that the distribution of teachers by gender in senior high school is affected to some extent by Conclusion student gender imbalance in colleges’ particular faculties. Even though teaching at senior high school makes it easier for

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women in Japan to balance their work and family life, women employment test for public school was held in 30th year of account for only 31% of all the teachers at senior high school the Heisei period in the Japanese calendar]. (2019). Minis- in Japan. Under the present circumstances, “some work- try of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology places are male-dominant and marked by substantial gender [文部科学省]. Retrieved June 29, 2020, from https://www. inequality” (Miyajima, 2008, p. 330). Miyajima (2008) also mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/senkou/1416039.htm. explains that teachers’ words and deeds affect students’ social values. These suggest that Japanese upper secondary schools ‘Kyouinno imeejini kansuru kodomono isikichousa’ sokuhou today fail to deliver gender equality-oriented education. This [「教員のイメージに関する子どもの意識調査」速報. A prompt paper aimed to identify the reasons why the percentage report: ‘The survey on children’s attitude toward their of female teachers at senior high school is so small, which impression of teachers’]. (n.d.) Aichi Kyouiku Daigaku [愛知 is necessary to break the mold. The first reason is that the 教育大学]. Retrieved July 25, 2020, from https://www.aichi- gender differences in choice of major in universities have edu.ac.jp/center/hato/mt_files/p4_teacher_image_150605. negative effects on the proportion of females among poten- pdf. tial senior high school teachers, especially science teachers. The second reason is that the gender imbalance in tertiary Longman. (n.d.). (The) humanities. In Longman Dictionary education enrollment leads fewer women than men to try to of Contemporary English Online. Retrieved June 29, work at senior high schools. This paper is region specific and 2020, from https://www.ldoceonline.com/jp/dictionary/ did not consider the issue in terms of comparison between the-humanities. Japan and the other OECD countries. Given that the decline in the percentage of female teachers in the progressed level Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technol- of education is commonly observed through OECD nations, ogy [文部科学省]. (2016). Kyouin kojin chousa [教員個人 engaging in comparisons between different countries rather 調査. Survey on individual teachers]. In Gakkou Kyouin than focusing on the differences among elementary school, Toukei Chousa [学校教員統計調査. Statistical survey on junior high school, and senior high school in Japan can be a teachers]. Retrieved June 29, 2020, from https://www.e- key to understanding the reasons for the country’s strikingly stat.go.jp/stat-search/files?page=1&toukei=00400003& low percentage of female teachers at the upper secondary bunya_l=12&tstat=000001016172. level. Thus, further research from this international perspective should be conducted in the future. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology [文部科学省]. (2019). Kankei gakka betsu daigaku nyuusi One possible solution to the lack of female teachers at joukyou [関係学科別大学入学状況. The circumstances senior high schools in Japan is to reform the system relating to surrounding university enrollment by department]. In a teacher’s license. If those who have passed teacher training Gakkou kihon chousa [学校基本調査. Basic survey on school]. courses in colleges get the right to teach at all school levels— Retrieved June 29, 2020, from https://www.e-stat.go.jp/ elementary, junior high, and senior high—some women who stat-search/files?page=1&query=関係学科別%E3%80%80 teach at elementary schools may decide to work for senior 大学入学状況&layout=dataset&stat_infid=000031894022. high schools because of the benefits it provides. This will help to improve the gender imbalance in senior high schools. Miyajima, T. (2008). Gender inequality among Japanese high school teachers: women teachers’ resistance to gender References bias in occupational culture. Journal of Education for Teach- Dairokkai gakusyuu sidou kihon chousa deeta bukku (koukou ing, 34(4), 319-332. doi:10.1080/02607470802401479. ban) [第６回学習指導基本調査 DATA BOOK（高校版）. The sixth version of the data book about basic survey on teach- Nemoto, K. (2012). Long working hours and the corporate ing (focusing on senior high school)]. (2016). Benesse gender divide in Japan. Gender, Work & Organization, Educational Research and Development Institute. [ベネッ 20(5), 512-527. セ教育総合研究所 ]. Retrieved June 29, 2020, from https:// berd.benesse.jp/up_images/research/Sido_KOKO_07.pdf. OECD. (2020). Education at a glance: Distribution of teachers by age and gender. In OECD Education Statis- Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office [男女共同参画局]. tics (database). Retrieved June 29, 2020, from https://doi. (n.d.). Gakko shurui betsu singakuritsu no suii [学校種 org/10.1787/4ef9a105-en. 類別進学率の推移. The transition of enrollment rate by education level]. In Danjo kyoudou sankaku hakusho reiwa gannen ban [男女共同参画白書令和元年版. The first year of the Reiwa period version of a white paper on gender equality]. Retrieved June 29, 2020, from http:// www.gender.go.jp/about_danjo/whitepaper/r01/zentai/ html/zuhyo/zuhyo01-00-01.html.

Heisei sanjuunendo kouritsu gakkou kyouin saiyou senkou siken no jissi ni tsuite [平成30年度公立学校教員採用選考試験の実施状況について. The situation where the

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Fashion Moving Beyond the Gender Binary

Kanami Konishi

Introduction differentiated from sex: the latter is a biological term whereas onstantly keeping up with the latest trends, fashion can the former points at the amount of masculinity or femininity C be perceived as a tool that mirrors the morals of modern- found in an individual. Throughout our childhood, we gradu- day society. With the influence of active social movements, ally acknowledge the sex we belong to and start to adapt to our ethics and values towards traditional gender roles are its respective behaviour expected by society. In other words, beginning to branch out, and fashion is gradually absorbing we develop one dimension of our gender identity under the this change. However, retailers still arrange their clothing into strong influence of culture (Stoller, 2019). However, self-iden- men’s and women’s collections, subconsciously enforcing the tity is a dynamic concept that is not just molded by the expec- fixed standards of gender. Therefore, to thrive in a rapidly tations of others but is also mutually influenced by the unique changing society, fashion must acknowledge the cultural view one has of themself. It is when these factors contradict momentum of gender fluidity and further diversify from the with one another that gender nonconformity comes to shape standardized binary system. (Smith and Smith, 2016). For example, one may biologically be considered as “male” and be expected to comply with the The first section of this paper will give an overall outlook defined “masculine” roles of society, but psychologically feel on the growing population of gender nonconforming people they want to display themself as “feminine.” Of course, this and examine how the landscape of gender is moving beyond occurs vice versa, and furthermore some individuals feel they the division by male and female. The next section will exam- are neither exclusively “masculine” nor “feminine.” ine the current situation of gender neutral fashion, analyze its pros and cons, and highlight how it still lacks recognition Fixed gender stereotypes have been molded throughout in the commercial market. In the last section, I will evaluate history, and they still fundamentally lie in the base of society. the possibilities of gender neutral clothing from two different From the perspective of gender nonconforming individu- perspectives and portray a realistic vision of the future of the als, the world is still a place that does not assure comfort for apparel industry. people going against gender norms. On the other hand, studies also show that the majority of others are approving of this Outlook on Gender Nonconformity new movement and wish to realize a cooperative community When discussing gender nonconformity it is necessary to first for all (Smith and Smith, 2019). This highlights how opinions and foremost address the definition of gender and consider on gender variance are starting to diversify, especially as the its relationship with self-identity. Firstly, gender must be world begins to put more emphasis on divergence and free expression of the individual. However, although many people Comments from the professor are actually accepting of this new spectrum of gender they do not willingly put their opinions into voice, which is why gender This fluent, even eloquent, essay discusses a hot social topic nonconforming people feel insecure about their self-display. with thoughtfulness and restraint. Konishi ably demonstrates Society needs to create a platform to actively share this accep- how to relate critical theory, social interests, and academic tance, and as an influential source of self-expression, fashion research together to present a compelling argument. Her use of could play a major role in this movement. specific examples and carefully chosen images helps to engage the reader’s attention. However, she also grounds her essay in Especially nowadays, as the LGBTQ community continues an understanding of queer theory and supports her argument to expand, gender variance has gained more awareness than with clearly presented research. In particular, Konishi develops ever. Often lead by the youth, social movements have contrib- thoughtful, convincing counterarguments and engages with uted to attaining equal rights for the LGBTQ community such them seriously. This gives her argument greater credibility and as same-sex marriage. However, as a backlash, some politi- strength, as well as adding intellectual depth. Konishi admira- cal leaders have been taking advantage of this minority to bly unfolds the complexity of the topic to allow the reader to gain the support of conservatives, using psychological tactics carefully think through and beyond her own conclusions. This such as homophobia to strengthen the bond of their party. is what an outstanding essay looks like. This occurs especially in places where this new landscape of gender still lacks recognition, and in these cases it is import- John Pazdziora ant that commercial businesses become role models that show respect to the LGBTQ community (Roth, 2015). Politics is not always the key to social justice, and instead aspects

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of our everyday lives play a significant role in orienting the a suit with a masculine silhouette into a women’s collection, mass population through a social change. Thence, as a form he broke the traditional boundaries of gender (see Fig. 1) of mass culture that we consume on a daily basis, fashion (Akdemir, 2018). This initially triggered mixed reactions, should represent a more diversified society and further help with critics disapproving of the disruption of the natural free gender nonconforming people from the constraints they order. Nevertheless, as fashion models and icons gradually struggle with. started copying this style, it soon became known as a cultural phenomenon. Since then, many other brands such as Calvin Current Situation of Gender Neutral Fashion Klein, Burberry, and Gucci have also developed collections With this purpose in mind, clothing should be considered as that challenge the status quo (Akdemir, 2018). However, one a communication tool that simultaneously represents many thing to keep in mind is that this new trend is still limited to aspects of one’s identity, such as culture, religion, status, high brands, and although street retailers such as H&M and and of course gender. Nonetheless, fundamentally speak- Zara have attempted to launch genderless lines, this is still at ing, “fashion is about bodies: it is produced, promoted, and a very small scale that lacks recognition (see Fig. 2). worn by bodies” (Aspers and Godart, 2013). Therefore over the years, clothing and sexual differences have mutually shaped one another, one major example being blue and pink respectively used for boys and girls. These colours became gender-specific especially after World War II when babies were colour-coded in order to quickly differentiate their sex (Matsuda, 2017). Other than colour, different production processes, marketing styles, and fashion shows also created the divide between sexes in the industry (Aspers and Godart, 2013). However, fashion is a dynamic movement, rather than a fixed concept, that represents the attitudes of society as a whole. Although traditional stereotypes are still prevalent,

Figure 2. Zara Ungendered collection. Source: Edwards, J. (2016, March 8). Zara have released an ‘Ungendered’ clothing line but people are calling it boring. Retrieved December 7, 2020 from https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/fashion/style/news/a41776/ zara-ungendered-clothing-line-new-twitter/.

Additionally, these new styles are often adopted and advertised by celebrities. For instance, in the music video for his single “Lights up” Harry Styles embraced the spirit of gender neutrality by wearing pieces of clothing from a gender fluid label (see Fig. 3) (Silver, 2019). Likewise, Jaden Smith collaborated with Louis Vuitton and posted a model shoot of himself wearing a skirt on Instagram (see Fig. 4). He added the caption “Thank You So Much @louisvuitton And @ nicolasghesquiere For The Opportunity To Impact This World” (Friedman, 2016). These examples highlight how, with the promotion of celebrities, this new aesthetic is slowly starting to disseminate to the general public.

Figure 1. Yves Saint Laurent. “Le Smoking” (1966). Source: Musée Yves Obviously, there are many disputable counterarguments Saint Laurent Paris. to the necessity of gender neutral fashion. One is that the present designs are often predominantly masculine and are as mentioned in the former section, the public view towards just menswear rebranded (Britt, 2019). Other debates include gender is diversifying and fashion is slowly absorbing this how retailers are using ostensibly gender neutral garments change. as an exploited trend to increase their brand image without deeply understanding the essence of gender nonconformity The emergence of gender neutral fashion is a portrayal (Reilly and Barry, 2020). However, as a matter of fact, these are of the deconstruction of these stereotypes. A pioneer of attributes that could be taken into consideration when form- this movement is the 1966 “Le Smoking” collection by the ing the future ideal of gender neutral fashion. They do not world-famous designer Yves Saint Laurent. By incorporating deny its existence but instead give conceptual and valuable

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Figure 5. Diffusion of innovation theory. Source: LaMorte, 2019.

