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If . . . Then include . . .

******* (j) the estimated value of the acquisition exceeds $10 million ...... 52.222–24 Pre-award On-site Equal Opportunity Compliance Evalua- tion. (k) the contracting officer requires cost or pricing data for work or serv- 52.215–10 Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost or Pricing Data. ices exceeding the threshold identified in FAR 15.403–4. 52.215–12 Subcontractor Certified Cost or Pricing Data.

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[FR Doc. 2016–00475 Filed 1–12–16; 8:45 am] DATES: This interim rule is effective as the offspring or eggs of any of the BILLING CODE 6820–161–P of January 28, 2016. Interested persons foregoing that are injurious to human are invited to submit written comments beings, to the interests of agriculture, on this interim rule on or before March horticulture, or forestry, or to the DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 14, 2016 wildlife or wildlife resources of the ADDRESSES: You may submit comments United States. Fish and Wildlife Service by any of the following methods: We have determined that salamanders • Federal eRulemaking Portal: http:// that can carry the fungus 50 CFR Part 16 www.regulations.gov. Search for Docket Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) are injurious to wildlife and RIN 1018–BA77 No. FWS–HQ–FAC–2015–0005 and follow the instructions for submitting wildlife resources of the United States. [Docket No. FWS–HQ–FAC–2015–0005; comments. This determination was based on a FXFR13360900000–156–FF09F14000] • Mail, Hand Delivery, or Courier: review of the literature and an Public Comments Processing, Attn: evaluation under the criteria for Injurious Wildlife Species; Listing FWS–HQ–FAC–2015–0005; Division of injuriousness by the Service. The Salamanders Due to Risk of Policy, Performance, and Management salamander species listed by this Salamander Chytrid Fungus Programs; United States Fish and interim rule are those found within a AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Service; MS: BPHC; 5275 genus for which we have confirmation Interior. Leesburg Pike; Falls Church, VA 22041– that at least one species in that genus is ACTION: Interim rule; request for 3803. a carrier of Bsal, and there is no comments; notice of availability of We will not accept email or faxes. We countervailing conclusive evidence economic analysis. will post all comments on http:// suggesting that some species within the www.regulations.gov. This generally genus are not carriers. We find that, due SUMMARY: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife means that we will post any personal to shared characteristics by species Service is amending its regulations information you provide us (see within a genus, other species within under the Lacey Act to add all species Comments on the Content of the Interim these genera are also highly likely to be of salamanders from 20 genera, of which Rule for more information). All carriers of Bsal. Although additional there are 201 species, to the list of submissions received must include salamander species could be at risk from injurious amphibians. With this interim ‘‘Docket No. FWS–HQ–FAC–2015– Bsal infection or could serve as a carrier, rule, both importation into the United 0005’’ for this rulemaking. For detailed we are not listing species in those States and interstate transportation instructions on submitting comments genera because they have not yet been between States, the District of Columbia, and additional information on the tested. the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, or rulemaking process, see Comments on The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service any territory or possession of the United the Content of the Interim Rule. (Service, USFWS, or we) is amending its States of any live or dead specimen, Docket: For access to the docket to regulations under the Lacey Act to add including parts, of these 20 genera of read background documents or to the list of injurious wildlife all salamanders are prohibited, except by comments received, go to http:// species of live and dead specimens from permit for zoological, educational, www.regulations.gov and find Docket 20 genera, including body parts, from medical, or scientific purposes (in No. FWS–HQ–FAC–2015–0005. the amphibian order Caudata, which accordance with permit conditions) or FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: includes animals commonly referred to by Federal agencies without a permit Jason Goldberg or Susan Jewell, as salamanders, newts, and other names solely for their own use. This action is Injurious Wildlife Listing Coordinators, (hereafter, salamanders). The purpose of necessary to protect the interests of United States Fish and Wildlife Service, listing these species as injurious wildlife and wildlife resources from the Branch of Aquatic Invasive Species; MS: wildlife is to prevent the introduction, introduction, establishment, and spread FAC; 5275 Leesburg Pike; Falls Church, establishment, and spread of the fungus of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium VA 22041–3803 telephone 703–358– (Bsal) in the wild in the United States. salamandrivorans into ecosystems of 1715. If you use a telecommunications The fungus affects only salamanders, the United States. The fungus affects device for the deaf (TDD), please call the has lethal effects on many salamander salamanders, with lethal effects on Federal Information Relay Service species, and is not yet known to be many species, and is not yet known to (FIRS) at 800–877–8339. found in the United States. be found in the United States. Because SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The United States has the greatest of the devastating effect that we expect diversity of salamanders in the world, the fungus will have on native U.S. Executive Summary the salamanders are a vital part of native salamanders if introduced and, Under the Lacey Act (18 U.S.C. 42, as ecosystems, and numerous salamander therefore, the need to act immediately to amended), the Secretary of the Interior populations are at risk of endangerment prevent the disease from being may list by regulation those wild from Bsal. Experience with the introduced into the United States, the mammals, wild birds, fish, mollusks, introduction of Bsal into the Service is publishing this interim rule. crustaceans, amphibians, reptiles, and Netherlands and associated deleterious

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effects to native salamanders, along with a host and causing extensive damage to localities, not merely large territories, laboratory research, confirms that Bsal wildlife and wildlife resources, where they have not previously existed. can be introduced and cause substantial including federally endangered and See 16 U.S.C. 701. Third, the legislative and immediate harm in the United threatened species. Eradicating Bsal history of Congress’s many amendments States. would be extremely difficult once to the Lacey Act since its enactment in A risk assessment conducted by the introduced and established, the ability 1900 shows that Congress intended, U.S. Geological Survey concluded that to rehabilitate disturbed ecosystems is from the very beginning, for the Service the potential for Bsal introduction into expected to be low, and controlling Bsal to regulate the interstate shipment of the United States is high, the United is not practical. Prophylactic treatments certain injurious wildlife. Finally, States has suitable conditions for Bsal for imports of salamanders to manage recent Congresses have made clear that survival, and the consequences of Bsal are in development but are not yet Congress interprets 18 U.S.C. 42(a)(1) as introduction into the United States are fully tested or feasible. prohibiting interstate transport of expected to be severe and occur across We are amending our regulations injurious wildlife between the states a wide range of the United States. The under an interim rule and are foregoing within the continental United States. In main pathway for the global spread of a proposed rule. The interim rule will amending § 42(a)(1) to add bighead carp Bsal is the international trade in take effect on the date specified above and zebra mussels as injurious wildlife salamanders. The ability and in DATES, with public comment to without making other changes to the effectiveness of measures to prevent or conclude as set forth in DATES. Based on provision, Congress repeated and control Bsal is currently low. Trade in public comments received, the interim ratified the Service’s interpretation of wildlife occurs on a global scale, and rule may be revised. If Bsal is the statute as prohibiting all interstate amphibians are one of the most introduced into the United States, it is transport of injurious species. commonly traded animals. Therefore, expected to have negative effects on The prohibitions on importation and listing the 20 genera will be effective at many species of native salamanders. No all interstate transportation are both reducing the likelihood that Bsal enters conclusive evidence exists that suggests necessary to prevent the introduction, the United States and presents a threat that Bsal is found in the United States. establishment, and spread of injurious to native salamander species. Therefore, the opportunity exists to take species that threaten human health or Of the 190 native U.S. salamander urgent action now to prevent the the interests of agriculture, horticulture, species, at least 2 species are lethally introduction of Bsal. Listing 20 genera forestry, or the wildlife or wildlife vulnerable to Bsal and at least 1 is of salamanders as injurious wildlife is resources of the United States. By listing tolerant of Bsal infection. At least four an essential step in helping to keep Bsal the 20 genera as injurious wildlife, both are resistant to Bsal infection, of which out of the United States by preventing importation and interstate one is expected to be a carrier because introduction of salamanders that serve transportation of any live or dead Bsal was able to invade the skin of that as carriers of the fungus and are capable specimen, including parts, is prohibited, species long enough to move or transmit of introducing it to the United States. except by permit (in accordance with the fungus to other salamanders. In This interim rule lists some species that conditions) for zoological, educational, addition, researchers have identified a are currently in trade and some that are medical, or scientific purposes or by non-native species that is lethally not; the focus is on species that are Federal agencies without a permit solely vulnerable to Bsal that is found within likely carriers of Bsal and capable of for their own use. a fifth genus that also includes native transmitting it to the same or other The Service conducted an economic species. On this basis, the Service finds species. analysis and regulatory flexibility that at least 67 native species from 5 Consistent with the statutory language analysis as required under the genera are carriers of Bsal. and congressional intent, it is the rulemaking process. The draft economic Native salamander species that Service’s longstanding and continued analysis considers five alternatives: (1) demonstrate limited disease under position that the Lacey Act, 18 U.S.C. No action; (2) list species that were experimental conditions may 42, prohibits both the importation into shown by Martel et al. (2014) and other demonstrate more severe clinical the United States and all interstate sources to be carriers of Bsal; (3) list all disease when infection is combined transportation between States, the species in genera where there is at least with additional stressors in the wild. District of Columbia, the one confirmed carrier and all species in We concluded from our analysis that the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, or any the genus are likely to be a carrier, and introduction of Bsal into the United territory or possession of the United there is no countervailing conclusive States can cause significant, adverse, States, including interstate evidence suggesting that some species population-level effects in native transportation between States within the within the genus are not carriers; (4) list species. As keystone species, loss of Continental United States, of injurious all salamanders; and (5) require a health salamanders from Bsal infection would wildlife, regardless of the preliminary certificate stating that the animal being have significant impacts on ecosystems, injunction decision in U.S. Association moved is free of Bsal, in lieu of or in including food webs and nutrient of Reptile Keepers v. Jewell, No. 13– addition to listing. cycling. 2007 (D.D.C. May 12, 2015). The The annual retail sales loss of listing All 20 genera of salamanders, plus Service’s interpretation of 18 U.S.C. 201 species, based on the 20 genera any new species that may be identified 42(a)(1) finds support in the plain listed, is estimated to be $3.9 million, of in the future within the genera listed by language of the statute, the Lacey Act’s which $2.3 million are losses to small this interim rule, are found to be purpose, legislative history, and businesses. Impacts per small business injurious. Even if a salamander found to congressional ratification. First, the may be as high as $453,000 for be injurious could not establish a statute’s use of the disjunctive ‘‘or’’ to importers and $23,000 for domestic population in the wild, an infected separate the listed geographic entities breeders. The cost estimate represents salamander in captivity can still indicates that each location has the loss of revenue from listing the transmit Bsal to native populations if independent significance. Second, species to companies or individuals that salamander escapes or if material Congress enacted the Lacey Act in 1900 involved in the importation, interstate touching it is disposed of improperly. for the purpose of, among other things, movement, or final consumer sales of Bsal is capable of surviving outside of regulating the introduction of species in salamanders that are imported and

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moved between States. No significant crustaceans, amphibians, reptiles, or the also received a petition from the Center economic impact on a substantial offspring or eggs of any of the foregoing for Biological Diversity and SAVE THE number of small entities is anticipated. found to be injurious to human beings, FROGS! on May 18, 2015, to take action The economic loss including direct, to the interests of agriculture, to prevent the introduction of Bsal into indirect, and induced effects from loss horticulture, forestry, or to wildlife or the United States (Center for Biological in revenue to pet stores is estimated to the wildlife resources of the United Diversity and SAVE THE FROGS! 2015). be $10.0 million. Benefits from States. Salamanders are amphibians, In response to the scientific findings, decreases in risk from Bsal for and the Service has the authority to list letters to the Service, and the petition ecological, commercial, recreational, them under the Lacey Act when it finds the Service initiated a review to and non-use values are not quantifiable. that they are injurious to one or more of determine whether salamanders capable The benefits from these additional the statutory interests. We may list of carrying Bsal should be listed as factors are unknown, but are certainly species before they are introduced into injurious. Based on the Service’s genus- positive. the United States and, therefore, are able level carrier extrapolation from data From 2004 to 2014, nearly 2.5 million to harm interests of the United States as obtained from Martel et al. (2014), and live salamanders of at least 59 species defined under the Act. We have because Bsal has not been found in the were imported into the United States. determined that salamanders that United States (Martel et al. 2014; Muletz The 228,000 average annually imported potentially carry Bsal are injurious to et al. 2014; Bales et al. 2015), the salamanders are primarily for the pet wildlife and wildlife resources of the opportunity exists to take urgent action trade. Fewer than 100 total businesses, United States. With this interim rule, we to prevent the introduction of Bsal. This institutions, and individuals imported are attempting to prevent the action will help safeguard U.S. wildlife salamanders over this time period introduction and subsequent and natural resources, while providing (USFWS OLE 2015) for a retail value of establishment of the chytrid fungus, time for monitoring and other measures $44 million dollars. Salamander imports Bsal, which is a pathogen capable of to be developed that may allow safe and the number of businesses declined causing significant harm to native trade in salamanders to resume later. during this period, which may lead to salamander species and their We reviewed Bsal and the salamander an overestimation of the economic ecosystems. As described below under species that carry this fungus using the losses due to the uncertainty of industry Role of Salamanders in the Ecosystem, Injurious Wildlife Evaluation Criteria, and consumer responses over the time the benefits that these native described in more detail as part of this period used. The timeframe of the trade salamander species provide to interim rule in Factors That Contribute analysis does not make a difference ecosystems in ensuring ecosystem to Salamanders Being Considered from a biological perspective of risk. health and stability, and, in turn, the Injurious, which the Service developed Species are being listed regardless of ecosystem services that benefit people, to evaluate whether a species qualifies whether they are in trade. The are significant. as injurious under the Act. The resulting alternatives are based on the level of Martel et al. (2014) and Cunningham analysis serves as a basis for the perceived risk, which is informed by the et al. (2015) (as explained further in Service’s regulatory decision regarding current state of scientific knowledge. Chytridcrisis (2015b)) identified some of injurious wildlife species listings. This This interim rule is effective as of the the salamander species that can carry interim rule finds that Bsal is a date specified above in DATES. Interested Bsal and are at risk from infection. The significant threat to the wildlife and persons are invited to submit written research tested a limited number of the wildlife resources of the United States comments on this interim rule on or approximately 681 known species of and lists 20 genera of salamanders that salamanders that exist worldwide and we have determined to be injurious before the date set forth in DATES. found that not every species was because they are likely carriers of Bsal. Background negatively affected by the fungus. Rulemaking under the Act is governed by the Administrative Procedure Act Purpose of Listing as Injurious However, the results clearly indicate a severe threat for many species of (APA) (5 U.S.C. 551 et seq.). The process The purpose of listing the 20 genera salamanders that will be negatively of issuing a proposed rule, providing the of live and dead specimens, including affected by this pathogen, including 2 of opportunity for public comment, and parts, from the order Caudata commonly the 7 species tested that are also native completing a final rule can take a referred to as salamanders, newts, and to the United States and were found to significant amount of time to complete. other names (hereafter, salamanders) as be lethally vulnerable to the fungus. During this time, the species proposed injurious wildlife is to prevent the Recent research has highlighted for listing are still allowed to be accidental or intentional introduction of concerns of emerging infectious disease imported and transported, offering salamanders into the United States that of fungal origin that can cause a increased opportunities for are expected to serve as carriers of significant loss in biodiversity and introduction, establishment, and harm. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans ecosystem services (Fisher et al. 2012); Under section 553(b)(3)(B) of the APA, (hereafter, Bsal), a fungus that poses a Bsal appears to be the latest. however, a proposed rule is not required risk to native species of salamanders. If The research results about Bsal and ‘‘when the agency for good cause finds Bsal is introduced into wild populations concerns about emerging infectious (and incorporates the finding and a brief of native salamanders, we expect it to disease, especially Spitzen-van der statement of reasons therefor in the cause significant damage to wildlife and Sluijs et al. (2013), Martel et al. (2013), rules issued) that notice and public the wildlife resources of the United and Martel et al. (2014), have generated procedure thereon are impracticable, States. a strong response from academia, unnecessary, or contrary to the public industry groups, and conservation and interest.’’ There is good cause to forgo Need for the Interim Rule other organizations who have written notice and public comment on a Under the Lacey Act (Act) (18 U.S.C. the Service seeking quick and decisive proposed rule in this instance and 42, as amended), the Service, through action to ensure Bsal does not have a instead take immediate action in the the Secretary of the Interior, may similar impact on salamander form of an interim rule to help prevent prescribe by regulation any wild populations that Batrachochytrium this fungus from being introduced, mammals, wild birds, fish, mollusks, dendrobatidis (Bd) has had on frogs. We established, or spread in the United

