THE CIVILIZATION OF THE RENAISSANCE IN

By Jacob Burckhardt Translated by S. G. C. Middlemore, 1878 Edited by Candida Martinelli

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2 HE REATISE AND ISTORY IN ATIN PART I THE STATE AS A WORK OF ART...... 5 T T , H L ...... 149 ANTIQUITY AS THE COMMON SOURCE...... 153 NTRODUCTION I ...... 5 NEO-LATIN POETRY...... 157 DESPOTS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY...... 8 FALL OF THE HUMANISTS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY ESPOTS OF THE IFTEENTH ENTURY D F C ...... 13 ...... 167 THE SMALLER DESPOTISMS ...... 21 THE GREATER DYNASTIES ...... 27 PART FOUR THE DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD THE OPPONENTS OF THE DESPOTS ...... 38 AND OF MAN...... 176 THE REPUBLICS: AND ...... 43 JOURNEYS OF THE ITALIANS...... 176 FOREIGN POLICY ...... 60 THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN ITALY ...... 178 WAR AS A WORK OF ART ...... 65 DISCOVERY OF THE BEAUTY OF LANDSCAPE...... 183 THE PAPACY...... 67 DISCOVERY OF MAN ...... 190 PATRIOTISM...... 83 BIOGRAPHY IN THE AND IN THE PART TWO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RENAISSANCE...... 205 ESCRIPTION OF THE UTWARD AN INDIVIDUAL...... 85 D O M ...... 214 DESCRIPTION OF HUMAN LIFE ...... 218 PERSONALITY ...... 85

GLORY...... 91 PART FIVE SOCIETY AND FESTIVALS ...... 223 RIDICULE AND WIT ...... 98 EQUALITY OF CLASSES...... 223 OSTUMES AND ASHIONS PART THREE THE REVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY 108 C F ...... 229 LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY ...... 233 NTRODUCTION I ...... 108 SOCIAL ETIQUETTE ...... 237 HE UINS OF OME T R R ...... 112 EDUCATION OF THE 'CORTIGIANO' ...... 240 HE LASSICS T C ...... 118 MUSIC ...... 241 HE UMANISTS T H ...... 124 EQUALITY OF MEN AND WOMEN ...... 244 NIVERSITIES AND CHOOLS U S ...... 129 DOMESTIC LIFE ...... 247 ROPAGATORS OF NTIQUITY P A ...... 133 FESTIVALS...... 250 EPISTOLOGRAPHY: LATIN ORATORS...... 141 3 PART SIX MORALITY AND RELIGION...... 266 INFLUENCE OF ANCIENT SUPERSTITION...... 320 ENERAL PIRIT OF OUBT MORALITY AND JUDGEMENT ...... 266 G S D ...... 342 MORALITY AND IMMORALITY...... 267 ABOUT THE AUTHOR AND THIS BOOK ...... 350 ELIGION IN AILY IFE R D L ...... 285 THE AUTHOR – A SUMMARY ...... 350 TRENGTH OF THE LD AITH S O F ...... 302 THE AUTHOR – A LONGER ESSAY ...... 351 RELIGION AND THE SPIRIT OF THE RENAISSANCE .....309

4 the possible ways and directions Part I THE STATE AS A are many; and the same studies Introduction which have served for this work WORK OF ART might easily, in other hands, not only receive a wholly different This work bears the title of an treatment and application, but essay in the strictest sense of the lead also to essentially different word. No one is more conscious conclusions. Such indeed is the than the writer with what limited importance of the subject that it means and strength he has still calls for fresh investigation, addressed himself to a task so and may be studied with arduous. And even if he could advantage from the most varied look with greater confidence points of view. Meanwhile we upon his own researches, he are content if a patient hearing is would hardly thereby feel more granted us, and if this book be assured of the approval of taken and judged as a whole. It competent judges. To each eye, is the most serious difficulty of perhaps, the outlines of a given the history of civilization that a civilization present a different great intellectual process must picture; and in treating of a be broken up into single, and civilization which is the mother of often into what seem arbitrary our own, and whose influence is categories in order to be in any still at work among us, it is way intelligible. It was formerly unavoidable that individual our intention to fill up the gaps in judgement and feeling should tell this book by a special work on every moment both on the writer the Art of the Renaissance—an and on the reader. In the wide intention, however, which we ocean upon which we venture, have been able to fulfill only in 5 part. the two lay a multitude of political and more clearly defined type, units—republics and despots—in which is offered by the despotic The struggle between the Popes part of long standing, in part of States. and the Hohenstaufen left Italy in recent origin, whose existence a political condition which was founded simply on their The internal condition of the differed essentially from that of power to maintain it. In them for despotically governed States had other countries of the West. the first time we detect the a memorable counterpart in the While in , and modern political spirit of Europe, Norman Empire of Lower Italy England the feudal system was surrendered freely to its own and Sicily, after its transformation so organized that, at the close of instincts. Often displaying the by the Emperor Frederick Il. its existence, it was naturally worst features of an unbridled Bred amid treason and peril in transformed into a unified egotism, outraging every right, the neighbourhood of the monarchy, and while in and killing every germ of a Saracens, Frederick, the first it helped to maintain, at least healthier culture. But, wherever ruler of the modern type who sat outwardly, the unity of the this vicious tendency is upon a throne, had early empire, Italy had shaken it off overcome or in any way accustomed himself to a almost entirely. The Emperors of compensated, a new fact thoroughly objective treatment of the fourteenth century, even in appears in history—the State as affairs. His acquaintance with the most favourable case, were the outcome of reflection and the internal condition and no longer received and respected calculation, the State as a work administration of the Saracenic as feudal lords, but as possible of art. This new life displays States was close and intimate; leaders and supporters of powers itself in a hundred forms, both in and the mortal struggle in which already in existence; while the the republican and in the he was engaged with the Papacy Papacy, with its creatures and despotic States, and determines compelled him, no less than his allies, was strong enough to their inward constitution, no less adversaries, to bring into the field hinder national unity in the future, than their foreign policy. We all the resources at his but not strong enough itself to shall limit ourselves to the command. Frederick's measures bring about that unity. Between consideration of the completer (especially after the year 1231) 6 are aimed at the complete country without special the representatives of a free destruction of the feudal State, at permission, and under no municipal life. Lastly, the internal the transformation of the people circumstances were allowed to police, and the kernel of the army into a multitude destitute of will study abroad. The University of for foreign service, was and of the means of resistance, was the first we know of composed of Saracens who had but profitable in the utmost to restrict the freedom of study, been brought over from Sicily to degree to the exchequer. He while the East, in these respects Nocera and Lucera—men who centralized, in a manner hitherto at all events, left its youth were deaf to the cry of misery unknown in the West, the whole unfettered. It was after the and careless of the ban of the judicial and political examples of Mohammedan rules . At a later period the administration. No office was that Frederick traded on his own subjects, by whom the use of henceforth to be filled by popular account in all parts of the weapons had long been election, under penalty of the Mediterranean, reserving to forgotten, were passive devastation of the offending himself the monopoly of many witnesses of the fall of Manfred district and of the enslavement of commodities, and restricting in and of the seizure of the its inhabitants. The taxes, based various ways the commerce of government by Charles of Anjou; on a comprehensive his subjects. The Fatimite the latter continued to use the assessment, and distributed in Caliphs, with all their esoteric system which he found already at accordance with Mohammedan unbelief, were, at least in their work. usages, were collected by those earlier history, tolerant of all the cruel and vexatious methods differences in the religious faith At the side of the centralizing without which, it is true, it is of their people; Frederick, on the Emperor appeared a usurper of impossible to obtain any money other hand, crowned his system the most peculiar kind: his vicar from Orientals. Here, in short, of government by a religious and son-in-law, Ezzelino da we find, not a people, but simply inquisition, which will seem the Romano. He stands as the a disciplined multitude of more reprehensible when we representative of no system of subjects; who were forbidden, for remember that in the persons of government or administration, for example, to marry out of the the heretics he was persecuting all his activity was wasted in 7 struggles for supremacy in the eastern part of Upper Italy; but as It was in vain at such a time that a political type he was a figure of St. Thomas Aquinas, born no less importance for the future subject of Frederick, set up the Despots of the than his imperial protector theory of a constitutional Fourteenth Century Frederick. The conquests and monarchy, in which the prince usurpations which had hitherto was to be supported by an upper taken place in the Middle Ages house named by himself, and a The tyrannies, great and small, of rested on real or pretended representative body elected by the fourteenth century afford inheritance and other such the people. Such theories found constant proof that examples claims, or else were affected no echo outside the lecture room, such as these were not thrown against unbelievers and and Frederick and Ezzelino were away. Their misdeeds cried forth excommunicated persons. Here and remain for Italy the great loudly and have been for the first time the attempt was political phenomena of the circumstantially told by openly made to found a throne thirteenth century. Their historians. As States depending by wholesale murder and personality, already half for existence on themselves endless barbarities, by the legendary, forms the most alone, and scientifically adoption in short, of any means important subject of The Hundred organized with a view to this with a view to nothing but the end Old Tales, whose original object, they present to us a pursued. None of his composition falls certainly within higher interest than that of mere successors, not even Cesare this century. In them Ezzelino is narrative. Borgia, rivalled the colossal guilt spoken of with the awe which all of Ezzelino; but the example mighty impressions leave behind The deliberate adaptation of once set was not forgotten, and them. His person became the means to ends, of which no his fall led to no return of justice centre of a whole literature from prince out of Italy had at that time among the nations and served as the chronicle of eye-witnesses to a conception, joined to almost no warning to future the half-mythical tragedy of later absolute power within the limits transgressors. poets. of the State, produced among the 8 despots both men and modes of life of a peculiar character. The Out of this income the expenses No prince was more famous in chief secret of government in the of the little court, of the this respect than the ruler of hands of the prudent ruler lay in bodyguard, of the mercenary , Can Grande della Scala, leaving the incidence of taxation troops, and of the public who numbered among the as far as possible where he buildings were met, as well as of illustrious exiles whom he found it, or as he had first the buffoons and men of talent entertained at his court arranged it. The chief sources of who belonged to the personal representatives of the whole of income were: a land tax, based attendants of the prince. The Italy. The men of letters were not on a valuation; definite taxes on illegitimacy of his rule isolated ungrateful. Petrarch, whose articles of consumption and the tyrant and surrounded him visits at the courts of such men duties on exported and imported with constant danger, the most have been so severely censured, goods: together with the private honorable alliance which he sketched an ideal picture of a fortune of the ruling house. The could form was with intellectual prince of the fourteenth century. only possible increase was merit, without regard to its origin. He demands great things from derived from the growth of The liberality of the northern his patron, the lord of Padua, but business and of general princes of the thirteenth century in a manner which shows that he prosperity. Loans, such as we was confined to the knights, to holds him capable of them. find in the free cities, were here the nobility which served and 'Thou must not be the master but unknown; a well-planned sang. It was otherwise with the the father of thy subjects, and confiscation was held a Italian despot. With his thirst for must love them as thy children; preferable means of raising fame and his passion for yea, as members of thy body. money, provided only that it left monumental works, it was talent, Weapons, guards, and soldiers public credit unshaken—an end not birth, which he needed. In thou mayest employ against the attained, for example, by the truly the company of the poet and the enemy—-with thy subjects Oriental practice of deposing and scholar he felt himself in a new goodwill is sufficient. By citizens, plundering the director of the position, almost, indeed, in of course, I mean those who love finances. possession of a new legitimacy. the existing order; for those who 9 daily desire change are rebels brief and uncertain tenure of the succession or to the division and traitors, and against such a most of these despotisms. of the ruler's property; and stern justice may take its course.' Inasmuch as political institutions consequently the heir, if like these are naturally secure in incompetent or a minor, was Here follows, worked out in proportion to the size of the liable in the interest of the family detail, the purely modern fiction territory in which they exist, the itself to be supplanted by an of the omnipotence of the State. larger principalities were uncle or cousin of more resolute The prince is to take everything constantly tempted to swallow up character. The acknowledgment into his charge, to maintain and the smaller. Whole hecatombs of or exclusion of the bastards was restore churches and public petty rulers were sacrificed at this a fruitful source of contest and buildings, to keep up the time to the Visconti alone. As a most of these families in municipal police, to drain the result of this outward danger an consequence were plagued with marshes, to look after the supply inward ferment was in ceaseless a crowd of discontented and of wine and corn; so to distribute activity; and the effect of the vindictive kinsmen. This the taxes that the people can situation on the character of the circumstance gave rise to recognize their necessity; he is to ruler was generally of the most continual outbreaks of treason support the sick and the helpless, sinister kind. Absolute power, and to frightful scenes of and to give his protection and with its temptations to luxury and domestic bloodshed. Sometimes society to distinguished scholars, unbridled selfishness, and the the pretenders lived abroad in on whom his fame in after ages perils to which he was exposed exile, like the Visconti, who will depend. from enemies and conspirators, practiced the fisherman's craft on turned him almost inevitably into the Lake of Garda, viewed the But whatever might be the a tyrant in the worst sense of the situation with patient indifference. brighter sides of the system, and word. Well for him if he could When asked by a messenger of the merits of individual rulers, yet trust his nearest relations! But his rival when and how he the men of the fourteenth century where all was illegitimate, there thought of returning to , he were not without a more or less could be no regular law of gave the reply, 'By the same distinct consciousness of the inheritance, either with regard to means as those by which I was 10 expelled, but not until his crimes a golden scepter, and show one and can read in the faces of have outweighed my own.’ himself at the window of his his subjects the expectation of Sometimes, too, the despot was house, 'as relics are shown,' his fall. 