Developed by E. M. Rogers in 1962, this is a socio-psychological explanation of the procedures that a new idea, behaviour or concept goes through until it is adopted by a particular social system (LaMorte, 2019). The adopters are separated into five different categories: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. In the written order, the Figure 3. Harry Styles modeling his genderfluid outfit from the first group is the most venturous, actively willing to embrace “Lights Up” video. Source: Abad, M. (2019, October 11). A Closer change. In contrast, the last group is the most conservative, Look at Every Harry Styles Outfit in ‘Lights Up’. Retrieved Decem- ber 7, 2020 from https://www.papermag.com/harry-styles-fashion- often reluctant to change (LaMorte, 2019). The innovation lights-up-2640931701.html?rebelltitem=4#rebelltitem4. spreads from one group to the other, ultimately creating a domino effect. However, it is also said that there is a gap between the early adopters and the early majority called the chasm, which points at the difficulty of passing on an innovation between the two groups (“Jumping the chasm,” 2018). When applying this to the case of gender neutral fashion, the celebrities and high brands account for the early adopters and the general public accounts for the early majority. Yet at the moment the chasm still remains uncrossed, for gender neutral fashion is a concept that most people are generally not accustomed to. Consequently, retailers need to actively appeal to the early majority, and prove that this new element of fashion is compatible with their values. Gender neutral fashion is required to move beyond high brands and sink into the commercial market through effective advertising.

One last thing that must be discussed is that gender neutral fashion is an ambiguous term that does not have a fixed definition, especially because it is a fairly recent topic. Accordingly, its future framework is still flexible and is open to multiple interpretations and opportunities. The first possibility is the creation of a new third category adding on to the existing men’s and women’s labels. Of course, although the number Figure 4. Jaden Smith models for Louis Vuitton. Photo by Bruce of brands is very limited, this already exists in the current Weber. Source: Friedman, 2016. market under the name of unisex. For example, GAP holds a global unisex clothing line mainly consisting of T-shirts, jeans, trousers, sweaters, and jackets (Park). However, the problem criticisms. Unquestionably, fashion and gender have a recip- is that, as mentioned before, these garments are prone to rocal relationship: they are both products of one another. Yet, become chiefly masculine (Britt, 2019). For gender neutral as of now the apparel industry principally follows the binary fashion to accomplish its true objectives, unisex designs must system, failing to capture the modern context of gender. be inclusive of all shapes, patterns, and colours and be free As long as society is rapidly moving towards a less gender from the inclinations of sex (Nagumo, 2016). conformed community, fashion has to adapt to this new dynamism and, moreover, help promote the free expression of An alternative potential is the complete eradication of self-identity. the existing labels themselves. This would support LGBTQ people who struggle with social awkwardness when shop- Evaluation of the Future of Gender Neutral Fashion ping at current retailers: having to wind through sections that When focusing on how to expand gender neutral fashion, it they are not socially expected to (Salam, 2019). Creating a is important to consider the process of how this new concept genderless atmosphere would help reduce this tension and will be publicized. One approach to take into account is the further inspire people to think outside of the binary system. diffusion of innovation theory (see Fig. 5). The Phluid Project, also known as “the world’s first gender-free

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store” is a select shop based in Manhattan that embraces November 15). Celemi. celemi.com/blog/2018/ this spirit, and emphasizes the future potential of this new managing-organizational-change/. movement (Bernard, 2018). Yet, the biggest dispute this prospect holds is the fear of semiological chaos (Friedman, 2016). LaMorte, W. W. (2019, September 9). Diffusion of Innovation Therefore, abolishing gender labels in all retailers is not a Theory. Boston University School of Public Health. https:// pragmatic vision, though increasing the number of stores and sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/SB/Behavioral- spaces that naturally accept gender fluidity is something that ChangeTheories/BehavioralChangeTheories4.html. the apparel industry can work towards. Matsuda, Y. (2017). デザインって何だろう [What is design?]. Conclusion Kinokuniya Book Store. Although pre-established gender expectations in society still implicitly restrict our perspectives, we are gradually moving Nagumo, H. (2016). デザイン Xビジネスデザインとは何 towards a less confined definition of gender. This has espe- か？ [Design x Business: What is design?]. Crossmedia cially been stimulated by recent social movements encourag- publishing. ing society to work beyond the gender binary. Provided that fashion is an influential sector of mass culture, it has partially Park, J. Unisex Clothing. LoveToKnow Corp. https://fashion-his- started to absorb this dynamism in the shape of gender tory.lovetoknow.com/clothing-types-styles/unisex-clothing. neutral fashion. However, the commercial market has not yet caught up with this advancement and is still enforcing the Reilly, A., and Ben, B. (2020). Crossing gender Bound- fixed standards of gender. In the future, the apparel industry aries: Fashion to Create, Disrupt and Transcend. is required to not only accurately portray society’s progress Intellect Books.https://openresearchlibrary.org/ towards gender fluidity but also to render the acceptance viewer/54fa0011-60f9-46b4-b21f-14e03aae2a21/4. and expansion of diversity. To accomplish this, gender neutral fashion has to start with constructing clothing lines that are Roth, K. (2015, January 23). LGBT: Moving Towards Equality. inclusive of various designs regardless of gender preferences, World Economic Forum. www.hrw.org/news/2015/01/23/ and furthermore create environments that are free from the lgbt-moving-towards-equality. constraints of gender. As a significant source of self-display, it is important to consider fashion through a socio-psycho- Salam, M. (2019, February 19). Finding Clothes, and Identity, logical lens and acknowledge its intimate relationship with Outside Men’s and Women’s Wear. The New York Times. society. Moreover, this is not something that is limited to the www.nytimes.com/2019/02/19/style/gender-neutral-cloth- case of fashion. Culture and society are aspects that simulta- ing.html. neously and continuously shape one another; one does not necessarily precede the other. Silver, J. (2019, October 11). Harry Styles Wears Gender Fluid Fashion (And Gucci) In New ‘Lights References Up’ Video. W. https://www.wmagazine.com/story/ Akdemir, N. (2018). Deconstruction of Gender Stereotypes harry-styles-lights-up-video-gender-fluid-fashion/. Through Fashion. European Journal of Social Science Education and Research, 5 (2), 185–190. http://journals. Smith, Joshua S. and Smith, Kristin E. (2016). What it Means to euser.org/files/articles/ejser_v5_i2/Akdemir.pdf. Do Gender Differently: Understanding Identity, Perceptions and Accomplishments in a Gendered World. Humboldt Aspers, P., and Godart, F. (2013). Sociology of Fashion: Order Journal of Social Relations, 38, 62–78. http://www.jstor.org/ and Change. Annual Review of Sociology, 39, 171–192. stable/humjsocrel.38.62. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43049631. Stoller, R. J. (2020). Sex and Gender: The Develop- Bernard, K. (2018, July 11). Breaking the Binary. The New York ment of Masculinity and Femininity. London and Times. www.nytimes.com/2018/07/11/style/phluid-proj- New York: Routledge. https://books.google.co.jp/ ect-nonbinary-fashion.html?module=inline. books?id=Se7QDwAAQBAJ.

Britt, M. (2019). Defining Gender Neutral Fashion. In Univer- sity of Minnesota Digital Conservancy. http://hdl.handle. net/11299/206490.

Friedman, V. (2016, January 6). Jaden Smith for Louis Vuitton: The New Man in a Skirt. The New York Times. www.nytimes. com/2016/01/07/fashion/jaden-smith-for-louis-vuitton-the- new-man-in-a-skirt.html.

Jumping the Chasm: Whose Influence Matters Most When Implementing Workplace Change? (2018,

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Current Problems with Braille Blocks in Japan and Possible Solutions

Nobuya Aoki

Introduction them notice dangerous places, as I mentioned above refer- hen I was an elementary school student, I had the ring to Tokuda and Mizuno’s study (Tanaka and Iwata, 1997). W experience of walking around the school with my This illustrates that Braille blocks are far more important for eyes covered. In recent years, many elementary schools in the visually impaired than we generally expect, and we should Japan give opportunities like this to their students in order know more about how Braille blocks help such people and to encourage them to consider what blindness is like. I felt what are the problems with Braille blocks in Japan. as if I had been in deep darkness and felt scared and alone because I could not see anything around me.

However, losing eyesight does not only mean fear or loneliness, but also means other things we cannot easily guess. Thomas J. Carroll, a pioneer in treatment for people who became blind later in their lives, says that people who become blind lose twenty things (Carroll, 1961). As can be seen in Figure 1, visually impaired people have far more difficulties than we think.

Figure 2. Braille Blocks. Braille blocks are yellow blocks that help the blind walk outside smoothly. The five blocks in the middle are “leading blocks,” and the others are “warning blocks.” Photo by the author.

Figure 1. Twenty Losses. (Thomas J. Carroll, 1961). This essay will examine the current situation of the maintenance of Braille blocks in Japan, referencing my own fieldwork Therefore, social help for the visually impaired is keenly and others’ previous research. Frequently pointed out prob- needed, so it is important to study the present situation of lems are, for example, not following the rules of Braille block barrier-free facilities. When they walk outside, they generally installation, obstacles on Braille blocks, and broken Braille use yellow Braille blocks on the ground. We can find two blocks. I will show some concrete examples of these prob- types of Braille blocks (Figure 2). One is the “Warning block,” lems. I found some problems like these in my neighborhood— on spots where pedestrians might be exposed to danger, and Nakano Ward and Nerima Ward—less than 500 meters away the other is the “Leading block,” installed to lead them in the from my house. This implies that there are a lot of problems right direction (Tokuda and Mizuno 2011, pp. 8–10). in Japan as a whole. After discussing these problems, I will explain what local governments should do regarding disabili- In one study, Tanaka Naoto and Iwata Michiko asked visu- ty-oriented town planning especially for the visually impaired. ally impaired people to vote for the facilities most helpful for them, such as Braille blocks, electronic buzzers, voice guides, The Current Problems with Braille Blocks Braille information boards, among others. As a result, in total, Iwai Yasunori, a prefectural assembly member of Chiba, Braille blocks got 157 points, while electronic buzzers got 88, notes that there are many problematic Braille blocks in and voice guides and Braille information boards got even Japan. Iwai classified the problems with Braille blocks into lower points (Tanaka and Iwata, 1997). In addition, the visually two types: problems with installation, which might expose impaired people expected Braille blocks in particular to help visually impaired people to danger, and problems which

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might prevent visually impaired people from noticing the blocks. Examples of the former include: no Braille blocks in front of crosswalks, narrow Braille blocks, no warning blocks where leading blocks are crossed, and obstacles on Braille blocks. Examples of the latter include too many Braille blocks, gaps made by manholes, large curves of leading blocks, and the unique design of Braille blocks in some certain regions (Iwai, 2013). In the case of Figure 3, after the leading blocks are crossed, there are no warning blocks. If visually impaired people walk straight without paying attention, they might be hit by cars.

Figures 4a and 4b. Visually impaired people would not be able to recognize the existence of the blocks because of the lack of maintenance (left) and the gap created by the manhole (right). Photo by Iwai Yasunori, https://iwai-y.jp/activity201302_2.html.

Yoshihiro Nagamatsu explains issues with Braille blocks from a different perspective. Nagamatsu conducted a survey that revealed blind people’s opinions, concluding that the major problem with Braille blocks is the obstacles on the Braille blocks. Visually impaired people have difficulty walking along Braille blocks especially when someone places something on the blocks (Nagamatsu, 1990).

In my neighborhood, I found many examples of the problems mentioned above. The pictures of Braille blocks in my neighborhood that I will show are all taken less than 500 meters away from my house, near the boundary between Nakano Ward and Nerima Ward. Even in such a small area there are many problems with Braille blocks, so it is easily assumed that there are likely still more problems in Japan as a whole. In Figure 5, the Braille blocks are separated by a drain and in Figures 6a and 6b, a display rack is resting on Braille blocks. If visually impaired people turn left according to the blocks, they will walk into a shelf at the entrance of a drugstore. The enlarged picture shows that there are warning blocks under the display rack, but they are useless when Figure 3. No Warning Blocks Where Leading Blocks Are Crossed. After something is placed on them. the leading blocks are crossed, there are no warning blocks. If visually handicapped people go straight without notice, they might be hit by cars. Photo by Iwai Yasunori, https://iwai-y.jp/activity201302_2.html.

In Figures 4a and 4b, the visually impaired would not be able to recognize the existence of the blocks because of the lack of maintenance and the gap created by the manhole (Iwai, 2013). These are obvious problems around us.

Figure 5. Drain Gap. This picture was taken in Nakano Ward, Tokyo. These Braille blocks are separated by the drain. Actually, they should cover the drain. Visually impaired people have to search for the next Braille blocks, which makes them walk inefficiently. Photo by the author.