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States. Providing notice and public develop clinical disease or increased in trade as well as some that are not. We comment prior to implementing the severity of disease, respectively, when have the authority under the Act to list injurious wildlife prohibitions would be infection is combined with additional certain species as injurious even if they contrary to the public interest because stressors in the wild, as has been found are not currently in trade or known to of the need to take immediate action for other diseases, including those in exist in the United States. due to the significant risk from Bsal. For amphibians (Wobeser 2007; Kerby et al. The salamander species listed by this these reasons, we also find good cause 2011; Kiesecker 2011). interim rule are those found within in accordance with 5 U.S.C. 553(d)(3) to In the United States, Bsal has either genera for which we have evidence that make the interim rule effective less than not been introduced, has been at least one species in that genus is a 30 days after the date of publication. introduced but has failed to establish, or carrier of Bsal with no countervailing Due to the significant risk of is present but has not been positively conclusive evidence that other species introduction, establishment, and spread detected. Although we do not have any in that genus are not carriers. We of Bsal in the United States, this interim conclusive evidence showing that describe our rationale for this course of rule will take effect 15 days after introductions have occurred, history action below under Classification and publication in the Federal Register. from other pathogens similar to Bsal, Status as Carriers. Our decision-making Based on prior experience, a shorter- such as Bd, however, suggests that the included the following considerations: than-normal effective date will also help fungus is likely to spread quickly All 20 genera of salamanders, plus any reduce the risk that importers will rush throughout the United States if it is not new species identified within the genera to import these species before the listing prevented from being introduced. listed by this interim rule, are found to becomes effective. For example, in the Moreover, efforts to control or eradicate be injurious because suitable climate case of snakeheads (Channidae), the introduced or established invasive exists in parts of the United States to Service documented a nearly three-fold species and manage the costs they incur support Bsal; even if a salamander listed increase in the importation of to society are generally less effective by this interim rule could not establish snakeheads after the proposed rule was and more expensive and difficult than a population in the wild, an infected first announced (67 FR 48855; July 26, efforts that prevent establishment salamander in captivity (or the water 2002) and before the final rule took (Leung et al. 2002; Finnoff et al. 2007). and soil in which it came into contact) effect, approximately two months later Prevention of invasive species is can transmit Bsal to native populations; (67 FR 62202; October 4, 2002). typically the most cost-effective Bsal is capable of causing extensive However, we also recognize that an measure to avoid the damage that such damage to wildlife and wildlife immediate effective date is not practical species cause (Leung et al. 2002; Lodge resources, including federally when live animals may be in transit on et al. 2006; Keller and Springborn 2014). endangered and threatened species; the day the interim rule takes effect. A As noted in the National Invasive eradicating Bsal would be extremely delay of 15 days before the interim rule Species Management Plan, ‘‘prevention difficult once introduced and goes into effect will allow for the is the first line of defense’’ and ‘‘can be established; and controlling Bsal is not reasonable completion of imports and the most cost effective approach because practical. Although this interim rule takes effect transports already in progress and give once a species becomes widespread, on the date specified above in DATES, it wildlife inspectors and other law controlling it may require significant will still provide the public with a enforcement officers time to enforce the and sustained expenditures’’ (National Invasive Species Council 2008). period of time to comment on the listing interim rule. If Bsal has unknowingly been and associated documents. The final Experience with the introduction of introduced but failed to establish for rule will contain responses to comments Bsal into the Netherlands and associated unknown reasons, it is still important to received on the interim rule, state the deleterious effects to native take action now because additional final decision, and provide the salamanders, along with laboratory introductions increase the likelihood of justification for that decision. research, confirms that Bsal can be establishment and harm. As more Listing Species That Carry Pathogens introduced, establish, and spread and salamanders that can carry Bsal are cause substantial and immediate harm imported into the United States, the Pathogens are agents such as viruses, in the United States (Spitzen-van der probability increases that one or more of bacteria, and fungi that cause diseases Sluijs et al. 2013; Martel et al. 2014; those salamanders, through a in animals and plants. The Service does Cunningham et al. 2015; Chytridcrisis phenomenon called propagule pressure not have the direct authority under the 2015b). The United States leads all other or ‘‘introduction effort,’’ described in Act to list pathogens as injurious. We countries in salamander diversity Lockwood et al. (2005) as a measure of also cannot list or regulate fomites (Partners in Amphibian and Reptile the number of nonnative individuals (materials such as water that can Conservation, Stein and Kutner 2000). released into a region, will give Bsal the transmit pathogens). However, wild Based on scientific evidence, we know opportunity to establish and spread. mammals, wild birds, fish, mollusks, that the fungus is lethal to at least 2 Listing the salamanders as injurious crustaceans, amphibians, or reptiles that salamander species native to the United will help keep Bsal out of the United are hosts to pathogens, such as viruses, States. Of the 190 native U.S. species, States by preventing the importation of bacteria, or fungi that cause disease, can we find that at least 67 species are salamanders capable of carrying the be injurious if the likelihood, scope, and carriers and 20 are not carriers. The fungus and serving as the vector of severity of effects significantly affect remaining 103 species have not been introduction into U.S. ecosystems, one or more of the interests listed in the evaluated, and many of these species thereby causing injurious effects Act. Even if the host species cannot may also be affected by this potentially consistent with the Act. Given the establish populations in the wild, it can deadly fungus. While the Service’s expected consequences that Bsal’s present significant risk if the pathogen greatest concern will be for species that introduction would have to wildlife and the host is carrying can infect wildlife are lethally vulnerable to Bsal, wildlife resources of the United States, or wildlife resources or affect human salamander species known to be tolerant we are listing species that we have beings or the interests of agriculture, of or susceptible to Bsal infection under determined to be injurious. This interim horticulture, or forestry in the United experimental conditions may also rule lists some species that are currently States. Among other impacts, diseases

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caused by introduced pathogens reduce will cause harm to human beings, • Impacts to human beings, forestry, biodiversity (the variety of different agricultural or forestry interests, or horticulture, and agriculture; and types of life on earth) and have been natural systems. Furthermore, a species • Wildlife or habitat damages that implicated in the local extinction of does not have to be currently imported may occur from control measures. many animal taxa (Daszak et al. 2000). or present in the wild in the United (2) Factors that reduce the likelihood We have previously listed species States for the Service to list it as of the species being considered as under the Act that serve as hosts to injurious. For species not yet imported injurious: pathogens, as in the case of fish in the into the United States, the objective of • Ability to prevent escape and salmon family Salmonidae (32 FR listing is to prevent that species’ establishment; 20655; December 21, 1967, 33 FR 6827; importation and likely introduction and • Potential to eradicate or manage May 4, 1968, and 58 FR 58976; possible establishment and spread in established populations (for example, November 5, 1993). Members of the the wild, thereby preventing injurious making organisms sterile); • family Salmonidae (salmon, trout, and effects consistent with the purposes of Ability to rehabilitate disturbed char) are not injurious provided they are the Act. For species that are present in ecosystems; • free from certain pathogens. However, the United States, the Act prevents the Ability to prevent or control the salmon that are alive or are dead and further introduction, establishment, or spread of pathogens or parasites; and • uneviscerated (internal organs have not spread of the species by prohibiting Any potential ecological benefits to been removed) without a health interstate transport. introduction. certificate declaring that the fish are Importation into the United States of In the case of this interim rule, the pathogen free are injurious to wildlife an injurious species is prohibited. issue is not whether a given salamander and wildlife resources due to the risk of Transportation between the States, the species is invasive, but rather the role of transmitting pathogens that cause District of Columbia, the salamanders in introducing the Bsal devastating diseases in fish. Although Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, or any fungus into the United States and the prophylactic treatments for imports of territory or possession of the United scope and severity of effects caused by salamanders to manage Bsal are in States of an injurious species is also salamanders that are carriers of Bsal on development, they are not yet fully prohibited. These prohibited activities human beings or the interests of tested or feasible. may be undertaken by permit for agriculture, horticulture, or forestry, or zoological, educational, medical, or the wildlife or wildlife resources of the Listing and Evaluation Process scientific purposes (in accordance with United States. The regulations contained in part 16 permit regulations at 50 CFR 16.22), or Comments on the Content of the Interim of title 50 of the Code of Federal by Federal agencies without a permit Rule Regulations (CFR) implement the Lacey solely for their own use, upon filing a Act and include the lists of all species written declaration with the District We are soliciting public comments determined by the Service or by Director of Customs and the U.S. Fish and supporting data on the draft Congress to be injurious. Under the and Wildlife Service inspector at the economic analysis, the draft regulatory terms of the Act, the Secretary of the port of entry. The Act does not regulate flexibility analysis, and this interim rule Interior may prescribe by regulation intrastate transport (transport within a to add all species from 20 genera of those wild mammals, wild birds, fish, State or territory) or possession of salamanders to the list of injurious mollusks, crustaceans, amphibians, injurious species. Any regulations amphibians under the Act. We will reptiles, and the offspring or eggs of any pertaining to the transport or use of review the public comments for the of the foregoing that are injurious to these species within a particular State or preparation of our final rule. The draft humans, to the interests of agriculture, U.S. territory are the responsibility of economic analysis and regulatory horticulture, or forestry, or to the that State or territory. flexibility analysis and this interim rule wildlife or wildlife resources of the The Service uses criteria, identified will be available on http:// United States. The lists of injurious below, to evaluate whether a species www.regulations.gov under Docket No. wildlife species are found at 50 CFR does or does not qualify as injurious FWS–HQ–FAC–2015–0005. You may 16.11–16.15. Under these regulations, under the Act. The analysis that is submit your comments and materials species are added to the lists of developed using these criteria serves as concerning this interim rule by one of injurious wildlife to protect statutorily a general basis for the Service’s the methods listed in ADDRESSES. We defined interests from potential and regulatory decision regarding injurious will not accept comments sent by email known negative effects. Most species wildlife species listings. Biologists and or fax or to an address not listed in listed have the capacity to establish risk managers within the Service who ADDRESSES. populations in the wild, spread, and are knowledgeable about a species that We will post your entire comment— cause harm. However, a species can be is being evaluated assess both the including your personal identifying listed based solely on its capacity to factors that contribute to and the factors information—on http:// cause harm. As noted in the previous that reduce the likelihood of www.regulations.gov. If your written section, dead, uneviscerated salmonids injuriousness. comments provide personal identifying without a health certificate are not (1) Factors that contribute to being information, you may request at the top capable of establishing in the United considered injurious: of your document that we withhold this States, but they are injurious because • The likelihood of release or escape; information from public review. the pathogens they may carry are • Potential to survive, become However, we cannot guarantee that we harmful. established, and spread; will be able to do so. Under the Act, the Service can list • Impacts on wildlife resources or Comments and materials we receive, species that are nonnative or indigenous ecosystems through hybridization and as well as supporting documentation we to the United States. In the case of an competition for food and habitats, used in preparing this interim rule, will indigenous species, for example, the habitat degradation and destruction, be available for public inspection on Service may find that it is injurious predation, and pathogen transfer; http://www.regulations.gov under because its transport and release into • Impacts to threatened and Docket No. FWS–HQ–FAC–2015–0005, another State outside the species’ range endangered species and their habitats; or by appointment, during normal

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business hours at the Service’s office in most appropriate ones accepted by the (no common name), appears in the U.S. Falls Church, VA (see FOR FURTHER scientific community? Fish and Wildlife Service’s Office of INFORMATION CONTACT). (14) What are relevant Federal, State, Law Enforcement’s (USFWS OLE) Law We are soliciting public comments or local rules that may duplicate, Enforcement Management Information and supporting data to gain additional overlap, or conflict with the interim System (LEMIS) data (USFWS OLE information, and we specifically seek rule? 2015). LEMIS is an electronic database comment on the following questions: We will also submit the rule for peer utilized by all Service law enforcement (1) How many of the species listed by review concurrent with public offices, including Service Conservation this rule are currently in production for comments. In conducting peer review, Officers, Wildlife Inspectors, Refuge wholesale or retail sale, and in how we will follow guidance from the Office Officers, and Special Agents. LEMIS many and which States? of Management and Budget ‘‘Final serves as the portal in which all Service (2) How many businesses sell one or Information Quality Bulletin for Peer wildlife violations are documented and more of the species listed by this rule? Review’’ (OMB 2004) and the Service’s intelligence is gathered and shared (3) How many businesses breed one or own guidance. between law enforcement offices across the country. LEMIS also serves as the more of the species? Species Information for Salamanders (4) What species listed as threatened conduit for all declared (lawful) imports or endangered by one or more States Salamander Nomenclature and and exports of wildlife and wildlife would be affected by the introduction of Taxonomy products and the database of all wildlife trade data in the United States, both Bsal? Salamander nomenclature and legal and illegal. T. vittatus does not (5) What provisions in the interim taxonomy remained relatively appear in ITIS or AmphibiaWeb but is rule should the Service have considered unchanged from the 1960s until the listed in AMNH (2015b). Because it with regard to: (a) The impact of the 1990s, when advances in DNA appears in LEMIS data, we are including provision(s) (including any benefits and sequencing enabled researchers to it in 50 CFR 16.14 as a species under the costs), if any, and (b) what alternatives, examine species relationships more same genus, even though that species if any, the Service should consider, as closely (Petranka 1998). The Service does not appear in either ITIS or well as the costs and benefits of those does not have a uniform policy for alternatives, paying specific attention to AmphibiaWeb. taxonomically identifying amphibians. • LEMIS also includes the species the effect of the rule on small entities? In this interim rule, we use taxonomic (6) How could the interim rule be Triturus hongkongensis (no common nomenclature as described by name), even though it is not a valid modified to reduce costs or burdens for AmphibiaWeb (http://amphibiaweb.org) some or all entities, including small scientific name in ITIS or and the Integrated Taxonomic AmphibiaWeb. The name may be entities, consistent with the Service’s Information System (ITIS) (http:// requirements? For example, we seek confused with Paramesotriton www.itis.gov). The system used by hongkongensis (no common name) due comment on the distinct benefits and AmphibiaWeb represents one of the costs, both quantitative and qualitative, to its similarity. most widely accepted salamander • As a result, even though sources of (a) the prohibitions on importation taxonomic systems in the scientific such as AmphibiaWeb state that there and (b) the prohibitions on interstate community because it relies on criteria are approximately 679 species of transport of the species listed by this including, but not limited to, salamanders (AmphibiaWeb 2015c), for rule. What are the costs and benefits of monophyly (common descent from a purposes of this interim rule, we have the modifications? single ancestor), stability, expertise of identified approximately 681 species. (7) Is there any evidence suggesting scientists, and general acceptance by the • Hynobius fuca and H. fucus appear that Bsal has been introduced into the amphibian community (Amphibiaweb to be the same species (Taiwan lesser United States or may have already 2015b). As a Federal resource for salamander) (AMNH 2015c); we have established? taxonomic information, the Service also included both of these names in 50 CFR (8) Are there other pathways for Bsal uses ITIS as an agency resource (ITIS 16.14. into the United States that we should 2015). • Speleomantes strinatii is a synonym address? If so, what are they? The two databases have some for Hydromantes strinatii (Nanjappa, (9) Is there evidence suggesting that differences. For example, AmphibiaWeb pers. comm.; Caudata Culture 2015b), of any of the species listed by this rule are contains some species that are not in which the French cave salamander or not carriers of Bsal? If so, what species? ITIS. We addressed all species found in Strinati’s cave salamander are common (10) Is there any evidence suggesting either ITIS or AmphibiaWeb for a given names; we have included all of these that additional species are carriers of genus to avoid confusion over which names in 50 CFR 16.14. Bsal and should be listed by this rule? species we intended to list by this In this interim rule, when we refer to If so, what species? interim rule. We have also used salamanders, we include a variety of (11) Are there methods (such as additional resources where necessary to animals from the order Caudata, thermal exposure) that would allow clarify taxonomy, specifically: including those commonly referred to as salamanders imported into the United • The Kurdistan newt (Neurergus salamanders and newts. Other common States to be reliably treated to help microspilotus) is in ITIS but is not in names, such as mudpuppy, also exist for ensure Bsal is not introduced into the AmphibiaWeb. According to the certain animals in Caudata. United States, and how could American Museum of Natural History compliance be monitored? (AMNH 2015a), it is likely the same Salamander Biology (12) Should the Service add eggs or species as N. derjugini; consequently, Salamanders belong to the class other reproductive material of listed we have included both scientific names Amphibia, a group of cold-blooded salamanders to the list of injurious in 50 CFR 16.14. animals with a spinal column. The word wildlife because they may also carry • Martel et al. (2014) identified the ‘‘amphibian’’ is derived from the fact Bsal? great crested newt (Triturus cristatus) as that most of the species spend part of (13) For the species we are listing, are being lethally vulnerable to Bsal. their lives in water and part on land. the scientific and common names the Another species in the genus, T. vittatus The class Amphibia also includes frogs

