8 Psychological Warfare: Rumours in the Times of the Lebanese Civil War The Syrian President is being Made in ? 9

other sides. out that this was a lie. How can I believe my In a deeply religious society like Lebanon, parents ever again?’ rumours with a spiritual connotation could be What to believe and whom to believe, The Syrian President is being Made in Lebanon? particularly powerful. ‘The statue at Harissa that’s the central question. By the way, the turned twice during the civil war,’ says Chaftari, article on the new armed group to fight IS Rumours and the Syrian Presidential Election in laughing. Christian leaders would spread wasn’t published in the well-known Lebanese the rumour that this statue made out of pure newspaper at all. This was just another concrete had turned towards a certain direction rumour. Apparently it appeared in an online Lebanon ‘to protect Jounieh, or to protect the Christians magazine. I guess I should have sat down and in general’ remembers Chaftari. do some proper research in order to confirm my Haid Haid ‘“Miracles” of this kind were often spread information, too! among the population when we were passing through a difficult military situation’, the ex-combatant explains, in order to raise the Note morals of the population and to tell them, ‘that God will help us’. The social scientist Frayha As I am finishing this article, someone translated a has a similar opinion, ‘You need miracles in paragraph that appeared in the online magazine, situations of weakness, you need hope, and Lebanon Files, for me. The article was talking this comes from superstitious beliefs.’ Those about an article that in turn appeared in the The Syrian presidential elections were an event his supporters were involved in a plan to beliefs weren’t limited to the Christian sect only, Al Akhbar newspaper entitled ’A training of the of special significance for Syrians and Lebanese partition into a number of different states. and were equally used by Muslims. The Shiites, Socialist Party under the cover of a scout camp’: alike, since holding these elections entailed Though these claims were never verified, they for example, used Zeinab (a grandchild of the ‘On 20/09/2014, Al Akhbar mentioned that under prolonging the humanitarian and political caused a large number of Syrian refugees to prophet Mohamad). ‘Important Shiite figures the cover of a scout camp, the Socialist Party, crisis suffered by Syrians and the societies and feel that the regime was secretly plotting to would say that “Sitt” Zeinab had appeared together with the fundamentalist Druze group states that play host to them. It was the first revoke their Syrian nationality – for their lack of in their dreams, saying that “the road ahead "Sheikh Ammar’", organized a training camp for time that Syrian elections had allowed for out- loyalty – by creating the state it desired, having is long and difficult, but at the end, you will more than 60 people in the hills of Shwaifat city. of-country voting, and the Syrian embassy in accepted that it was unable to take control of be rewarded”’, recalls Amashi. This would There were some sheikhs from Deir Qoubel village Lebanon prided itself on having had more than all Syrian territory. Such concerns on the part strengthen the moral of combatants and as well. It wasn’t the first time that such training 80,000 voters on the first day alone.1 Given the of many refugees created a fertile soil for the civilians alike to endure difficult times, and keep camps including military performances, as well time and space available for voting, it is more unquestioning acceptance and circulation of on fighting. as the firing of weapons had been seen in these realistic to suggest that between 20 and 30,000 any rumour which confirmed their fears that The preconceptions that had existed in hills. This time, however, the training for the cast their vote. However, the images of crowded they would be unable to return to their homes. people’s minds, and the traumas experienced participants of the camp were theoretical lessons streets and the whole event being perceived as Against this backdrop, claims concerning during fifteen years of civil war couldn’t be only; about using heavy automatic weapons, more of a happening than an election, led to various draft laws gave added impetus to immediately lifted when the civil war officially especially those that you can carry on 4x4vehicles, controversial discussions, ‘How could citizens rumours urging participation in the presidential came to an end in 1990. and they were told how to use these heavy guns.’ who had to flee their country participate in election. The most important of these draft law A Christian couple got married after the Often, rumours carry a little grain of truth. this dog-and-pony show?’ And even more so, rumours were: end of the civil war and decided to celebrate It is true that in the past, parties from different ‘How could they vote for the President who in their honeymoon in Amir Amine palace, a affiliations abused scout camps for military the worst case had them persecuted, in the i) 'I’m not Syrian' beautiful hotel located in a mountain area training. It is true that currently, Lebanese civilians best case did not protect them?’ In fact, some In late 2013 there were widely disseminated which is inhabited by Druze and Christians. A are pulling out their hidden guns again, and some of those participating in the elections were rumours of a draft law that would revoke the relative to the couple told them, ‘The Druze will are even forming civilian protection forces in their motivated by genuine desire. Others, however, nationality of all Syrians who had participated come at night and cut your throats!’ The couple communities. feared the consequences if they did not take in activities against the Assad regime within left the hotel in panic; their war traumas were so I happen to work for an NGO called part, with a number of rumours circulating, Syria or abroad, by bearing arms, funding, strong that their honeymoon was ruined. ‘Permanent Peace Movement’. The director of urging people to get involved, and threatening incitement, organisation or facilitation.2 This Also, in the mid-1990s, the Ministry of this NGO, Fadi Abi Allam, gave training sessions them with dire consequences if they did not. particular claim spread because some refugees Displaced People organized a summer camp during this particular scout camp – about conflict This was the result of a number of factors believed that the law governing the entry of in the Lebanese mountains, with the aim of resolution and peace building, and definitely that this article will attempt to address by non-Syrians into Syria and their residence there contributing to reconciliation efforts among not about heavy guns. A war starts in the minds shedding light on the circumstances in which also covered Syrian citizens abroad. In other Lebanese youth from all the different religious of the people, and such articles poison the civil such rumours gain currency and how people words, they would be treated like foreigners in sects. The trainers used specific activities to peace in Lebanon. Peace also starts in the minds respond to them. their own country. Despite being untrue, some deconstruct the preconceptions that had of people. Let us not be deceived by political or Syrians abroad still believe in and circulate this

existed between the different religious groups military leaders and their media outlets, let us not The fear of having one’s rumour, convinced that the regime will use this Haid Haid is program manager at during the war. At the end of the camp, a girl let them manipulate our minds for war. Let us take nationality revoked draft law as a way of disposing of its political the Heinrich Böll Stiftung’s Middle came up, crying, and told one of the camp’s up responsibility and create a space in our minds, enemies and applying pressure to those states East office in . Prior to this, he worked as a senior community organizers, that she couldn’t go home now and free of rumours and misinformation, for peace. As the armed conflict in Syria grew fiercer hosting them (since stripping Syrian refugees of services-protection assistant at face her parents. When the trainers asked for (itself the product of the regime’s excessive their nationality would mean they would have UNHCR- Damascus office. He the reason, she said, ‘My parents taught me that use of force against citizens who peacefully to stay in their host nations). The fear of losing has an MA in social policy and development, a postgraduate the people from the other side were bad, that demonstrated for political change), reports one’s nationality is also not entirely abstract as diploma in counselling and a BA in they even looked differently from us. I found began to circulate that Bashar al-Assad and an increasing number of Syrians are stranded sociology. 10 The Syrian President is being Made in Lebanon? The Syrian President is being Made in Lebanon? 11

abroad because the Syrian regime will no the proposal and the fact it coincided with the longer issue extensions for their passports. presidential elections helped raise suspicions that there was some plot afoot against the ii) New IDs, for whom? opponents of the Assad regime. For instance, During a parliamentary session in March the proposal made no mention of whether 2014 the Syrian Interior Minister announced the consent of the property owners would be that his ministry was in the process of creating obtained, whether their relatives or agents new identity cards and that the project would within Syria or abroad would be contacted, begin to roll out in the second half of that the percentage of rent monies that the state year, as soon as the necessary funds had been agencies would keep, how the leases would collected.3 Even though officials pointed out be organised, nor anything of the fate of the that the idea of the project was first mooted contents of these homes and buildings used before the start of the crisis, and that it had in this way. This provoked fears that the seizure nothing to do with current events, many still of private property belonging to the tens of harboured suspicions over the true purpose of thousands of Syrians who have fled the country Activists from the Syrian village of making this announcement, particularly given as a result of unrest was being enshrined in Kafranbel commenting the project’s high cost (estimated at 28 million law, particularly given the favouritism the on the elections Euros) in a country that is going through a authorities have typically shown to supporters debilitating economic crisis. A lack of clarity of the regime. Lebanese March-14 coalition, reported that ii) 'Don’t shove!’ around the mechanism for implementing the Syrian refugees and residents were going to The arrival of large numbers of Syrians at project and its timeframe had led some to link Events that have the Syrian embassy as a result of intimidation the gates of the Syrian embassy in Yarzeh — it to the then upcoming presidential elections, contributed to the spread of being carried out in their homes and places transported in buses and trucks hired for the since the only people eligible for new ID cards of work by and other allies of the occasion — created gridlock, preventing many would be regime loyalists in regime controlled rumours Syrian regime. A Syrian who works as a security from reaching their destinations. The standstill areas. Others point out that the project will i) ‘Even here in Lebanon, they come after us…’ guard in Beirut told the paper that members affected a number of important centres in hinder the return of Syrian refugees and Citing accounts from Syrian refugees in of the March-8 movement had come to his the city, prompting some voters to complete émigrés to their home towns, while enabling Lebanon, Reuters reported that men were building and ordered him to come with his the journey on foot while waving Syrian flags, those who have abstained from military wandering around refugee camps in the family the following day, to one of the assembly portraits of Assad and Hezbollah banners, and service to be tracked down and arrested. In Bekaa Valley asking who intended to vote in points from where Syrians would be bussed to chanting slogans in support of the president this context, many believe that the process the presidential elections and taking down the embassy. He indicated that most of the and Hezbollah. This angered many of those who will effectively revoke nationality from half the names. According to Reuters the men identified Syrians he knew had submitted to the same were caught up in the traffic jam, particularly Syrian population, the majority of whom will be themselves as members of a Lebanese party intimidatory tactics, fearful of revenge or being opponents of Assad, leading to fights between those who oppose the regime. allied to Bashar al-Assad, and their presence expelled from their homes and jobs. Sources the gridlocked drivers and the marchers. in the camp was a reminder to more than one on the ground spoke to Mustaqbal about the The extensive media coverage of this iii) Seizing property and renting it out… Why? million Syrian refugees that they were still confiscation of identity documents belonging 'electoral gridlock' only increased the pressure In May 2014, the Ministry of Justice within the reach of the regime. to a number of Syrian refugees to ensure their felt by those Syrians who were in two minds discussed a proposal to rent out houses and Some refugees whispered that heavily built attendance and participation in the elections, about going to vote. Some media outlets real estate abandoned when their owners left men driving cars with blacked out windows while others were blackmailed in various ways, exaggerated the numbers of those who went the country. The justification for this proposal had suddenly appeared, demanded to see such as being told that those who did not vote to vote, thus increasing the speed with which was a stated desire to provide secure shelter their identity documents and taken down their for Al Assad would not have their travel permits this rumour spread and its impact. While some and thus to reduce the sufferings of the many details. They claimed that vehicles would come renewed and would not be allowed back into blamed the Lebanese government, which Syrians who had recently been made homeless. on election-day to take them to the Syrian Syria.6 should have anticipated and prevented what Although the regime had previously been embassy and that anyone who failed to vote Other refugees told the NOW News happened, others believed that the gridlock willing to offer support to displaced persons would be prevented from re-entering Syria. website that Lebanese men had come to their was deliberate, that the vehicles transporting in the area, including providing shelter and Reuters added that though during the course homes and forced them to take part in pro- Syrians to Yarzeh had all been dispatched humanitarian assistance to Lebanese refugees of more than twelve interviews it did not Assad marches. They reported that, ‘We took simultaneously with the intention of creating in 2006, this was the first such gesture during encounter any proof that refugees were being to the streets and carried portraits of Bashar a traffic jam that would focus media attention this conflict. So far its officials had not even intimidated, the mere presence of men carrying al-Assad for fear of public humiliation. They on the scale