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Figure 5 was taken in Nakano Ward, Tokyo. These Braille Then, I will show a possible solution for each of the three blocks are separated by the drain. Actually, they should cover points. the drain. Visually impaired people have to search for the next Braille blocks, which makes them walk inefficiently. The first root cause of the poor conditions of the Braille blocks is the lack of maintenance by local governments. Local officials rarely check the conditions of Braille blocks, so many of them remain broken. In order to maintain Braille blocks regularly, local governments should devise an online system which enables visually impaired people to inform the local authorities of the poor condition of infrastructure and facilities. Currently, local governments have few ways of hearing the opinions of visually impaired people. An online system would make it possible for local governments to take immediate action to change broken or poorly placed blocks.

The second root cause is the lack of local governments’ own standards in the installation of Braille blocks. As mentioned above, nationwide general practices regarding the installation of these blocks exist in Japan, but some local governments do not set their own rules. Actually, different districts have different features, so local governments should make their own manuals that show what is especially important for the visually impaired in the district. For instance, it is easily assumed that big cities and rural areas emphasize different aspects of Braille block installation. Sapporo is a model to be followed. Sapporo elaborated its own manual titled “The Standards of Installing Braille Blocks for Visually Impaired People.” There are many characteristic roads made of special stones in the central part of Sapporo, so the manual says that Sapporo government will install special Braille blocks in that area, the Sapporo-Shadow-Green-colored Braille blocks. These blocks will help visually impaired people (not completely blind) to recognize Braille blocks easily even if the road is made of atypical materials (Yokoyama and Kido, 1998). This illustrates that local governments’ own manuals can be very meaningful.

The third root cause is the lack of people’s consideration Figures 6a and 6b. Obstacles on Braille Blocks. These pictures for the visually impaired. Nagamatsu points out that obstacles were taken in front of a drugstore in Nerima Ward, Tokyo. If visually on the road are the most annoying for the blind (Nagamatsu, impaired people turn left by following the blocks, they will walk into the drugstore’s shelf. The enlarged picture (right) shows that there are 1990). This problem would be solved if all people were warning blocks under the display rack, but the warning block does considerate to the visually impaired. In the case of Figure 6, not work in this case. Photo by the author. the drugstore owner can solve the problem immediately by moving the rack. We all should be careful of the effects our Figures 6a and 6b were taken in front of a drugstore in behavior might have on visually impaired people, especially Nerima Ward, Tokyo. If visually impaired people turn left by when we park our bicycles. following the blocks, they will walk into the drugstore’s shelf. The enlarged picture (right) shows that there are warning Comments from the professor blocks under the display rack, but the warning block does not work in this case. Nobuya Aoki’s essay on Braille blocks demonstrates the virtues of “pounding the pavement” – which is to say, following one’s Thus, the main problems with Braille blocks in Japan are curiosities and one’s own two feet into the world, to observe and dangerous situations created around Braille blocks and the to document. “Original research” can be one of the most intim- lack of maintenance of Braille blocks. There are also worse idating features of academic writing, even for advanced learn- cases than generally expected. In the next section, I will ers. Aoki’s essay, in weaving his observations and ideas with analyze the root cause of these problems. those of others, shows us that original research can simply be another form of conversation, within a community of inquiry The Root Cause and Possible Solutions and social responsibility. I will explain the root cause of the poor condition of Braille blocks, as represented in Figures 1-6. The root cause can be Catherine Hansen classified into three points, which are all a lack of something.

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Conclusion I showed some concrete examples of inappropriate Braille blocks found in Japan and analyzed the root cause of these situations by dividing the problems into three points: the lack of maintenance by the local government, the absence of local governments’ own standards of Braille blocks installation, and the lack of people’s consideration for the visually impaired. Overall, I strongly recommend that local governments should elaborate an online system to gather opinions from visually impaired people and put together their own manuals. In addition, if Japanese people were more considerate to the visually impaired, obstacles on Braille blocks would disappear.

When we walk outside, we can easily find Braille blocks everywhere, but most Japanese people do not know much about Braille blocks. However, Braille blocks are a very important resource to help visually impaired people. It is necessary that governments and all Japanese citizens should take some actions to help them.

References Carroll, Thomas J. (Higuchi Masazumi, trans.). (1997). Blind- ness: what it is, what it does, and how to live with it. National Committee of Welfare for the Blind in Japan. (Original work published 1961).

Iwai, Yasunori. (2013). Inappropriate Braille Blocks. Retrieved from https://iwai-y.jp/activity201302_2.html.

Nagamatsu, Yoshihiro. (1990). A Study on Daily Behavior of the Blind. Japanese Institute of Landscape Architecture Magazine, 54(5) (1990), 341–346.

Tanaka, Naoto, and Iwata, Michiko. (1997). The present situation and problems on the tactile warning blocks from the viewpoint of constructors and users. Architectural Institute of Japan, 502, 179–186.

Tokuda, Katsumi and Mizuno Tomomi (2011). Braille Blocks: for the safety of the visually disabled. Fukumura Publishing.

Yokoyama, Tetsu, and Kido, Hiroshi. (1998). How to set the color of the guiding blocks (bumpy tiles) for the blind and people with low vision. Infrastructure Planning Studies and Reports 15.

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The Role of the Internet in the Umbrella Revolution

Shuhei Onozaki

Introduction responses to this activism dampened the effectiveness of the man stands still with his arms up in the air holding Internet and other digital tools in advancing the movement. A umbrellas amid the fog of tear gas. This striking image Based on this analysis, this paper argues that the Internet on the cover of TIME on October 13, 2014, which features featured less prominently in the Umbrella Revolution than the Umbrella Revolution in Hong Kong, caught the attention has been assumed and ultimately even contributed to the of the world. Throughout the Umbrella Revolution, pro-de- movement’s demise. mocracy protesters occupied Hong Kong’s city center for 79 days—from September 26 until December 15, 2014—until the The Division of Movement Participants authorities cleared up the area. The protestors called for trans- The use of the Internet by activists as a means of providing parent elections after a decision by the Standing Commit- momentum to social movements leads to the division of tee of the National People’s Congress in China regarding the participants, which makes joint actions of the protesters the election of the Hong Kong Chief Executive in 2017. The vulnerable and less effective. Van Laer (2010) analyzes indi- leaders of the movement were young activists, hailed by the vidual-level data of multiple social movements’ participants international media for having utilized the Internet and other in Belgium. While some of these participants obtained infor- digital tools (mobile phones, social media, etc.) effectively in mation about forthcoming demonstrations online, others promoting the movement. became aware of such events through other means. Van Laer concludes that the Internet was mainly employed by “superactivists” who were more likely to be well-educated, experienced, and young, and that it reinforced participation inequalities. In other words, the Internet turns out to be a powerful tool for ardent protesters, but it often hinders the participation and marginalizes the influence of those who are less educated, relatively older, and have less experience in social protests. As a result, the composition of the protesters becomes more distorted.

Van Laer’s theory can be applied to the Umbrella Revo- lution. In fact, Chan (2019) notes that “[the Umbrella] Move- ment had support from certain groups [i.e. young activists] but not across the board.” This description adequately illustrates the disparity of the protesters caused by the use of online tools that occurred during this movement. According to a poll conducted by the Chinese University of Hong Kong at the height of the protests in October 2014, only 7.7 per cent did not support the Umbrella Revolution among the respondents aged 15–24 compared to 44.7 percent among those aged 40–59 (So, 2014). This statistic further demonstrates the gap between fervent young activists and ordinary middle- Figure 1. Time magazine cover, October 13, 2014. Source: time.com. aged citizens in Hong Kong. Furthermore, Agur and Frisch (2019) suggest that the movement leaders’ attempts on social media to gain support from a broader range of people ulti- This essay, however, aims to question the commonly held mately proved to be an obstacle in persuading older and assumption that the Internet played a pivotal role in orga- less educated people to back the movement. In this case, the nizing and sustaining the Umbrella Movement. It begins by Internet could not serve as a successful means to overcome discussing the division of the movement participants fostered the gap between the generations despite the devoted efforts by the Internet. Secondly, the emergence of “slacktivism” of the young protest leaders. Therefore, it can be argued that in the Umbrella Revolution, which often involves very little the Internet was not an effective method to form a move- effort or commitment of the participants, is explained. Finally, ment composed by people of different social classes and it is suggested that the improvement in the government’s from distinct backgrounds.

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Problems with Slacktivism Slacktivism, which often involves only weak ties between Comments from the professor participants, turns out to be quite fruitless in social movements, as reflected during the Umbrella Revolution. Accord- Shuhei Onozaki’s essay examines the subtler ramifications of ing to the Oxford Dictionary of English, slacktivism, the term digital activism in socio-political movements by focusing on often cited in the context of political movements, is defined Hong Kong’s Umbrella Revolution in 2014. By drawing on theo- as “the practice of supporting a political or social cause by retical concepts and engaging with the academic literature in means such as social media or online petitions, character- the social sciences, Shuhei crafts a sophisticated analysis that ized as involving very little effort or commitment” (Stevenson, successfully challenges the prevailing views of the Internet’s role 2010). In other words, slacktivism refers to the condition in in protest movements over the past decade. His essay provides which people use the Internet to support a particular political the reader with an original perspective on the topic through an or social position and leads to weak bonds between partic- in-depth discussion of the limitations and potential problems ipants which usually exist only online. In this regard, Glad- of digital activism, an issue that is often overlooked by the well (2010) suggests that relationships and bonds in a real media and scholarship. world are crucial in sustaining a social movement, which social media activism essentially lacks. Social movements relying on Eric Vanden Bussche digital tools are often unable to build and sustain strong mobilizations since they are usually based on weak ties. Therefore, given that slacktivism fails to forge strong bonds between statistical correlation between slacktivism and the low prob- protesters, this practice has shown to be inadequate in social ability of growth in the number of participants in a movement campaigns. (Bozarth and Budak, 2017). This suggests that slacktivism is not only ineffective in social campaigns, but it also triggers adverse effects in sustaining effective social movement by causing divisions among the protesters who are using the Internet. While it might seem attractive to assume that slacktivism positively contributes to social movements by making it easier for ordinary citizens to participate, the drawbacks of slacktivism tend to undermine rather than strengthen these movements.

The Government’s Response Throughout the Umbrella Revolution, protesters drew upon new technologies and social media platforms. According to Fang (2014), protesters employed drones to film images of the protest to attract international attention, communicated through the offline Chat App which could still be accessed even in the event of an Internet shutdown, and projected encouraging messages from supporters abroad on electronic billboards on the streets. Aware that the Chinese authorities would monitor social media platforms, protesters engaged with different forms of new technologies, at times quite successfully as they were able to overcome the countermea- sures of the Hong Kong police, in particular during the early days of the protests. It might seem attractive to assume that the Internet and new technologies were masterfully utilized by protesters in the Umbrella Revolution. However, the protesters faced the more experienced and generously funded security apparatus of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), which eventually also showed to be well-versed in these new technologies. Figure 2. Protesters occupy the streets of Hong Kong during the Umbrella movement. Photo by Pasu Au Yeung, licensed under CC The response from the Chinese security forces proved BY-NC-SA 2.0. crucial in reducing the effectiveness of the protesters’ digital tools. Tsui (2015) argues that while it cannot be denied In addition, slacktivism also has detrimental effects on that protesters in the movement utilized a number of digi- social mobilizations. Bozarth and Budak (2017) suggest that tal tools efficiently, the coordinated action of the PRC and slacktivism, unlike devoted actions, discourage people from Hong Kong security forces enabled them to become better participating in a movement. The authors investigated approx- acquainted with their uses. As the security forces overcame imately 49.5 million tweets in more than 80 different move- the initial obstacles in understanding how the protesters ments, including the Umbrella Revolution and identified a sought to take advantage of new digital tools, they even

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employed them to undermine the movement. To illustrate As another wave of protests spread through Hong Kong this point, Tsui cites the example of a Distributed Denial of in 2019, participants were forced to re-evaluate their use of Service Attack (DDoS) against pro-government websites coor- digital tools based on their experiences in the failed Umbrella dinated by Anonymous, a cyber group that supported the Revolution. Although they have embraced digital activism, protesters. Through this kind of attack, which consists of over- protesters have also become aware of the limitations and whelming a webpage with more traffic than it can handle, the potential dangers of social media and other online resources. cyber group attempted to bring down government websites, While the Internet has transformed the nature of social move- making them inaccessible. However, the government secu- ments worldwide during the past decade, the Umbrella Revo- rity forces are also known to use “paid trolls” to flood online lution has challenged simplistic views on the role of digital spaces. During the protests, the security forces used the same tools in street protests and other campaigns to promote social digital tactics as the protesters, launching an avalanche of and political change. attacks against websites sympathetic to the Umbrella Revo- lution (Tsui, 2015). In addition, according to Agur and Frisch References (2019), the government resorted to Facebook and traditional Agur, C., & Frisch, N. (2019). Digital disobedience and the media such as television and radio to promote a negative limits of persuasion: Social media activism in Hong Kong’s image of the movement among the Hong Kong citizens by 2014 Umbrella Movement. Social Media+Society, 5(1). highlighting its economic and social dangers to the city. This effort succeeded at further widening the disconnect between Bozarth, L., & Budak, C. (2017, May). Is Slacktivism Underrated? the generations, which is widely blamed as one of the major Measuring the Value of Slacktivists for Online Social Move- factors for the Umbrella Revolution’s collapse (Agur and Frisch, ments. In Eleventh International AAAI Conference on Web 2019). Throughout the protests, the government attempted to and Social Media. rely on traditional media and digital tools rather than force to weaken and gradually dismantle the movement. Chan, Y. Y. (2019, June 15). Why Hong Kong Is Still Marching: Yes, the extradition bill has been suspended. No, that will not be enough. The New York Times. Retrieved October 29, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/15/opinion/ hong-kong-extradition-protests.html.