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and toads, which have legs but no tails (Amphibiaweb 2015a). Salamanders are Blooi et al. 2015a). Central and North as adults, and caecilians, which have cryptic (difficult to find) partly because American salamanders as a group are tails but no legs. Morphologically, they occupy moist, cool places, such as active at average temperatures of 11 °C salamanders are characterized by their underneath logs and between rock (52 °F) to 20 °C (68 °F) (Duellman and relatively large, vertically flattened tails, crevices on land or under rocks and logs Trueb 1986), fully encompassing the two front and two hind legs that are in the water. optimum temperature for Bsal growth as approximately the same size (Petranka Salamander courtship between males described below under Climate 1998), and skin with glands that can be and females is regulated by chemicals Tolerance. Most salamanders require either rough or smooth (Stebbins and that are released from specialized glands some amount of constant moisture, Cohen 1997). Salamanders range in in the skin. Most salamanders reproduce either for respiration, as in the lungless length from around 4 centimeters (1.5 by laying eggs in water with two family Plethodontidae, or for inches) to over 1.5 meters (5 feet) exceptions: members of family temperature regulation (Duellman and (Stebbins and Cohen 1997). Plethodontidae lay their eggs on land, Trueb 1986). Salamanders can live for long periods, and the European species known as the Twenty species, subspecies, or but documented lifespans vary. Larger alpine salamander (Salamandra atra) populations of U.S. salamanders from salamanders tend to live longer than gives birth to live young (Stebbins and six genera are currently listed as smaller ones, and with proper care, Cohen 1997). Eggs are surrounded by a endangered or threatened under the salamanders in captivity frequently live protective jelly or membrane that keeps Endangered Species Act of 1973, as longer than those in the wild (Duellman them from drying out. Almost all amended (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.) (ESA). and Trueb 1986). Records for captive species of salamanders breed during An additional three species (three animals range from 5 years for most specific seasons, and the length of time genera) are candidates for listing (U.S. plethodontids to 55 years for the between mating and egg-laying varies Fish and Wildlife Service 2015). The Japanese giant salamander (Andrias considerably between species (Petranka specific vulnerability and carrier status japonicus) (Duellman and Trueb 1986). 1998). Species that lay aquatic eggs of these species to Bsal is described The Olm or blind cave salamander place them in either streams or ponds, below in Vulnerability and Carrier (Proteus anguinus), which lives in caves and species that lay their eggs on land Status of Threatened and Endangered in southern Europe, has been choose hidden places, such as Species. documented living for at least 48 years underground burrows, decaying logs, Of the 190 salamander species native in the wild, with an estimated lifespan and moist rock crevices (Petranka 1998). to the United States, we find that at least of more than 100 years (Live Science One example of a species that spends 67 species in 5 genera and in 3 families 2015). most of its life on land, but that moves are capable of being carriers of Bsal: Salamanders are carnivorous and eat to aquatic areas to breed, is the Salamandridae, Sirenidae, and a wide variety of prey, depending on California tiger salamander (Ambystoma Plethodontidae. In North America, habitat and the stage of their life cycle. californiense). During winter rains, this species in the family Salamandridae Terrestrial salamanders eat earthworms, species migrates across land to aquatic occur on the west coast of the United insect eggs, and other small pools, such as cattle tanks and States and Canada from southern invertebrates, while aquatic ephemeral pools, for breeding purposes. California to southeastern Alaska, and salamanders eat all of these in addition At the breeding pools, individuals come much of the eastern half of the United to small fish, aquatic insects, and other in contact with each other, even though States and extreme southeastern Canada amphibians. Some salamander larvae they may not come in contact with each (Amphibiaweb 2015a; Caudata Culture can also be omnivorous and eat both other during most of the rest of their 2015a). Members of the family plants and animals. lives on land (Barry and Shaffer 1994). Sirendidae occur throughout the Many salamanders have unique southeastern Atlantic and Gulf of Habitat Conditions and Native Range of structural features, including costal Mexico coastal plains and the U.S. Salamanders grooves (grooves on the sides of the Mississippi River Valley (Leja 2005) body that increase skin surface area for With more native salamander species (lesser siren (Siren intermedia)) and in water absorption and transport) and than any other country in the world, the the Atlantic coastal plains from south nasolabial grooves (vertical slits United States is a salamander diversity Florida to Virginia (greater siren (Siren between the nostril and upper lip used hotspot (Partners in Amphibian and lacertina)) (Hendricks 2005). The for sensing chemical stimuli in the Reptile Conservation 2015; Stein and distribution of salamanders of the environment), that can be used to Kutner 2015). Salamanders are family Plethodontidae in the western differentiate between salamander widespread in the United States. hemisphere is from southern Canada to species (Petranka 1998). Important (Caudata Culture 2015a; U.S. National Bolivia and Brazil, except for members features for identifying salamanders Park Service 2015). Areas of particularly of the genus Hydromantes, which occur include head shape and size, fin shape high salamander diversity include the in California (Amphibiaweb 2015a, and color, gill morphology, color southeastern United States, with large Caudata Culture 2015a). patterns, number of toes, size, body numbers of plethodontid salamanders in shape, tooth patterns, and number of the southern Appalachian Mountains Role of Salamanders in the Ecosystem costal grooves. Some species appear (Richgels et al. in review). Salamanders play important roles in similar. For example, similarity of Salamanders in the United States ecosystem function and as indicators of appearance within the family occupy a wide range of habitats, ecosystem health and stability (Davic Salamandridae can make it difficult to including streams, trees, land (including and Welsh 2004). For example, differentiate between species, requiring forests, grasslands, and rocky slopes), salamanders of family Plethodontidae close inspection of small physical underground, and caves (Amphibiaweb have life-history characteristics that characteristics. 2015a). These locations are most make them exceptional indicators of Salamanders occupy a wide range of conducive to the relatively cool, moist forest health (Welsh and Droege 2001). habitats, including streams, trees, land conditions under which both In forests, salamanders are also among (including forests, grasslands, and rocky salamanders and Bsal thrive (Duellman the most abundant vertebrates. Despite slopes), underground, and caves and Trueb 1986; Piotrowski et al. 2004; the relatively small size of most

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salamanders compared to most other pathogenic fungus, Bd, which was the How the Fungus Affects Salamanders native vertebrates, this sheer abundance only chytridiomycete taxon known to The ‘‘salamandrivorans’’ in contributes to a significant amount of parasitize vertebrate hosts (Longcore Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans biomass in the ecosystem, and, 1999; Johnson and Speare 2003). Bd has translates to ‘‘salamandereating’’ and therefore, salamanders make significant been implicated in the decline and accurately describes the effects of the contributions to nutrient cycling and extinction of amphibian species at the fungus on salamanders. Bsal infects the transport (Burton and Likens 1975). For global scale (Berger et al. 1998; Daszak skin of amphibians but not deeper example, Ambystomatid salamanders et al. 2003; Lips et al. 2006; Walker et tissues or internal organs (Berger 2004; can make significant contributions to al. 2008; Vredenburg et al. 2010; Cheng Martel et al. 2013). The cells of the energy and nutrient transport in forest et al. 2011). Bd has been found on every fungus (thalli) embed themselves in the ecosystems (Regester et al. 2006) and in continent except Antarctica, and it is skin cells of the salamander, thereby pond ecosystems (Holomuzki et al. known to have affected more than 500 causing erosive lesions. 1994). By consuming arthropods species of amphibians, including all Lesions consist of sores on the skin (insects and related invertebrates) that orders of amphibians (frogs, that erode and ulcerate, with secondary would otherwise release carbon dioxide salamanders, and caecilians) worldwide bacterial infection occurring after the into the atmosphere by decomposing (Chytridcrisis 2015a; Fisher et al. 2009; sores appear (Martel et al. 2013), leaf litter in forests, salamanders reduce Olson et al. 2013). although many of the salamanders carbon emissions from leaf litter reported at the beginning of the Bsal came to the attention of the decomposition, which has implications European Bsal outbreak seemed to lack scientific community only recently. for the global carbon cycle (Wyman obvious external lesions (Spitzen-van Spitzen-van der Sluijs et al. (2013) 1998; Best and Welsh 2014). der Sluijs et al. 2013). Experimental observed a 96 percent decline in fire Salamanders that live underground also infections of fire salamanders in the contribute to soil dynamics by creating, salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) laboratory caused death 12 to 18 days modifying, and otherwise regulating the in the Netherlands but was ‘‘unable to after exposure, with the same clinical systems of underground burrows in attribute this to any known cause of signs and pathological lesions found in which they live (Davic and Welsh 2004). amphibian decline, such as the European outbreak (Martel et al. In vernal pond communities, chytridiomycosis [at the time, thought 2013). Martel et al. (2013) found that Ambystoma species are the top only to be caused by Bd], ranavirus or infected fire salamanders developed predators and, therefore, control the habitat degradation.’’ Martel et al. shallow skin lesions and deep abundance of aquatic invertebrates and (2013) later identified the cause of the ulcerations all over the body, and other amphibians (Petranka 1998). The salamander decline in the Netherlands became anorexic, apathetic, and high numbers of many amphibians, as a newly described species of fungus suffered from neurological signs including salamanders, in some now known as Bsal. Their work including a loss of voluntary movement ecosystems also provide a substantial confirmed that Bsal is related to Bd and and muscle coordination. Death source of prey for other vertebrates in is also capable of causing occurred within 7 days of clinical signs the ecosystem (Harper et al. 2008; Davic chytridiomycosis. Analysis of a broad first appearing in species with lethal and Welsh 2004); therefore, other native range of representative chytrid fungi vulnerability. species that prey on salamanders can show that Bsal represents a previously Bsal does not appear to affect also be affected by disease-related undescribed species that shares early reproductive tissue, such as eggs or declines. evolutionary origins with the gametes. Using Bd for comparison, Bd Species Information for Bsal pathogenic fungus Bd (Martel et al. requires keratin, a structural component 2013). Until Bsal was discovered, Bd of organisms found in amphibian skin, General Description of Chytrid Fungus was the only species from that phylum which is not found in salamander eggs In drawing some of our conclusions known to infect vertebrates. or gametes (Berger 1998). about the effects of Bsal on U.S. wildlife While Bd has been found in North and wildlife resources, the Service has Climate Tolerance America, Bsal has not yet been found in used Bd as a surrogate. Considerably Temperature has a significant impact North America, and the two fungi do more is known about Bd than Bsal due on the growth and disease development not have the same effects on the same to its discovery and description more of Bsal in salamanders (Martel et al. than 15 years ago (Berger et al. 1998, animals. As the authors noted, 2014). Bsal appears to prefer a Longcore et al. 1999), while Bsal was ‘‘Chytridiomycosis has resulted in the temperature range for growth and discovered 2 years ago (Martel et al. serious decline and extinction of [more infection of 10–15 °C (50–59 °F) (Blooi 2013). The severe effects that Bd, a than] 200 species of amphibians et al. 2015a; Stephen et al. 2015, Martel species closely related to Bsal, has had worldwide and poses the greatest threat et al. 2013). Bsal has shown some on amphibian populations, has raised to biodiversity of any known disease growth in temperatures as low as 5 °C additional alarm about the expected * * *. We [have discovered] a second (41 °F) and dies at 25 °C (77 °F) and consequences of a Bsal introduction and * * * chytrid pathogen, [Bsal], that above (Martel et al. 2013). In a the need to take immediate action under causes lethal skin infections in laboratory study, salamanders were an interim rule. The two risk salamanders * * *. Our finding most easily infected by Bsal at assessments of Bsal that have been provides another explanation for the temperatures of 15 °C (59 °F) and 20 °C conducted both used Bd in determining phenomenon of amphibian biodiversity (68 °F), while Bsal growth was inhibited the risk of Bsal based on transmission, loss that is emblematic of the current at 25 °C (77 °F) (Blooi et al. 2015a). The spread, and population-level effects global biodiversity crisis.’’ The natural same temperature response was also (Richgels et al. in review; Stephen et al. host ranges of Bsal remain unknown, observed for Bsal raised in culture 2015). but so far it has been found only in (Blooi et al. 2015a). Until Bsal was discovered, the fungal salamanders and appears capable of This experimental data suggests that disease chytridiomycosis was thought to causing lethal chytridiomycosis only in salamanders living at lower be caused by a single species of salamanders (Martel et al. 2014). temperatures are more at risk to

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infection by Bsal. Animals that survive Population- and Ecosystem-Level ecosystems, where they may compose a at temperatures above the optimal range Effects of Bsal total biomass greater than or equal to for fungal growth are likely to be at birds or small mammals (Davic and Population-Level Effects reduced risk to infection. However, the Welsh 2004). This means that, despite average temperature ranges of North and Several pathogens, including Bsal, Bd, their small size, the total weight of all Central American salamander species is ranaviruses, and Saprolegnia sp. (water salamanders in a given area may be from 11 °C (52 °F) to 20 °C (68 °F) molds), have caused significant more than the combined total weight of (Duellman and Trueb 1986; the citation population-level declines in a range of all birds or all small mammals. Because does not separate North and Central amphibian species, and disease is of their abundance under normal American data), so salamanders thought to be a major driver of global circumstances, salamanders are regularly reaching 25 °C (77 °F) in the amphibian decline (Bosch et al. 2001; important prey species themselves and natural environment is uncommon. Martel et al. 2013; Daszak et al. 2003). are energy sources for higher predators Bales et al. (2015) noted that the native Disease poses a greater risk to small, (Davic and Welsh 2004), including fish, salamander species, and by extension isolated populations as well as those reptiles, birds, and mammals. ecosystems, most at risk from a Bsal with decreased genetic diversity (Smith Salamanders may be the dominant introduction would likely be those that et al. 2008). Within the United States, predator in headwater streams and occupy similar thermal ranges as the diseases have been cited as contributing ephemeral waterbodies where fish are European fire salamander (Bales et al. factors in the listing or recovery of absent (Davic and Welsh 2004). Within 2015). several native amphibian species under some food webs, salamanders are the ESA. Examples include Bd in the considered keystone predators due to Ecology and Habitat Preferences Ozark hellbender (Cryptobranchus their control of invertebrate prey alleganiensis bishopi) (76 FR 61956, The chytrid fungus Bd can live populations and their resulting October 6, 2011), an undiagnosed outside of a host and requires water to regulation of detritus decomposition disease in Sonora tiger salamanders disperse because it reproduces asexually and nutrient cycling (Davic and Welsh (Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi) (62 FR by forming motile zoospores; 2004). By definition, keystone species 665, January 6, 1997), and Bd in the preliminary studies of Bsal indicate that are those that occupy niches that affect mountain yellow-legged frog (Rana similar modes of survival and ecosystems and have little functional muscosa) (82 FR 24256, April 29, 2014; transmission are highly likely (Longcore overlap with other species (Davic and Vredenburg et al. 2010). Welsh 2004). Therefore, loss of these 1999; Martel et al. 2013). As the threat As noted above in General keystone species would result in assessment by Stephen et al. 2015) Description of Fungus, Bsal is the most significant ecosystem-level change. noted, ‘‘Bd is known to remain viable recently discovered pathogen associated In addition to their roles in food webs for several days to weeks in water with population-level amphibian and nutrient cycling, salamanders (Johnson and Speare 2013) and moist declines, including a 96 percent participate in a number of interspecific organic matter (Johnson and Speare reduction in Dutch populations of the (between species) ecological 2003), even in the absence of nutrients. European fire salamander between relationships. Salamander species It is likely that Bsal can also survive in 2010–2013 (Spitzen-van der Sluijs et al. interact with one another through moist environments, independent of an 2013; Martel et al. 2013). Due to the competition and predation to control amphibian host.’’ overall sensitivity of amphibian the composition of their assemblages Environmental Conditions Needed To populations to disease; a history of (taxonomically related species that Survive adverse, population-level effects in occur within the same geographic native amphibians; a direct association community) (Davic and Welsh 2004; The transmission and ecology of Bsal between Bsal and the decline of at least Fauth et al. 1996). Frequently, a single in the wild is likely to be similar to Bd one European salamander population; species is dominant within a given based on the close taxonomic and the adverse effects of some native assemblage, particularly in terrestrial relationship between the species, their salamanders to Bsal under experimental habitats, but which species dominates structural similarities, and their conditions, we conclude that the varies by location and ecosystem (Davic comparable pathophysiology (Martel et introduction of Bsal into the United and Welsh 2004). We find that al. 2013, Stephen et al. (2015). Johnson States would cause significant, adverse, ecosystems where the dominant and Speare (2003) reported that Bd can population-level effects in a number of salamander species is vulnerable to survive in tap water and deionized native species. lethal or susceptible infections with water for up to 3 and 4 weeks, Bsal would be at risk from an respectively, and up to 7 weeks in lake Ecosystem-Level Effects introduction of this pathogen. water. Bsal is also likely to survive in The preferred temperature range of Salamanders also interact with moist environments independent of an Bsal can help predict those ecosystems invertebrate species in other amphibian host. While we do not have that are at greatest risk should Bsal be ecologically important ways. Semi- information on the response of Bsal to introduced into the United States aquatic salamander species can move desiccation, Bd is highly impacted by (Stephen et al. 2015). The native mollusks and shrimp eggs between drying and can survive desiccation for salamander species, and by extension waterbodies during their migrations, no more than 1 hour in the laboratory ecosystems, most at risk from a Bsal allowing these invertebrates to inhabit (Garmyn et al. 2012); Bsal would likely introduction would likely be those that new areas (Davic and Welsh 2004). respond in a similar way. Bsal appears occupy similar thermal ranges as the Additionally, one species of to be adapted to temperatures and European fire salamander (Bales et al. salamander, the mudpuppy (Necturus humidity conditions most conducive to 2015). maculosus), is a required host for salamander survival, thus supporting Salamanders are important parts of developing stages of the salamander the hypothesis that the pathogen co- the ecosystems in which they occur. mussel (Simpsonaias ambigua), a evolved with salamanders in the part of Salamanders are often the most native, freshwater mollusk for which a the world from which it is endemic, abundant vertebrates in terrestrial forest positive 90-day finding has been made most likely in Asia (Martel et al. 2014). and riparian (the banks of watercourses) under the Endangered Species Act of