of voter participation, thereby made the effort to visit internally displaced papers with the Syrian embassy seal on it would also forced us to vote for him. We had no choice intimidating those who had been unwilling to persons (IDPs) in Syria, let alone refugees be enough to frighten many people, particularly but to do what they wanted because there is vote and putting pressure on them to attend. abroad, and yet now pondered how to use given the regime’s long history of brutality in no government to protect us.’7 In an interview refugee’s property to host IDPs. The likely effect Lebanon and the existence of powerful regime with al-Nahar, a representative of UNHCR Reactions against Syrian of this would be to help one group of displaced allies within the country.5 All Syrians also carry in Lebanon, Ninette Kelly, revealed that her refugees persons at the expense of another. memories of the omnipresent Mukhabarat organization had received reports, ‘that there Rents were to be set by the committee and (intelligence service) in Syria — of the plain- were refugees who were feeling vulnerable as i) ‘Go home’ the monies collected placed in a special funding clothed men trying to look like normal citizens the date for elections in Syria approached; that ‘These people don’t have any dignity. I account and returned to the properties’ owners but who could be 'smelt for miles against the they had been pressured to vote and that they swear I don’t feel sorry for any of them, because on their return via a payment system also run by wind.' felt unsafe.’ 8 they all should be wiped out.’ the committee.4 However, the lack of detail in The Mustaqbal newspaper, close to the ‘Go back to your country, you morons.’ 12 The Syrian President is being Made in Lebanon? The Syrian President is being Made in Lebanon? 13

The above are just two examples of the is not confined to disgust and resentment, comments made by Lebanese citizens on social with the regime’s allies celebrating this 'moral media sites, protesting at the impact of the victory', others have attempted to come up Syrian presidential elections in Lebanon. But with rational explanations, so as not to end the anger felt towards Syrians in general, and up blaming the victims and shifting ultimate especially those who had chanted for Bashar responsibility away from the true criminal. Yet, al-Assad, and paraded around with his portrait, even so, a substantial proportion of Lebanese was not just confined to the man on the street citizens, and also those Syrians opposed to the but also found echoes in official statements by regime, continue to feel active hatred towards Lebanese political parties, particularly those pro-Assad voters. Their responses have not opposed to the Assad regime. The position of been limited to incendiary statements, with the March-14 movement came through clearly Lebanon seeing security incidents and revenge in a statement made by senior alliance member attacks, most notably the burning of a camp in and former MP Mustafa Allouch to Al Nahar, the Jdita municipality in the Bekaa Valley, two ‘March-14 believes that these people support days after the elections, which was home to 12 Another take on and love Bashar al-Assad so they should not be around two hundred Syrian refugees. the elections by the designated refugees and the Lebanese state activists of Kafranbel must take the decision to send them back to ii) Revoking refugee status their homes.’9 Minister of Labour, Sejaan Kazzi, In early June 2014, Lebanese Minister of The online rumour war Conclusion told the same paper that, ‘the crowds that the Interior, Nihad Machnouk, declared that Lebanon witnessed outside the Syrian embassy he would be revoking the refugee status of Some tried to fight the rumours that were being Despite the fact that it is impossible to show that these refugees are not refugees at all Syrians in Lebanon who had re-entered Syrian circulated by regime supporters to encourage be certain of the impact that the rumours but rather an army, just like the Syrian Deterrent territory. This was announced shortly after the participation in the presidential election by discussed above had on encouraging Syrian Force used to be.’ He added, ‘If you have uproar provoked by the participation of Syrians creating 'counter-rumours', to the effect that refugees in Lebanon to participate in the Syrian thousands of people loyal to the Syrian regime in the Syrian presidential elections. A statement UNHCR would revoke the refugee status of presidential elections, direct observation of trying to vote it in, that means they can go from the ministry read, ‘As part of the ongoing anyone voting. This claim when sent via social Syrians during the elections show that at least straight back to areas controlled by the regime, process of regulating the entry and exit of Syrian media, such as ‘WhatsApp’ was accompanied by a number of them were affected. This has been which has extended its reach within Syria. I shall subjects into and out of Lebanon, all Syrian the UNHCR logo. The following announcement reinforced by reports and articles written about ask the cabinet to adopt a firm position with refugees and those registered