Fang, K. (2014, October 3). New Media Technologies in Hong Kong’s Umbrella Revolution. Center for Global Communi- cation Studies, the Annenberg School for Communication at University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved December 18, 2019, from https://global.asc.upenn.edu/new-media-technologies-in-hong-kongs-umbrella-revolution/.

Gladwell, M. (2010, October 4). Small change. The New Yorker, 42–49.

Figure 3. Signs supporting the Umbrella Movement in 2014. Photo by Hong Kong Stands Up. (2014, October 13). TIME. Leung China Yau Alex, licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. So, P. (2014, October 22). Public Support for Occupy move- Conclusion ment growing, survey shows. South China Morning Post. It has been claimed that the Internet served as a powerful Retrieved October 29, 2019, from https://www.scmp.com/ tool during the Umbrella Revolution, especially in forming news/hong-kong/article/1622223/occupy-movement-con- and coordinating the movement. This essay, however, has tinuing-gain-momentum-survey-shows. argued that the Internet can turn out to be less effective in social mobilization campaigns than we expect, as evidenced Stevenson, A. (Ed.). (2010). Oxford Dictionary of English. by its relatively minor role in the Umbrella Revolution. From Oxford University Press. the participants’ point of view, the Internet did not function effectively as a means for the mobilization of inexperienced Tsui, L. (2015). The coming colonization of Hong Kong cyber- citizens, which led to the participation inequality and widened space: government responses to the use of new tech- the gap between generations. In addition, slacktivism, which nologies by the umbrella movement. Chinese Journal of usually only manages to forge very tenuous bonds among Communication, 8(4), 1–9. the participants in the real world, weakened the movement and failed to fuel its growth. It also stifled its momentum by Van Laer, J. (2010). Activists online and offline: The internet as discouraging people to take part in it. As the government an information channel for protest demonstrations. Mobi- better understood how the protesters employed digital tools lization: An International Quarterly, 15(3), 347–366. to promote their cause, the security forces became more prepared to neutralize the role of these technologies and employ them to undermine the movement.

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The Role of ICT in Africa’s Sustainable Development

Yuki Ito

Introduction taking over the land for their own use or by subordinating ne in three Africans lives below the global poverty line Africans and forcing them into labor. This discouraged the O (Hamel, 2019) and 70% of the world’s poorest people African people from establishing their own economic struc- live in Africa (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United ture and, decades after independence, many countries still Nations, 2020). Due to its lack of food, education, and infra- depend on the production of commercial crops, a structure structure, Africa is often referred to in the context of poverty established by their sovereign states. According to the UN and underdevelopment. This underdevelopment is derived Conference of Trade and Development (2003), many Afri- from the vulnerable economic structure that has existed since can countries were dependent upon a single commodity for colonization, and in order to achieve sustainable develop- exports in 2003. Furthermore, according to Bond (2006), 80% ment, a new economic structure relevant to today’s soci- of African exports were accounted for by natural resources in ety must be established. This paper examines Information 2000. These statistics imply that the monocultural industrial and Communication Technology (ICT) as a new industrial structures established through colonization still remain in the platform and argues that ICT is a fundamental platform for twenty-first century. unstable economies in Africa to enable sustainable development through diversification. This paper defines ICT as technology that enables the communication of information through various telecommunication mediums and networks. It first analyzes the causes of the current underdevelopment of Africa by focusing on how European colonization organized Africa’s economic structure. Secondly, it discusses the industrial diversification and sophistication brought about through ICT, examining the example of FinTech and medical supply transportation. Finally, it brings up the question of the possibility of promoting ICT under the absence of a technology environment and concludes that, despite the need to secure a stronger technology environment, it is more feasible compared to establishing other infrastructure.

Figure 1. Transform Africa Summit 2013. Photo by the government of Colonization as a Cause of Underdevelopment Rwanda, licensed under CC BY-ND 2.0. The European colonization of Africa has left a great impact on the industrial structure of many African nations. The occupa- These economic structures, dependent upon a single or tion of Africa by European countries began in the 1870s led few raw materials for exports, have contributed to the under- by Great Britain’s exploration of inland Africa, at the time still development of many countries in Africa. First of all, accord- an unknown territory to the Europeans. Other European coun- ing to Bond (2006), economies dependent on few products tries followed, soon turning Africa into a divided subordinate are vulnerable and easily affected by the decrease in price territory of Europe, despite various forms of resistance by trends and price volatility. Along with the global advancement Africans. By the early twentieth century, the entire continent of in manufactured goods, the values of raw materials many Afri- Africa—with the exception of Liberia and Ethiopia—had been can countries rely on have stagnated, and these values fluc- colonized by European powers. Iweriebor (2011) emphasizes tuate easily reflecting global import demand or economic that “The imperatives of capitalist industrialization— including conditions. Bond adds that the production of raw materials the demand for assured sources of raw materials, the search relies on capital investment rather than sophisticated human for guaranteed markets and profitable investment outlets— resources and mentions that this results in low incentives for spurred the European scramble and the partition and even- educational investments and encourages the monopoly of tual conquest of Africa” (para. 2). Basically, Iweriebor argues business by a fixed group of rich rentiers, hindering the devel- that the undeveloped land of Africa was placed under the rule opment of sophisticated and advanced industries. Therefore, of Europe to fulfill its need regarding its rapid industrialization. in order to break away from the current vulnerability and Iwaki (1983) states that during this period, the African terri- develop sustainable industries, industrial diversification and tory was turned into an area for the production of commer- the establishment of a more advanced economic structure cial crops aimed to be sold in Europe, either by Europeans is necessary.

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ICT usage in African Industries The use of ICT in the African economy has increased in recent Comments from the professor years, bringing about industrial diversification and sophistication. One area that has grown with the usage of ICT is Yuki Ito presents an organized, eloquent, and incredibly finance. Financial technology, often referred to as FinTech, is persuasive argument of how Information and Communica- defined by the Financial Stability Board (2017) as technologi- tion Technology (ICT) can promote sustainable development cally enabled financial innovation and has significantly trans- in sub-Saharan Africa. She conducted thorough background formed the financial sector, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. A research on the European colonization of Africa and the member of the International Monetary Fund, Amadou (2019) current issues faced by sub-Saharan communities. As a result, states that due to underinvestment, poor infrastructure, and she was able to persuasively argue the impact made by ICT and comparatively low levels of financial literacy, sub-Saharan its future potential in the area. She not only chose an important Africa has been underbanked, with only 20% of the popula- topic, but also composed the essay with extreme clarity and tion possessing a bank account whereas the average rate is organization. Reading this paper was a tremendous joy. 92% in advanced economies and 38% in non-advanced economies. However, Amadou goes on, FinTech has introduced Aurora Tsai mobile money which enables transactions without a centralized bank account, and close to 20% of GDP in transactions are occurring through mobile money in sub-Saharan Africa, whereas the rate is less than 10% in other regions around ordering the medical supplies and launching technology to the world. Figure 2 shows four indicators concerning mobile safely fly the drones. They state that blood shortages have money. It can be observed that sub-Saharan Africa leads the been a severe issue in Africa, owing to accidents, anemia world in all four indicators. Amadou claims that “FinTech is caused by malaria, pregnancy-related causes, along with not only helping improve financial inclusion in the region, but the lack of infrastructure such as roads and the absence of it also serves as a catalyst for the emergence of innovations a national blood transfusion system. According to McCall in other sectors, such as agriculture and infrastructure, which (2019), Zipline has delivered approximately 8000 units of promotes economic growth and development” (p. 12). In other blood since 2016, resulting in a 175% increase in access to words, ICT usage in the financial sector not only encourages rare blood products. Ling and Draghic mention that Zipline growth in the financial sector but also in other industries, stim- has contributed to “emergency lifesaving situations” (p. 1609) ulating industrial diversification. and at the same time has systematized an effective medical supply chain for the region.

ICT is also prompting significant development in numerous other industries in Africa such as education, agriculture, and transportation, at times leaving other wealthier regions behind. McCall states that “This phenomenon is known as leapfrogging, which alludes to the way developing countries skip the gradual process of technological evolution and adoption seen in developed countries and leapfrog over these gradual steps to rapid adoption of novel devices and systems” (p. 17). He also emphasizes that this occurs “in a context of extreme human need and an unforgiving geography and transport network” (p. 17). In other words, Africa’s current underdevelopment can be seen as an immense potential for further development in ICT-related industries. It can be predicted that ICT will continue to assist African economies shift from their existing monocultural economic structures to more diverse and sustainable structures.

Feasibility of ICT Some readers may question the possibility of promoting ICT Figure 2. Mobile Money Indicators (IMF Financial Access Survey, 2017). usage in Africa considering the lack of technology environment under the current situation of underdevelopment. In fact, ICT usage has also provoked immense growth in the medi- according to an estimation by the International Telecommuni- cal field in Africa. For example, Zipline is a company based cation Union (2019), the percentage of individuals using the in San Francisco that launched a drone delivery operation in Internet in Africa is 28.2%, whereas the world average is 53.6% Rwanda in 2016 and extended its services to Ghana in 2019. and the average in advanced countries is 86.6%. While it is According to Demuyakor (2020), it mainly delivers blood true that the penetration rate of technology such as the Inter- products as well as vaccines and other forms of medicine net is low in Africa, considering the lack of other infrastructure, to health facilities. Ling and Draghic (2018) note that Zipline it is much more feasible to disseminate ICT. Matsushita (2009) involves online communication such as text messaging for states that many developing countries lack infrastructure such