'As despotisms rise, sacrificed by his relations, with reclining on embroidered drapery grow, and are consolidated, so the view of saving the family, to and cushions, served like a pope grows in their midst the hidden the public conscience which he or emperor, by kneeling element which must produce had too grossly outraged. In a attendants. More often, their dissolution and ruin.’ But few cases the government was in however, the old Florentines the deepest ground of dislike has the hands of the whole family, or speak on this subject in a tone of not been stated; Florence was at least the ruler was bound to lofty seriousness. saw then the scene of the richest take their advice; and here, too, and characterized well the development of human the distribution of property and vulgarity and commonplace individuality, while for the influence often led to bitter which marked the ambition of the despots no other individuality disputes. new princes. 'What else mean could be suffered to live and their trumpets and their bells, thrive but their own and that of The whole of this system excited their horns and their flutes, but their nearest dependents. The the deep and persistent hatred of "come, hangmen come, control of the individual was the Florentine writers of that vultures!"' The castle of the rigorously carried out, even down epoch. Even the pomp and tyrant, as pictured by the popular to the establishment of a system display with which the despot mind, is lofty and solitary, full of of passports. was perhaps less anxious to dungeons and listening-tubes, gratify his own vanity than to the home of cruelty and misery. The astrological superstitions impress the popular imagination, Misfortune is foretold to all who and the religious unbelief of awakened their keenest enter the service of the despot, many of the tyrants gave, in the sarcasm. Woe to an adventurer who even becomes at last minds of their contemporaries, a if he fell into their hands, like the himself an object of pity: he must peculiar color to this awful and upstart Doge Agnello of needs be the enemy of all good God-forsaken existence. When (1364), who used to ride out with and honest men: he can trust no the last Carrara could no longer 11 defend the walls and gates of the taxes were extorted by every thus to render these cities plague-stricken Padua, hemmed conceivable sort of compulsion; defenseless. It is not impossible, in on all sides by the Venetians seven daughters of the prince indeed, that he thought of (1405), the soldiers of the guard received a dowry of 100,000 gold draining away the lagoons of heard him cry to the devil 'to florins apiece; and an enormous Venice. He founded that most come and kill him.' treasure was collected. On the wonderful of all convents, the death of his wife (1384) an order Certosa of and the was issued 'to the subjects' to cathedral of Milan, 'which

share his grief, as once they had exceeds in size and splendor all The most complete and shared his joy, and to wear the churches of Christendom’. instructive type of the tyranny of mourning for a year. The coup The palace in Pavia, which his the fourteenth century is to be de main (1385) by which his father Galeazzo began and found unquestionably among the nephew Giangaleazzo got him which he himself finished, was Visconti of Milan, from the death into his power—one of those probably by far the most of the Archbishop Giovanni brilliant plots which make the magnificent of the princely onwards (1354). The family heart of even late historians beat dwellings of Europe. There he likeness which shows itself more quickly was strikingly transferred his famous library, between Bernabo and the worst characteristic of the man. and the great collection of relics of the Roman Emperors is of the saints, in which he placed unmistakable; the most important In Giangaleazzo that passion for a peculiar faith. It would have public object was the prince's the colossal which was common been strange indeed if a prince of boar-hunting; whoever interfered to most of the despots shows this character had not also with it was put to death with itself on the largest scale. He cherished the highest ambitions torture, the terrified people were undertook, at the cost of 300,000 in political matters. King forced to maintain 5,000 boar golden florins, the construction of Wenceslaus made him Duke hounds, with strict responsibility gigantic dikes, to divert in case of (1395); he was hoping for for their health and safety. The need the Mincio from nothing less than the Kingdom of and the Brenta from Padua, and Italy or the Imperial crown, when 12 (1402) he fell ill and died. His tearing human bodies. Tradition have occasion to speak of Filippo whole territories are said to have has preserved their names, like Maria later on. paid him in a single year, besides those of the bears of Emperor the regular contribution of Valentinian I. In May, 1409, And in times like these Cola di 1,200,000 gold florins, no less when war was going on, and the Rienzi was dreaming of founding than 800,000 more in starving populace cried to him in on the rickety enthusiasm of the extraordinary subsidies. After his the streets, Pace! Pace!, he let corrupt population of a death the dominions which he loose his mercenaries upon new State which was to comprise had brought together by every them, and 200 lives were all Italy. By the side of rulers sort of violence fell to pieces: and sacrificed; under penalty of the such as those whom we have for a time even the original gallows it was forbidden to utter described, he seems no better nucleus could with difficulty be the words pace and guerra, and than a poor deluded fool. maintained by his successors. the priests were ordered, instead What might have become of his of dona nobis pacem, to say sons Giovanni Maria (died 1412) tranquillitatem! At last a band of and Filippo Maria (died 1447), conspirators took advantage of Despots of the Fifteenth had they lived in a different the moment when Facino Cane, Century country and under other the chief Condotierre of the traditions, cannot be said. But, insane ruler, lay in at Pavia, and as heirs of their house, they cut down Giovanni Maria in the The despotisms of the fifteenth inherited that monstrous capital church of San Gottardo at Milan; century show an altered of cruelty and cowardice which the dying Facino on the same character. Many of the less had been accumulated from day made his officers swear to important tyrants, and some of generation to generation. stand by the heir Filippo Maria, the greater, like the Scala and whom he himself urged his wife the Carrara had disappeared, Giovanni Maria, too, is famed for to take for a second husband. while the more powerful ones, his dogs, which were no longer, His wife, Beatrice di Tenda, aggrandized by conquest, had however, used for hunting but for followed his advice. We shall given to their systems each its 13 characteristic development. impartial bystander certainly finds strike his officers and yet keep Naples for example received a no fault with. No trace is here them in his service, when he fresh and stronger impulse from visible of that half-religious maltreated his troops to punish the new Aragonese dynasty. A loyalty by which the legitimate them for a defeat, and then threw striking feature of this epoch is princes of the West were the blame on his counsellors in the attempt of the Condottieri to supported; personal popularity is the presence of the same troops, found independent dynasties of the nearest approach we can find gave him up for lost. Louis XI, on their own. Facts and the actual to it. Talent and calculation are the other hand, whose policy relations of things, apart from the only means of advancement. surpasses that of the Italian traditional estimates, are alone A character like that of Charles princes in their own style, and regarded; talent and audacity win the Bold, which wore itself out in who was an avowed admirer of the great prizes. The petty the passionate pursuit of Francesco Sforza, must be despots, to secure a trustworthy impracticable ends, was a riddle placed in all that regards culture support, begin to enter the to the Italians. 'The Swiss were and refinement far below these service of the larger States, and only peasants, and if they were rulers. become themselves Condottieri, all killed, that would be no receiving in return for their satisfaction for the Burgundian Good and evil lie strangely mixed services money and immunity for nobles who might fall in the war. together in the Italian States of their misdeeds, if not an increase If the Duke got possession of all the fifteenth century. The of territory. All, whether small or without a struggle, personality of the ruler is so great, must exert themselves his income would not be 5,000 highly developed, often of such more, must act with greater ducats the greater.' The deep significance, and so caution and calculation, and must mediaeval features in the characteristic of the conditions learn to refrain from too character of Charles, his and needs of the time, that to wholesale barbarities; only so chivalrous aspirations and ideals, form an adequate moral much wrong is permitted by had long become unintelligible to judgement on it is no easy task. public opinion as is necessary for the Italians. The diplomatists of the end in view, and this the the South. when they saw him The foundation of the system 14 was and remained illegitimate, last out of it; how he went about journeys to Italy have the air of and nothing could remove the like a hawker selling his wares holiday-trips or pleasure-tours curse which rested upon it. The (privileges, etc.) for money; what made at the expense of those imperial approval or investiture a mean appearance he made in who wanted him to confirm their made no change in the matter, Rome, and how at the end, prerogatives, or whose vanity is since the people attached little without even drawing the sword, flattered to entertain an emperor. weight to the fact that the despot he returned with replenished The latter was the case with had bought a piece of parchment coffers across the Alps. Alfonso of Naples, who paid somewhere in foreign countries, Sigismund came, on the first 150,000 florins for the honour of or from some stranger passing occasion at least (1414), with the an imperial visit. At , on through his territory. If the good intention of persuading his second return from Rome Emperor had been good for John XXIII to take part in his (1469), Frederick spent a whole anything, so ran the logic of council; it was on that journey, day without leaving his chamber, uncritical common sense, he when Pope and Emperor were distributing no less than eighty would never have let the tyrant gazing from the lofty tower of titles; he created knights, counts, rise at all. Since the Roman Cremona on the panorama of doctors, notaries—counts, expedition of Charles IV, the Lombardy, that their host, the indeed, of different degrees, as, emperors had done nothing more tyrant Gabrino Fondolo, was for instance, counts palatine, in Italy than sanction a tyranny seized with the desire to throw counts with the right to create which had arisen without their them both over. On his second doctors up to the number of five, help; they could give it no other visit Sigismund came as a mere counts with the rights to practical authority than what adventurer; for more than half a legitimatize bastards, to appoint might flow from an imperial year he remained shut up in notaries, and so forth. The charter. The whole conduct of , like a debtor in gaol, and Chancellor, however, expected in Charles in Italy was a scandalous only with difficulty, and at a later return for the patents in question political comedy. Matteo Villani period, succeeded in being a gratuity which was thought relates how the Visconti escorted crowned in Rome. And what can excessive at Ferrara. The him round their territory, and at be thought of Frederick III! His opinion of Borso, himself created 15 Duke of and Reggio in exclusion of his unhappy nephew make good imperial claims: but it return for an annual payment of — was not of a kind to bear good is notorious that what he thereby 4,000 gold florins, when his fruits. According to the modern gained turned to the profit, not of imperial patron was distributing theory of intervention when two the empire, but of the Spanish titles and diplomas to all the little parties are tearing a country to monarchy. court, is not mentioned. The pieces, a third may step in and humanists, then the chief take its share, and on this spokesmen of the age, were principle the empire acted. But divided in opinion according to right and justice could be Closely connected with the their personal interests, while the involved no longer. When Louis political illegitimacy of the Emperor was greeted by some of XI was expected in dynasties of the fifteenth century them with the conventional (1507), and the imperial eagle was the public indifference to acclamations of the poets of was removed from the hall of the legitimate birth, which to imperial Rome. Poggio ducal palace and replaced by foreigners — for example, to confessed that he no longer painted lilies, the historian Commines — appeared so knew what the coronation meant: Senarega asked what, after all, remarkable. The two things went in the old times only the was the meaning of the eagle naturally together. In northern victorious Imperator was which so many revolutions had countries, as in Burgundy, the crowned, and then he was spared, and what claims the illegitimate offspring were crowned with laurel. empire had upon Genoa. No one provided for by a distinct class of knew more about the matter than appanages, such as bishoprics With Maximilian I begins not only the old phrase that Genoa was a and the like: in Portugal an the general intervention of camera imperii. In fact, nobody illegitimate line maintained itself foreign nations, but a new in Italy could give a clear answer on the throne only by constant imperial policy with regard to to any such questions. At length effort; in Italy. on the contrary, Italy. The first step — the when Charles V held Spain and there no longer existed a princely investiture of Lodovico il Moro the empire together, he was able house where even in the direct with the and the by means of Spanish forces to 16 line of descent, bastards were capacity, were of more weight But the highest and the most not patiently tolerated. The than all the laws and usages admired form of illegitimacy in Aragonese monarchs of Naples which prevailed elsewhere in the the fifteenth century was belonged to the illegitimate line, West. It was the age, indeed, in presented by the Condottiere, Aragon itself falling to the lot of which the sons of the Popes who whatever may have been his the brother of Alfonso I. The were founding dynasties. In the origin, raised himself to the great Federigo of was, sixteenth century, through the position of an independent ruler. perhaps, no Montefeltro at all. influence of foreign ideas and of At bottom, the occupation of When Pius II was on his way to the counter-reformation which Lower Italy by the Normans in the Congress of Mantua (1459), then began, the whole question the eleventh century was of this eight bastards of the house of was judged more strictly: Varchi character. Such attempts now Este rode to meet him at Ferrara, discovers that the succession of began to keep the peninsula in a among them the reigning duke the legitimate children 'is ordered constant ferment. Borso himself and two illegitimate by reason, and is the will of sons of his illegitimate brother heaven from eternity’. Cardinal It was possible for a Condottiere and predecessor Lionello. The Ippolito de' Medici founded his to obtain the lordship of a district latter had also had a lawful wife, claim to the lordship of Florence even without usurpation, in the herself an illegitimate daughter of on the fact that he was perhaps case when his employer, through Alfonso I of Naples by an African the fruit of a lawful marriage, and want of money or troops, woman. The bastards were often at all events son of a provided for him in this way; admitted to the succession where gentlewoman, and not, like Duke under any circumstances the the lawful children were minors Alessandro, of a servant girl. At Condottiere, even when he and the dangers of the situation this time began those morganatic dismissed for the time the greater were pressing; and a rule of marriages of affection which in part of his forces, needed a safe seniority became recognized, the fifteenth century, on grounds place where he could establish which took no account of pure or either of policy or morality, would his winter quarters, and lay up impure birth. The fitness of the have had no meaning at all. his stores and provisions. The individual, his worth and first example of a captain thus 17 portioned is John Hawkwood, their Condottieri, which is just after the victory he had won who was invested by Gregory XI characteristic of the fifteenth for Sixtus IV (1482); if they failed, with the lordship of Bagnacavallo century, became more and more the vengeance of the Venetians and Cotignola. When with common. An old story—one of on Carmagnola showed to what Alberigo da Barbiano Italian those which are true and not risks they were exposed (1432). armies and leaders appeared true, everywhere and nowhere— It is characteristic of the moral upon the scene, the chances of describes it as follows: The aspect of the situation that the founding a principality, or of citizens of a certain town (Siena Condottieri had often to give their increasing one already acquired, seems to be meant) had once an wives and children as hostages, became more frequent. The first officer in their service who had and notwithstanding this, neither great bacchanalian outbreak of freed them from foreign felt nor inspired confidence. military ambition took place in the aggression; daily they took They must have been heroes of duchy of Milan after the death of counsel how to recompense him, abnegation, natures like Giangaleazzo (1402). The policy and concluded that no reward in Belisarius himself, not to be of his two sons was chiefly aimed their power was great enough, cankered by hatred and at the destruction of the new not even if they made him lord of bitterness; only the most perfect despotisms founded by the the city. At last one of them rose goodness could save them from Condottieri; and from the and said, 'Let us kill him and then the most monstrous iniquity. No greatest of them, Facino Cane, worship him as our patron saint.’ wonder then if we find them full the house of Visconti inherited, And so they did, following the of contempt for all sacred things, together with his widow, a long example set the Roman senate cruel and treacherous to their list of cities, and 400,000 golden with Romulus. In fact the fellows men who cared nothing florins, not to speak of the Condottieri had reason to fear whether or no they died under soldiers of her first husband none so much as their the ban of the Church. At the whom Beatrice di Tenda brought employers: if they were same time, and through the force with her. From henceforth that successful, they became of the same conditions, the thoroughly immoral relation dangerous, and were put out of genius and capacity of many between the governments and the way like Roberto Malatesta among them attained the highest 18 conceivable development, and Jacopo, himself a celebrated who kept the army together when won for them the admiring man, had twenty brothers and he lay a captive in the Castel devotion of their followers; their sisters, all brought up roughly at dell'Uovo at Naples; his sister armies are the first in modern Cotignola, near Faenza, amid the took the royal envoys prisoners history in which the personal perils of one of the endless with her own hands, and saved credit of the leader is the one Romagnole vendette between him by this reprisal from death. It moving power. A brilliant their own house and that of the was an indication of the breadth example is shown in the life of Pasolini. The family dwelling and the range of his plans that in Francesco Sforza; no prejudice was a mere arsenal and fortress; monetary affairs Jacopo was of birth could prevent him from the mother and daughters were thoroughly trustworthy: even in winning and turning to account as warlike as their kinsmen. In his defeats he consequently when he needed it a boundless his thirtieth year Jacopo ran found credit with the bankers. devotion from each individual away and fled to Panicale to the He habitually protected the with whom he had to deal; it Papal Condottiere Boldrino — peasants against the license of happened more than once that the man who even in death his troops, and reluctantly his enemies laid down their arms continued to lead his troops, the destroyed or injured a conquered at the sight of him, greeting him word of order being given from city. He gave his well-known reverently with uncovered heads, the bannered tent in which the mistress, Lucia, the mother of each honoring in him 'the embalmed body lay, until at last a Francesco, in marriage to common father of the men-at- fit leader was found to succeed another, in order to be free for a arms’. The race of the Sforza him. Jacopo, when he had at princely alliance. Even the has this special interest that from length made himself a name in marriages of his relations were the very beginning of its history the service of different arranged on a definite plan. He we seem able to trace its Condottieri, sent for his relations, kept clear of the impious and endeavors after the crown. The and obtained through them the profligate life of his foundation of its fortune lay in the same advantages that a prince contemporaries, and brought up remarkable fruitfulness of the derives from a numerous his son Francesco to the three family; Francesco's father, dynasty. It was these relations rules: 'Let other men's wives 19 alone; strike none of your great city of Milan (1450). back and plough our fields.’ followers, or, if you do, send the Even while besieging him at injured man far away; don't ride a His example was contagious. Orbetello, they supplied him with hard-mouthed horse, or one that Aeneas Sylvius wrote about this provisions: and he got out of his drops his shoe.’ But his chief time: 'In our change-loving Italy, straits with honour. But at last source of influence lay in the where nothing stands firm, and fate overtook him. All Italy was qualities, if not of a great general, where no ancient dynasty exists, betting on the result, when at least of a great soldier. His a servant can easily become a (1465) after a visit to Sforza at frame was powerful, and king.’ One man in particular, who Milan, he went to King Ferrante developed by every kind of styles himself 'the man of at Naples. In spite of the pledges exercise; his peasant's face and fortune,' filled the imagination of given, and of his high frank manners won general the whole country: Giacomo connections, he was murdered in popularity; his memory was Piccinino, the son of Niccolo;. It the Castel Nuovo. Even the marvelous, and after the lapse of was a burning question of the Condottieri who had obtained years could recall the names of day if he, too, would succeed in their dominions by inheritance, his followers, the number of their founding a princely house. The never felt themselves safe. horses, and the amount of their greater States had an obvious When Roberto Malatesta and pay. His education was purely interest in hindering it, and even Federigo of Urbino died on the Italian: he devoted his leisure to Francesco Sforza thought it same day (1482), the one at the study of history, and had would be all the better if the list of Rome, the other at Bologna, it Greek and Latin authors self-made sovereigns were not was found that each had translated for his use. enlarged. But the troops and recommended his State to the Francesco, his still more famous captains sent against him, at the care of the other. Against a class son, set his mind from the first on time, for instance, when he was of men who themselves stuck at founding a powerful State, and aiming at the lordship of Siena, nothing, everything was held to through brilliant generalship and recognized their interest in be permissible. Francesco a faithlessness which hesitated supporting him: 'If it were all over Sforza, when quite young, had at nothing, got possession of the with him, we should have to go married a rich Calabrian heiress, 20 Polissella Ruffo, Countess of certain Boccalino, who had the Pope, ordered Pandolfo, 'with Montalto, who bore him a formerly served in the the kindest intentions,' to take an daughter; an aunt poisoned both Burgundian army, gave himself opportunity of arresting his good mother and child, and seized the and the town of Osimo, of which friend: the arrest was made, inheritance. he was master, up to the Turkish though 'with great regret,' forces; fortunately, through the whereupon the order came to From the death of Piccinino intervention of Lorenzo the bring the prisoner to the gallows. onwards, the foundations of new Magnificent, he proved willing to Pandolfo was considerate States by the Condottieri became be paid off, and took himself enough to strangle him in prison, a scandal not to be tolerated. away. In the year 1495, when and then show his corpse to the The four great Powers, Naples, the wars of Charles VIII had people. The last notable Milan, the Papacy, and Venice, turned Italy upside down, the example of such usurpers is the formed among themselves a Condottiere Vidovero, of , famous Castellan of Musso, who political equilibrium which made trial of his strength; he had during the confusion in the refused to allow of any already seized the town of Milanese territory which followed disturbance. In the States of the Cesena and murdered many of the battle of Pavia (1525), Church, which swarmed with the nobles and the burghers; but improvised a sovereignty on the petty tyrants, who in part were, or the citadel held out, and he was Lake of Como. had been, Condottieri, the forced to withdraw. He then, at nephews of the Popes, since the the head of a band lent him by time of Sixtus IV, monopolized another scoundrel, Pandolfo the right to all such undertakings. Malatesta of Rimini, son of the The Smaller Despotisms But at the first sign of a political Roberto already spoken of, and crisis, the soldiers of fortune Venetian Condottiere, wrested appeared again upon the scene. the town of Castelnuovo from the It may be said in general of the Under the wretched Archbishop of . The despotisms of the fifteenth administration of Innocent VIII it Venetians, fearing that worse century that the greatest crimes was near happening that a would follow, and urged also by are most frequent in the smallest 21 States. In these, where the learned or religious conversation. as head; but deep and secret family was numerous and all the A man of the same class was jealousy prevailed among the members wished to live in a Giovanni II Bentivoglio of members of the different manner befitting their rank, Bologna (1463-1508), whose branches. Opposed to the disputes respecting the policy was determined by that of Baglioni stood another inheritance were unavoidable. the Este and the Sforza. What aristocratic party, led by the Bernardo Varano of Camerino ferocity and bloodthirstiness is family of the Oddi. In 1487 the put (1434) two of his brothers to found, on the other hand, among city was turned into a camp, and death, wishing to divide their the Varani of Camerino, the the houses of the leading citizens property among his sons. Where Malatesta of Rimini, the swarmed with bravos; scenes of the ruler of a single town was Manfreddi of Faenza, and above violence were of daily distinguished by a wise, all among the Baglioni of occurrence. At the burial of a moderate, and humane Perugia. We find a striking German student, who had been government, and by zeal for picture of the events in the last- assassinated, two colleges took intellectual culture, he was named family towards the close arms against one another; generally a member of some of the fifteenth century, in the sometimes the bravos of the great family, or politically admirable historical narratives of different houses even joined dependent on it. This was the Graziani and Matarazzo. battle in the public square. The case, for example, with complaints of the merchants and Alessandro Sforza, Prince of The Baglioni were one of those artisans were vain; the Papal Pesaro, brother of the great families whose rule never took Governors and nipoti held their Francesco, and stepfather of the shape of an avowed tongues, or took themselves off Federigo of Urbino (d. 1473). despotism. It was rather a on the first opportunity. At last Prudent in administration, just leadership exercised by means the Oddi were forced to abandon and affable in his rule, he of their vast wealth and of their Perugia, and the city became a enjoyed, after years of warfare, a practical influence in the choice beleaguered fortress under the tranquil reign, collected a noble of public officers. Within the absolute despotism of the library, and passed his leisure in family one man was recognized Baglioni, who used even the 22 cathedral as barracks. Plots and the devotion and piety of the was of opinion 'that the most surprises were met with cruel better men in Perugia during this impressive spectacle of all would vengeance; in the year 1491 reign of terror. When in 1494 be to see the whole military force after 130 conspirators, who had Charles VIII approached, the of Perugia collected in a body,' forced their way into the city, Baglioni from Perugia and the whereupon the Pope abandoned were killed and hung up at the exiles encamped in and near his project. Soon after, the exiles Palazzo Communale, thirty-five conducted the war with made another attack in which altars were erected in the square, such ferocity that every house in nothing but the personal heroism and for three days mass was the valley was levelled to the of the Baglioni won them the performed and processions held, ground. The fields lay untilled. victory. It was then that to take away the curse which the peasants were turned into Simonetto Baglione, a lad of rested on the spot. A nipote of plundering and murdering scarcely eighteen, fought in the Innocent VIII was in open day run savages, the fresh-grown bushes square with a handful of followers through in the street. A nipote of were filled with stags and wolves, against hundreds of the enemy: Alexander VI, who was sent to and the beasts grew fat on the he fell at last with more than smooth matters over, was bodies of the slain, on so-called twenty wounds, but recovered dismissed with public contempt. 