with UNHCR are was also passed around via facebook, ‘To the elections. However, the most important regards to sending them back to Syria as soon as requested not to enter Syrian territory after all those Syrians who went to participate in impact of these rumours was not on the results possible.’10 Many media figures and artists close June 1, 2014, on pain of having their status as the presidential elections out of fear that of the presidential elections itself, but rather to the March-14 Movement have also called for refugees in Lebanon revoked. This measure has they would not be allowed to return to their on the relations between Syrian refugees and Syrians to be deported. On DNA, a satirical news been taken to safeguard Lebanon’s security homeland Syria: Syrian embassies abroad their host communities. This in turn led to analysis show, presenter Nadim Koteich called and relations between Syrian refugees and intend to send the names of all voters to the the spread of other rumours which incited for Syrian refugees to be ‘resisted,’ and even Lebanese citizens in host areas, and to prevent United Nations in order to demonstrate the public feeling against Syrians in Lebanon. This ‘expelled from the country.’11 It is interesting to any friction or mutual antagonism.’13 extent of support for Bashar al-Assad’s regime was reflected in the calls of many Lebanese note that the reactions of opponents of Assad This decision prompted widespread among the Syrian people. The names of voters politicians, public figures and celebrities mostly failed to take into account the above concern among Syrian refugees in Lebanon, will be compared to those names on UNHCR’s for Syrians in Lebanon to be sent home. rumours about intimidations and threats issued some of whom were in the habit of regularly aid lists and all those who participated in the – and the resulting fear of many Syrians that they travelling to Syria for a variety of reasons. elections will be struck off, since aid is intended 1. http://www.al-akhbar.com/node/207400 2. Facebook post: https://www.facebook.com/ would be denied permission to enter or leave The most common of these were; renewing for those who are unable to return to their syriahereissyira/posts/249373365216192 Syria, and of not being granted visas by the residency, checking their property (i.e. homes, homes, and who have left their country in flight 3. New identities in Syria, March 12, 2014, at http://www. Syrian authorities. shops, land etc.), obtaining official documents, from the regime’s injustice, in accordance with damaspost.com/ 4. http://ncro.sy/baathonline/?p=6300 visiting family members, buying medicine for the 'No home' humanitarian principle.’ 5. For more information, see the following article by chronic illnesses at cheaper Syrian prices, and Both these rumours, however, were not the author: http://lb.boell.org/ar/2013/05/03/nhw- 'Feelings of fear or insecurity do not always submit finally checking to see if conditions in their widely circulated among Syrian refugees and trmym-llqt-llbnny-lswry 6. Hezbollah secures quorum for Al Assad, May 29, to rational considerations, but can be excessive and home areas would allow them to return or so had a limited impact. There were a number 2014, at http://www.almustaqbal.com.lb/v4/article. paranoiac.' not. The minister’s plan did not differentiate of reasons for this, including that the majority of aspx?type=np&articleid=618937 between those refugees who had to go to Syria refugees not having access to social media and 7. Nadine Elali, A free election?, May 24, 2014, at https:// now.mmedia.me/lb/en on urgent business and those who were in fact chat apps, which were the principle mediums 8. Syrian regime show of strength lays siege to Beirut, living in Syria, while remaining registered in used to circulate these rumours; Syrian refugees May 29, 2014, at http://newspaper.annahar.com/ The anger many Lebanese felt may be Lebanon. fearing the regime more than the prospect of 9. Mohammed Nimr, Why don’t Al Assad’s supporters return to Syria? May 28, 2014, at http://newspaper. partially explained by the heavy traffic caused It is worth noting here that the requirements losing the support of UNHCR, and UNHCR annahar.com/ by the flood of Syrians coming to participate in for entering Lebanon as a refugee are the same denying that it had written the text attributed 10. Syrian regime show of strength lays siege to Beirut, May 29, 2014, at http://newspaper.annahar.com/ the elections, but is also a sign of disgust many as those for non-refugee Syrians, which are to it in a letter sent to all registered Syrian 11. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eUxQcaMenxc& Lebanese feel at Syrians seeking to re-elect governed by Syrian-Lebanese treaties. What refugees. feature=youtu.be Assad, after all the crimes he has committed worries Syrian refugees is that revoking their 12. http://www.lebanonfiles.com/news/721151 13. http://www.alquds.co.uk/?p=175089 — and continues to commit — in Syria and status would cut off their access to aid and Lebanon. However, the Lebanese response assistance, most of which is provided by UNHCR. * Translated from the Arabic by Robin Moger