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1973, as amended (16 U.S.C. 1531 et bait were highly infected with both species that travel long distances for seq.) (76 FR 59836; September 27, 2011) ranavirus and Bd, thereby increasing the breeding and dispersal migrations, such (Davic and Welsh 2004; Gangloff and likelihood of disease transmission into as those that exhibit a metapopulation Folkerts 2006; United States Fish and new areas of the United States through structure (Bancroft et al. 2011). A Wildlife Service 2015b, United States the act of fishing. metapopulation is a group of discrete Fish and Wildlife Service 2015c). We Invasiveness and Transmission of Bsal breeding populations of the same conclude that invertebrate species that species (Gill 1978). For example, within depend on salamanders for aspects of As noted above under General salamander metapopulations, California their life cycle or ecology are likely to Description of Fungus, Europe has been tiger salamanders (Ambystoma be adversely affected if their host experiencing a severe decline in wild californiense) have been documented species declines in response to a Bsal fire salamander populations in the traveling up to 1.2 miles (1.9 kilometers) introduction. Netherlands (Spitzen-van der Sluijs et from upland habitat to aquatic breeding al. 2013). This decline is so significant sites (USFWS 2000), and newts travel Invasiveness of Salamanders and Bsal that fire salamander populations are many kilometers to breeding sites (Gill Invasiveness of Salamanders facing local extinction in the 1978). Netherlands, though other populations Salamander species that have Some salamanders have the ability to throughout Europe appear to be stable invade new environments in which they abundant populations with widespread (AmphibiaWeb 2015c). A sharp decline distributions can also contribute to the are not native. Globally, 90 percent of in numbers has been observed since salamander introductions have occurred spread of Bsal because of the increased 2010, despite the species being listed as likelihood that they will come in close through intentional releases (Tingley et endangered on the Netherlands Red al. 2010). As of 2010, salamanders contact with other salamanders that List, and at population levels that were could then become infected. comprised 22 percent of all recorded thought to be stable. This enigmatic amphibian introductions, with the Salamanders that can carry Bsal from decline was not attributed to any known one place to another are more likely to highest number of salamander cause of amphibian decline, such as introductions (15) from the family do so if they have a broad range where chytridiomycosis due to Bd, ranavirus, they will come in contact with other Salamandridae, followed by or habitat degradation. In late 2013, Bsal salamanders from the families members of the same species (for was isolated from infected fire abundant distributions) or other species Ambystomatidae (4), Cryptobranchidae salamanders in the Netherlands (Martel (2), and Proteidae (2) (Tingley et al. (for widespread distributions). Species et al. 2013). with broad distributions are adapted to 2010). Martel et al. (2014) later established a wide range of environmental Nonnative salamander introductions the highly pathogenic nature of this new conditions that are more likely to have been documented in the United chytrid fungus. Molecular testing found overlap with habitat suitable for Bsal as States. As described below under Bsal in specimens collected from the well as habitat suitable for that species, Likelihood of Release or Escape, the wild (though none from North America) providing increased opportunities for United States Geological Survey (USGS) and even in an archival (museum) Bsal to spread. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species sample that was 150 years old (Martel For example, the rough-skinned newt database has U.S. records for 14 et al. 2014). A wide variety of (Taricha granulosa) has a wide range salamander species that have been salamanders are negatively affected by along the West Coast from Alaska to observed outside their native range. Of the pathogen, but frogs, toads, and California, and the eastern newt those, 11 are native to the United States caecilians do not appear to be (Martel et (Notophthalmus viridescens) ranges but were discovered outside of their al. 2014). The pathogenic nature of the widely across the eastern United States, native ranges, and 3 (Japanese newt fungus and its ability to infect a wide occurring in 34 States (Amphibiaweb (also called the Japanese fire-bellied variety of salamanders, as described 2015a). Both species have had lethal newt, Cynops pyrrhogaster), Oriental below in Classification and Status as responses with laboratory infections of fire belly newt (also called the Oriental Carriers, definitively demonstrate an Bsal (Martel et al. 2014), and both are fire-bellied newt, Cynops orientalis), invasive threat to salamanders in the capable of carrying Bsal. In addition to and the spotless stout newt (Pachytriton United States. labiatus)) are exotic species from In Bd, the ability of the pathogen to its broad range, N. viridescens also outside the United States (USGS 2015). be transmitted between individuals is migrates long distances; this species In Florida, the Oriental fire belly newt dependent upon the density of will frequently travel many kilometers and spotless stout newt, which are populations (Rachowicz and Briggs to migrate to new ponds (Gill 1978), native to China (family Salamandridae), 2007) and the presence of a vector that further increasing the risk of this species have been found in the wild near an can carry the disease to uninfected spreading Bsal. animal importer’s facility, either as the populations (Greenspan et al. 2012); we Pathway Analysis result of intentional releases or escapes expect the same for Bsal. Experiments from enclosures (Krysko et al. 2011). have shown that Bsal can be transmitted Introduction Pathways Other invasions have been attributed from one species to another when the The main pathway for the global to the use and subsequent release of species come into contact (Martel et al. spread of Bsal is the international trade salamanders used as fishing bait. 2014). in salamanders (Martel et al. 2014). The Surveys of anglers have indicated that Salamanders that breed in ponds and introduction of Bsal into mainland they routinely release salamanders into temporary wetlands are often explosive Europe is linked with the commercial the areas where they fish, which breeders, meaning that hundreds to trade of Asian salamanders (Cynops includes areas that are not part of the multiple thousands of individuals will spp.) from East Asia, particularly salamander’s native U.S. habitats, reproduce at the same time (Gill 1978), Thailand, Vietnam, and Japan (Martel et suggesting that animals are routinely creating dense numbers of individuals al. 2014). As described above in How moved long distances (Picco and Collins and increasing opportunities for the the Fungus Affects Salamanders, eggs 2008). Furthermore, Picco and Collins pathogen to spread. Pathogens are also and gametes are not expected to be (2008) found that salamanders sold as likely to be transmitted by salamander pathways. However, salamanders that

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have been identified as carriers, whether The most likely pathway of a The species with the highest number live or dead, are expected to transmit salamander that is a host to Bsal into the of imports into the United States from Bsal through their skin, which contains United States would include a pet store 2004 to 2014 was the Oriental fire belly keratin. We are also concerned that any or online retailer. Individuals would newt; this species comprised 54 percent salamanders that are infected and purchase the salamander from a pet of the total number of imported lethally vulnerable may die in transport store (or online retailer) and keep it in salamanders (USFWS OLE 2015). and continue to carry Bsal into the captivity as a pet. Many amphibians and Twelve species of salamanders that are United States. As such, we also expect reptiles first kept as pets are released by native to the United States were also dead salamanders and body parts to be their owners into the wild either imported into the United States from a pathway. intentionally or accidentally (Kraus other countries from 2004 through 2014 Individual amphibians in trade are 2009, Krysko et al. 2011). For example, (USFWS OLE 2015). often transported in containers with owners may no longer be able to care for their pets or an animal may escape its Risk Assessments and Salamander many other individuals of the same Effects From Bsal species or with many other species that enclosure. In addition to the risk from can all be from different sources. These a release of an infected pet salamander Bsal Risk Assessments into the wild, the water that is used to conditions are highly conducive to Two Bsal risk assessments are house an infected pet in captivity would pathogen transmission and dispersal. available to help determine the risk feasibly contain Bsal zoospores. As a Pathogens can transfer from host to host associated with Bsal introduction into result, the discharge of untreated water in crowded conditions, and crowded North America. The USGS conducted a used to house infected, captive animals conditions create stress on animals that risk assessment for the United States could be a pathway for releasing can reduce amphibian hosts’ natural that helped us determine the level of infective zoospores into the ability to ward off infections (Rowley et risk associated with Bsal introduction environment and exposing native al. 2007, Rachowicz et al. 2005, Rollins- (Richgels et al. in review). Stephen et al. Smith et al. 2011). salamanders to Bsal (Stephen et al. 2015). (2015) also conducted a Bsal risk Bsal can also be introduced into the assessment for Canada that showed environment through the improper International Trade in Salamanders Canada is also at risk. disposal of contaminated water or other Trade in wildlife occurs on a global The USGS risk assessment concludes materials used to transport salamanders. scale, and amphibians are one of the that the potential for Bsal introduction As described above under most commonly traded animals (Smith into the United States is high, the Environmental Conditions Needed to et al. 2009). More than 52,149,000 United States has suitable conditions for Survive, the fungus can likely persist in documented amphibians were imported Bsal survival, and the consequences of such materials independent of whether into the United States from 2004 to introduction into the United States are a salamander is present. Water and 2014, based on the Service’s LEMIS data expected to be severe and occur across other materials have served as fomites to (USFWS OLE 2015). Salamanders a wide range of the United States introduce other similar pathogens into comprised 2,504,590 (4.8 percent) of the (Richgels et al. in review). To evaluate the environment. For example, Bd has total imports of amphibians (USFWS the potential for Bsal introduction, the been found in water used to transport OLE 2015). The 2004 to 2014 LEMIS USGS assessment combined information amphibians that were traded in Hong dataset should be considered as a on the number of individual Kong (Kolby et al. 2014). As the authors conservative estimate because many salamanders imported at each port of noted, ‘‘[T]he abundance of aquatic import records identified the animal entry and the number of pet supply amphibian species traded by Hong Kong being imported only as a member of the establishments by county. Based on this . . ., prolonged environmental Class Amphibia (rather than identifying evaluation, Bsal introduction potential persistence of infectious . . . Bd it to species or genus level). In addition, was highest in central and southern particles, and employment of trade incorrect salamander identifications to Florida, southern California, and near activities that neither disinfect water genus and species level appear to have New York City, New York (Richgels et nor safely dispose of deceased animals commonly occurred in reporting to al. in review). creates an ideal pathway for disease LEMIS (USFWS OLE 2015). LEMIS data To determine the consequences of transmission to native Hong Kong shows that 65 percent of imported Bsal introduction into the United States, amphibians.’’ salamanders came from captive sources the USGS risk assessment evaluated Drawing on this evidence, the primary and 35 percent were from wild sources environmental suitability, species pathway for the entry of salamanders (USFWS OLE 2015). The LEMIS data richness, and predicted species that are hosts of Bsal into the United recorded only 83 percent of declared susceptibility. Overall, the total risk of States is through the international imports at the species level, whereas 17 Bsal to native salamanders is high. commercial wildlife trade. Overall, 99.9 percent were recorded to the genus level Based on both likely introduction and percent of salamander importation into (USFWS OLE 2015). resultant consequences, the risk of Bsal the United States is for commercial The four salamander genera most is the highest for the Pacific coast, purposes (USFWS OLE 2015). From commonly imported into the United southern Appalachian Mountains, and 2010 to 2014, salamanders were States from 2004 to 2014 were Cynops, mid-Atlantic regions (Richgels et al. in imported through 14 ports of entry into Paramesotriton, Triturus, and review). The areas most likely to have the United States; the 3 ports of entry Pachytriton (USFWS OLE 2015). consequences from Bsal introduction with the largest numbers of imported Cynops, Triturus, and Paramesotriton are the Pacific Coast and Appalachian salamanders were Los Angeles are three genera that can serve as Mountains (Richgels et al. in review). (California), Tampa (Florida), and New carriers for Bsal (Martel et al. 2014). Of Based on environmental suitability, York (New York) (Richgels et al. in the 20 genera listed by this interim rule, areas of the United States most suited to review). After import, many of the 15 have been traded over the 11 years. Bsal growth (Blooi et al. 2015a), salamanders are transported to animal Salamanders that can carry Bsal have including the Southwest, Southeast, and wholesalers, who then transport the comprised 95 percent of imported Pacific regions, are also the areas of salamanders to pet retailers. salamanders. highest salamander diversity (Richgels

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et al. in review). Yap et al. (2015) also carrier can be drawn from a comparison comm.) found 25 species from 19 genera identified the southeastern and western to Bd, which as described above under are carriers of Bsal. Additional United States as zones of high risk. General Description of Chytrid Fungus communications (Chytridcrisis 2015b; Some species may be protected from is a close relative of Bsal. As noted Cunningham et al. 2015; Nanjappa, Bsal by temperatures in their regions earlier, the two risk assessments of Bsal pers. comm.) identified another two that are outside of the Bsal optimal that have been conducted both used Bd species from two separate genera as growth range (Richgels et al. in review), in determining the risk of Bsal based on carriers: The pygmy marbled newt but the average temperature preferences transmission, spread, and population- (Triturus pygmaeus) and the golden of salamanders from Central and North level effects (Richgels et al. in review; striped salamander (Chioglossa America (Duellman and Trueb 1986), Stephen et al. 2015). Considerably more lusitanica). Because Martel et al. (2014) which range from ¥2.0 °C (28.4 °F) to is known about Bd than Bsal due to its had previously identified members of 30.0 °C (86.0 °F), suggest that most discovery and description more than 15 the Triturus genus as carriers, it is salamander species, including those years ago (Berger et al. 1998; Longcore already accounted for within the 19 within the United States, are active near et al. 1999), while Bsal was discovered genera. The addition of this species the thermal growth optimum for Bsal only 2 years ago (Martel et al. 2013). Bd brings the total number of known carrier (Blooi et al. 2015a). Most U.S. has caused amphibian declines and species to 26. In addition to Triturus, salamander species are also dependent extinctions worldwide (Skerratt et al. Chioglossa was identified as another upon forests, a habitat type dominated 2007). Bd affects species in patterns genus capable of serving as a carrier by by relatively cool, moist conditions, for (Skerratt et al. 2007), and more closely Chytridcrisis (2015b), Cunningham et the majority of their life cycle (Davic related species have similar outcomes al. (2015), and Nanjappa (pers. comm.). and Welsh 2004). for Bd at the family level (Smith et al. As a result, the total number of species Vulnerability and Carrier Status 2009; Bancroft et al. 2011). Amphibians known to serve as carriers of Bsal is 27 experiencing the most severe declines from 20 genera. These 20 genera include The urgent need to prevent Bsal are grouped by relatedness, which is the following: Chioglossa, Cynops, introduction risks was raised by likely due to the shared evolutionary Euproctus, Hydromantes, Hynobius, evidence presented by Martel et al. histories of closely related species with Ichthyosaura, Lissotriton, Neurergus, (2014), who tested Bsal on 35 species a similar response to chytridiomycosis Notophthalmus, Onychodactylus, from all three orders of amphibians: (Corey and Waite 2008). The U.S. Paramesotriton, Plethodon, Pleurodeles, frogs, salamanders, and caecilians. Department of Agriculture (USDA) uses Salamandra, Salamandrella, Martel et al. (2014) further screened a similar approach. Closely related Salamandrina, Siren, Taricha, Triturus, 5,391 specimens collected from 4 species are considered more likely to and Tylototriton. continents for evidence of Bsal have similar traits and are used in risk In conducting its analysis, the Service infection. assessments to determine threats from a initially focused on identifying species Martel et al. (2014) defines a target species of interest; a potential pest for listing as injurious that scientific ‘‘resistant’’ salamander as one that is regarded as a threat when other evidence demonstrates are capable of either was not infected or developed a species in a genus pose a similar threat carrying Bsal. As we described above, short-term infection without clinical (Wapshere 1974; Gilbert et al. 2012). however, we find that, due to shared signs following exposure to Bsal; a We find that, due to shared characteristics by species within a ‘‘tolerant’’ salamander is one that characteristics by species within a genus, other species within these genera maintains a more prolonged infection genus, other species within these genera are also highly likely to be carriers of with no signs of disease; a ‘‘susceptible’’ are also highly likely to be carriers of Bsal, even if not every species in the salamander becomes infected and has Bsal if one species has been identified genus has been tested to verify that it is clinical signs of disease with the as a carrier, even if not every species in a carrier of Bsal. This conclusion is possibility of subsequent recovery; and the genus has been tested to verify that because more closely related species, a salamander that responds in a ‘‘lethal’’ it is a carrier of Bsal. Our analysis found such as those found within the same manner to Bsal dies as a result of no conclusive countervailing evidence genus, share common traits. Our infection. According to Martel et al. that species differed within a genus analysis found no conclusive evidence (2014), resistant salamanders are not a with respect to their ability to act as to the contrary that suggested that all risk for transmitting Bsal. However, carriers. As such, we expect all species species within such genera are not based on the available scientific data, in a genus to respond similarly as carriers. we concluded that resistant species with carriers or non-carriers to Bsal. We have focused our findings on evidence of short-term infection, as well Therefore, based on existing scientific salamanders and the genera in which as those reported to have tolerant, evidence, and as described in more they are found that we concluded are susceptible, or lethal responses to Bsal, detail below, we are listing all species capable of carrying Bsal, and we are not are ‘‘carriers’’ capable of transmitting in the 20 genera, including 201 known listing genera that Martel et al. (2014) Bsal to other salamanders and species, that we now conclude identified are not carriers of Bsal: Based introducing the fungus into the United constitute a threat to introducing and on our analysis of their data, such States. The Service finds that a species spreading Bsal in the United States salamanders are not capable of is considered to be a ‘‘non-carrier’’ because such species can carry the introducing Bsal to the United States or when Martel et al. (2014) classified the fungus and transmit it to other species otherwise transmitting Bsal to native species as ‘‘resistant’’ and no histologic which would be negatively impacted. populations. In addition, we are not or field surveillance data was found to While frogs and caecilians showed listing genera at this time where there is suggest that short-term Bsal infection resistance to Bsal, many salamanders no data because we do not have a basis could occur; ‘‘non-carriers’’ are exhibited a strong, adverse response to for doing so, even though the Service considered incapable of transmitting Bsal infection; many species from recognizes that it is possible that Bsal to other salamanders or introducing outside of the native range of the fungus untested genera may also be capable of the fungus into the United States. (Asia) exhibited lethal vulnerability. carrying Bsal. Likewise, we are not We also find the likelihood of a Our analysis of Martel et al. (2014) and listing hybrids derived from species species within the same genus being a follow-up communication (Martel, pers. consisting of a listed genera and an