'Christian flesh’. When himself when Astorre Baglione All the while the two leaders of Alexander VI withdrew (1495) came to his help, and mounting the ruling house, Guido and into Umbria before Charles VIII, on horseback in gilded amour Ridolfo, were holding frequent then returning from Naples, it with a falcon on his helmet, 'like interviews with Suor Colomba of occurred to him, when at Mars in bearing and in deeds, Rieti, a Dominican nun of saintly Perugia, that he might now rid plunged into the struggle’. reputation and miraculous himself of the Baglioni once for powers, who under penalty of all; he proposed to Guido a At that time Raphael, a boy of some great disaster ordered festival or tournament, or twelve years of age, was at them to make peace naturally in something else of the same kind, school under Pietro Perugino. vain. Nevertheless the chronicle which would bring the whole The impressions of these days takes the opportunity to point out family together. Guido, however, are perhaps immortalized in the 23 small, early pictures of St. Barciglia; the latter of the two received fifteen of the bravos at Michael and St. George: was also nephew of Varano hand; the remainder were set on something of them, it may be, Prince of Camerino, and brother- the watch. In the night of July 15 lives eternally in the large in-law of one of the former exiles, the doors were forced, and painting of St. Michael: and if Gerolamo della Penna. In vain Guido, Astorre, Simonetto, and Astorre Baglione has anywhere did Simonetto, warned by sinister Gismondo were murdered; the found his apotheosis, it is in the presentiment, entreat his uncle others succeeded in escaping. figure of the heavenly horseman on his knees to allow him to put in the Heliodorus. Penna to death: Guido refused. As the corpse of Astorre lay by The plot ripened suddenly on the that of Simonetto in the street, The opponents of the Baglioni occasion of the marriage of the spectators, 'and especially were partly destroyed, partly Astorre with Lavinia Colonna, at the foreign students,' compared scattered in terror, and were Midsummer, 1500. The festival him to an ancient Roman, so henceforth incapable of another began and lasted several days great and imposing did he seem. enterprise of the kind. After a amid gloomy forebodings, whose In the features of Simonetto time a partial reconciliation took deepening effect is admirably could still be traced the audacity place, and some of the exiles described by Matarazzo. Varano and defiance which death itself were allowed to return. But himself encouraged them with had not tamed. The victors went Perugia became none the safer devilish ingenuity: he worked round among the friends of the or more tranquil: the inward upon Grifone by the prospect of family, and did their best to discord of the ruling family broke undivided authority, and by recommend themselves; they out in frightful excesses. An stories of an imaginary intrigue of found all in tears and preparing opposition was formed against his wife Zenobia with Gianpaolo. to leave for the country. Guido and Ridolfo and their sons Finally each conspirator was Meantime the escaped Baglioni Gianpaolo, Simonetto, Astorre, provided with a victim. (The collected forces without the city, Gismondo, Gentile, Marcantonio Baglioni lived all of them in and on the following day forced and others, by two great- separate houses, mostly on the their way in, Gianpaolo at their nephews, Grifone and Carlo site of the pre sent castle.) Each head, and speedily found 24 adherents among others whom But they were deceived: she A legendary history, which is Barciglia had been threatening herself besought her son to simply the reflection of these with death. When Grifone fell pardon him who had dealt the atrocities, arose out of the early into their hands near Sant' fatal blow, and he died with her days of the Baglioni. All the Ercolano, Gianpaolo handed him blessing. The eyes of the crowd members of this family from the over for execution to his followed the two women beginning were reported to have followers. Barciglia and Penna reverently as they crossed the died an evil death twenty-seven fled to Varano, the chief author of square with blood-stained on one occasion together; their the tragedy, at Camerino; and in garments. It was Atalanta for houses were said to have been a moment, almost without loss, whom Raphael afterwards once before levelled to the Gianpaolo became master of the painted the world-famous ground, and the streets of city. Deposition, with which she laid Perugia paved with the bricks her own maternal sorrows at the and more of the same kind. Atalanta, the still young and feet of a yet higher and holier Under Paul III the destruction of beautiful mother of Grifone, who suffering. their palaces really took place. the day before had withdrawn to a country house with the latter's The cathedral, in the immediate For a time they seemed to have wife Zenobia and two children of neighbourhood of which the formed good resolutions, to have Gianpaolo, and more than once greater part of this tragedy had brought their own party into had repulsed her son with a been enacted, was washed with power, and to have protected the mother's curse, now returned wine and consecrated afresh. public officials against the with her daughter-in-law in The triumphal arch, erected for arbitrary acts of the nobility. But search of the dying man. All the wedding, still remained the old curse broke out again like stood aside as the two women standing, painted with the deeds a smoldering fire. In 1520 approached, each man shrinking of Astorre and with the laudatory Gianpaolo was enticed to Rome from being recognized as the verses of the narrator of these under Leo X, and there slayer of Grifone, and dreading events, the worthy Matarazzo. beheaded; one of his sons, the malediction of the mother. Orazio, who ruled in Perugia for 25 a short time only, and by the talent, however great, and drag poor scholar, Lilio Gregorio most violent means, as the the tyrant into the abyss. Giraldi, who had fled from the partisan of the Duke of Urbino Pandolfo, Sigismondo's nephew, sack of Rome to the hospitable (himself threatened by the Pope), who has been mentioned hearth of the aged Giovanni once before repeated in his own already, succeeded in holding his Francesco Pico, nephew of the family the horrors of the past. ground, for the sole reason that famous Giovanni; the His uncle and three cousins were the Venetians refused to discussions as to the sepulchral murdered, whereupon the Duke abandon their Condottiere, monument which the prince was sent him word that enough had whatever guilt he might be constructing for himself gave rise been done. His brother, chargeable with; when his to a treatise, the dedication of Malatesta Baglione, the subjects (1497), after ample which bears the date of April of Florentine general, has made provocation, bombarded him in this year. The postscript is a sad himself immortal by the treason his castle at Rimini, and one. In October of the same of 1530; and Malatesta's son afterwards allowed him to year the unhappy prince was Ridolfo, the last of the house, escape, a Venetian attacked in the night and robbed attained, by the murder of the commissioner brought him back, of life and throne by his brother's legate and the public officers in stained as he was with fratricide son; and I myself escaped the year 1534, a brief but and every other abomination. narrowly, and am now in the sanguinary authority. We shall Thirty years later the Malatesta deepest misery.' meet again with the names of the were penniless exiles. In the rulers of Rimini. year 1527, as in the time of A near-despotism, without morals Unscrupulousness, impiety, Cesare Borgia, a sort of epidemic or principles, such as Pandolfo military skill, and high culture fell on the petty tyrants; few of Petrucci exercised from after have been seldom combined in them outlived this date, and none 1490 in Siena, then torn by one individual as in Sigismondo to their own good. At Mirandola, faction, is hardly worth a closer Malatesta (d. 1467). But the which was governed by consideration. Insignificant and accumulated crimes of such a insignificant princes of the house malicious, he governed with the family must at last outweigh all of Pico, lived in the year 1533 a help of a professor of juris 26 prudence and of an astrologer, Barons, gave a distinctive color the ; when a great and frightened his people by an to the political constitution of earthquake happened in the occasional murder. His pastime Naples; while elsewhere in Italy, Abruzzi, the survivors were in the summer months was to roll excepting only in the southern compelled to make good the blocks of stone from the top of part of the ecclesiastical contributions of the dead. By Monte Amiata, without caring dominion, and in a few other such means Alfonso was able to what or whom they hit. After districts, a direct tenure of land entertain distinguished guests succeeding, where the most prevailed, and no hereditary with unrivalled splendor; he prudent failed, in escaping from powers were permitted by the found pleasure in ceaseless the devices of Cesare Borgia, he law. The great Alfonso, who expense, even for the benefit of died at last forsaken and reigned in Naples from 1435 his enemies, and in rewarding despised. His sons maintained a onwards (d. 1458), was a man of literary work knew absolutely no qualified supremacy for many another kind than his real or measure. Poggio received 500 years afterwards. alleged descendants. Brilliant in pieces of gold for translating his whole existence, fearless in Xenophon's Cyropaedeia into mixing with his people, dignified Latin. and affable in intercourse, The Greater Dynasties admired rather than blamed even Ferrante, who succeeded him, for his old man's passion for passed as his illegitimate son by Lucrezia d'Alagno, he had the a Spanish lady, but was not In treating of the chief dynasties one bad quality of extravagance, improbably the son of a half- of Italy, it is convenient to discuss from which, however, the natural caste Moor of Valencia. Whether the Aragonese, on account of its consequence followed. it was his blood or the plots special character, apart from the Unscrupulous financiers were formed against his life by the rest. The feudal system, which long omnipotent at Court, until barons which embittered and from the days of the Nor mans the bankrupt king robbed them of darkened his nature, it is certain had survived in the form of a their spoils; a crusade was that he was equalled in ferocity territorial supremacy of the preached as a pretext for taxing by none among the princes of his 27 time. Restlessly active, who had entire control of the service, and from whose recognized as one of the most anchorage on the coast, and increasing fear of death he powerful political minds of the shared the profits with the King. extorted 'present after present,' day, and free from the vices of Deficits were made up by forced was literally devilish. At length a the profligate, he concentrated all loans, by executions and suspicion of complicity with the his powers, among which must confiscations, by open simony, last conspiracy of the barons be reckoned profound and by contributions levied on gave the pretext for his arrest dissimulation and an the ecclesiastical corporations. and execution. With him died irreconcilable spirit of vengeance, Besides hunting, which he Coppola. The way in which all on the destruction of his practiced regardless of all rights this is narrated in Caracciolo and opponents. He had been of property, his pleasures were of Porzio makes one's hair stand on wounded in every point in which two kinds: he liked to have his end. a ruler is open to offence; for the opponents near him, either alive leaders of the barons, though in well-guarded prisons, or dead The elder of the King's sons, related to him by marriage, were and embalmed, dressed in the Alfonso, Duke of Calabria, yet the allies of his foreign costume which they wore in their enjoyed in later years a kind of enemies. Extreme measures lifetime. He would chuckle in co-regency with his father. He became part of his daily policy. talking of the captives with his was a savage, brutal profligate, The means for this struggle with friends, and make no secret who in point of frankness alone his barons, and for his external whatever of the museum of had the advantage of Ferrante, wars, were exacted in the same mummies. His victims were and who openly avowed his Mohammedan fashion which mostly men whom he had got contempt for religion and its Frederick II had introduced: the into his power by treachery; usages . The better and nobler Government alone dealt in oil some were even seized while features of the Italian despotisms and corn; the whole commerce of guests at the royal table. His are not to be found among the the country was put by Ferrante conduct to his prime minister, princes of this line; all that they into the hands of a wealthy Antonello Petrucci, who had possessed of the art and culture merchant, Francesco Coppola, grown sick and grey in his of their time served the purpose 28 of luxury or display. Even the city, making his excursions only genuine Spaniards seem to have The despotism of the Dukes of in the country, where lay several almost always degenerated in Milan, whose government from of his splendid castles; the flotilla Italy; but the end of this cross- the time of Giangaleazzo which, drawn by the swiftest bred house (1494 and 1503) onwards was an absolute horses, conducted him to them gives clear proof of a want of monarchy of the most thorough- along canals constructed for the blood. Ferrante died of mental going sort, shows the genuine purpose, was so arranged as to care and trouble; Alfonso Italian character of the fifteenth allow of the application of the accused his brother Federigo, century. The last of the Visconti most rigorous etiquette. the only honest member of the Filippo Maria (1412-1447), is a Whoever entered the citadel was family, of treason, and insulted character of peculiar interest, and watched by a hundred eyes; it him in the vilest manner. At of which fortunately an admirable was forbidden even to stand at length, though he had hitherto description has been left us. the window, lest signs should be passed for one of the ablest What a man of uncommon gifts given to those without. All who generals in Italy, he lost his head and high position can be made were admitted among the and fled to Sicily, leaving his son, by the passion of fear, is here personal followers of the Prince the younger Ferrante, a prey to shown with what may be called a were subjected to a series of the the French and to domestic mathematical completeness. All strictest examinations; then, once treason. A dynasty which had the resources of the State were accepted, were charged with the ruled as this had done must at devoted to the one end of highest diplomatic commissions, least have sold its life dear, if its securing his personal safety, as well as with the humblest children were ever to hope for a though happily his cruel egotism personal services both in this restoration. But, as Comines did not degenerate into a Court being alike honorable. And one-sidedly, and yet on the purposeless thirst for blood. He this was the man who conducted whole rightly observes on this lived in the Citadel of Milan, long and difficult wars, who dealt occasion, 'Jamais homme cruel surrounded by magnificent habitually with political affairs of ne fut hardi': there was never a gardens, arbors, and lawns. For the first importance, and every more cruel man. years he never set foot in the day sent his plenipotentiaries to 29 all parts of Italy. His safety lay in wound, and, refusing to be bled, came to the congress at Mantua, the fact that none of his servants died at last with dignity and he was 60 (really 58) years old; trusted the others, that his grace. on horseback he looked like a Condottieri were watched and young man; of a lofty and misled by spies, and that the His son-in-law and successor, imposing figure, with serious ambassadors and higher officials the fortunate Condottiere features, calm and affable in were baffled and kept apart by Francesco Sforza (1450-1466), conversation, princely in his artificially nourished jealousies, was perhaps of all the Italians of whole bearing, with a and in particular by the device of the fifteenth century the man combination of bodily and coupling an honest man with a most after the heart of his age. intellectual gifts unrivalled in our knave. His inward faith, too, Never was the triumph of genius time, unconquered on the field of rested upon opposed and and individual power more battle— such was the man who contradictory systems; he brilliantly displayed than in him; raised himself from a humble believed in blind necessity, and and those who would P.et position to the control of an in the influence of the stars, and recognize his merit were at least empire. His wife was beautiful offering prayers at one and the forced to wonder at him as the and virtuous, his children were same time to helpers of every spoilt child of fortune. The like the angels of heaven; he was sort; he was a student of the Milanese claimed it openly as an seldom ill, and all his chief ancient authors, as well as of honour to be governed by so wishes were fulfilled. And yet he French tales of . And yet distinguished a master; when he was not without misfortune. His the same man, who would never entered the city the thronging wife, out of jealousy, killed his suffer death to be mentioned in populace bore him on horseback mistress; his old comrades and his presence, and caused his into the cathedral, without giving friends, Troilo and Brunoro, dying favorites to be removed him the chance to dismount. Let abandoned him and went over to from the castle, that no shadow us listen to the balance-sheet of King Alfonso; another, might fall on the abode of his life, in the estimate of Pope Ciarpollone, he was forced to happiness, deliberately hastened Pius II, a judge in such matters: hang for treason; he had to suffer his own death by closing up a ‘In the year 1459, when the Duke it that his brother Alessandro set 30 the French upon him; one of his his hands, in the high salaries he intervention, and the disasters sons formed intrigues against paid, in the financial credit he which befell the whole of Italy. him, and was imprisoned; the