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as roads and railways, and in addition to a simple lack of state Demuyakor, J. (2020). Ghana Go Digital Agenda: The Impact capital, developing infrastructure could cost huge amounts of of Zipline Drone Technology on Digital Emergency money depending on geographic conditions. Matsushita also Health Delivery in Ghana. Shanlax International Journal argues that, in countries with low levels of education and liter- of Arts, Science and Humanities, 8(1), 242–253. https://doi. acy rates, continuous maintenance of infrastructure would be org/10.34293/sijash.v8i1.3301. difficult; for this reason, there is little possibility for economic development that relies on infrastructure-based industries FAO, ECA, & AUC. (2020). Africa Regional Overview of Food such as manufacturing, the process current advanced coun- Security and Nutrition 2019. Regional Overview of Food tries went through. On the other hand, she mentions that the Insecurity, Africa. https://doi.org/10.4060/CA7343EN. Internet can easily be introduced even in countries with poor infrastructure and therefore concludes that it possesses an Financial Stability Board. (2017, June 27). Financial Stability immense potential for the economic advancement of devel- Implications from FinTech - Supervisory and Regulatory oping countries. This shows that building and managing new Issues that Merit Authorities’ Attention. Retrieved July infrastructure in developing countries could be costly and 16, 2020, from https://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/ difficult, whereas introducing the Internet would be more R270617.pdf. feasible. Therefore, in Africa, where the lack of infrastructure is an immense issue, the use of ICT, based on the Internet, is Hamel, K., Tong, B., & Hofer, M. (2019, March 28). an efficient platform for economic development. Poverty in Africa is now falling—but not fast enough. Retrieved July 16, 2020, from https://www.brook- Conclusion ings.edu/blog/future-development/2019/03/28/ ICT has the potential of leading African countries to enable poverty-in-africa-is-now-falling-but-not-fast-enough/. sustainable development as a fundamental platform. From the late nineteenth to the twentieth century, European countries International Telecommunication Union. (n.d.). Measuring colonized Africa, turning it into territory for commercial crops Digital Development Facts and Figures 2019. Retrieved production. The monocultural industrial structure established July 16, 2020, from https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/ during this period still remains today, serving as a significant Documents/facts/FactsFigures2019.pdf. cause of economic vulnerability and underdevelopment. In recent years, ICT has been paid attention to as a platform to Iwaki. G. [岩城剛]. (1983). Afurika keizai to kaihatsu seisaku enable industrial diversification and sophistication which are no hensen [アフリカ経済と開発政策の変遷]. Afurika kenkyu indispensable for Africa’s sustainable development. ICT has [アフリカ研究], 1983(23), 50–69. https://doi.org/10.11619/ already prompted dramatic growth in some fields, including africa1964.1983.50. the financial sector in which Africa has come to lead the world in mobile money transactions through the new concept of Iweriebor E. (2011). The Colonization of Africa. Retrieved July FinTech, and the medical field in which innovative measures 16, 2020, from http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/ have been invented to systemize the region’s medical supply essay-colonization-of-africa.html. chain. Although the establishment of a secure technology environment such as the Internet is necessary for the promo- Ling, G., & Draghic, N. (2018). Aerial Drones For Blood Deliv- tion of ICT usage in Africa, it is more feasible compared to ery. Transfusion, 59(S2), 1608–1611. doi:10.1111/trf.15195. the process of building and managing new infrastructure that would be necessary in infrastructure-based industries. There- Matsushita, M. [松下倫子]. (2009). Kaihatsu tojokoku ni okeru fore, it can be concluded that the implementation of the ICT joho kanko to joho sangyo shinko −betonamu, neparu, platform is an efficient and effective way for many African banguradeshu no jirei kara− [開発途上国における情報環 countries to break away from its current vulnerable economic 境と情報産業振興 −ベトナム、ネパール、バングラデシュの state and enable sustainable development. Through the 事例から−] , Informational Environment and IS Industry economic development brought about by the implemen- Promotion in Developing Countries: Cases of Vietnam, tation of the ICT platform, not only will the millions of Afri- Nepal, and Bangladesh. Abstracts of Annual Conference cans currently suffering from poverty and underdevelopment of Japan Society for Management Information, 2009s(0), be able to improve their lives, but leapfrogging may enable 15–15. doi:10.11497/jasmine.2009s.0.15.0. Africa to become the next leader of the global economy with infinite potential for innovation and growth. McCall, B. (2019). Sub-Saharan Africa leads the way in medical drones. The Lancet, 393(10166), 17–18. doi:10.1016/ References S0140-6736(18)33253-7. Amadou, S., Maino, R., Massara, A., Perez-Saiz, H., & Sharma, P. (2019). FinTech in Sub-Saharan African Countries: A Game Changer? Departmental Paper, 19(04), 1–51.

Bond, P. (2006). Resource Extraction and African Underde- velopment. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 17(2), 5–25. doi: 10.1080=10455750600704430.

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Should Sri Lanka Hold a Referendum to Determine its Future Relationship with Chinese Investment?

Luana Ichinose

Introduction Initiative, accompanied by economic investment up to $12.1 he island nation of Sri Lanka lies in the midst of the debate billion between 2006 and July 2019 (Wignaraja, Panditaratne, T about whether Beijing’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is an Kannangara, & Hundlani, 2020). endeavor for cooperative growth or a debt trap in disguise. With an advantageous location for China to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean, the country is one of the BRI’s biggest beneficiaries, having more than US$12 billion invested into large-scale infrastructure projects (Wignaraja, Pandi- taratne, Kannangara, & Hundlani, 2020). One such promising project was the construction of Hambantota Port, a central policy for now-former President Rajapaksa. Despite feasibility studies being against the idea and frequent lenders like India refusing to fund the project, China proved an invaluable ally by funding the project and allocating the China Harbor Engineering Country for its construction (Abi-Habib, 2018). All seemed well until 2017 when, facing mounting debts of over Figure 1. ”Leaders of Sri Lanka and China commence work of the $8 billion, Colombo handed the port and surrounding land “Colombo Port City.” over to Beijing on a 99-year lease. This was an indication that such generous loans did not come without consequences The influx of investment has not been without controversy. and a wake-up call for Colombo to reevaluate its relationship A notable example is the aforementioned issue of the stra- with the BRI. tegically placed Hambantota Port, which Sri Lanka handed to China on a 99-year lease in an attempt to diminish debts. This paper will focus specifically on the idea of a refer- Critics consider this event to be representative of Beijing’s endum being used to decide on Sri Lanka’s future relation- “predatory economics and debt-for-sovereignty deals,” as ship with the BRI, as opposed to the status quo where most noted by U.S. Defense Secretary Mark Esper (Schultz, 2017; decision-making is done by elected representatives. It first Ali & Packham, 2019). The shock of this event also spread to explains the impact of Chinese investment in Sri Lanka, then Sri Lankan citizens, culminating in a violent clash between progresses to a discussion of possible reasons to favor a refer- protesters and police (Aneez, 2017). Moreover, Sri Lanka is endum, analyzing factors such as the press and education. currently listed as one of the 23 countries “significantly or The next section uses this data to make the reverse argument: highly vulnerable to debt distress” by the Center for Global that Sri Lanka is unable to ensure a universally informed vote Development (Hurley, Morris, & Portelance, 2018). amongst its citizens, and a referendum carries the risk of exac- erbating conflict between the Sinhala and Tamil population. Many countries have held referendums to determine Ultimately, the paper concludes in opposition to a referendum. their strategy regarding such controversial topics. Examples include the United Kingdom’s 2016 referendum to leave the Background European Union and Hungary’s 2016 referendum on migrant Referendums are becoming an increasingly viable option quotas. Sri Lanka could very well head in a similar direction for Sri Lankan democracy. The country has just recently when choosing whether to continue accepting a large amount entered a period of relative peace, after a 25-year civil war of Chinese funds or to diversify its funding sources. between the Sinhala majority government and the Tamil minority insurgency (Central Intelligence Agency, 2020). This This referendum would have significant diplomatic conse- newfound stability is partly due to China’s newfound interest quences, aside from the obvious impact on Beijing. Sri Lanka in the nation as a cornerstone of its maritime Belt and Road is strategically located in the Indian Ocean amidst the world’s

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in South Asia (Central Intelligence Agency, 2020). There are Comments from the professor also national newspapers for each of the aforementioned languages—namely the Divaina in Sinhala, Thinakaran in Tamil, In this essay, Luana Ichinose presents an insightful and well-re- and the Daily News in English—thus ameliorating the possi- searched argument against the referendum about Chinese bility of language becoming a barrier to information. Turn- investment in Sri Lanka. Ms. Ichinose successfully challenges out in the 2019 presidential election was at 83.72% (Election the seemingly democratic nature of the referendum with rele- Commission of Sri Lanka, 2019), suggesting that many Sri vant evidence specific to the case. The essay is also clearly writ- Lankans are already politically involved. This number also well ten with a smooth logical flow. surpasses the two-thirds that are required by the Constitution of Sri Lanka (1978) to render a vote effective. Akiko Katayama Arguments Against a Referendum However, a deeper analysis of statistics reveals strong reasons major sea-lanes and choke points, making the country’s stabil- to oppose a referendum or to consider it premature. The first ity an issue of global concern (Waidyatilake, 2018). In partic- argument against a referendum is the lack of informed choice ular, India could view this referendum as an opportunity to amongst the voting base, implying that a theoretical enfran- expand its presence in Sri Lanka. India is a vital economic ally chisement does not fully translate into actual enfranchisement. of Sri Lanka, making investments such as the construction of Informed choice refers to the ability of a voter to know the the Eastern Container Terminal, and the Bank of India’s Line of subject matter of the referendum and vote based on poli- Credit Project which provided $1.8 billion concessional financ- cies, instead of outside factors like campaign expenses (Baron, ing (High Commission of India, Colombo, 2020; Haidar, 2020). 1994). If Sri Lanka were to hold a referendum on Chinese Moreover, Sino-Indian relations continue to be strained as investment, there would likely be an alienation of knowledge, the two rapidly developing nations compete for influence in most prominent in the north and east regions where educa- South Asia (Jain, 2007). If Sri Lanka decides to distance itself tional infrastructure has been significantly damaged by war. from China, it would be a significant advantage for India’s Although the overall Sri Lankan education rate is high, this sphere of influence. masks the fact that while urban and middle-class citizens have high access to education, rural and estate residents in lower A national referendum generally refers to a form of voting economic sectors are much less likely to have access to a where all citizens are given the right to express whether they full compulsory education (Baker, 1988; UNICEF Sri Lanka, agree with a topic of national importance (Britannica, 2019). 2013). The civil war disrupted the education of many chil- There are referendums that are legislatively binding and those dren, especially those in the northern and eastern regions that are consultative; this paper will refer to the former. Suffi- with large Tamil populations, by demolishing schools, displac- cient democratic infrastructure will increase the likelihood of ing students, and rendering families financially incapable of a fair and effective referendum while minimizing disenfran- affording classes (Hart, 2002). This was further worsened by chisement. In this regard, the Venice Commission’s “Code of the 2004 tsunami which displaced over a million people Good Practice on Referendums” (2006) cites the principles (Earnest & Finger, 2006). While this is not a referendum-spe- of universal, equal, free, and secret suffrage as necessary for cific issue, the educational disenfranchisement of such citizens a functional referendum. These are enabled through, among greatly threatens a universally informed vote. other factors, nationwide political awareness and free media. Regarding older generations for whom the war did not Reasons to Support a Referendum directly disrupt their education, the literacy rate wavers Proponents could very well hold the view that the referen- around 80%, low compared to the national standard of dum is a cornerstone of democracy, and that Sri Lanka can 91.9% (UNESCO, 2018). This issue is likely to persist as it is adequately ensure that citizens have an informed vote. A refer- difficult to educate adults who are no longer in school, and endum is the most direct way to ensure that all citizens are because a 2018 census revealed that only 29% of Sri Lankans enfranchised on an issue of national importance, as opposed have computer literacy (Department of Census and Statistics, to a more complicated representative system where minority 2018), hindering further attempts at education such as added votes are often uncounted. Mendelsohn and Cutler (2000) information through online election booklets. The probable concluded that referendums lead to “a significant increase in outcome is that a significant sector of voters, specifically voters’ sense of informedness,” empowering citizens to feel residents of war-stricken impoverished regions and older more included and powerful in their country’s politics. The generations, will not be able to understand the full context issue of Chinese funds also has local consequences connect- of Chinese funding, thus casting a vote based on insufficient ing directly to people’s livelihoods, such as employment on knowledge. infrastructure projects. The second argument against a referendum is that it would Additionally, Sri Lanka seems on the surface to possess a exacerbate conflicts between the Sinhala and Tamil popula- sociopolitical system fit for a referendum. Compulsory educa- tions. Referendums are, in nature, divisive. Issues are often tion up to age 16 is provided in Sinhala, Tamil, and English, simplified into two conflicting sides, often pitting the popu- out of a concern for minority education (D’Souza & Moore, lace against each other (Taub & Fisher, 2016; Sartori, 1987). It 2017). As of 2017, the literacy rate is 91.9%, one of the highest is especially the case when the populace is not adequately

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informed on the issue and political messaging based on deciding Sri Lanka’s future relationship with Chinese invest- stereotypes and simplifications becomes a crucial tool to influ- ment. This is firstly due to the disparity in education, specif- ence public opinion. Often this culminates in an increase in ically disadvantaging those in lower socioeconomic sectors, citizen-level hatred. For example, after Britain voted to quit which makes it difficult to ensure that citizens have a univer- the European Union, race and religion-based hate crimes in sally informed vote. Secondly, a referendum carries the risk of England and Wales rose by 41% (Corcoran & Smith, 2016). escalating conflict between the Sinhala and Tamil population, which would be particularly dangerous if the regional interests of China and India also interfered in the referendum. Thus, in regard to the topic of Chinese investment, more appropriate solutions may come from elected representatives or an expert panel. A referendum could be feasible for future topics if Sri Lanka were able to adequately educate its voter base through universal education and widely accessible media and ameliorate ongoing ethnolinguistic tensions.