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unlisted one because we do not know Bsal under experimental conditions. spring salamander (Gyrinophilus their status as carriers. However, However, we find that the misty porphyriticus), marbled salamander consistent with our view that species salamander (H. nebulosus) is a carrier (Ambystoma opacum), and spotted within a genus are likely to be carriers based on detection of Bsal by Martel et salamander (A. maculatum). Of these, 2 of Bsal if one species within that genus al. (2014) in a free-ranging specimen species were found to be lethally has been identified as a carrier, hybrids from Japan. The histology tests that affected, 1 was tolerant, and 4 were consisting of two species from within were conducted for the slimy described as resistant, although the same genus are expected also to be salamander and the palmate newt, and additional evidence indicates that one carriers. which we used to find that these species of the resistant species is capable of In conclusion, we have decided to list are carriers, were not conducted for the transmitting the fungus, resulting in a all 201 species in the 20 genera where Hokkaido salamander. Bsal’s ability to positive carrier status. As we described at least one species has been positively invade the skin of the Hokkaido above in Vulnerability and Carrier identified as a carrier of Bsal and there salamander remains unknown because Status, although the Service found is no countervailing conclusive histologic examination of the skin was evidence that species within a genus evidence suggesting that some species not conducted for the species. Because may vary in their specific vulnerability within the genus are not carriers. Where the Hokkaido salamander was resistant (that is, lethal, susceptible, tolerant, or one species has been identified as a in experimental tests but was not tested resistant, as defined in Martel et al. carrier, we find that the other species in histologically to look for invasion in the (2014)), we expect all species in a genus that genus are also carriers. This finding skin, we find that the Hokkaido to respond similarly as carriers or non- includes hybrids consisting of species salamander has an inconclusive status carriers to Bsal due to the shared found within the genus. as a carrier and base our finding of characteristics between species. In reaching this conclusion, it is whether species from the genus Therefore, we are listing all species worth noting that Martel et al. (2014) Hynobius are carriers on results within a genus where at least one classified the slimy salamander (or identified for the misty salamander (a species in that genus has been identified northern slimy salamander, Plethodon carrier from the same genus). Because as a carrier of Bsal. glutinosus) as resistant to infection. we expect all species within a genus to Based on the results of Martel et al. Martel et al. (2014) demonstrated by respond in a similar way as a carrier or (2014), at least 2 native U.S. species, the histology, however, that Bsal could not of Bsal, we concluded that all eastern newt and rough-skinned newt, invade the skin of the slimy salamander, species from the genus Hynobius are were found to be lethally vulnerable to even though it was otherwise resistant also carriers. Bsal. The French cave salamander through challenge testing and did not Finally, although Martel et al. (2014) (Hydromantes strinatii), which is not show signs of infection. Our did not test species from the genus native to the United States, was also examination of the supplementary data Onychodactylus in the laboratory, tested and identified as lethally of Martel et al. (2014), including Martel et al. (2014) observed Bsal on the vulnerable to Bsal (Martel et al. 2014). histology (microscopy) tests and Japanese clawed salamander (O. The Notophthalmus genus has two subsequent discussions with the japonicas) in a free-ranging specimen additional native species: The black- authors, indicate that there is sufficient from Japan. Based on that evidence, we spotted newt (N. meridionalis) and the evidence that Bsal was able to invade concluded that this species is a carrier. striped newt (N. perstriatus). The the skin of this species long enough to Because we expect all species within a Taricha genus has three additional move or transmit the infection to other genus to respond in a similar way as a native species: The red-bellied newt (T. salamanders (Martel et al. 2014; Martel, carrier or not of Bsal, we concluded that rivularis), Sierra newt (T. sierra), and pers. comm.; Lips, pers. comm.). the other species in the genus California newt (T. torosa). The Because we expect all species within a Onychodactylus are also carriers. Hydromantes genus has three native genus to respond in a similar way as a U.S. species: The limestone salamander Vulnerability and Carrier Status of carrier or not of Bsal, we conclude that (H. brunus), Mount Lyell salamander (H. Native Species all species of Plethodon are carriers. platycephalus), and Shasta salamander Martel et al. (2014) also classified the There are 190 species of salamander (H. shastae). palmate newt (Lissotriton helveticus) as in 23 genera native to the United States At least 1 native U.S. species from the resistant to infection even though the (AmphibiaWeb 2015b). Of the 201 Siren genus, the lesser siren, has a Italian newt (Lissotriton italicus) was salamander species that we conclude tolerant vulnerability (Martel et al. identified as lethally vulnerable to Bsal. are carriers of Bsal (20 genera in 4 (2014). The genus has one additional Martel conducted histological tests that families), 67 species (5 genera in 3 native species: The greater siren (S. showed the palmate newt could carry families) are native to the United States. lacertina). Bsal even though it demonstrated Of the remaining 123 species native to Four native species have been resistant vulnerability. Our examination the United States, we found that 20 identified as resistant by Martel et al. of the data of Martel et al. (2014), as species are not carriers and the (2014), but we have concluded that one well as a personal communication from vulnerability and carrier status of the of these species is still capable of K. Lips (2015), indicates that there is remaining 103 species from the other 16 carrying Bsal. As we describe above in sufficient evidence that Bsal was able to genera is unknown. Vulnerability and Carrier Status, we invade the skin of the palmate newt We based our findings of the 67 native conclude that the slimy salamander is long enough to pass the infection to species on tests conducted by Martel et resistant to sustained infection but it other salamanders. Because we expect al. (2014), who tested 7 native species can serve as a short-term carrier of Bsal. all species within a genus to respond in in the laboratory for Bsal vulnerability. The Plethodon genus has 54 other a similar way as a carrier or not of Bsal, The native species that Martel et al. species, all of which are native to the we also conclude that all species of (2014) tested were the eastern newt United States (AmphibiaWeb 2015b), Lissotriton are carriers. (Notophthalmus viridescens), rough- bringing the total number of native In addition, Martel et al. (2014) skinned newt (Taricha granulosa), carrier species to 67. classified the Hokkaido salamander lesser siren (Siren intermedia), slimy Three additional native salamander (Hynobius retardatus) as resistant to salamander (Plethodon glutinosus), species were identified as resistant to

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Bsal infection: The spring salamander listed as federally endangered or native species in 11 genera that are (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus), marbled threatened are classified within the currently under review for ESA listing salamander (Ambystoma opacum), and Ambystoma genus, which we find is not (USFWS 2015). spotted salamander (A. maculatum) a carrier of the fungus: Reticulated Additional Factors That Contribute to (Martel et al. 2014). They are not flatwoods salamander (A. bishopi), Consideration of Salamanders as expected to be carriers; therefore, we California tiger salamander (three DPSs), Injurious conclude that the 20 native U.S. species frosted flatwoods salamander (A. in their genera are not capable of cingulatum), Santa Cruz long-toed Likelihood of Release or Escape carrying Bsal. This includes 4 species salamander (A. macrodactylum In general, there is widespread from the genus Gyrinophilus and 16 croceum), and Sonora tiger salamander concern over the increasing spread of species from the genus Ambystoma (Martel et al. 2014; USFWS 2015). pathogens moved through the wildlife No information is available regarding (AmphibiaWeb 2015b). trade (for example, Karesh et al. 2005). Of the 190 native U.S. salamander Bsal vulnerability or carrier status of the Substantial evidence shows that Bd has species, carrier status has not been remaining 11 ESA-listed or candidate spread extensively throughout the world assessed in 103 species from 16 genera. species or subspecies native to the through the amphibian trade (Fisher and The untested genera are Amphiuma, United States: desert slender Garner 2007; Schloegel et al. 2009; Aneides, Batrachoseps, Cryptobranchus, salamander (Batrachoseps aridus), Schloegel et al. 2012; Galindo-Bustos Desmognathus, Dicamptodon, Ensatina, Ozark hellbender, Salado salamander 2014; Kolby 2014; Kolby et al. 2014). Eurycea, Hemidactylium, Necturus, (Eurycea chisholmensis), San Marcos Similar mechanisms of transmission Phaeognathus, Pseudobranchus, salamander (E. nana), Georgetown and persistence in the closely related Pseudotriton, Rhyacotriton, salamander (E. naufragia), Texas blind Stereochilus, and Urspelerpes salamander (E. (Typhlomolge) rathbuni), Bsal pathogen, along with detection of (AmphibiaWeb 2015b). Although based Barton springs salamander (E. sosorum), Bsal in captive salamanders imported by on the gradient responses, from resisting Jollyville Plateau salamander (E. the pet trade into Great Britain, indicate infection to lethal response, among the tonkawae), Austin blind salamander (E. that global movement of Bsal, similar to genera Martel et al. (2014) tested waterlooensis), Berry Cave salamander that of Bd, is not only possible but is experimentally, some of these (Gyrinophilus gulolineatus), and the already occurring (Cunningham 2015). additional species could be at risk from Alabama waterdog (Necturus Considering the occurrence of Bsal in Bsal infection or could serve as a carrier, alabamensis). the global pet trade, the risk to North we are not listing species in those In addition to those species currently American native species, and the genera because these genera have not recognized as federally endangered, number of salamanders that are yet been tested. threatened, or candidates for listing imported into and transported under the ESA, 36 species of native throughout the United States through Vulnerability and Carrier Status of salamander from 16 genera are in trade, Bsal is likely to be introduced Threatened and Endangered Species various stages of review for possible into and spread throughout native None of the salamander species listed ESA listing in the future (USFWS 2015). salamander populations in the United as endangered or threatened under the Of the genera that include native species States unless immediate action is taken ESA in the United States has been that we have identified as carriers, the to limit the import and interstate specifically tested for Bsal vulnerability following species are currently under transport of salamanders that are likely under laboratory conditions; Bsal has review for ESA listing: Limestone to carry Bsal. not been detected in their wild salamander (petitioned), Shasta Infected salamanders can transmit populations (Martel et al. 2014, Bales et salamander (petitioned), the black- Bsal to other species even if the al. 2015). However, several species from spotted newt (positive 90-day finding introduced salamander fails to establish the same genera have been tested and on completed), Cheoah bald salamander (P. a population. Evidence indicates that at that basis identified as carriers. As we cheoah, petitioned), Fourche Mountain least some of the salamanders capable of describe above in Vulnerability and salamander (P. fourchensis, petitioned), carrying Bsal can escape or be released Carrier Status, while the Service did Peaks of Otter salamander (P. hubrichti, and introduce Bsal into the find evidence that shows some species positive 90-day finding completed), environment. As described earlier, within a genus may vary in their South Mountain gray-cheeked evidence exists for release of specific vulnerability, the carrier status salamander (P. meridianus, petitioned), salamanders into the wild in the United of tested species can be extrapolated to and the white-spotted salamander (P. States (Picco and Collins 2008; USGS related species including those that are punctatus, petitioned) (Martel et al. 2015). As noted above in Invasiveness of listed as endangered or threatened, are 2014; USFWS 2015). Salamanders, the USGS Nonindigenous candidates for ESA listing, and under Three species under ESA review are Aquatic Species database has records for review. members of genera that are not carriers: 14 salamander species that have been Of the genera that include native (Streamside salamander (Ambystoma observed outside their native range. Of species that we have identified as barbouri) (substantial 90-day finding those, 11 are native to the United States carriers, the following species are completed—76 FR 59836, September 27, and were discovered outside of their federally listed as threatened or 2011), Tennessee cave salamander native ranges, and 3 are exotic species endangered: Jemez Mountains (Gyrinophilus palleucus) (substantial from outside the United States. These salamander (P. neomexicanus), Cheat 90-day finding completed—76 FR findings mean that salamanders have Mountain salamander (P. netting), 59836, September 27, 2011), West been shown to exist, even if Shenandoah salamander (P. Virginia spring salamander (G. temporarily, outside their native range. shenandoah) and, one species, the subterraneus) (substantial 90-day As such, they are capable of striped newt (Notophthalmus finding completed—76 FR 59836, transmitting Bsal into nonindigenous perstriatus) is a candidate species September 27, 2011) (Martel et al. 2014; ecosystems. Infected native species that (USFWS 2015). USFWS 2015). are imported and escape or are released Seven of the species, subspecies, or No information is available regarding into native habitats would also be distinct population segments (DPSs) the carrier status for the remaining 25 capable of carrying Bsal into native