enjoyed, in his treasure of two March of Ancona, which he had million pieces of gold, in the Lodovico Sforza, called il Moro, won in war, he lost again the distinguished people who the Moor, is the most perfect type same way. No man enjoys so surrounded him, and in the army of the despot of that age, and, as unclouded a fortune that he has and birds of chase which he a kind of natural product, almost not somewhere to struggle with maintained. He was fond of the disarms our moral judgement. adversity. He is happy who has sound of his own voice, and Notwithstanding the profound but few troubles.' With this spoke well, most fluently, immorality of the means he negative definition of happiness perhaps, when he had the employed, he used them with the learned Pope dismisses the chance of insulting a Venetian perfect ingenuousness; no one reader. Had he been able to see ambassador. He was subject to would probably have been more into the future, or been willing to caprices, such as having a room astonished than himself to learn stop and discuss the painted with figures in a single that for the choice of means as consequences of an uncontrolled night; and, what was worse, to well as of ends a human being is despotism, one pervading fact fits of senseless debauchery and morally.responsible; he would would not have escaped his of revolting cruelty to his nearest rather have reckoned it as a notice the absence of all friends. To a handful of singular virtue that, so far as guarantee for the future. Those enthusiasts, he seemed a tyrant possible, he had abstained from children, beautiful as angels, too bad to live; they murdered too free a use of the punishment carefully and thoroughly him, and thereby delivered the of death. He accepted as no educated as they were, fell State into the power of his more than his due the almost victims, when they grew up, to brothers, one of whom, Lodovico fabulous respect of the Italians the corruption of a measureless il Moro, threw his nephew into for his political genius. In 1486 egotism. Galeazzo Maria (1466- prison, and took the government he boasted that the Pope 1476), solicitous only of outward into his own hands. From this Alexander was his chaplain, the effect, took pride in the beauty of usurpation followed the French Emperor Maximilian his 31 Condottiere, Venice his resources of his State, and at of scholars; nor was it the fame chamberlain, and the King of Cremona had ordered, out of of the distinguished men who France his courier, who must pure expediency, a respectable surrounded him which he come and go at his bidding. With citizen, who had spoken again st heeded, so much as their society marvelous presence of mind he the new taxes, to be quietly and their services. It is certain weighed, even in his last strangled. Since that time, in that Bramante was scantily paid extremity (1499), a possible holding audiences, he kept his at first; Leonardo, on the other means of escape, and at length visitors away from his person by hand, was up to 1496 suitably he decided, to his honour, to trust means of a bar, so that in remunerated and besides, what to the goodness of human conversing with him they were kept him at the court, if not his nature; he rejected the proposal compelled to speak at the top of own free will The world lay open of his brother, the Cardinal their voices. At his court, the to him, as perhaps to no other Ascanio, who wished to remain in most brilliant in Europe, since mortal man of that day; and if the Citadel of Milan, on the that of Burgundy had ceased to proof were wanting of the loftier ground of a former quarrel: exist, immorality of the worst kind element in the nature of Lodovico ‘Monsignore, take it not ill, but I was prevalent; the daughter was il Moro, it is found in the long stay trust you not, brother though you sold by the father, the wife by the of the enigmatic master at his be'; and appointed to the husband, the sister by the court. That afterwards Leonardo command of the castle, 'that brother. The Prince himself was entered the service of Cesare pledge of his return ,' a man to incessantly active, and, as son of Borgia and Francis I was whom he had always done good, his own deeds, claimed probably due to the interest he but who nevertheless betrayed relationship with all who, like felt in the unusual and striking him. At home the Moor was a himself, stood on their personal character of the two men. good and useful ruler, and to the merits with scholars, poets, last he reckoned on his artists, and musicians. The After the fall of the Moor, his popularity both in Milan and in academy which he founded sons were badly brought up Como. In later years (after 1496) served rather for his own among strangers. The elder, he had overstrained the purposes than for the instruction Massimiliano, had no 32 resemblance to him; the younger, ability during the second half of the same spirit to his wife. Every Francesco, was at all events not the fifteenth century. The deed of loyalty and heroism, without spirit. Milan, which in Gonzaga were a tolerably such as the defence of Faenza those years changed its rulers so harmonious family; for a long against Cesare Borgia, she felt often, and suffered so period no murder had been as a vindication of the honour of unspeakably in the change, known among them, and their Italy. Our judgement of her does endeavored to secure itself dead could be shown to the not need to rest on the praises of against a reaction. In the year world without fear. The Marquis the artists and writers who made 1512 the French, retreating Francesco Gonzaga and his wife, the fair princess a rich return for before the arms of Maximilian Isabella of Este, in spite of some her patronage; her own letters and the Spaniards, were induced few irregularities, were a united show her to us as a woman of to make a declaration that the and respectable couple, and unshaken firmness, full of Milanese had taken no part in brought up their sons to be kindliness and humorous their expulsion, and, without successful and remarkable men observation. , Bandello, being guilty of rebellion, might at a time when their small but Ariosto, and Bernardo Tasso yield themselves to a new most important State was sent their works to this court, conqueror. It is a fact of some exposed to incessant danger. small and powerless as it was, political importance that in such That Francesco, either as and empty as they found its moments of transition the statesman or as soldier, should treasury. A more polished and unhappy city, like Naples at the adopt a policy of exceptional charming circle was not to be flight of the Aragonese, was apt honesty, was what neither the seen in Italy, since the to fall a prey to gangs of (often Emperor, nor Venice, nor the dissolution (1508) of the old highly aristocratic) scoundrels. King of France could have Court of Urbino; and in one expected or desired; but certainly respect, in freedom of The house of Gonzaga at since the battle of the Taro movement, the society of Ferrara Mantua and that of Montefeltro of (1495), so far as military honour was inferior to that of Mantua. In Urbino were among the best was concerned, he felt and acted artistic matters Isabella had an ordered and richest in men of as an Italian patriot, and imparted accurate knowledge, and the 33 catalogue of her small but choice organization, and this in every corn, of many other of the collection can be read by no sense of the word. Federigo had necessaries of life fish, salt, lover of art without emotion. 500 persons in his service; the meat, fruit and vegetables, which arrangements of the court were last were carefully planted on In the great Federigo (1444- as complete as in the capitals of and ne ar the walls of the city. 1482), whether he were a the greatest monarchs, but The most considerable source of genuine Montefeltro or not, nothing was built quarters sprang income, however, was the annual Urbino possessed a brilliant up at the bidding of the ruler: sale of public offices, a usage representative of the princely here, by the concentration of the which was common throughout order. As a Condottiere he official classes and the active Italy, and about the working of shared the political morality of promotion of trade, was formed which at Ferrara we have more soldiers of fortune, a morality of for the first time a true capital; precise information. We read, for which the fault does not rest with wealthy fugitives from all parts of example, that at the new year them alone; as ruler of his little Italy, Florentines especially, 1502 the majority of the officials territory he adopted the plan of settled and built their palaces at bought their places at prezzi spending at home the money he Ferrara. But the indirect taxation, salati (pungent prices); public had earned abroad, and taxing at all events, must have reached servants of the most various his people as lightly as possible. a point at which it could only just kinds, custom-house officers, Of him and his two successors, be borne. The Government, it is bailiffs (massari), notaries, Guidobaldo and Francesco true, took measures of alleviation podesta, judges, and even Maria, we read: ‘They erected which were also adopted by governors of provincial towns are buildings, furthered the other Italian despots, such as quoted by name. As one of the cultivation of the land, lived at Galeazzo Maria Sforza: in time of 'devourers of the people' who home, and gave employment to a famine, corn was brought from a paid dearly for their places, and large number of people: their distance and seems to have who were 'hated worse than the subjects loved them.’ But not been distributed gratuitously; but devil,' Tito Strozza let us hope only the State, but the court too, in ordinary times it compensated not the famous Latin poet is was a work of art and itself by the monopoly, if not of mentioned. About the same time 34 every year the dukes were numerous, but of small size; they qualities which Italy then pursued accustomed to make a round of are characteristic of a princely as its ideal. What European visits in Ferrara, the so-called house which, with all its love of monarch of the time labored for andar per ventura, in which they splendor Borso never appeared his own culture as, for instance, took presents from, at any rate, but in embroidery and jewels Alfonso I? His travels in France, the more wealthy citizens. The indulged in no ill-considered England, and the Netherlands we gifts, however, did not consist of expense. Alfonso may perhaps re undertaken for the purpose of money, but of natural products. have foreseen the fate which was study: by means of them he in store for his charming little gained an accurate knowledge of It was the pride of the duke for all villas, the Belvedere with its the industry and commerce of Italy to know that at Ferrara the shady gardens, and Montana these countries. It is ridiculous to soldiers received their pay and with its fountains and beautiful reproach him with the turner's the professors at the University frescoes. work which he practiced in his their salary not a day later than it leisure hours, connected as it was due; that the soldiers never It is undeniable that the dangers was with his skill in the casting of dared lay arbitrary hands on to which these princes were cannon, and with the citizen or peasant; that the town constantly exposed developed in unprejudiced freedom with which was impregnable to assault; and them capacities of a remarkable he surrounded himself by that vast sums of coined money kind. In so artificial a world only masters of every art. The Italian were stored up in the citadel. To a man of consummate address princes were not, like their keep two sets of accounts could hope to succeed; each contemporaries in the North, seemed unnecessary: the candidate for distinction was dependent on the society of an Minister of Finance was at the forced to make good his claims aristocracy which held itself to be same time manager of the ducal by personal merit and show the only class worth household. The buildings himself worthy of the crown he consideration, and which infected erected by Borso (1430-1471), sought. Their characters are not the monarch with the same by Ercole I (until 1505), and by without dark sides; but in all of conceit. In Italy the prince was Alfonso I (until 1534), were very them lives something of those permitted and compelled to know 35 and to use men of every grade in public, was informed against on dismissal of oppressive officials. society; and the nobility, though his return home, and condemned When Borso arrested in person by birth a caste, were forced in to banishment and the his chief and confidential social intercourse to stand up on confiscation of his goods; a loyal counsellors, when Ercole I their personal qualifications subject was with difficulty removed and disgraced a tax- alone. But this is a point which restrained from cutting him down gatherer who for years had been we shall discuss more fully in the before the tribunal itself, and with sucking the blood of the people, sequel. The feeling of the a rope round his neck the bonfires were lighted and the Ferrarese towards the ruling offender went to the duke and bells were pealed in their honour. house was a strange compound begged for a full pardon. The With one of his servants, of silent dread, of the truly Italian government was well provided however, Ercole let things go too sense of well-calculated interest, with spies, and the duke far. The director of the police, or and of the loyalty of the modern inspected personally the daily list by whatever name we should subject: personal admiration was of travellers which the innkeepers choose to call him (Capitano di transferred into a new sentiment were strictly ordered to present. Giustizia), was Gregorio of duty. The city of Ferrara Under Borso, who was anxious Zampante of Lucca, a native raised in 1451 a bronze to leave no distinguished being unsuited for an office of equestrian statue to their Prince stranger unhonored, this this kind. Even the sons and Niccolo, who had died ten years regulation served a hospitable brothers of the duke trembled earlier; Borso (1454) did not purpose; Ercole I used it simply before this man; the fines he scruple to place his own statue, as a measure of precaution. In inflicted amounted to hundreds also of bronze, but in a sitting Bologna, too, it was then the rule, and thousands of ducats, and posture, hard by in the market; in under Giovanni II Bentivoglio, torture was applied even before addition to which the city, at the that every passing traveller who the hearing of a case: bribes beginning of his reign, decreed to entered at one gate must obtain were accepted from wealthy him a 'marble triumphal pillar'. A a ticket in order to go out at criminals, and their pardon citizen who, when abroad in another. An unfailing means of obtained from the duke by false Venice, had spoken ill of Borso in popularity was the sudden representations. Gladly would 36 the people have paid any sum to imposed his own respect for equivocal sincerity. One of the their ruler for sending away the useful servants on the court and youthful poems of Ariosto, on the 'enemy of God and man’. But on the people. When in 1469 Death of Leonora of Aragon, wife Ercole had knighted him and Borso's privy councillor Lodovico of Ercole I, contains besides the made him godfather to his Casella died, no court of law or inevitable graveyard flowers, children; and year by year place of business in the city, and which are scattered in the elegies Zampante laid by 2,000 ducats. no lecture-room at the University, of all ages, some thoroughly He dared only eat pigeons bred was allowed to be open: all had modern features: This death had in his own house, and could not to follow the body to San given Ferrara a blow which it cross the street without a band of Domenico, since the duke would not get over for years: its archers and bravos. It was time intended to be present. And, in benefactress was now its to get rid of him; in 1496 two fact, 'the first of the advocate in heaven, since earth students, and a converted Jew who attended the corpse of a was not worthy of her; truly the whom he had mortally offended, subject' walked, clad in black, angel of Death did not come to killed him in his house while after the coffin, weeping, while her, as to us common mortals, taking his siesta, and then rode behind him came the relatives of with blood-stained scythe, but fair through the town on horses held Casella, each conducted by one to behold (onesta), and with so in waiting, raising the cry, 'Come of the gentlemen of the court: the kind a face that every fear was out! Come out! We have slain body of the plain citizen was allayed.’ But we meet, also, with Zampante!' The pursuers came carried by nobles from the church sympathy of a different kind. too late, and found them already into the cloister, where it was Novelists, depending wholly on safe across the frontier. Of buried. Indeed this official the favour of their patrons, tell us course it now rained sympathy with princely emotion the love stories of the prince, some of them in the form of first came up in the Italian States. even before his death, in a way sonnets, others of odes. At the root of the practice may be which, to later times, would seem a beautiful, humane sentiment; the height of indiscretion, but It was wholly in the spirit of this the utterance of it, especially in which then passed simply as an system that the sovereign the poets, is, as a rule, of innocent compliment. Lyrical 37 poets even went so far as to sing procession which was compared service of the prince; it involved the illicit flames of their lawfully to the feast of Corpus Christi; consequently no additional married lords, e.g. Angelo shops were closed as on expense. Boiardo, as a wealthy Poliziano, those of Lorenzo the Sunday; in the centre of the line country gentleman and high Magnificent, and Gioviano walked all the members of the official, belonged to this class. At Pontano, with a singular gusto, princely house (bastards the time when Ariosto began to those of Alfonso of Calabria. The included) clad in embroidered distinguish himself, there existed poem in question betrays robes. That the crown was the no court, in the true sense of the unconsciously the odious fountain of honour and authority, word, either at Milan or Florence, disposition of the Aragonese that all personal distinction and soon there was none either ruler; in these things too, he must flowed from it alone, had been at Urbino or at Naples. He had needs be the most fortunate, else long expressed at this court by to content himself with a place woe be to those who are more the Order of the Golden Spur, an among the musicians and successful! That the greatest order which had nothing in jugglers of Cardinal Ippolito until artists, for example Leonardo, common with medieval chivalry. Alfonso took him into his service. should paint the mistresses of Ercole I added to the spur a It was otherwise at a later time their patrons was no more than a sword, a goldlaced mantle, and a with Torquato Tasso, whose matter of course. grant of money, in return for presence at court was jealously which there is no doubt that sought after. But the house of Este was not regular service was required. satisfied with the praises of others; it undertook to celebrate The patronage of art and letters itself. In the Palazzo Schifanoia for which this court has obtained The Opponents of the Borso caused himself to be a world-wide reputation, was Despots painted in a series of historical exercised through the University, representations, and Ercole (from which was one of the most 1472 on) kept the anniversary of perfect in Italy, and by the gift of In face of this centralized his accession to the throne by a places in the personal or official authority, all legal opposition 38 within the borders of the State 1500, during the brief return of reader. was futile. The elements needed Lodovico il Moro to his States, for the restoration of a republic the Guelphs of Tortona But to return to the despots of the had been for ever destroyed, and summoned a part of the Renaissance. A pure and simple the field prepared for violence neighbouring French army into mind, we might think, would and despotism. The nobles, the city, in order to make an end perhaps have argued that, since destitute of political rights, even once for all of their opponents, all power is derived from God, where they held feudal the French certainly began by these princes, if they were loyally possessions, might call plundering and ruining the and honestly supported by all themselves Guelphs or Ghibellines, but finished by doing their subjects, must in time Ghibellines at will, might dress up the same to the Guelphs, until themselves improve and lose all their bravos in padded hose and Tortona was utterly laid waste. traces of their violent origin. But feathered caps or how else they In Romagna, the hotbed of every from characters and imaginations pleased; thoughtful men like ferocious passion, these two inflamed by passion and Machiavelli knew well enough names had long lost all political ambition, reasoning of this kind that Milan and Naples were too meaning. It was a sign of the could not be expected. Like bad 'corrupt' for a republic. Strange political delusion of the people physicians, they thought to cure judgements fell on these two so- that they not seldom believed the the disease by removing the called parties, which now served Guelphs to be the natural allies symptoms, and fancied that if the only to give official sanction to of the French and the Ghibellines tyrant were put to death, freedom personal and family disputes. of the Spaniards. It is hard to would follow of itself. Or else, see that those who tried to profit without reflecting even to this An Italian prince, whom Agrippa by this error got much by doing extent, they sought only to give a of Nettesheim advised to put so. France, after all her vent to the universal hatred, or to them down, replied that their interventions, had to abandon the take vengeance for some family quarrels brought him in more peninsula at last, and what misfortune or personal affront. than 12,000 ducats a year in became of Spain, after she had Since the governments were fines. And when in the year destroyed Italy, is known to every absolute, and free from all legal 39 restraints, the opposition chose almost impossible to lay hands listen devoutly to the first mass. its weapons with equal freedom. upon him elsewhere than at It was, however, one cause of Boccaccio declares openly: solemn religious services; and on the partial failure of the ‘Shall I call the tyrant king or no other occasion was the whole conspiracy of the Pazzi against prince, and obey him loyally as family to be found assembled Lorenzo and Giuliano Medici my lord? No, for he is the enemy together. It was thus that the (1478), that the brigand of the commonwealth. Against Fabrianese murdered (1435) the Montesecco, who had bargained him I may use arms, members of their ruling house, to commit the murder at a conspiracies, spies, ambushes the Chiavelli, during high mass, banquet, declined to undertake it and fraud; to do so is a sacred the signal being given by the in the Cathedral of Florence. and necessary work. There is no words of the Creed, Et incarnatus Certain of the clergy 'who were more acceptable sacrifice than est. At Milan the Duke Giovan familiar with the sacred place, the blood of a tyrant.’ We need Maria Visconti (1412) was and consequently had no fear' not occupy ourselves with assassinated at the entrance of were induced to act in his stead. individual cases; Machiavelli, in a the church of San Gottardo famous chapter of his Discorsi, Galeazzo Maria Sforza (1476) in As to the imitation of antiquity, treats of the conspiracies of the church of Santo Stefano, and the influence of which on moral, ancient and modern times from Lodovico il Moro only escaped and more especially on political, the days of the Greek tyrants (1484) the daggers of the questions we shall often refer to, downwards, and classifies them adherents of the widowed the example was set by the with cold-blooded indifference Duchess Bona, through entering rulers themselves, who, both in according to their various plans the church of Sant' Ambrogio by their conception of the State and and results. We need make but another door than that by which in their personal conduct, took two observations, first on the he was expected. There was no the old avowedly murders committed in church, intentional impiety in the act; the as their model. In like manner and next on the influence of assassins of Galeazzo did not fail their opponents, when they set to classical antiquity. So well was to pray before the murder to the work with a deliberate theory, the tyrant guarded that it was patron saint of the church, and to took pattern by the ancient 40 tyrannicides. It may be hard to ten days before the deed they while the executioner was prove that in the main point in met together and took a solemn breaking his ribs, 'Courage, forming the resolve itself they oath in the monastery of Sant' Girolamo! Thou wilt long be consciously followed a classical Ambrogio. 'Then,' says Olgiati, remembered; death is bitter, but example; but the appeal to 'in a remote corner I raised my glory is eternal.' antiquity was no mere phrase. eyes before the picture of the The most striking disclosures patron saint, and implored his But however idealistic the object have been left us with respect to help for ourselves and for all his and purpose of such the murderers of Galeazzo people.’ The heavenly protector conspiracies may appear, the Sforza, Lampugnani, Olgiati, and of the city was called on to bless manner in which they were Visconti. Though all three had the undertaking, as was conducted betrays the influence personal ends to serve, yet their afterwards St. Stephen, in of that worst of all conspirators, enterprise may be partly ascribed whose church it was fulfilled. Catiline, a man in whose to a more general reason. About Many of their comrades were thoughts freedom had no place this time Cola de' Montani, a now informed of the plot, nightly whatever. The annals of Siena humanist and professor of meetings were held in the house tell us expressly that the eloquence, had awakened of Lampugnani, and the conspirators were students of among many of the young conspirators practiced for the Sallust, and the fact is indirectly Milanese nobility a vague murder with the sheaths of their confirmed by the confession of passion for glory and patriotic daggers. The attempt was Olgiati. Elsewhere, too, we meet achievements, and had successful, but Lampugnani was with the name of Catiline, and a mentioned to Lampugnani and killed on the spot by the more attractive pattern of the Olgiati his hope of delivering attendants of the duke; the conspirator, apart from the end Milan. Suspicion was soon others were captured: Visconti he followed, could hardly be aroused against him: he was was penitent, but Olgiati through discovered. banished from the city, and his all his tortures maintained that pupils were abandoned to the the deed was an acceptable Among the Florentines, fanaticism he had excited. Some offering to God, and exclaimed whenever they got rid of, or tried 41 to get rid of, the Medici, feeling of the time show with who slew his brother for his tyrannicide was a practice what an effort he rid his mind of country's sake. Others, on the universally accepted and these classical imaginations, in same occasion, made use of the approved. After the flight of the order to die like a Christian. A comparison with Brutus, and that Medici in 1494, the bronze group friend and the confessor both Michelangelo himself, even late of Donatello Judith with the dead had to assure him that St. in life, was not unfriendly to ideas Holofernes was taken from their Thomas Aquinas condemned of this kind, may be inferred from collection and placed before the conspirators absolutely; but the his bust of Brutus in the Bargello. Palazzo della Signoria, on the confessor afterwards admitted to He left it unfinished, like nearly all spot where the David of the same friend that St. Thomas his works, but certainly not Michelangelo now stands, with drew a distinction and permitted because the murder of Caesar the inscription, Exemplum salutis conspiracies against a tyrant who was repugnant to his feeling, as publicae cives posuere 1495. No bad forced himself on a people the couplet beneath declares. example was more popular than against their will. that of the younger Brutus, who, A popular radicalism in the form in Dante, lies with Cassius and After Lorenzino Medici had in which it is opposed to the Judas Iscariot in the lowest pit of murdered the Duke Alessandro monarchies of later times, is not hell, because of his treason to (1537), and then escaped, an to be found in the despotic States the empire. Pietro Paolo Boscoli, apology for the deed appeared, of the Renaissance. Each whose plot against Giuliano, which is probably his own work, individual protested inwardly Giovanni, and Giulio Medici failed and certainly composed in his against despotism but was (1513), was an enthusiastic interest, and in which he praises disposed to make tolerable or admirer of Brutus, and in order to tyrannicide as an act of the profitable terms with it rather than follow his steps, only waited to highest merit; on the supposition to combine with others for its find a Cassius. Such a partner that Alessandro was a legitimate destruction. Things must have he met with in Agostino Capponi. Medici, and, therefore, related to been as bad as at Camerino, His last utterances in prison a him, if only distantly, he boldly Fabriano, or Rimini, before the striking evidence of the religious compares himself with Timoleon, citizens united to destroy or expel 42 the ruling house. They knew in that the time of the final sell their aid to the highest bidder most cases only too well that this armaments of the Lombard had superseded the general levy would but mean a change of confederation against of the citizens which party masters. The star of the Barbarossa (from 1168 on) was leaders now found unsuited to Republics was certainly on the the moment when a universal their purposes. The tyrants decline. Italian league was possible. But destroyed the freedom of most of the more powerful States had the cities; here and there they already developed characteristic were expelled, but not features which made any such thoroughly, or only for a short The Republics: Venice scheme impracticable. In their time; and they were always and Florence commercial dealings they shrank restored, since the inward from no measures, however conditions were favourable to extreme, which might damage them, and the opposing forces The Italian municipalities had, in their competitors; they held their were exhausted. earlier days, given signal proof of weaker neighbors in a condition that force which transforms the of helpless dependence in short, Among the cities which city into the State. It remained they each fancied they could get maintained their independence only that these cities should on by themselves without the are two of deep significance for combine in a great confederation; assistance of the rest, and thus the history of the human race: and this idea was constantly paved the way for future Florence, the city of incessant recurring to Italian statesmen, usurpation. The usurper was movement, which has left us a whatever differences of form it forthcoming when long conflicts record of the thoughts and might from time to time display. between the nobility and the aspirations of each and all who, In fact, during the struggles of the people, and between the different for three centuries, took part in twelfth and thirteenth centuries, factions of the nobility, had this movement, and Venice, the great and formidable leagues awakened the desire for a strong city of apparent stagnation and of actually were formed by the government, and when bands of political secrecy. No contrast cities; and Sismondi is of opinion mercenaries ready and willing to can be imagined stronger than 43 that which is offered us by these if our vows are not made in vain, bridge, where their goods and two, and neither can be a hundred temples, O God, of their dwellings lay, and before compared to anything else which gold and marble shall arise to which their ships are drawn up the world has hitherto produced. Thee.' The island city at the end side by side in the canal; higher of the fifteenth century was the up is a whole fleet laden with Venice recognized itself from the jewel-casket of the world. It is so wine and oil, and parallel with it, first as a strange and mysterious described by the same Sabellico, on the shore swarming with creation the fruit of a higher