As a final note, it must be mentioned that every country which has held a referendum has, in some way, fallen short of these requirements. Even the most extensive of poli- Figure 2. Leaders of Sri Lanka and China commence work of the cies cannot fully eliminate educational disparities, and it is “Colombo Port City.” debatable whether academic proficiency is a prerequisite for informedness. Every country has internal conflicts which Sri Lanka’s history of division suggests this would be could have been, and most likely were, escalated by a refer- particularly likely. Sri Lanka’s 2019 election results revealed endum, although perhaps not as severe as the one between that politics continued to be divided across ethnolinguistic the Sinhala and Tamil population. Regardless, many countries lines (Foizee, 2019). One significant reason for this division is have held referendums with varying degrees of success. the aforementioned language-based media sources. A 2012 census found that 80% of Sri Lankans were literate in Sinhala, Thus, a more reasonable conclusion of this paper would 26% in Tamil, and 31% in English (Department of Census & be as follows: Sri Lanka not completely fulfilling the above Statistics, 2012); this signifies an ongoing linguistic divide conditions does not nullify its democracy. Since the conclu- between Sri Lankan people. This divide is also prominent in sion of the civil war, Sri Lanka has made significant strides in governmental sources of information, with many documents education, political enfranchisement, and peace building. This only provided in Sinhala (Eckstein, 2018). For instance, the progress has served to uncover areas where further progress United People’s Freedom Alliance, a large Sri Lankan political could be made, which has led to the recommendations given party, only has Sinhalese and English on its Facebook page, in this paper. A referendum may not be the best choice for the which functions as its official website. Therefore, while the present Sri Lanka, but with thoughtful and inclusive policies news networks and political parties for each language may be it could become a realistic option for the future. successful in disseminating information within their particular sector, their existence exacerbates the difficulty of cross-dis- References course between ethnolinguistic groups. The consequence of Abi-Habib, M. (2018, June 25). How China Got Sri Lanka to a lack of engagement between groups with differing perspec- Cough Up a Port. Retrieved from The New York Times: tives is the creation of echo chambers that polarize opinions https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/25/world/asia/china- and create conflict (Sunstein, 2002). When both sides of sri-lanka-port.html. the issue operate based on their own “echo chambers,” this makes voters vulnerable to manipulation by populist politi- Ali, I., & Packham, C. (2019, August 4). China destabiliz- cians who use societal division to antagonize opponents in ing Indo-Pacific: U.S. Defense Secretary. Retrieved from order to consolidate support. One possibility is that political Reuters: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-austra- differences between the Sinhala and Tamil populations could lia-usa-china/china-destabilizing-indo-pacific-us-de- turn into a proxy conflict between China and India. A likely fense-secretary-idUSKCN1UU045. scenario for this is that Beijing would support the Sinhalese parties which have traditionally welcomed Chinese invest- Aneez, S. (2017, February 2). China’s ‘Silk Road’ push stirs ment, while in turn, New Delhi would ally with Tamil parties resentment and protest in Sri Lanka. Retrieved from due to its sizable Tamil population and the aforementioned Reuters: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sri-lanka-chi- power struggle with China. This would further polarize the na-insight/chinas-silk-road-push-stirs-resentment-and-pro- nation by escalating tensions between Sinhala and Tamil test-in-sri-lanka-idUSKBN15G5UT. groups, and in the worst-case scenario return the country into the past conflict. Baker, V. J. (1988). Schooling and Disadvantage in Sri Lankan and Other Rural Situations. Comparative Education, 24(3), Conclusion 377–388. The above evidence leads to the conclusion that the citizen-level solution of a referendum is not the best method of

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Baron, D. (1994, March). Electoral Competition with Informed from The Hindu: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ and Uninformed Voters. The American Political Science prime-minister-narendra-modi-meets-sri-lanka-prime-min- Review, 88(1), 33–47. ister-mahinda-rajapaksa-in-new-delhi/article30769736.ece.

Britannica, (ed.), (2019). Referendum and initiative. Retrieved Hart, J. (2002). Children & Armed Conflict in Sri Lanka. Oxford: from Encyclopædia Britannica: https://www.britannica. Refugee Studies Center, University of Oxford. com/topic/referendum. High Commission of India, Colombo. (2020, April). India-Sri Central Intelligence Agency. (2020, May 13). Sri Lanka. Lanka Economic And Trade Engagement. Retrieved from Retrieved from The World Factbook: https://www.cia.gov/ https://hcicolombo.gov.in/Economic_Trade_Engagement. library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html. Hurley, J., Morris, S., & Portelance, G. (2018, March). Examining Corcoran, H., & Smith, K. (2016, October 13). Hate Crime, the Debt Implications of the Belt and Road Initiative from England and Wales, 2015/16. Retrieved from UK Statis- a Policy Perspective. Washington DC: Center for Global tics Authority: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ Development. government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ file/559319/hate-crime-1516-hosb1116.pdf. Jain, B. (2007, January 24). India–China relations: issues and emerging trends. The Commonwealth Journal of Interna- Department of Census & Statistics. (2012). Census of Popula- tional Affairs, 93(374), 253–269. tion and Housing 2012. Retrieved from http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/ Mendelsohn, M., & Cutler, F. (2000). The Effect of Referen- FinalReport/FinalReportE.pdf. dums on Democratic Citizens: Information, Politicization, Efficacy and Tolerance. British Journal of Political Science, Department of Census and Statistics. (2018). Sri Lanka Labour 685–698. Force Survey Annual Report - 2018. Retrieved from http:// www.statistics.gov.lk/LabourForce/StaticalInformation/ Sartori, G. (1987). The Theory of Democracy Revisited: Part AnnualReports/2018. One: The Contemporary Debate (Vol. 1). Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. D’Souza, J., & Moore, T. D. (2017, August 16). Education in Sri Lanka. Retrieved from World Education News and Reviews: Schultz, K. (2017, December 12). Sri Lanka, Struggling With https://wenr.wes.org/2017/08/education-in-sri-lanka. Debt, Hands a Major Port to China. Retrieved May 12, 2020, from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes. Earnest, J., & Finger, R. (2006). The Impact of Protracted com/2017/12/12/world/asia/sri-lanka-china-port.html. Conflict on Secondary School Students: A Case Study from North and East Sri Lanka. AARE Annual Conference. Sunstein, C. (2002). The Law of Group Polarization. The Jour- Adelaide. nal of Political Philosophy, 10(2), 175–195.

Eckstein, L. (2018). What Policies Cannot Express: An Exam- Taub, A., & Fisher, M. (2016, October 4). Why Referendums ination of Sri Lanka’s Continuing Inability to Bridge the Aren’t as Democratic as They Seem. Retrieved from The Sinhala-Tamil Ethnolinguistic Divide through National New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/05/ Policies and Programs. Bowdoin Digital Commons, 90. world/americas/colombia-brexit-referendum-farc-camer- Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.bowdoin.edu/ on-santos.html. honorsprojects/90. UNESCO. (2018). Sri Lanka. Retrieved May 28, 2020, from Data Election Commission of Sri Lanka. (2019). 2019 Sri Lanka Pres- for the Sustainable Development Goals: http://uis.unesco. idential Election Results. Retrieved from Election Commis- org/en/country/lk. sion: https://results.elections.gov.lk. UNICEF Sri Lanka. (2013). Out-of-School Children in Sri Lanka: European Commission for Democracy Through Law (Venice Country Study. Colombo: UNICEF. Commission), C. f. (2006, December 16). Code of Good Prac- tice on Referendums. Retrieved from https://www.venice. Waidyatilake, B. (2018). A New Role for Sri Lanka in Asia’s coe.int/webforms/documents/?pdf=CDL-AD(2007)008-e. Changing Geopolitics? Berlin: German Institute for Inter- national and Security Affairs. Foizee, B. (2019, December 13). Sri Lanka’s Election Results Reveal a Divided Country. Retrieved from Wignaraja, G., Panditaratne, D., Kannangara, P., & Hundlani, The Diplomat: https://thediplomat.com/2019/12/ D. (2020). Chinese Investment and the BRI in Sri Lanka. sri-lankas-election-results-reveal-a-divided-country/. London: Chatham House.

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Human Rights in a Data-Driven Society

Naho Komuro

Introduction n 2018, the Chinese government forbade over 17 million Comments from the professor I people from boarding flights or riding trains, according to China’s National Public Credit Information Center. Actress Naho Komuro’s essay engages the reader with a thought-pro- Michelle Ye Xuan was no exception. She was unable to voking discussion of a topic that has captured headlines in board her flight because she had not followed a court order the media and the attention of scholars over the past decade: to delete posts defaming her boyfriend on the social media the threat that technologically advanced surveillance tech- platform Weibo. The ban was finally lifted only after she apolo- niques pose to socio-political institutions worldwide. Through gized to him. All the people barred from boarding flights had an in-depth comparison between a one-party state (China) one thing in common: they had been deemed “untrustworthy” and Western countries, Naho shows how the increased use (失信) by the Chinese regime due to their low social credit of digital surveillance has fueled discrimination and human scores (Weerasekara, 2019, para. 11–13). These scores are part rights violations in both authoritarian and democratic regimes. of the Social Credit System (SCS), a program devised by the The essay’s strength lies in Naho’s skillful synthesis of ideas to Chinese government whose aim is to promote “trustworthy” weave a coherent, focused, and comprehensive analysis of the behavior among individuals and companies by measuring issue. Moreover, her nuanced interpretation of empirical data their socio-economic reputation. demonstrates a strong command of the sources and her talent for research.

Eric Vanden Bussche

are having to cope with the growth of surveillance, making it necessary to implement laws to protect the right to privacy in these countries.

Surveillance in China China has been increasingly surveilling its citizens over the past few years, with the Social Credit System (SCS) as a prominent example of this trend. China’s State Council launched the SCS as an opt-in system in 2014, with the goal of fully implementing it by 2020 (Liang et al., 2018, p. 424). The SCS Figure 1. Surveillance Cameras in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, China. monitors and rates the country’s citizens and companies to Photo by jackhynes, licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. enhance the Chinese government’s ability to impose market regulations and industrial policies. For example, passengers could receive negative ratings if they eat or listen to loud The Chinese government has been using the SCS to music on a train (Shim, 2019, para. 2). Each individual and further strengthen its surveillance and control over domestic organizational participant obtains benefits or receives punish- companies and its population. This essay will examine and ments according to their SCS rating. For example, the score compare the growth in surveillance in China and Western determines whether one can board public transportation, countries over the past five years. This rise in surveillance in their accessibility to medical check-ups, the cost of their elec- both autocratic regimes and democracies around the world tricity bills, and even their visibility on online dating sites (Hall has been occurring without their citizens being fully aware and McCann, 2018, para. 1). China’s SCS not only combines of this phenomenon and the consequences it might bring conventional commercial credit rating with social actions and to their daily lives. This essay begins by providing an over- behavior, but also contains a framework of centralized data view of the SCS and surveillance in China, then introduces the infrastructure for rating, which is why it has been receiving monitoring systems in Western democracies and how they much attention. Velghe (2019, p. 87) argues that the depen- reinforce social security and enhance work efficiency. Finally, dence of big data analytics and artificial intelligence (AI) suits it examines how these systems could affect a person’s right to the government’s “informatization” plan. He also claims that privacy. It will argue that even citizens in Western democracies since the SCS is based on the legitimacy and the morality of

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the actor, it fits the Chinese regime’s “social management” in China. plan. The government is planning to control individuals and companies into acting in accordance to the political objec- Surveillance in Western Democracies tives of the Chinese Communist Party, significantly constrain- In Western democracies, frameworks and technologies ing the freedom of business decision-making and restricting to track and rate citizens have also increased in the past behaviors that the regime deems as illegal or immoral. The few years. Macnish (2014, p. 142) notes that surveillance in SCS has turned into an effective tool for the government to these countries has accelerated especially after the terrorist analyze and control its people. attacks on September 11, 2001, under the pretext of increasing security and protecting their citizens. He also states Those in favor of this system highlight that strengthening that the governments regard personal data not as personal social surveillance helps promote safety, with police keep- property, but as something they must gather, analyze, and ing an eye on lonely streets and people acting in a way that possess if they want to protect their nation. Figure 2 shows will not lower their credit scores. However, it has downsides, the ratio of the continents with the top 50 most surveilled the most obvious problem being the infringement of human cities in the world. The surveillance systems in these cities rights, especially against ethnic minority groups, as observed are supported by AI-powered facial recognition technology. in the government’s recent crackdown on the Uighur Muslims Forty-six percent of the cities are located in Asia, with China in the Xinjiang region in northwestern China. In the name of accounting for around 24% worldwide. The figure shows that fighting terrorism, the Chinese government has forced the 28% are in Europe and 14% in North America. The sixth most Uighurs to provide data such as photos, fingerprints, DNA, surveilled city is London, United Kingdom, which has the tenth blood and voice samples to the police. According to Human highest crime index in Europe. The tenth and thirteenth most Rights Watch, the police carry a smartphone app that auto- surveilled cities are Atlanta and Chicago in the U.S., which matically spots behavior among the local Uighur population have the twelfth and tenth highest crime index in North Amer- that the Chinese Communist Party views as suspicious, such ica, respectively (NUMBEO, 2019). As these numbers illustrate, as growing a beard, leaving one’s house from the back door, surveillance has become part of the routine in many of the or paying frequent visits to a mosque. Sarsenbek Akaruli, a world’s developed countries and that the aim of surveillance native of the Xinjiang city of Ili, was arrested in November in Western countries has been to enhance safety. 2017 and remains in a detention camp for using the banned messaging app WhatsApp on his cellphone. In another case, police arrested Bakitali Nur, a vegetable exporter in the town of Khorgos, for his constant business trips abroad. Nur spent a year in a single room with seven other people, forced to sit on a stool for seventeen hours straight with four cameras monitoring his every move. In this regard, the Uighurs are constantly feeling pressured to act in a way the Chinese Communist Party would approve, since they are regularly being monitored by cameras and smartphone apps (Camp- bell, 2019, para. 9–12). Besides ethnic discrimination, the enhancement of surveillance and the implementation of the SCS has also curtailed freedom of expression. In the past few years, citizens have been reluctant to make any remarks about the government that might be considered critical for fear of lowering their social credit scores. For these reasons, the SCS and other monitoring techniques employed by the Chinese Communist Party should be understood as a means of intim- idating its population.