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salamander ecosystems where Bsal has recent years, suggesting that the belly newt, and spotless stout newt not previously been found. propagule pressure may also be a factor (Pachytriton labiatus). Infective Bsal zoospores can also be by limiting the number of times in According to Richgels et al. (in released into the environment if water which Bsal could possibly be review), ‘‘Although prevalence of Bsal or other materials used to house introduced through trade (Lockwood et in live amphibian shipments, infected salamanders enter the al. 2005; USFWS OLE 2015). Bd may probability of release of infected environment due to improper have spread more quickly than Bsal materials (including live or dead disinfection and disposal methods. The because of its ability to infect frogs, animals or wastewater), and likelihood water and materials become fomites to whereas research suggests that Bsal does of interaction between infectious introduce the fungus into the not (Martel et al. 2014). Based on LEMIS material and naı¨ve free-ranging environment if not decontaminated or data, frogs are traded in higher volumes salamanders is unknown, given the disposed of properly. As described than salamanders, increasing the large quantities of imported amphibians, above under Environmental Conditions probability of trade of a Bd-infected even a small probability of infected Needed to Survive, Bsal can likely live individual over a Bsal-infected animals or materials escaping into the independent of a host long enough to individual. The USGS Nonindigenous wild could lead to introduction of infect other salamanders. Bd is known Aquatic Species database also provides [Bsal].’’ As discussed earlier under to remain viable for weeks in water and evidence for this higher level of trade, Introduction Pathways and moist organic matter. Given our finding in that greater numbers of frogs are Environmental Conditions Needed to that Bd can serve as a surrogate for reported than salamanders. In addition, Survive, Bsal is expected to be able to predicting Bsal’s effects in salamanders many frogs in trade, such as Rana survive outside of salamander hosts for at the population level, and since Bd catesbeiana (bullfrogs), are adaptable to several weeks given suitable conditions does not require an amphibian host to a wide variety of environments and can in water. If a salamander comes in remain viable, we expect that Bsal can easily become invasive once released in contact with Bsal and then transmits it also persist outside salamanders (as long a watershed, as bullfrogs have become during a time when salamanders as it has sufficient water or soil) long in the American West (Jennings and congregate, such as during breeding as enough to come into contact with Hayes 1994; Rosen and Schwalbe 1995; described above under Habitats, uninfected salamanders and start the Funk et al. 2011; Sepulveda et al. 2015; Reproductive Processes, and Seasonal disease cycle anew. As stated earlier, we USGS 2015). Habits, the potential for Bsal to survive, also find that Bsal can be transmitted on Taken together with the other data we establish, and spread through animals or dead salamanders or body parts. reviewed, this evidence suggests that animal parts is significant. As we As discussed above in Introduction Bsal is less likely to enter the United describe above under How the Fungus Pathways, there is evidence that Bd has States than Bd. However, without Affects Salamanders, Bsal can be escaped into the environment through action, the pathways for introduction transmitted on dead tissue where untreated wastewater, increasing the and escape of Bsal are a significant and keratin is present, particularly skin, but likelihood that Bsal could also escape if imminent threat that can best be do not find that Bsal can be transmitted brought in via contaminated water or managed by listing salamanders that can through reproductive tissue including improperly disposed of materials. While carry Bsal as injurious wildlife, thereby eggs and gametes. standards for the treatment and minimizing opportunities for Bsal to be As Richgels et al. (in review) noted, prevention of Bd exist, in part due to introduced, establish, and spread in the ‘‘[T]he patterns of global Bd spread recognition of its status as an United States. suggests that given release, exposure of internationally notifiable disease under native populations is likely. If Bsal the World Organization for Animal Potential To Survive, Become follows similar patterns to the spread of Health (OIE), the effectiveness and Established, and Spread Bd and no additional risk mitigation widespread application of those There is evidence that several of the steps are taken, Bsal is likely to be standards are uncertain given that species capable of carrying Bsal can introduced to the US.’’ The Service international protocols for responding to survive long enough in the wild to finds that the capacity of infected Bd do not exist and the need to improve transmit Bsal. The USGS salamanders to serve as the vector for international mechanisms to respond to Nonindigenous Aquatic Species infecting wild salamanders, together disease-related threats to biodiversity database has records of 14 species and with the capacity of Bsal to survive for (Voyles et al. 2014). populations that have been observed in an extended period independent of an Given the number of specimens that the United States outside of their native amphibian host, suggests that Bsal has have been imported into the United range (USGS 2015). Of those, 11 are a high likelihood of surviving, States and Canada, it is unclear why native and have established populations establishing, and spreading once it is Bsal has not yet been found in these outside of their native U.S. range: introduced into a new area. countries (Muletz et al. 2014; Bales et al. Eastern tiger salamander (Ambystoma 2015; Richgels et al. in review; Stephen tigrinum), barred tiger salamander Impacts on Wildlife Resources or et al. 2015). A comparison of Bd, which (Ambystoma mavortium mavortium), Ecosystems has spread in the United States, to Bsal blotched tiger salamander (Ambystoma If Bsal is introduced into the United yields some insights. Based on genetic mavortium melanostictum), long-toed States, we expect the species with lethal analyses and examination of historical salamander (Ambystoma vulnerability would be at greatest risk. specimens, Bd may have originated macrodactylum), three-toed amphiuma However, disease outbreaks can result from different places, including Japan, (Amphiuma tridactylum), black-bellied from a combination of biotic and abiotic South Africa, or South America (Farrer salamander (Desmognathus factors, including species vulnerability, et al. 2011; Rodriguez et al. 2014). In quadramaculatus), Santeetlah dusky exposure, behavior, immunity, co- contrast, Bsal may have originated only salamander (Desmognathus santeetlah), infections, and environmental from Asia, giving it fewer pathways to mudpuppy, eastern newt, lesser siren, conditions (Wobeser 2007). Therefore, the United States (Martel et al. 2014). and rough-skinned newt. The three the vulnerability of individuals under Importation of salamanders into the species from outside the United States laboratory conditions is an incomplete United States has also declined in include Japanese newt, Oriental fire predictor of disease effects (Wobeser

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2007). Native salamander species Welsh 2014). If native U.S. salamander specifically tested for Bsal vulnerability known to be tolerant of Bsal infection species were to experience declines under laboratory conditions; Bsal has under experimental conditions may from Bsal infection as the fire not been detected in their wild demonstrate more severe clinical salamander experienced in the populations (Martel et al. 2014, Bales et disease when infection is combined Netherlands (Spitzen-van der Sluijs et al. 2015). Of the genera that include with additional stressors in the wild, as al. 2013), we expect detrimental native species that we have identified as has been found for other diseases, ecological effects. carriers, 4 species are federally listed as including those in amphibians (Wobeser The eastern newt, one of the lethally threatened or endangered or are 2007; Kerby et al. 2011; Kiesecker 2011). vulnerable species, is one of the most candidates for listing. In addition, 8 For example, Bodinof et al. (2011) noted widespread salamander species in North species of native salamanders from that Bd may be found more frequently America (Roe and Grayson 2008, Martel genera that were identified as carriers in hellbenders that are immune- et al. 2014). As top predators in pond are in various stages of review for compromised or that Bd infection ecosystems, eastern newts regulate frog possible ESA listing in the future increases the adverse effects of such tadpole abundance and, therefore, affect (USFWS 2015). Because not all species species to other infections. Considering the amount and type of nutrients have been tested, it is possible that the these cumulative factors, as well as the available in the ponds, keeping them in fungus will negatively affect other ESA- lack of data for the majority of native ecological balance (Morin et al. 1983; protected species. salamander species, our assessment of Morin 1995). If eastern newt Impacts to Human Beings, Forestry, risk in native species is likely populations decline because of Bsal Horticulture, and Agriculture conservative. infection in the wild, imbalances could Bsal can severely affect wildlife result in ponds and ecosystems We do not expect direct effects to resources. At least 2 native species are throughout the eastern United States. forestry, horticulture, or agriculture. lethally vulnerable to Bsal and at least Eastern newts also travel long distances Bsal does not appear to infect humans 1 is tolerant to Bsal infection. At least between aquatic and terrestrial habitats or other animals except for salamanders. 67 native species can act as carriers or (Roe and Grayson 2008), so if the Trees and other plants are also not sources of infection for other species. species was to be eliminated from an affected. Indirectly, the introduction or While not all species have been tested area, the amount of nutrients available establishment of Bsal would have for their response to Bsal, based on the in upland areas would also be affected. negative effects on humans primarily high rates of infection that have been The other native U.S. species known from the loss of native wildlife observed, the fungus may have to be lethally vulnerable to Bsal, the biodiversity. These losses would affect significant negative effects on additional rough-skinned newt, is geographically the aesthetic, recreational, and species. widespread along the Pacific Coast of economic values currently provided by As described above in Ecosystem- North America from Santa Cruz, native wildlife and healthy ecosystems. Level Effects, salamanders are important California, to southeastern Alaska Educational values would also be parts of the ecosystems in which they (Martel et al. 2014; Amphibiaweb diminished through the loss of occur. They are often the most abundant 2015a). The rough-skinned newt plays biodiversity and ecosystem health. vertebrates in their ecosystems, and, as an important role in ecosystems through However, we are not listing the species a vital part of the food web, they are its consumption of invertebrates that because of the indirect impacts to both important prey for and predators of break down leaf litter and release carbon forestry, horticulture, or agriculture, but many species (Holomuzki et al. 1994; into the atmosphere (Davic and Welsh rather due to their impacts to wildlife Regester et al. 2006). In some places, 2004). If rough-skinned newt and wildlife resources. they are considered keystone species populations were to experience severe Wildlife or Habitat Damages That May that help control some invertebrate declines from Bsal infection, a result Occur From Control Measures populations and affect cycling of could be significant additional inputs of nutrients in an ecosystem, contributing carbon in the atmosphere, as has been Richgels et al. (in review) stated, significantly to overall ecosystem observed with other species (Wyman ‘‘[T]here are few known viable treatment health. For example, by consuming 1998; Best and Welsh 2014). or management options for responding arthropods that would otherwise release As Richgels et al. (in review) noted, to the introduction of Bsal . . . hence carbon dioxide into the atmosphere by some parts of the United States may mitigation strategies should focus on decomposing leaf litter in forests, reach temperatures above the thermal prevention or reduction of introduction salamanders slow carbon emissions tolerance of Bsal on a seasonal basis. events.’’ As discussed below in Ability from leaf litter decomposition, which However, wildlife and habitats would to Prevent or Control the Spread of has implications for the global carbon suffer losses if local populations of Pathogens or Parasites, current control cycle (Best and Welsh 2014). As salamanders affected by Bsal prior to strategies appear to focus on treating described earlier, invertebrate species temperatures rising as part of the regular salamanders in a controlled laboratory that depend on salamanders for aspects seasonal cycle suffered declines (and setting. We are not aware of control of their life cycle or ecology are likely possible extirpation) and were unable to measures that are effective in treating to be adversely affected if their host return to pre-infection levels in those infected salamanders over a large-scale species declines in response to a Bsal ecosystems. area that could eliminate Bsal without introduction. Loss of these keystone For these reasons, we conclude that killing the salamanders themselves. species would result in significant the negative impact to wildlife resources In an effort to control Bsal, it might be ecosystem-level change. or ecosystems is expected to be high if possible to kill all salamanders in an Salamanders constitute much of the Bsal is introduced into U.S. ecosystems. area and repopulate it after the fungus vertebrate biomass of forests, and they has been given enough time to clear play an important role in ecosystems as Impact to Threatened and Endangered from the environment. However, the life insect consumers, shapers of the Species and Their Habitats history of salamanders makes it highly landscape, and climate mediators None of the salamander species listed unlikely that all individuals, including (Burton and Likens 1975; Davic and as endangered or threatened under the those that are infected, could be Welsh 2004; Wyman 1998; Best and ESA in the United States have been completely eradicated. Many species are

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long-lived and inhabit areas that may be invasive species, the Service is highly programs to address threats, such as hard to reach. In addition, the effects on concerned about the extensive damage infectious disease, to amphibians, other wildlife of chemically treating an that introduction of Bsal would do to including salamanders (Harding et al. area in order to eradicate infected this nation’s resources. As a result, we 2015). Research on booroolong frogs salamanders is unknown but could be concluded that we cannot rely on (Litoria booroolongensis) demonstrated expected to be severe. voluntary actions alone to address the that exposing them to Bd did not severity of the threat that Bsal poses and improve their chances of mitigating Ability To Prevent Escape and that other measures to prevent escape future reinfection (Cashins et al. 2013). Establishment and establishment are not sufficient to We expect, given similarities of Bd to We considered whether it was ensure Bsal is not successfully Bsal, that salamanders will also show a practical for an exporting foreign nation introduced. similar response to Bsal infection. As a to produce a health certificate stating Therefore, we find that we cannot rely result, it may not be possible to that a possible carrier of Bsal has been on these approaches to prevent escape stimulate an immune response in found to be free of the fungus. Such and establishment of Bsal and that our captive salamander populations that action would help ensure that Bsal does current capacity to prevent escape and would allow them to be reintroduced not escape from an exporting nation by establishment is low. into ecosystems where Bsal may still being carried on an infected salamander. Potential To Eradicate or Manage exist. However, there are significant concerns Therefore, the ability to rehabilitate Established Populations regarding the effectiveness and disturbed ecosystems is expected to be sensitivity of current testing methods While some introduced salamanders low because the Service would be (including the return of false negatives), in the United States have been unable to ensure that it could treat and lack of validation and sufficient testing successfully controlled, such as the protect all salamander populations capacity, and agency resources required lesser siren (which was eliminated from expected to be affected by Bsal in the to conduct inspections, interpret results, a backyard pond outside its native U.S. wild. and issue health certificates. Although range), others such as the three-toed some countries may have the necessary amphiuma have not (USGS 2015). Ability To Prevent or Control the Spread skills to prepare a health certification However, evidence for control is sparse. of Pathogens or Parasites that salamanders are free of Bsal, not all Given the high rates of infection among The ability and effectiveness of exporting nations may have the salamanders tested by Martel et al. measures to prevent or control Bsal is necessary skills or resources. Scientists (2014), and the lack of control measures currently low. Few options can ensure and diagnostic laboratories are also for Bsal that could be employed outside potentially infected salamanders do not working to standardize laboratory of a controlled facility, it is likely that carry Bsal. Blooi et al. (2015a) has protocols (Ballard, pers. comm.). Bsal would persist once introduced into shown that treating salamanders As discussed below in Ability to the environment given appropriate infected with Bsal by exposing them ‘‘to Prevent or Control the Spread of environmental conditions, especially if 25 °C [77 °F] for 10 days resulted in Pathogens or Parasites, the ability and a tolerant or susceptible salamander complete clearance of infection and effectiveness of measures to prevent or established a population and continued clinically cured all experimentally control Bsal is currently low. While less to spread Bsal. infected animals. This treatment certain, we also expect the ability to protocol was validated in naturally prevent escape and establishment is also Ability To Rehabilitate Disturbed infected wild fire salamanders.’’ The low. Nonregulatory actions, such as Ecosystems authors found that temperature implementing voluntary Best Bsal infection can lead to the loss of treatment could be an effective option Management Practices or individual keystone species in the ecosystem. The given the host salamander’s thermal State action, are possible. The Service, ability to rehabilitate disturbed tolerance. However, the treatment does for example, is working with partners ecosystems is expected to be low. We have some shortcomings. It is unknown on efforts such as HabitattitudeTM, considered whether the Service’s whether all salamander species can which encourages responsible consumer National Fish Hatchery System (NFHS) tolerate the thermal regime required actions with respect to pet ownership. could be used to maintain salamanders (Kolby, pers. comm.). Blooi et al. Such actions include finding in refugia while areas are treated, much (2015a) also noted that there is some alternatives to releasing pets into the as we maintain a population of the San uncertainty as to whether the method is environment. Voluntary actions, such as Marcos salamander, which is listed as completely effective, as evidence of Bsal applying heat therapy as described in threatened, at the Uvalde National Fish was found after thermal treatment, Blooi et al. (2015a) and Blooi et al. Hatchery. However, it is impractical to although it is possible that the evidence (2015b), may help reduce the threat equip NFHS facilities to be able to consisted of dead cells only. posed by Bsal. However, at this time it rapidly protect numerous salamander Other treatment options also exist, is not possible to determine the populations and maintain them for an such as treatment with antifungal likelihood of success of such measures. extended time such as might be required medications that can be applied on As described earlier under due to Bsal’s introduction. Although, as animals that do not tolerate 25 °C (77 °F) Invasiveness of Salamanders and described in the next section, a few (Martel, pers. comm; Blooi et al. 2015b). General Description of Chytrid Fungus, options exist to treat individual It may be possible to treat amphibians salamanders have escaped into the salamanders, none have been identified in the wild for Bd with antifungals by ecosystem, and Bd, a related fungus, has that can be used to clear Bsal from a capturing individuals and soaking them also escaped and established in the widespread area. Consequently, we in a bath of the chemical, then releasing United States. Therefore, we expect the expect that once Bsal has been them back into the environment. This likelihood of the Service’s ability to introduced, it will persist and spread process does not seem to be as effective prevent escape and establishment of with little opportunity for widespread as desired, but may delay the eventual Bsal through infected salamanders to be disinfection from ecosystems. outcome of an outbreak enough to help low. Although voluntary actions are Studies have also questioned the individuals persist in the population vital to help minimize the threat of effectiveness of captive-breeding (Hardy et al. 2015). Blooi et al. (2015b)

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identified a method for treating infected vulnerability and carrier status of 103 salamanders is high from both live and salamanders with a combination of species have not been evaluated, many dead specimens. Any salamanders that antifungals and temperature control that of which may also be vulnerable to this are infected and lethally vulnerable may successfully cleared Bsal; however, such potentially deadly fungus. The disease die in transport and continue to carry treatment worked only for controlled may stress species with less lethal Bsal into the United States. The risk is settings such as those found in a vulnerability under wild conditions; if also high from improper disposal of laboratory or conservation facility and is these species are stressed by other materials that might be contaminated by impractical to treat widespread areas in factors, Bsal could cause harm to those live or dead specimens. While we the natural environment given the likely additional species in the face of cannot list contaminated materials as cost, personnel, and time needed to cumulative stressors. The benefits that injurious under the authority of the Act, locate and treat all salamanders in the these native salamander species provide by listing the carriers of Bsal, we seek wild. As we have noted above under to ecosystems, and in turn the to prevent the introduction of such Environmental Conditions Needed to ecosystem services that benefit people, materials. Survive, Bsal is likely capable of are significant. The Service concludes The Service is not adding eggs or persisting in the environment without a that preventing Bsal from infecting gametes because Bsal does not appear to host by transmission to infected native salamanders will prevent harmful affect reproductive tissue such as eggs materials. Even if all individuals of a effects to the wildlife and wildlife or gametes. The Service is not listing population could be successfully resources of the United States and genera that we find are not carriers of treated, the threat of reintroduction from merits listing of salamanders capable of Bsal because such salamanders are not environmental contamination would carrying Bsal as injurious. capable of introducing Bsal to the still exist. Salamanders capable of carrying Bsal United States or otherwise transmitting Given the expected severity of have the potential to escape and spread it to native populations. We are also not consequences of Bsal introduction, all Bsal. Species capable of carrying Bsal listing genera where there is no data, imported salamanders that could be can survive long enough in the wild to even though it is possible that untested carriers would need to be treated, which transmit the fungus or can transmit it to genera may also be capable of carrying is not practical at this time due to the other carriers while in transit. Bsal can Bsal. limited conditions under which this also be introduced and infect native For the reasons stated, the Service treatment is effective. Not all species salamanders by improper disposal of finds the 20 genera of salamanders to be will tolerate treatment, and reliable material that comes in contact with injurious to the wildlife and wildlife diagnostic capacity is needed to verify infected salamanders, and persist long resources of the United States. The that animals do not carry Bsal following enough in the environment without a potential for Bsal introduction into the treatment. If an outbreak occurs, it host to represent a threat. United States is high, the United States would not be practical to locate and There is evidence that all species has suitable conditions for Bsal survival, treat all individuals in the wild in U.S. within a genus, where at least one and the consequences of introduction ecosystems. While antifungal agents species has been identified as a carrier into the United States are expected to be could be applied to all animals, either of Bsal, can also be a threat. Our significant and occur across a wide in the laboratory or perhaps applied analysis found no conclusive evidence range of the United States. By listing over a large geographic area, we are to the contrary. We find that, due to species that can carry Bsal, we are concerned about side effects on the shared characteristics by species within taking immediate action to help ensure animals being treated. We are also a genus, other species within these the fungus does not enter the United concerned about possible negative genera are also highly likely to be States and infect native salamander environmental effects if a chemical was carriers of Bsal, even if not every species populations and cause severe individual in the genus has been tested to verify widely applied (Gyllenhammar et al. mortality, population declines, and that it is a carrier of Bsal. Hybrids 2009; Hasselberg et al. 2008). ecosystem harm. We are not listing consisting of species found entirely genera for which data is unavailable Any Potential Ecological Benefits to within a genus identified as a carrier are because we do not have a basis for doing Introduction also expected to be carriers. so. There are no known benefits of Bsal The main pathway for the global or of salamanders carrying Bsal. The spread of Bsal is the international trade Required Determinations risks to native wildlife and wildlife in salamanders. The most likely Regulatory Planning and Review resources greatly outweigh any unlikely pathway of a salamander that is a host benefits. There are no other potential to Bsal into the United States would Executive Order 12866 provides that ecological benefits for the introduction include a pet store or online retailer. the Office of Information and Regulatory of Bsal or of Bsal-infected or Bsal-carrier Listing salamanders that are capable of Affairs in the Office of Management and salamanders into the United States. carrying Bsal as injurious wildlife will Budget (OMB) will review all significant significantly confine this pathway and rules. The Office of Information and Conclusion limit Bsal’s capacity to be introduced, Regulatory Affairs has determined that Overall, there is a high risk to the establish, and spread in the United this rule is not significant. wildlife and wildlife resources of the States. Executive Order 13563 reaffirms the United States from salamanders that are The current capacity to prevent principles of Executive Order 12866 capable of carrying Bsal. The United escape and establishment is low. while calling for improvements in the States leads all other countries in Rehabilitation of disturbed ecosystems nation’s regulatory system to promote salamander diversity. Of the 190 native is expected to be very difficult. The predictability, to reduce uncertainty, U.S. species, the vulnerability of 7 has ability and effectiveness of measures to and to use the best, most innovative, been tested. We find that the fungus can prevent or control Bsal is currently low. and least burdensome tools for infect and is lethal to at least 2 There are no known benefits of Bsal. achieving regulatory ends. The salamander species native to the United The Service is listing live and dead executive order directs agencies to States and that a total of 67 native specimens, including parts. We find the consider regulatory approaches that species are carriers of Bsal. The risk of transmission of Bsal to other reduce burdens and maintain flexibility

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and freedom of choice for the public that can achieve the desired goals of the imported that would have been sold for where these approaches are relevant, rule. an estimated retail value of $41.4 feasible, and consistent with regulatory Alternative 1 was no action. This is million; the maximum annual loss to objectives. Executive Order 13563 the status quo. We would not list any entities that deal in these species would emphasizes further that the regulatory species of salamanders as injurious. We be $3.8 million in revenue. The system must allow for public did not select this option because of the maximum annual loss to the economy participation and an open exchange of significant risk that Bsal poses to native under this alternative is estimated to be ideas. We have developed this rule in a species and other wildlife resources in $10.0 million. manner consistent with these the United States. We expect that Alternative 4 was listing all principles. significantly greater financial and salamanders in the world. There are Executive Order 12866, Economic natural resources losses will be incurred approximately 681 species of Analysis of Federal Regulations under by us and our partners in having to salamanders. Although some species Executive Order 12866 (OMB 1996), and manage and respond to Bsal if the that we are not listing may be negatively Circular A–4 (OMB 2003) identify fungus establishes and spreads in the vulnerable to or serve as carriers of Bsal, guidelines or ‘‘best practices’’ for the United States than by taking action now we are taking immediate action against economic analysis of Federal to prevent and minimize its those species that current scientific regulations. In the context of the introduction. No loss of retail sales or research and analysis has confirmed are specific regulation under consideration, economic output due to actions by the carriers of Bsal, along with other species we anticipate minor economic impacts. Service would result from this in the genus that share the same traits The rule listing 20 genera of alternative. It is expected that costs that make them highly likely to be salamanders would prohibit an would be incurred by the salamander carriers of Bsal. Between 2004 and 2014 estimated 217,000 salamanders from and ancillary industries due to Bsal (USFWS OLE 2015), 2.5 million being imported per year, and a management and the impact of Bsal on salamanders were imported that would minimum of 338 domestically bred the supply of salamanders. have been sold for an estimated retail Alternative 2 was listing only those salamanders may be affected due to the value of $43.9 million. The maximum species that Martel et al. (2014) and interstate transportation prohibition. annual loss to entities that deal in these Cunningham et al. (2015) (as explained The maximum annual loss to entities species is estimated to be $4.0 million further in Chytridcrisis 2015b) that deal in these species is $3.8 million in revenue. The maximum annual loss confirmed are carriers of Bsal. The list to the economy under this alternative is in revenue. The maximum annual loss of species that Martel et al. (2014) and estimated to be $10.7 million. to the economy is estimated to be $10.0 Cunningham et al. (2015) evaluated is Alternative 5 would have required a million. The preferred alternative considerably smaller and consists of 27 health certificate that must accompany (Alternative 3, described below) does species. As described earlier in salamanders being imported and not meet the cost criteria for a Vulnerability and Carrier Status, we transported across State lines that states significant rule. Furthermore, the have determined that all species in a that the animal being imported or preferred alternative is not expected to genus will share similar characteristics moved through interstate movement is have a significant economic impact on that make them capable of serving as a free of Bsal in lieu of or in addition to a substantial number of small entities. carrier of Bsal. Between 2004 and 2014 listing. The Service did not select this In the long term, the rule is expected (USFWS OLE 2015), 1.6 million option because of concerns regarding to benefit the economy. Efforts to salamanders of these species were the effectiveness of current testing control or eradicate invasive species, imported that would have been sold for methods, the lack of available testing and manage the costs they incur to an estimated retail value of $22.8 capacity, expenses associated with society, once they have become million; the maximum annual loss to testing each shipment, and inadequate established are generally recognized as entities that deal in these species would agency resources to conduct being less effective and more expensive be $2.1 million in revenue. The inspections, interpret the results, and than efforts to prevent potentially maximum annual loss to the economy issue health certificates. It is uncertain invasive species from establishing in the under this alternative is estimated to be what the loss in revenue and economic first place (Leung et al. 2002, Finnoff et $5.6 million. output would be due to this alternative. al. 2007). As a result, sectors of the Alternative 3 was listing all species in The minimum effect would be identical economy that will not need to expend genera where there is at least one to Alternative 1 (No Action), and the resources to control or manage injurious confirmed carrier and all species in that maximum effect would be that of wildlife will be expected to gain from a genus are likely to be a carrier. As we Alternative 4 (prohibiting all timely listing process. described earlier, we have a sound salamanders). The effect on the number The Service considered five scientific basis to conclude that all imported or transported depends on the alternatives under Executive Order species in a genus will share similar cost of compliance. Therefore, of the 2.5 12866 for the economic analysis for this characteristics in regards to whether million salamanders that were imported rule: (1) No action; (2) listing species they are capable of serving as a carrier between 2004 and 2014 (USFWS OLE that were identified by Martel et al. of Bsal. Martel et al. (2014) did not find 2015), all or none may have been (2014) and other sources to be carriers any examples of species in a genus imported or transported under these of Bsal; (3) listing all species in genera where one species was likely to be a circumstances. They would have been in which there is at least one confirmed carrier and another species was not, sold for up to an estimated retail value carrier and all species in the genus are with two exceptions as discussed above. of $43.9 million. The maximum annual likely to be a carrier; (4) listing all Given the significant risk that Bsal loss to entities that deal in these species salamanders; and (5) requiring a health poses, we find it is important to list all is $4.0 million in revenue. The certificate stating that the animal being species that are likely to be carriers of maximum annual loss to the economy is moved is free of Bsal, in lieu of or in the fungus. This alternative was selected estimated to be $10.7 million. addition to listing. The purpose of for this interim rule. Between 2004 and We considered other alternatives that considering alternatives is to identify 2014 (USFWS OLE 2015), 2.4 million we rejected because we do not have the whether there is a more effective option salamanders of these genera were authority under the Lacey Act to

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implement them ourselves. For hybrids. (However, this rule does not Act is not more than 6 months in prison example, we do not have the authority include provisions pertaining to and not more than a $5,000 fine for an or capacity to establish and enforce a gametes and viable eggs.) individual and not more than a $10,000 quarantine system. As a result, we The ultimate effects of any listing on fine for an organization. cannot require all shipments to wait in these entities would depend on the b. Would not cause a major increase quarantine for a period of time sufficient amount of interstate sales within the in costs or prices for consumers, to prove that imported animals do not taxon’s market. Impacts would also individual industries, Federal, State, or carry Bsal or to treat them depend upon whether or not close local government agencies, or prophylactically. substitutes for the species listed by this geographic regions. Businesses breeding We also considered encouraging rule exist. In this case, the rule: or selling the listed salamanders would partners to take nonregulatory action, a. Will not have an annual effect on be able to substitute other species and such as voluntary Best Management the economy of $100 million or more. maintain business. Some businesses, Practices or individual State action. The b. Would not cause a major increase however, may close. We do not have Service will pursue such actions as it in costs or prices for consumers, data for the potential substitutions, and, moves forward, and we are working individual industries, Federal, State, or therefore, we do not know the number with partners on efforts such as local government agencies, or of businesses that may close. HabitattitudeTM, which encourages geographic regions. c. Would not have significant adverse responsible consumer actions with c. Would not have significant adverse effects on competition, employment, respect to pet ownership. Voluntary effects on competition, employment, investment, productivity, innovation, or actions, such as applying heat therapy investment, productivity, innovation, or the ability of United States-based as described in Blooi et al. (2015a) and the ability of United States-based enterprises to compete with foreign- Blooi et al. (2015b), may help reduce the enterprises to compete with foreign- based enterprises. threat posed by Bsal. Although based enterprises. voluntary actions are vital to help Listing 20 genera of salamanders Unfunded Mandates Reform Act (2 minimize the threat of invasive species, would prohibit an estimated 217,000 U.S.C. 1501 et seq.) the Service is highly concerned about salamanders imported per year; 338 In accordance with the Unfunded the extensive damage that introduction domestically bred salamanders would Mandates Reform Act (2 U.S.C. 1501), of Bsal would do to this nation’s face the interstate transportation the Service makes the following resources and concluded that we cannot prohibition. The maximum annual loss findings: rely on voluntary actions alone in this to entities that deal in these species is a. This rule would not produce a instance to address the severity of the $3.8 million in revenue. Small Federal mandate. In general, a Federal threat that Bsal poses. businesses are expected to incur $2.3 mandate is a provision in legislation, million of the burden. Impacts per small statute, or regulation that would impose Regulatory Flexibility Act business may be as high as $453,000 for an enforceable duty upon State, local, or The Secretary of the Interior certifies importers and $23,000 for domestic tribal governments, or the private sector. that this rule will not have a significant breeders. b. The rule would not have a economic impact on a substantial The interim rule makes no changes in significant or unique effect on State, number of small entities. A regulatory the compliance requirements of any local, or tribal governments or the flexibility analysis under the Regulatory business. The Service is unaware of any private sector. A statement containing Flexibility Act (as amended by the duplicative, overlapping, or conflicting the information required by the Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Federal rules. Several States implement Unfunded Mandates Reform Act (2 Fairness Act [SBREFA] of 1996) (5 similar acts that are more restrictive U.S.C. 1531 et seq.) is not required. U.S.C. 601, et seq.), is not required. The than the Federal law. factual basis for this certification is Takings Small Business Regulatory Enforcement provided in a draft regulatory flexibility In accordance with Executive Order Fairness Act analysis in the economic analysis, 12630 (Government Actions and prepared to accompany this rule, which The interim rule is not a major rule Interference with Constitutionally we briefly summarize below. See FOR under 5 U.S.C. 804(2), the Small Protected Private Property Rights), the FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT or http:// Business Regulatory Enforcement rule does not have significant takings www.regulations.gov under Docket No. Fairness Act. This rule: implications. A takings implication FWS–HQ–FAC–2015–0005 for the a. Would not have an annual effect on assessment is not required. This rule complete document. the economy of $100 million or more. would not impose significant Although an interim rule allows us to The rule listing 20 genera of requirements or limitations on private move more quickly to implement the salamanders, including 201 species, property use. While import and listing, it does not change the would prohibit an estimated 217,000 interstate transport of any of the listed substantive basis for the listing decision, salamanders imported per year, and species is prohibited, any person who modify the types of organizations that prohibit the interstate movement of at currently owns one of the listed species would be affected by the rule, or affect least 338 domestically bred individuals. can continue to possess the salamander the future administration of the Act as The maximum annual loss to entities and engage in intrastate transport and it applies to small entities to which the that deal in these species is $3.8 million other activities within their State or listing decision applies. In general, in revenue. Small businesses are territory, as allowed under State, tribal, entities that are affected by an injurious expected to incur $2.3 million of the or territorial law. listing decision would include: burden. Impacts per small business may (1) entities importing animals, be as high as $453,000 for importers and Federalism gametes, viable eggs, and hybrids of $23,000 for domestic breeders. In In accordance with Executive Order species; and addition, businesses would also face the 13132 (Federalism), this interim rule (2) entities (including breeders and risk of fines if caught transporting these does not have significant Federalism wholesalers) with interstate sales of salamanders or their parts across State effects. A Federalism assessment is not animals, gametes, viable eggs, and lines. The penalty for violation of the required. This rule would not have any