The majority of Chinese have shown concerns about the risks that the SCS poses to their privacy. A survey in 2016 has revealed that over 70% of the respondents considered privacy breach a critical issue in China. However, there is a clear difference between China and the West in how the two face privacy issues. Samantha Hoffman, a scholar at the Mercator Institute Figure 2. Regions with the top 50 most surveilled cities. Source: for China Studies (MERICS), noted that under China’s Cyber Bischoff, 2019. Security Law, personal data is in fact protected from being misused by companies. However, such protection does not apply to the use of personal data by the Chinese Communist Increasing surveillance has proven effective in certain Party. Unlike Western norms, this does not constitute a viola- aspects of public life. The police in London made their first tion of Chinese law (Yang, 2018, para. 4–7). The ability of the arrest based on these surveillance cameras in 2018. In New public sector, or the government, to intervene in the private Delhi, India, authorities managed to identify 3,000 miss- sector may be the primary cause of the invasion of privacy ing children in just four days during a trial of a new facial

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recognition software. Meanwhile, in Brazil, a drug trafficker spreading to countries in other regions of the world, from was arrested because facial recognition found him at a Latin America to Africa. subway station. Facial recognition technologies may well be enhancing the safety in countries around the world, which explains the rapid increase in the number of surveillance cameras in crime-ridden cities.

Apart from the purpose of curbing crime, personal data is used by enterprises to enhance business efficiency. Schufa, a private credit rating company in Germany, gathers health records and geolocations to determine the right to access credit and health insurance. The New Economics Founda- tion has also reported that the rating systems in the U.K. also analyzes data such as phone usage, rent payment, among others, to filter job applications or determine access to social services (Hall and McCann, 2018, para. 4). The idea of these credit and consumer scores is nothing new. They have been attempting to predict characteristics, habits, or preferences since the 1950s. As sensors collect more information about people’s behavior, statistical analysis has been steadily improving. More importantly, credit scores have become irresistible to many companies and governments for commercial or political reasons, since their desire for accuracy, adequacy, and objectivity continues to grow (Velghe, 2019, p. 88). According to a survey by the National Associa- tion of Professional Background Screeners (2018, p. 5), 95% of organizations worldwide conduct some sort of employment background screening, and 86% screens all full-time employees. In a familiar example, online e-commerce sites such as Amazon developed a system that analyzes consumer behavior and displays advertisements that are likely to interest the consumer (Ragunathan et al., 2015, p. 329). In other words, the analysis of personal data does contribute to business efficiency, which explains its rising demand as rating technologies advance and its accuracy improves.

Surveillance Infringing Human Rights The extreme surveillance in China is gradually but definitely spreading in Western democracies as well. The police in Ecua- dor spend their days watching footage that come from 4,300 cameras across the country on their computer screens to scan Figure 3. Secure Beneath the Watchful Eyes, London, UK. Photo by the streets for drug deals, muggings, and murders. This moni- ToastyKen, licensed under CC BY 2.0. toring is conducted with technology imported from the global capital of surveillance, China. According to the Ecuadorian The U.S. describes the surveillance methods and human- government, the footage goes to the police for manual review rights abuses in China as a “horrific campaign of repression,” only. However, an investigation by the New York Times found and China has long been condemned for its unwillingness that the footage is also accessed by the country’s domestic to adopt international human rights models, the rule of law, intelligence agency, which has a track record of threatening and an unbiased democratic process (Chan, 2013, p. 645). and attacking political opponents (Mozur, Kessel, and Chan, China, however, is not alone in its misuse of personal data for 2019, para. 1–6). These examples show that facial recognition political, commercial, and security purposes. Companies in technology can be used for political purposes even in democ- the U.S. monitor its customers to analyze their consumption racies with the aim of identifying the presence of potential habits. In September of 2017, Equifax, one of the country’s political threats and attacking them. This elimination of oppo- three largest consumer credit reporting agencies, announced sition forces, which is being systemized in China, is a trend it experienced a data breach, impacting the personal data of that shakes the foundations of the democratic institutions in roughly 147 million people. During the presidential campaigns these countries. According to government announcements in of Donald Trump and Senator Ted Cruz in 2016, Cambridge China’s state media, countries such as Ecuador, Bolivia, Vene- Analytica, a political data company, used personal data of zuela, and Angola have adopted similar monitoring systems more than 50 million users on Facebook to provide adver- to those employed by the Chinese government (Mozur, Kessel, tisements that promoted these two candidates. Personal data and Chan, 2019, para. 15). China’s repressive technologies are included the users’ identities, their friends’ networks, and their

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“likes” on Facebook. The most important fact is that this data pace and embodies the risk of unwarranted limitations of was illegally obtained and utilized even though most of those personal freedom depending on how it is employed. To avoid affected had not approved of the use of their personal data sleepwalking toward a digital totalitarian state, new laws that even for academic purposes (Granville, 2018, para. 2–11). In draw the line at companies or governments using the data another example, Edward Snowden revealed in 2013 that arbitrarily for their own sake are needed. the National Security Agency (NSA) in the U.S. collects data from phones, email accounts, and raw Internet communica- References tion from millions of citizens, regardless of whether they are Bischoff, P. (August 15, 2019). The world’s most-surveilled suspected of any crimes. Furthermore, they have captured cities. In comparitech. Retrieved December 11, 2019, suspected terrorists, built secret prisons, carried out inten- from https://www.comparitech.com/vpn-privacy/ sified interrogations, and killed targeted suspects without the-worlds-most-surveilled-cities/. informing the public (Shafer, 2014, para. 1–2). This misuse of personal data infringes upon people’s right to privacy for Campbell, C. (November 21, 2019). The entire system is political and economic purposes, which in principle is simi- designed to suppress us. What the Chinese surveillance lar to the systems in China. state means for the rest of the world. In TIME. Retrieved December 11, 2019, from https://time.com/5735411/ Credit score technologies also have the potential of china-surveillance-privacy-issues/. promoting discrimination. In 2014, for instance, Amazon’s machine learning specialists began employing a computer Chan, P. C. W. (2013). Human rights and democracy with program to review job applicants’ resumes. The company’s Chinese characteristics? Human Rights Law Review, 13(4), experimental hiring system used Artificial Intelligence to rate 645–689. doi:10.1093/hrlr/ngt034. the applicants’ credit score. However, the company realized its system was working with a bias against women, mainly Dastin, J. (October 10. 2018). Amazon scraps secret AI recruit- because the AI was trained by observing past resumes submit- ing tool that showed bias against women. In REUTERS. ted to the company which mostly came from male applicants Retrieved December 25, 2019, from https://www.reuters. (Dastin, 2018). In order to avoid discrimination, legislation that com/article/us-amazon-com-jobs-automation-insight/ requires companies to reveal how algorithms use personal amazon-scraps-secret-ai-recruiting-tool-that-showed-bi- data is needed. as-against-women-idUSKCN1MK08G.

As mentioned above, surveillance and monitoring have Diab, R.S. (2017). Becoming-infrastructure: Datafication, and the potential of promoting discrimination, political repres- Deactivation and the Social Credit System. Journal of Crit- sion, and the invasion of privacy even in Western democ- ical library and Information Studies, 1(1), 1–23. racies. On the other hand, it does function as an effective instrument against crime and allows companies to cater its Granville, K. (March 19, 2018). Facebook and Cambridge products and services more effectively to its consumers. In Analytica: What you need to know as fallout widens. In this regard, banning all surveillance systems would not be The New York Times. Retrieved December 23, 2019, from advisable. Therefore, this essay argues that new laws which https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/face- require companies to disclose algorithms behind the rating book-cambridge-analytica-explained.html. systems have been long overdue if human rights are to be protected. As for governments, with the rapid technologi- Hall, M., and McCann, D. (July 10, 2018). What’s your score? cal changes, it is necessary to regulate the extent in which How discriminatory algorithms control access and oppor- authorities can utilize personal data to ensure the protection tunity. In New Economics Foundation. Retrieved Decem- of people’s rights. Otherwise, as has been the case with the ber 12, 2019, from https://neweconomics.org/2018/07/ current strict surveillance and limitations of rights in China, it whats-your-score. is possible that even officials in Western democracies would take advantage of information, which could undermine their HR.com. (2018). How human resource profession- own political and social institutions. als view the use and effectiveness of background screening methods. Retrieved December Conclusion 25, 2019, from https://pubs.thepbsa.org/pub. In recent years, China has drawn attention for increasing its cfm?id=9E5ED85F-C257-C289-9E8E-A7C7A8C58D00. surveillance, with the best example being the SCS. We are inclined to believe that only authoritarian countries adopt Liang, F., Das, V., Kostyuk, N., and Hussain, M. M. (2018). surveillance systems in order to control their people. However, Constructing a data-driven society: China’s social credit there are also many democracies worldwide that are moni- system as a state surveillance infrastructure. Policy and toring its citizens, who are unaware of this reality. Surveillance Internet, 10(4), 415-453. doi: 10.1002/poi3.183. has the advantage to serve as a means to combat crime and promote business and commercial practices, so it would Macnish, K. (2014). Just surveillance? Towards a normative not be wise to ban all monitoring technologies altogether. theory of surveillance. Surveillance and Society, 12(1), However, it is necessary to take appropriate measures, as 142–153. these technologies are being developed at such a remarkable

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Mozur, P., Kessel, J. M., and Chan, M. (April 24, 2019). Made in China, exported to the world: The surveillance state. In The New York Times. Retrieved December 11, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/24/technology/ecuador-surveillance-cameras-police-government.html.

NUMBEO. (2019). Crime index rate. Retrieved December 25, 2019, from https://www.numbeo.com/crime/rankings_ current.jsp.

Ragunathan, T., Battula, S. K., Jorika, V., Mounika, C., Sruthi, A. U., Vani, M. D. (2015). Advertisement posting based on consumer behavior. Procedia Computer Science, 50, 329–334. doi:10.1016.

Shafer, J. (2014). Live and let leak: State secrets in the Snowden era. In Foreign Affairs. Retrieved December 25, 2019, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/review-essay/ live-and-let-leak.

Shim, E. (May 16, 2019). Beijing to punish passengers who eat on subway with lower credit score. In United Press Inter- national. Retrieved January 5, 2020, from https://www. upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2019/05/16/Beijing-to- punish-passengers-who-eat-on-subway-with-lower-credit- score/2201558021482/.

Starr, P. (November/December, 2019). The new masters of the universe. Big tech and the business of surveillance. In Foreign Affairs. Retrieved December 22, 2019, from https:// www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/review-essay/2019-10-10/ new-masters-universe.

Velghe, P. (January, 2019). Reading China: The Internet of Things, surveillance, and social management in the PRC- CEFC. China perspectives, 85–89. doi: 10.4000/ chinaperspectives.8874.

Weerasekara, P. (September 2, 2019). Confusion clouds China’s social credit system. In Hong Kong Free Press. Retrieved December 7, 2020, from https://hongkongfp.com/2019/ 09/02/confusion-clouds-chinas-social-credit-system/.

Williams, R. (January 30, 2019). Is Huawei a pawn in the trade war? In Foreign Affairs. Retrieved December 10, 2019, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2019-01-30/ huawei-pawn-trade-war.

Yang, W. (December 4, 2018). How much do Chinese people care about privacy? In Deutsche Welle. Retrieved Decem- ber 25, 2019, from https://www.dw.com/en/how-much-do- chinese-people-care-about-privacy/a-43358120.