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direct effects on States, on the the rule does not involve any of the Energy Effects when undertaking certain relationship between the Federal extraordinary circumstances listed in 43 actions. This rule is not expected to Government and the States, or on the CFR 46.215 that would require further affect energy supplies, distribution, and distribution of power and analysis under NEPA. use. Therefore, this action is a not a responsibilities among the various significant energy action and no Clarity of Rule levels of government. Therefore, in Statement of Energy Effects is required. accordance with Executive Order 13132, We are required by Executive Orders we determine that this rule does not 12866 and 12988 and by the References Cited have sufficient Federalism implications Presidential Memorandum of June 1, A complete list of all references used to warrant the preparation of a 1998, to write all rules in plain in this rulemaking is available at Federalism Assessment. language. This means that each rule we http://www.regulations.gov under publish must: Docket No. FWS–HQ–FAC–2015–0005. Civil Justice Reform a. Be logically organized; In accordance with Executive Order b. Use the active voice to address Authors 12988, the Office of the Solicitor has readers directly; The primary authors of this interim determined that the interim rule does c. Use clear language rather than rule are the staff members of the U.S. not unduly burden the judicial system jargon; Fish and Wildlife Service. and meets the requirements of sections d. Be divided into short sections and 3(a) and 3(b)(2) of the Executive Order. sentences; and List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 16 The interim rule has been reviewed to e. Use lists and tables wherever Fish, Imports, Reporting and eliminate drafting errors and ambiguity, possible. recordkeeping requirements, was written to minimize litigation, If you feel that we have not met these Transportation, Wildlife. provides a clear legal standard for requirements, send us comments by one Regulation Promulgation affected conduct rather than a general of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. To standard, and promotes simplification help us revise the rule, your comments For the reasons discussed in the and burden reduction. should be as specific as possible. For preamble, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife example, you should tell us the Service amends part 16, subchapter B of Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44 numbers of the sections or paragraphs chapter I, title 50 of the Code of Federal U.S.C. 3501 et seq.) that are unclearly written, which Regulations, as follows: This rule does not contain any new sections or sentences are too long, and collections of information that require the sections where you feel lists or PART 16—[AMENDED] approval by OMB under the Paperwork tables would be useful. ■ Reduction Act of 1995 (44 U.S.C. 3501 1. The authority citation for part 16 et seq.). This rule will not impose new Government-to-Government continues to read as follows: recordkeeping or reporting requirements Relationship With Tribes Authority: 18 U.S.C. 42. on State or local governments, In accordance with the President’s ■ 2. Revise § 16.14 to read as follows: individuals, businesses, or memorandum of April 29, 1994, organizations. OMB has approved the ‘‘Government-to-Government Relations § 16.14 Importation of live or dead information collection requirements with Native American Tribal amphibians or their eggs. associated with the required permits Governments’’ (59 FR 22951), Executive (a) The importation, transportation, or and assigned OMB Control No. 1018– Order 13175, and the Department of the acquisition of any live or dead 0093, which expires May 31, 2017. We Interior’s manual at 512 DM 2, we specimen, including parts, but not eggs may not conduct or sponsor, and you readily acknowledge our responsibility or gametes, of the genera Chioglossa, are not required to respond to, a to communicate meaningfully with Cynops, Euproctus, Hydromantes, collection of information unless it recognized Federal tribes on a Hynobius, Ichthyosaura, Lissotriton, displays a currently valid OMB control government-to-government basis. In Neurergus, Notophthalmus, number. accordance with Secretarial Order 3206 Onychodactylus, Paramesotriton, of June 5, 1997 (American Indian Tribal Plethodon, Pleurodeles, Salamandra, National Environmental Policy Act Rights, Federal-Tribal Trust Salamandrella, Salamandrina, Siren, We have reviewed this rule in Responsibilities, and the Endangered Taricha, Triturus, and Tylototriton, accordance with the criteria of the Species Act), we readily acknowledge including but not limited to, the species National Environmental Policy Act our responsibilities to work directly listed in this paragraph, is prohibited (NEPA) and our Departmental Manual with tribes in developing programs for except as provided under the terms and in 516 DM. This rule does not constitute healthy ecosystems, to acknowledge that conditions set forth at § 16.22 of this a major Federal action significantly tribal lands are not subject to the same part: affecting the quality of the human controls as Federal public lands, to (1) Chioglossa lusitanica (golden environment. Under Department of the remain sensitive to Indian culture, and striped salamander). Interior agency policy and procedures, to make information available to tribes. (2) Cynops chenggongensis this rule is covered by a categorical We have evaluated potential effects on (Chenggong fire-bellied newt). exclusion and preparation of a detailed federally recognized Indian tribes and (3) Cynops cyanurus (blue-tailed fire- statement under NEPA is not required have determined that there are no bellied newt). because it adds species to the list of potential effects. This rule involves the (4) Cynops ensicauda (sword-tailed injurious wildlife under 50 CFR importation and interstate movement of newt). subchapter B, part 16, which prohibits salamanders. We are unaware of such (5) Cynops fudingensis (Fuding fire- the importation into the United States movement in these species by tribes. bellied newt). and interstate transport of wildlife (6) Cynops glaucus (bluish grey newt, found to be injurious. (For further Effects on Energy Huilan Rongyuan). information, see 80 FR 66554; October Executive Order 13211 requires (7) Cynops orientalis (Oriental fire 29, 2015.) We have also determined that agencies to prepare Statements of belly newt, Oriental fire-bellied newt).

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(8) Cynops orphicus (no common (42) Hynobius naevius (blotched (77) Onychodactylus japonicus name). salamander). (Japanese clawed salamander). (9) Cynops pyrrhogaster (Japanese (43) Hynobius nebulosus (misty (78) Onychodactylus kinneburi newt, Japanese fire-bellied newt). salamander). (Shikoku clawed salamander). (10) Cynops wolterstorffi (Kunming (44) Hynobius nigrescens (black (79) Onychodactylus koreanus (Korai- Lake newt). salamander). Sansyouo). (11) Euproctus montanus (Corsican (45) Hynobius okiensis (Oki (80) Onychodactylus nipponoborealis brook salamander). salamander). (Riben Bei Zhaoni). (12) Euproctus platycephalus (46) Hynobius osumiensis (Osumi- (81) Onychodactylus tsukubaensis (Sardinian brook salamander). sanshouo). (Tsukuba clawed salamander). (13) Hydromantes ambrosii (Ambrosi (47) Hynobius quelpaertensis (no (82) Onychodactylus zhangyapingi salamander). common name). (Jilin Zhaoni). (14) Hydromantes brunus (limestone (48) Hynobius retardatus (Hokkaido (83) Onychodactylus zhaoermii salamander). salamander). (Liaoning). (15) Hydromantes flavus (Mount Albo (49) Hynobius shinichisatoi (Sobo- (84) Paramesotriton caudopunctatus cave salamander). sanshouo). (spot-tailed warty newt). (16) Hydromantes genei (Sardinian (50) Hynobius sonani (Sonan’s (85) Paramesotriton chinensis cave salamander). hynobiid). (Chinese warty newt). (17) Hydromantes imperialis (imperial (51) Hynobius stejnegeri (Bekko (86) Paramesotriton deloustali (no cave salamander). Sansho-uo). common name). (18) Hydromantes italicus (Italian (52) Hynobius takedai (Hokuriku (87) Paramesotriton fuzhongensis (no cave salamander). Sansho-uo). common name). (19) Hydromantes platycephalus (53) Hynobius tokyoensis (Tokyo (88) Paramesotriton guanxiensis (Mount Lyell salamander). salamander). (Guangxi warty newt). (20) Hydromantes sarrabusensis (no (54) Hynobius tsuensis (Tsushima (89) Paramesotriton hongkongensis common name). Sansho-uo). (no common name). (21) Hydromantes shastae (Shasta (55) Hynobius turkestanicus (90) Paramesotriton labiatus (spotless salamander). (Turkestanian salamander). stout newt). (22) Hydromantes strinatii or (56) Hynobius yangi (no common (91) Paramesotriton longliensis (no Speleomantes strinatii (French cave name). common name). salamander, Strinati’s cave salamander). (57) Hynobius yatsui (no common (92) Paramesotriton maolanensis (no (23) Hydromantes supramontis name). common name). (58) Hynobius yiwuensis (Yiwu (Supramonte cave salamander). (93) Paramesotriton qixilingensis (no (24) Hynobius abei (Abe’s hynobiid). common name). (59) Ichthyosaura alpestris (alpine salamander). (94) Paramesotriton wulingensis (no newt). (25) Hynobius amakusaensis common name). (60) Lissotriton boscai (Bosca’s newt). (95) Paramesotriton yunwuensis (no (Amakusa-sanshouo). (61) Lissotriton helveticus (palmate common name). (26) Hynobius amjiensis (Anji newt). salamander). (62) Lissotriton italicus (Italian newt). (96) Paramesotriton zhijinensis (no (27) Hynobius arisanensis (Arisan (63) Lissotriton kosswigi (Triton common name). hynobid). pontue de Kosswig). (97) Plethodon ainsworthi (Catahoula (28) Hynobius boulengeri (Odaigahara (64) Lissotriton lantzi (no common salamander, bay springs salamander). salamander). name). (98) Plethodon albagula (western (29) Hynobius chinensis (Chinese (65) Lissotriton montandoni slimy salamander). salamander). (Carpathian newt). (99) Plethodon amplus (Blue Ridge (30) Hynobius dunni (Oita (66) Lissotriton vulgaris (smooth gray-cheeked salamander). salamander). newt). (100) Plethodon angusticlavius (Ozark (31) Hynobius formosanus (Taiwan (67) Neurergus crocatus (no common salamander, Ozark zigzag salamander). salamander). name). (101) Plethodon asupak (Scott Bar (32) Hynobius fucus or Hynobius fuca (68) Neurergus derjugini or Neurergus salamander). (Taiwan lesser salamander). microspilotus (Kurdistan newt). (102) Plethodon aureolus (Tellico (33) Hynobius glacialis (Nanhu (69) Neurergus kaiseri (Lorestan newt, salamander). salamander). Luristan newt, emperor spotted newt, (103) Plethodon caddoensis (Caddo (34) Hynobius guabangshanensis (no Zagros newt, Iranian harlequin newt, Mountain salamander). common name). kaiser newt). (104) Plethodon chattahoochee (35) Hynobius hidamontanus (Hakuba (70) Neurergus strauchii (no common (Chattahoochee slimy salamander). salamander). name). (105) Plethodon cheoah (Cheoah bald (36) Hynobius hirosei (no common (71) Notophthalmus meridionalis salamander). name). (black-spotted newt). (106) Plethodon chlorobryonis (37) Hynobius katoi (Akaishi sansho- (72) Notophthalmus perstriatus (Atlantic Coast slimy salamander). uo). (striped newt). (107) Plethodon cinereus (eastern red- (38) Hynobius kimurae (Hida (73) Notophthalmus viridescens backed salamander, redback salamander). (eastern newt). salamander, salamandre raye´e, red- (39) Hynobius leechii (northeastern (74) Onychodactylus fischeri (long- backed salamander). China hynobiid salamander). tailed clawed salamander). (108) Plethodon cylindraceus (white- (40) Hynobius lichenatus (northeast (75) Onychodactylus fuscus (Tadami spotted slimy salamander). salamander). clawed salamander). (109) Plethodon dorsalis (zigzag (41) Hynobius maoershanensis (no (76) Onychodactylus intermedius salamander, northern zigzag common name). (Bandai clawed salamander). salamander).

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(110) Plethodon dunni (Dunn’s (142) Plethodon teyahalee (Southern (178) Triturus marmoratus (marbled salamander). Appalachian salamander). newt). (111) Plethodon electromorphus (143) Plethodon vandykei (Van Dyke’s (179) Triturus pygmaeus (pygmy (northern ravine salamander). salamander). marbled newt). (112) Plethodon elongatus (Del Norte (144) Plethodon variolatus (South (180) Triturus vittatus (no common salamander). Carolina slimy salamander). name). (113) Plethodon fourchensis (Fourche (145) Plethodon vehiculum (western (181) Tylototriton anguliceps Mountain salamander). red-backed salamander). (angular-headed newt). (114) Plethodon glutinosus (slimy (146) Plethodon ventralis (southern (182) Tylototriton asperrimus (black salamander, northern slimy zigzag salamander). knobby newt). salamander). (147) Plethodon virginia (Shenandoah (183) Tylototriton broadoridgus (no (115) Plethodon grobmani Mountain salamander). common name). (southeastern slimy salamander). (148) Plethodon websteri (Webster’s (184) Tylototriton dabienicus (no (116) Plethodon hoffmani (valley and salamander). common name). ridge salamander). (149) Plethodon wehrlei (Wehrle’s (185) Tylototriton daweishanensis (no (117) Plethodon hubrichti (Peaks of salamander). common name). (186) Tylototriton hainanensis Otter salamander). (150) Plethodon welleri (Weller’s salamander). (Hainan knobby newt). (118) Plethodon idahoensis (Coeur (187) Tylototriton kweichowensis d’Alene salamander). (151) Plethodon yonahlossee (Yonahlossee salamander). (red-tailed knobby newt). (119) Plethodon jordani (Appalachian (188) Tylototriton liuyangensis (no salamander, red-cheeked salamander, (152) Pleurodeles nebulosus (no common name). common name). Jordan’s salamander). (189) Tylototriton lizhenchangi (120) Plethodon kentucki (Kentucky (153) Pleurodeles poireti (Algerian newt). (Mangshan crocodile newt). salamander, Cumberland Plateau (190) Tylototriton notialis (no salamander). (154) Pleurodeles waltl (Spanish newt). common name). (121) Plethodon kiamichi (Kiamichi (191) Tylototriton panhai (no (155) Salamandra algira (Algerian slimy salamander). common name). (122) Plethodon kisatchie (Louisiana salamander). (192) Tylototriton pseudoverrucosus (156) Salamandra atra (alpine slimy salamander). (southern Sichuan crocodile newt). (123) Plethodon larselli (Larch salamander). (193) Tylototriton shanjing (Yunnan Mountain salamander). (157) Salamandra corsica (Corsican newt). (124) Plethodon meridianus (South fire salamander). (194) Tylototriton shanorum (no Mountain gray-cheeked salamander, (158) Salamandra infraimmaculata common name). southern gray-cheeked salamander). (no common name). (195) Tylototriton taliangensis (125) Plethodon metcalfi (southern (159) Salamandra lanzai (Lanza’s (Thailand newt). gray-cheeked salamander). alpine salamander, Salamandra di (196) Tylototriton uyenoi (no common (126) Plethodon mississippi Lanza). name). (160) Salamandra salamandra (fire (Mississippi slimy salamander). (197) Tylototriton verrucosus (127) Plethodon montanus (northern salamander). (Himalayan newt). (161) Salamandrella keyserlingii gray-cheeked salamander). (198) Tylototriton vietnamensis (no (Siberian newt). (128) Plethodon neomexicanus (Jemez common name). (162) Salamandrella tridactyla (no Mountains salamander). (199) Tylototriton wenxianensis common name). (129) Plethodon nettingi (Cheat (Wenxian knobby newt). (163) Salamandrina perspicillata Mountain salamander). (200) Tylototriton yangi (Tiannan (northern spectacled salamander). (130) Plethodon ocmulgee (Ocmulgee crocodile newt). (164) Salamandrina terdigitata (201) Tylototriton ziegleri (Ziegler’s slimy salamander). (southern spectacled salamander). crocodile newt). (131) Plethodon ouachitae (Rich (165) Siren intermedia (lesser siren). (b) Upon the filing of a written Mountain salamander). (166) Siren lacertina (greater siren). declaration with the District Director of (132) Plethodon petraeus (Pigeon (167) Taricha granulosa (rough- Customs at the port of entry as required Mountain salamander). skinned newt). under § 14.61 of this chapter, all other (133) Plethodon punctatus (white- (168) Taricha rivularis (red-bellied species of amphibians may be imported, spotted salamander, cow knob newt). transported, and possessed in captivity, salamander). (169) Taricha sierrae (Sierra newt). without a permit, for scientific, medical, (134) Plethodon richmondi (southern (170) Taricha torosa (California newt). education, exhibition, or propagating ravine salamander, ravine salamander). (171) Triturus carnifex (Italian crested purposes, but no such amphibians or (135) Plethodon savannah (Savannah newt). any progeny or eggs thereof may be slimy salamander). (172) Triturus cristatus (great crested released into the wild except by the (136) Plethodon sequoyah (Sequoyah newt). State wildlife conservation agency slimy salamander). (173) Triturus dobrogicus (Danube having jurisdiction over the area of (137) Plethodon serratus (southern crested newt). release or by persons having prior red-backed salamander). (174) Triturus hongkongensis (no written permission for release from such (138) Plethodon shenandoah common name) agency. (Shenandoah salamander). (175) Triturus ivanbureschi (Balkan- (139) Plethodon sherando (Big Levels Anatolian crested newt, Buresch’s Dated: December 30, 2015. salamander). crested newt). Michael J. Bean, (140) Plethodon shermani (red-legged (176) Triturus karelinii (Southern Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for Fish salamander). crested newt). and Wildlife and Parks. (141) Plethodon stormi (Siskiyou (177) Triturus macedonicus (no [FR Doc. 2016–00452 Filed 1–12–16; 8:45 am] Mountains salamander). common name). BILLING CODE 4333–15–P

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