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The Conservation, not the Extermination, of Great White Sharks for the Marine Ecosystem

Yuki Matsuura

Introduction as to foster a better understanding of the status quo great he presence of great white sharks, Carcharodon Carcha- white sharks have fallen into. Finally, it will discuss conser- T rias, in the oceanic ecosystem exerts top-down effects on vation methodology utilizing interdisciplinary approaches, almost all marine species. Great white sharks can grow up to which leads to the conclusion and the prospect of a peaceful 20 feet in length and weigh up to 2.5 tons, making them the coexistence with great white sharks. largest fish in the world. They are carnivorous and feed on sea mammals like dolphins, porpoises, seals, and sea lions, Apex Predator as well as the carcasses of whales (Long and Jones, 1996). As great white sharks are located at the top of the oceanic Although one of the strongest animals in the ocean, great food chain and are therefore apex predators—preying on white sharks are now in jeopardy. The International Union for other strong animals in the upper rank—their decline or disap- Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species pearance can trigger a devastating impact on the equilibrium has classified them as “Vulnerable,” recognizing the necessity of ecosystems, known as a trophic cascade: an ecological of conservation (2019). phenomenon caused by the decline of predators and, in turn, exerting downward repercussions on its preys’ populations throughout the food web (Estes et al., 2011). Ameri- can researchers in 2016 defined some characteristic features of apex predators and identified their innate vulnerabilities. To name but a few, these include a relatively small population, slower growth rate than their prey, and longevity. All these vulnerabilities add up to the stagnant recovery of apex predators, because once they are overexploited and afflicted with habitat shrinkage, their population is unlikely to recover owing to inferior resilience ability (Stier et al., 2016). More- over, the loss of apex predators can be a root cause of a devastating trophic cascade. A group of scientists headed by ecologist James A. Estes examined a number of incidents and components of this phenomenon. In one case, the loss of an apex predator caused instabilities to cascade down- wards in the ecosystems: degradation in atmosphere, soil and Figure 1. Great White Shark in South Africa. Photo by travelbagltd, licensed under CC BY 2.0. water, alternation of the vegetation and wildlife, collapse of biodiversity and successful invasion of other strong animals (Estes et al., 2011). The writing is already on the wall: they are facing extinction. Research conducted by Chapple and others in 2011 on the Leverage on the Ecosystem population of great white sharks in the northeastern Pacific The indispensable role that great white sharks play in the revealed a significantly small number, despite their position ocean must be appreciated. An inspection of trophic cascades in the food web as an apex predator (Chapple et al., 2011). will further provide a crucial insight into a more specific effect Therefore, more emphasis must be placed upon the conser- called “mesopredator release.” Mesopredators are situated vation of great white sharks for the sustainability of the marine between apex predators and resource species. They feed ecosystem. This paper first tries to clarify the significance of on other tiny animals and are fed on by apex predators. The great white sharks in the context of the marine ecosystem by debilitation of large sharks has caused an increase in the providing an explanation for this specific scientific phenome- population of marine mesopredators—e.g. smaller sharks, non eventuating from the disappearance of apex predators (in mammals, and turtles—partly due to the decline in mortality this case great white sharks) and an actual instance in which rate of these species (Ferretti et al., 2010). In False Bay, South such ramifications have taken place. Secondly, several exis- Africa, researchers recorded the great white sharks’ popula- tential threats and underlying motives will be enumerated so tion and predatory behavior from 2000 to 2018. As time went

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on, the number of sharks began to drop, even coming close mentioned above. There is a correlation between scarcity and to zero. At the same time, another type of shark, the seven-gill rarity: the lower the number of great white sharks, the higher shark, emerged and took up the vacant throne once occu- their value as commercial goods. From his insightful remark, pied by great white sharks. While these two species of sharks an inference can be articulated that these two actors are likely are in high rankings in the food web, what differentiates one to have confluence with each other. from the other is that great white sharks are one of the apex predators and have the capacity for hunting and devouring The Main Culprit of the Incident seven-gill sharks. They occupy different roles and positions Although this paper has so far identified some oppressive in the oceanic ecosystem; in other words, great white sharks elements toward conservation tactics, they are merely accom- are stronger than seven-gill sharks. In light of this fact, there plices and the supposed culprit is yet to be noted: the public is little possibility of the latter compensating for the former’s assumption which originated from the heinous “Jaws Effect,” position in the ocean, which renders the ecological balance in proposed by Christopher Neff in 2015. Dating back to 1975, that region increasingly precarious (Hammerschlag, Williams, the world-famous filmmaker Steven Spielberg accomplished M. Fallows and C. Fallows, 2019). Therefore, it must be noted one of his most sensational works, Jaws, in which a fictional that the disappearance of great white sharks can bring about great white shark named “Bruce” attacks the protagonist and a tremendous adverse aftermath on the ecosystem. beachgoers with the malevolent intention to satisfy itself. By counterposing Bruce with calm scenes and beautiful scenery Driving Factors for Exploitation such as summer beaches, Spielberg’s blockbuster succeeded Due to the certain appeal of great white sharks for human in having a long-lasting negative impact on great white sharks beings such as a trophy, a delicacy, and a subject of academic (Nason, 2012). This publicly widespread image has been at the interest, they have been overexploited to date. These flagrant root of the “Jaws Effect.” Some legislative and policymaking exploitations are undergirded or even accelerated by some- processes where marring and fatal accidents by sharks took thing akin to the market principle. Their body parts—includ- place seem predicated on the footage of this fictional work ing fins, jaws and teeth—are bought with a decent amount rather than actual scientific evidence and discovery. In West- of money by collectors across the globe and international ern Australia, shortly following an unintended encounter with game fishing of great white sharks is to be blamed for their or mortality cases by great white sharks in the ocean, decrees high mortality rate (Philpott, 2002). Moreover, recent devel- were published that allowed people to kill them in cases of opments in generic profiling has enabled researchers and emergency. This ordinance could be traced to the influence conservationists to identify fins of great white sharks in their of the movie’s content; there, it was not until the protago- immaturity, suggesting that the demand of shark fin for food nist managed to kill Bruce that the problem was resolved products has risen since small fins are not suitable for deal- (Neff, 2015). Fear and loathing toward great white sharks ers to make trophies (Shivji, Chapman, Pikitch & Raymond, can be attributed to another type of problematic issue: the 2005). What is worse, a pause in further conservation is advo- differences in treatment between great white sharks and sea cated even by scientists whose main interest lies in the biol- mammals, both of which equally deserve conservation. Phil- ogy of great white sharks. Once these sharks are under more pott (2002) shows in his report that because of their perceived uncompromising control and collecting specimens or obser- cuteness and our sense of kinship, international movements vations are rigorously prohibited, it may hinder their research, to protect these species have gained momentum, whereas one of the aims of which is to better understand possible the brutal, emotionless figure of great white sharks combined risks on their lifestyles and habitation (Julio, 2014). American with widespread dread resulted in stagnant proceedings in researcher Romney Philpott (2002) points out an ironic fact as conservation efforts. It is no doubt that humans’ aversion to to a common rationale behind recent movements like those sharks isone major precipitous cliff to be clambered over.

Feasible Methodology Comments from the professor As problems surrounding great white sharks are too complicated to resolve in a straightforward manner, the best possible Yuki’s essay showcases the kind of cogent, thorough, well-re- solutions should be drawn from interdisciplinary approaches searched, and nuanced writing that can be achieved in an ranging from scientific studies to legislative measures. For ALESA class. I was particularly impressed with the unique instance, the International Game Fishing Association has exploration of a side of conservation rarely investigated: the appointed this species as the world record fish table, moti- great white shark, an animal often demonized but, as Yuki vating anglers to catch them and contributing to population convincingly argues, one essential for healthy oceanic ecosys- decline (Shiffman et al., 2014). They must be struck off from tems. Yuki’s deft combination of scientific data and cultural the list through assessment and amendment. Additionally, analysis revealed the complexity involved in conservation, as scientific approaches are useful in preventing and cracking well as hinted at ways in which such conservation issues could down on illegal trade, as well as suggesting more to-the-point be addressed. The result is a compelling essay about an inter- conservation pathways and research development. Generic esting topic. identification of species has enabled the detection of illegal products made from great white sharks and secured foren- Britton Brooks sic evidence in order to bring traffickers to justice (Chapman, 2003). The study on their genetic information and biological behavior, on the other hand, uncovered locations of their

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nursery areas and implied increased necessity for conserva- the one-sided explanation. Thus, this erroneous assumption tion (Oñate-González et al., 2015). The sophistication of these must be eradicated from scientific and political documents. techniques has the potential for scientists to conduct nonle- thal research and experiments with great white sharks. Conclusion Although at risk of population decline, great white sharks are Cage Dive Industry and its Implications indispensable to the oceanic ecosystem. They are quintes- sential apex predators, feeding on animals at lower classes such as mesopredators. Their declination or, in the worst case, extermination, inevitably make trophic cascades happen and have disastrous effects on the wildlife at large. Overexploita- tion and reluctant attitudes toward conservation efforts are still prevalent owing to their value as trophies, delicacies, or scientific subjects. However, the most notorious factor is the terrifying footage in which these sharks intentionally prey upon humans, most symbolically materialized in the movie Jaws. Multidimensional approaches running the gamut from scientific to political spheres are necessary in overcoming the complexity surrounding the existential threat of great white sharks and devising successful conservation methodologies. Awareness should be raised, correct knowledge be dissem- inated, and efficient methods be put into place to conserve Figure 2. Guadalupe White Shark Trip. Photo by Scubaben, licensed the great white sharks, without which the ecological order in under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. the ocean would not prove sustainable.

Interestingly, the cage dive industry is another powerful driv- References ing force toward the growth of conservation through long-last- Apps, K., Dimmock, K., & Huveneers, C. (2018). Turn- ing funding and the promulgation of accurate knowledge. ing wildlife experiences into conservation action: Can Having analyzed its economic impact, Catlin, Hughes, Jones, white shark cage-dive tourism influence conservation and Jones (2014) found this industry highly lucrative, because behaviour? Marine Policy, 88, 108–115. in 2011 South Australia made AU$6.5 million in profits, which could be spent on additional research and monitoring. More- Catlin, J., Hughes, M., Jones, T., & Jones, R. (2014). White over, the economic scope is not confined to certain compa- sharks in Western Australia: threat or opportunity? Jour- nies and authorities. Domestic and international tourists by nal of Ecotourism, 13(2–3), 159–169. this industry are also capable of galvanizing the tourism sector and local communities writ large (Catlin, Hughes, Jones & Chapman, D. D., Abercrombie, D. L., Douady, C. J., Pikitch, E. Jones, 2014). The more profound implication of the cage dive K., Stanhopen, M. J., & Shivji, M. S. (2003). A streamlined, industry is its enlightening, educational purpose. During a bi-organelle, multiplex PCR approach to species iden- cage dive experience, one can watch great white sharks tification: Application to global conservation and trade in close proximity. This rare-occasional experience affects monitoring of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcha- “participants’ awareness, understanding, attitudes, concern, rias. Conservation Genetics, 4(4), 415–425. and behavior towards wildlife conservation” (Apps, Dimmock & Huveneers, 2018). According to a survey, even the slightest Chapple, T. K., Jorgensen, S. J., Anderson, S. D., Kanive, P. E., encounter can contribute to conservation. This survey also Klimley, A. P., Botsford, L. W., & Block, B. A. (2011). A first suggests that emotional engagement with great white sharks estimate of white shark, Carcharodon Carcharias, abun- must not be heedlessly cast aside. In the same paper, positive dance off Central California. Biology Letters, 7(4), 581–583. correlations of emotional engagement with every point of the tour other than this category (self-reported learning outcomes, Estes, J. A., Terborgh, J., Brashares, J. S., Power, M. E., Berger, perceptions of quality and self-assessed knowledge gain) J., Bond, W. J., ... & Marquis, R. J. (2011). Trophic downgrad- were discovered. ing of planet Earth. Science, 333(6040), 301–306.

Given the lingering influence of the image of sharks from Fergusson, I., Compagno, L. J. V. & Marks, M. (2009). Carcharo- the movie Jaws and the dominance of “Jaws Effect,” it must don carcharias. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species be regarded as imperative to clear out negative images and (from: https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3855/10133872, assumptions toward great white sharks in the public under- watched on 2 Nov. 2019). standing. One viable solution to achieve this in political agen- das would be to implement a set of standardized regulations Ferretti, F., Worm, B., Britten, G. L., Heithaus, M. R., & Lotze, H. on word usage concerning great white sharks. The words K. (2010). Patterns and ecosystem consequences of shark used in the media must avoid being too seditious or fictional. declines in the ocean. Ecology Letters, 13(8), 1055–1071. Neff and Hueter (2013) insist that labeling a shark accident as an “attack” is a misnomer, misleading for the audience in

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KWS 駒場ライターズスタジオへ行こう！