with its ancient cupolas, its porters, are the vaults of the power than human ingenuity. leaning towers, its inlaid marble merchants; then from the Rialto The solemn foundation of the city facades, its compressed to the square of St. Mark come was the subject of a legend: on splendor, where the richest the inns and the perfumers' March 25, 1413, at midday, decoration did not hinder the cabinets. So he conducts the emigrants from Padua laid the practical employment of every reader from one quarter of the first stone at the Rialto, that they corner of space. He takes us to city to another until he comes at might have a sacred, inviolable the crowded Piazza before San last to the two hospitals, which asylum amid the devastations of Giacometto at the Rialto, where were among those institutions of the barbarians. Later writers the business of the world is public utility nowhere so attributed to the founders the transacted, not amid shouting numerous as at Venice. Care for presentiment of the future and confusion, but with the the people, in peace as well as in greatness of the city; M. Antonio subdued bum of many voices; war, was characteristic of this Sabellico, who has celebrated where in the porticoes round the government, and its attention to the event in the dignified flow of square and in those of the the wounded, even to those of his hexameters, makes the priest adjoining streets sit hundreds of the enemy, excited the who completes the act of money changers and goldsmiths, admiration of other States. consecration cry to heaven, with endless rows of shops and 'When we hereafter attempt great warehouses above their heads. Public institutions of every kind things, grant us prosperity! Now He describes the great Fondaco found in Venice their pattern; the we kneel before a poor altar; but of the Germans beyond the pensioning of retired servants 44 was carried out systematically, had informers in their pay, and included a provision for Sabellico, born in the sometimes with regular salaries; widows and orphans. Wealth, neighbourhood of Tivoli, and things went so far that the political security, and accustomed to the frank Council of Ten found it prudent to acquaintance with other loquacity of the scholars of his conceal important political news countries, had matured the day, remarks elsewhere with from the Council of the Pregadi, understanding of such questions. some astonishment, that the and it was even supposed that These slender fairhaired men, young nobles who came of a Lodovico il Moro had control of a with quiet cautious steps and morning to hear his lectures definite number of votes among deliberate speech, differed but could not be prevailed upon to the latter. Whether the hanging slightly in costume and bearing enter into political discussions: of single offenders and the high from one another; ornaments, ‘When I ask them what people rewards such as a life-pension of especially pearls, were reserved think, say, and expect about this sixty ducats paid to those who for the women and girls. At that or that movement in Italy, they all informed against them were of time the general prosperity, answer with one voice that they much avail, it is hard to decide; notwithstanding the losses know nothing about the matter.’ one of the chief causes of this sustained from the Turks, was Still, in spite of the strict evil, the poverty of many of the still dazzling; the stores of energy imposition of the State, much nobility, could not be removed in which the city possessed, and was to be learned from the more a day. In the year 1492 a the prejudice in its favour corrupt members of the proposal was urged by two of diffused throughout Europe, aristocracy by those who were that order, that the State should enabled it at a much later time to willing to pay enough for it. In spend 70,000 ducats for the relief survive the heavy blows inflicted the last quarter of the fifteenth of those poorer nobles who held upon it by the discovery of the century there were traitors no public office; the matter was sea route to the Indies, by the fall among the highest officials; the near coming before the Great of the Mamelukes in Egypt, and popes, the Italian princes, and Council, in which it might have by the war of the League of even the second-rate Condottieri had a majority, when the Council Cambrai. in the service of the government of Ten interfered in time and 45 banished the two proposers for activity of the city, which put isolation, which, joined to the life to Nicosia in Cyprus. About within reach of the humblest a hatred felt for the city by the this time a Soranzo was hanged, rich reward for their labor, and other States of Italy, gave rise to though not in Venice itself, for the colonies on the eastern a strong sense of solidarity within sacrilege, and a Contarini put in shores of the Mediterranean The inhabitants meanwhile were chains for burglary; another of would have diverted from political united by the most powerful ties the same family came in 1499 affairs the dangerous elements of of interest in dealing both with before the Signory, and society. But had not the political the colonies and with the complained that for many years history of Genoa, notwithstanding possessions on the mainland, he had been without an office, similar advantages, been of the forcing the population of the that he had only sixteen ducats a stormiest? The cause of the latter, that is, of all the towns up year and nine children, that his stability of Venice lies rather in a to , to buy and sell in debts amounted to sixty ducats, combination of circumstances Venice alone. A power which that he knew no trade and had which were found in union rested on means so artificial lately been turned into the nowhere else. Unassailable from could only be maintained by streets. We can understand why its position, it had been able from internal harmony and unity; and some of the wealthier nobles built the beginning to treat of foreign this conviction was so widely houses, sometimes whole rows affairs with the fullest and diffused among the citizens that of them, to provide free lodging calmest reflection, and ignore conspirators found few elements for their needy comrades. Such nearly altogether the parties to work upon. And the works figure in wills among which divided the rest of Italy, to discontented, if there were such, deeds of charity. escape the entanglement of were held so far apart by the permanent alliances, and to set division between the noble and But if the enemies of Venice ever the highest price on those which the burgher that a mutual founded serious hopes upon it thought fit to make. The understanding was not easy. On abuses of this kind, they were keynote of the Venetian the other hand, within the ranks greatly in error. It might be character was, consequently, a of the nobility itself, travel, thought that the commercial spirit of proud and contemptuous commercial enterprise, and tb^ 46 incessant wars with the Turks disposed without appeal of life blood. No State, indeed, has saved the wealthy and and death, of financial affairs and ever exercised a greater moral dangerous from that fruitful military appointments, which influence over its subjects, source of conspiracies idleness. included the Inquisitors among its whether abroad or at home. If In these wars they were spared, number, and which overthrew traitors were to be found among often to a criminal extent, by the Foscari, as it had overthrown so the Pregadi, there was ample general in command, and the fall many powerful men before this compensation for this in the fact of the city was predicted by a Council was yearly chosen that every Venetian away from Venetian Cato, if this fear of the afresh from the whole governing home was a born spy for his nobles 'to give one another pain' body, the Gran Consiglio, and government. It was a matter of should continue at the expense was consequently the most direct course that the Venetian of justice. Nevertheless this free expression of its will. It is not cardinals at Rome sent home movement in the open air gave probable that serious intrigues news of the transactions of the the Venetian aristocracy, as a occurred at these elections, as secret papal consistories. The whole, a healthy bias. the short duration of the office Cardinal Domenico Grimani had and the accountability which the dispatches intercepted in the And when envy and ambition followed rendered it an object of neighbourhood of Rome (1500) called for satisfaction, an official no great desire. But violent and which Ascanio Sforza was victim was forthcoming and legal mysterious as the proceedings of sending to his brother Lodovico il means and authorities were this and other authorities might Moro, and forwarded them to ready. The moral torture which be, the genuine Venetian courted Venice; his father, then exposed for years the Doge Francesco rather than fled their sentence, to a serious accusation, claimed Foscari d. 1457) suffered before not only because the Republic public credit for this service of his the eyes of all Venice is a had long arms, and if it could not son before the Gran Consiglio, in frightful example of a vengeance catch him might punish his other words, before all the world. possible only in an aristocracy. family, but because in most The Council of Ten, which had a cases it acted from rational The conduct of the Venetian hand in everything, which motives and not from a thirst for government to the Condottieri in 47 its pay has been spoken of however, princes and rulers of remark parenthetically, was the already. The only further cities or their relatives. To these result of a century's outcry guarantee of their fidelity which forces must be added 24,000 against the Venetian desire for could be obtained lay in their infantry we are not told how they aggrandizement. The Venetians, great number, by which treachery were raised or commanded with in fact, were not free from the was made as difficult as its 3,300 additional troops, who mistake of those over-clever discovery was easy. In looking probably belonged to the special people who will credit their at the Venetian army list, one is services. In time of peace the opponents with no irrational and only surprised that among forces cities of the mainland were inconsiderate conduct. Misled by of such miscellaneous wholly unprotected or occupied this optimism, which is, perhaps, composition any common action by insignificant garrisons. Venice a peculiar weakness of was possible. In the catalogue relied, if not exactly on the aristocracies, they had utterly for the campaign of 1495 we find loyalty, at least on the good ignored not only the preparations 15,526 horsemen, broken up into sense of its subjects; in the war of Mohammed II for the capture a number of small divisions. of the League of Cambrai (1509) of Constantinople, but even the Gonzaga of Mantua alone had as it absolved them, as is well armaments of Charles VIII, until many as I,200, and Gioffredo known, from their oath of the unexpected blow fell at last. Borgia 740; then follow six allegiance, and let them compare The League of Cambrai was an officers with a contingent of 600 the amenities of a foreign event of the same character, in to 700, ten with 400, twelve with occupation with the mild so far as it was clearly opposed 400 to 200, fourteen or government to which they had to the interests of the two chief thereabouts with 200 to 100, nine been accustomed. As there had members, Louis XII and Julius II. with 80, six with 50 to 60, and so been no treason in their The hatred of all Italy against t}e forth. These forces were partly desertion of St. Mark, and victorious city seemed to be composed of old Venetian consequently no punishment was concentrated in the mind of the troops, partly of veterans led by to be feared, they returned to Pope, and to have blinded him to Venetian city or country nobles; their old masters with the utmost the evils of foreign intervention; the majority of the leaders were, eagerness. This war, we may and as to the policy of Cardinal 48 d'Amboise and his king, Venice The feudal state of the Middle monarchy of Frederick II in Lower ought long before to have Ages knew of nothing more than Italy was organized with the sole recognized it as a piece of catalogues of seignorial rights object of securing a concentrated malicious imbecility, and to have and possessions (urbaria); it power for the death struggle in been thoroughly on its guard. looked on production as a fixed which he was engaged. In The other members of the quantity, which it approximately Venice, on the contrary, the League took part in it from that is, so long as we have to do with supreme objects were the envy which may be a salutary landed property only. The towns, enjoyment of life and power, the corrective to great wealth and on the other hand, throughout the increase of inherited advantages, power, but which in itself is a West must from very early times the creation of the most lucrative beggarly sentiment. Venice have treated production, which forms of industry. and the came out of the conflict with with them depended on industry opening of new channels for honour, but not without lasting and commerce, as exceedingly commerce. damage. variable; but even in the most flourishing times of the Hanseatic The writers of the time speak of A power whose foundations were League, they never got beyond a these things with the greatest so complicated, whose activity simple commercial balance- freedom. We learn that the and interests filled so wide a sheet. Fleets, armies, political population of the city amounted stage, cannot be imagined power and influence fall under in the year 1422 to 190,000 without a systematic oversight of the debit and credit of a trader's souls; the Italians were, perhaps, the whole, without a regular ledger. In the Italian States a the first to reckon, not according estimate of means and burdens, clear political consciousness, the to hearths, or men able to bear of profits and losses. Venice can pattern of Mohammedan arms, or people able to walk, and fairly make good its claim to be administration, and the long and so forth, but according to animae, the birthplace of statistical active exercise of trade and and thus to get the most neutral science, together, perhaps, with commerce, combined to produce basis for further calculation. Florence, and followed by the for the first time a true science of About this time, when the more enlightened despotisms. statistics. The absolute Florentines wished to form an 49 alliance with Venice against exists; by way of illustration, the Filippo Maria Visconti, they were following facts may be quoted. If Venice, by this spirit of for the moment refused, in the After repaying a war-loan of four calculation, and by the practical belief, resting on accurate million ducats, the public debt (il turn which she gave it, was the commercial returns, that a war monte) still amounted to six first fully to represent one between Venice and Milan, that million ducats; the current trade important side of modern political is, between seller and buyer, was (it seems) to ten millions, which life, in that culture, on the other foolish. Even if the duke simply yielded, the text informs us, a hand, which Italy then prized increased his army, the profit of four millions. The 3,000 most highly she did not stand in Milanese, through the heavier navigli, the 300 navi, and the 45 the front rant. The literary taxation they must pay, would galleys were manned impulse, in general, was here become worse customers. respectively by 17,000, 8,000 wanting, and especially that 'Better let the Florentines be and 11,000 seamen (more than enthusiasm for classical antiquity defeated, and then, used as they 200 for each galley). To these which prevailed elsewhere. The are to the life of a free city, they must be added 16,000 aptitude of the Venetians, says will settle with us and bring their shipwrights. The houses in Sabellico, for philosophy and silk and woollen industry with Venice were valued at seven eloquence was in itself not them, as the Lucchese did in millions, and brought in a rent of smaller than that for commerce their distress.’ The speech of the half a million. These were 1,000 and politics. George of dying Doge Mocenigo (1423) to a nobles whose incomes ranged Trebizond, who, in 1459, laid the few of the senators whom he had from 70 to 4,000 ducats. In Latin translation of Plato's Laws sent for to his bedside is still another passage the ordinary at the feet of the Doge, was more remarkable. It contains the income of the State in that same appointed professor of philology chief elements of a statistical year is put at 1,100,000 ducats; with a yearly salary of 150 account of the whole resources through the disturbance of trade ducats, and finally dedicated his of Venice. I cannot say whether caused by the wars it sank about Rhetoric to the Signoria. If, or where a thorough elucidation the middle of the century to however, we look through the of this perplexing document 800,000 ducats. history of Venetian literature 50 which Francesco Sansovino has without, and it was not before the Government, and might have appended to his well-known end of the fifteenth century that been omitted without attracting book, we shall find in the she learned to move in this field any comment, and at Florence, fourteenth century almost nothing with independent freedom and under similar circumstances, but history, and special works on strength. But we find more would certainly have been theology, jurisprudence, and striking instances still of omitted. We shall say nothing of medicine; and in the fifteenth intellectual backwardness. This the piety of the masses, and of century, until we come to Government, which had the their firm belief in the Ermolao Barbaro and Aldo clergy so thoroughly in its control, indulgences of an Alexander VI. Manuzio, humanistic culture is, which reserved to itself the But the State itself, after for a city of such importance, appointment to all important absorbing the Church to a most scantily represented. The ecclesiastical offices, and which, degree unknown elsewhere, had library which Cardinal Bessarion one time after another, dared to in truth a certain ecclesiastical bequeathed to the State (1468) defy the court of Rome, element in its composition, and narrowly escaped dispersion and displayed an official piety of a the Doge, the symbol of the destruction. Learning could be most singular kind. The bodies State, appeared in twelve great had at the University of Padua, of saints and other relics processions (andate) in a half- where, however, physicians and imported from Greece after the clerical character. They were jurists the latter for their opinion Turkish conquest were bought at almost all festivals in memory of on points of law received by far the greatest sacrifices and political events, and competed in the highest pay. The share of received by the Doge in solemn splendor with the great feasts of Venice in the poetical creations procession. For the coat without the Church; the most brilliant of of the country was long a seam it was decided (1455) to all, the famous marriage with the insignificant, till, at the beginning offer 10,000 ducats, but it was sea, fell on Ascension Day. of the sixteenth century, her not to be had. These measures deficiencies were made good. were not the fruit of any popular The most elevated political Even the art of the Renaissance excitement, but of the tranquil thought and the most varied was imported into the city from resolutions of the heads of the forms of human development are 51 found united in the history of first impulse to his great work at which the Florentines were Florence, which in this sense the jubilee of the year 1300, and indebted to this history. In no deserves the name of the first began it immediately on his other city of Italy were the modern State in the world. Here return home. Yet how many struggles of political parties so the whole people are busied with among the 200,000 pilgrims of bitter, of such early origin, and so what in the despotic cities is the that year may have been like him permanent. The descriptions of affair of a single family. That in gifts and tendencies and still them, which belong, it is true, to wondrous Florentine spirit, at did not write the history of their a somewhat later period, give once keenly critical and native cities? For not all of them clear evidence of the superiority artistically creative, was could encourage themselves with of Florentine criticism. incessantly transforming the the thought: ‘Rome is sinking; social and political condition of my native city is rising, and ready And what a politician is the great the State, and as incessantly to achieve great things, and victim of these crises, Dante describing and judging the therefore I wish to relate its past Alighieri, matured alike by home change. Florence thus became history, and hope to continue the and by exile! He uttered his the home of political doctrines story to the present time, and as scorn of the incessant changes and theories, of experiments and long as any life shall last.’ And and experiments in the sudden changes, but also, like besides the witness to its past, constitution of his native city in Venice, the home of statistical Florence obtained through its ringing verses, which will remain science, and alone and above all historians something further a proverbial so long as political other States in the world, the greater fame than fell to the lot of events of the same kind recur;14 home of historical representation any other city of Italy. he addressed his home in words in the modern sense of the of defiance and yearning which phrase. The spectacle of ancient Our present task is not to write must have stirred the hearts of Rome and a familiarity with its the history of this remarkable his countrymen. But his thoughts leading writers were not without State, but merely to give a few ranged over Italy and the whole influence; Giovanni Villani indications of the intellectual world; and if his passion for the confesses that he received the freedom and independence for Empire, as he conceived it, was 52 no more than an illusion, it must same kind, but Dante's passion well as Matteo, we owe not so yet be admitted that the youthful never fails to carry us with him. much deep political reflection as dreams of a newborn political In his letters he appears as one fresh and practical observations, speculation are in his case not of the earliest publicists, and is together with the elements of without a poetical grandeur. He perhaps the first layman to Florentine statistics and is proud to be the first who trod publish political tracts in this important notices of other States. this path,16 certainly in the form. He began early. Soon Here too trade and commerce footsteps of Aristotle, but in his after the death of Beatrice he had given the impulse to own way independently. His addressed a pamphlet on the economic as well as political ideal emperor is a just and State of Florence 'to the Great science. Nowhere else in the humane judge, dependent on ones of the Earth,' and the public world was such accurate God only, the heir of the utterances of his later years, information to be had on financial universal sway of Rome to which dating from the time of his affairs. The wealth of the Papal belonged the sanction of nature, banishment, are all directed to court at Avignon, which at the of right and of the will of God. emperors, princes, a nd death of John XXII amounted to The conquest of the world was, cardinals. In these letters and in twenty-five millions of gold according to this view, rightful, his book De Vulgari Eloquentia florins, would be incredible on resting on a divine judgement (About the Vernacular) the any less trustworthy authority. between Rome and the other feeling, bought with such bitter Here only, at Florence, do we nations of the earth, and God pains, is constantly recurring that meet with colossal loans like that gave his approval to this empire, the exile may find elsewhere than which the King of England since under it He became Man, in his native place an intellectual contracted from the Florentine submitting at His birth to the home in language and culture, houses of Bardi and Peruzzi, census of the Emperor Augustus, which cannot be taken from him. who lost to his Majesty the sum and at His death to the On this point we shall have more of 1,365,000 gold florins (1338) judgement of Pontius Pilate. We to say in the sequel. their own money and that of their may find it hard to appreciate partners and nevertheless these and other arguments of the To the two Villani, Giovanni as recovered from the shock. Most 53 important facts are here recorded when the public funds (monte) afterwards useless, since the as to the condition of Florence at were first established, in the year poor had either died or had this time: the public income (over 1353, the Franciscans spoke ceased to be poor. Lastly, on the 300,000 gold florins) and from the pulpit in favour of the occasion of a great bequest, by expenditure the population of the measure, the Dominicans and which a childless philanthropist city, here only roughly estimated, Augustinians against it. The left six denarii to every beggar in according to the consumption of economic results of the black the city, the attempt is made to bread, in bocche, i.e. mouths, death were and could be give a comprehensive statistical put at 50,000 and the population observed and described nowhere account of Florentine of the whole territory; the excess else in all Europe as in this city. mendicancy. of 300 to 500 male children Only a Florentine could have left among the 5,800 to 8,000 it on record how it was expected This statistical view of things was annually baptized 18 the that the scanty population would at a later time still more highly schoolchildren, of whom 8,000 to have made everything cheap, cultivated at Florence. The 10,000 learned reading, 1,000 to and how instead of that labor and noteworthy point about it is that, 1,200 in six schools arithmetic; commodities doubled in price; as a rule, we can perceive its and besides these, 600 scholars how the common people at first connection with the higher who were taught Latin grammar would do no work at all, but aspects of history, with art, and and logic in four schools. Then simply give themselves up to with culture in general. An follow the statistics of the enjoyment, how in the city itself inventory of the year 1422 churches and monasteries; of the servants and maids were not to mentions, within the compass of hospitals, which held more than a be had except at extravagant the same document, the seventy- thousand beds; of the wool trade, wages; how the peasants would two exchange offices which with most valuable details; of the only hill the best lands, and left surrounded the Mercato Nuovo; mint, the provisioning of the city, the rest uncultivated; and how the amount of coined money in the public officials, and so on. the enormous legacies circulation (two million golden Incidentally we learn many bequeathed to the poor at the florins); the then new industry of curious facts; how, for instance, time of the plague seemed gold spinning; the silk wares; 54 Filippo Brunellesco, then busy in estimate of the property and the markedly superior to those of digging classical architecture business of the first Medici; they other European people in the from its grave; and Leonardo paid for charities, public fifteenth century. It has been Aretino, secretary of the republic, buildings, and taxes from 1434 to rightly decided to publish at work at the revival of ancient 1471 no less than 663,755 gold selections of these works, literature and eloquence; lastly, it florins, of which more than although no little study will be speaks of the general prosperity 400,000 fell on Cosimo alone, needed to extract clear and of the city, then free from political and Lorenzo Magnifico was definite results from them. At all conflicts, and of the good fortune delighted that the money had events, we have no difficulty in of Italy, which had rid itself of been so well spent. In 1478 we recognizing the city, where dying foreign mercenaries. The have again a most important and parents begged the government Venetian statistics quoted above in its way complete view of the in their wills to fine their sons which date from about the same commerce and trades of this city, 1,000 florins if they declined to year, certainly give evidence of some of which may be wholly or practice a regular profession. larger property and profit and of a partly reckoned among the fine more extensive scene of action; arts such as those which had to For the first half of the sixteenth Venice had long been mistress of do with damasks and gold or century probably no State in the the seas before Florence sent silver embroidery, with world possesses a document like out its first galleys (1422) to woodcarving and intarsia, with the magnificent description of Alexandria. But no reader can the sculpture of arabesques in Florence by Varchi. In fail to recognize the higher spirit marble and sandstone, with descriptive statistics, as in so of the Florentine documents. portraits in wax, and with jewelry many things besides, yet another These and similar lists recur at and work in gold. The inborn model is left to us, before the intervals of ten years, talent of the Florentines for the freedom a nd greatness of the systematically arranged and systematization of outward life is city sank into the grave. tabulated, while elsewhere we shown by their books on find at best occasional notices. agriculture, business, and This statistical estimate of We can form an approximate domestic economy, which are outward life is, however, 55 uniformly accompanied by the of Savonarola, and the mixed Jacopo Pitti, Guicciardini, Segni, narrative of political events to forms of government which Varchi, Vettori, what a circle of which we have already referred. prepared the way for the illustrious names! And what a Florence not only existed under Medicean despotism all are so story it is which these masters political forms more varied than described that the inmost tell us! The great and those of the free States of Italy motives of the actors are laid memorable drama of the last and of Europe generally, but it bare to the light. At length decades of the Florentine reflected upon them far more Machiavelli in his Florentine republic is here unfolded. The deeply. It is a faithful mirror of history (down to 1492) voluminous record of the the relations of individuals and represents his native city as a collapse of the highest and most classes to a variable whole. The living organism and its original life which the world could pictures of the great civic development as a natural and then show may appear to one but democracies in France and in individual process; he is the first as a collection of curiosities, may Flanders, as they are delineated of the moderns who has risen to awaken in another a devilish in Froissart, and the narratives of such a conception. It lies without delight at the shipwreck of so the German chroniclers of the our province to determine much nobility and grandeur, to a fourteenth century, are in truth of whether and in what points third may seem like a great high importance; but in Machiavelli may have done historical assize; for all it will be comprehensiveness of thought violence to history, as is an object of thought and study to and in the rational development notoriously the case in his life of the end of time. The evil which of the story, none will bear Castruccio Castracani—a fancy was for ever troubling the peace comparison with the Florentines. picture of the typical despot. We of the city was its rule over once The rule of the nobility, the might find something to say powerful and now conquered tyrannies, the struggles of the against every line of the Storie rivals like Pisa-a rule of which the middle class with the proletariat, Fiorentine, and yet the great and necessary consequence was a limited and unlimited democracy, unique value of the whole would chronic state of violence. The pseudo-democracy, the primacy remain unaffected. And his only remedy, certainly an o? a single house, the theocracy contemporaries and successors, extreme one and which none but 56 Savonarola could have into one with moral regeneration modern Europeans generally; persuaded Florence to accept, may seem, when looked at from they are so also in many of their and that only with the help of a distance, to have soon passed defects. When Dante compares favourable chances, would have away; but its best results shine the city which was always been the well-timed dissolution of forth again in the memorable mending its constitution with the Tuscany into a federal union of siege of 1529-30. They were sick man who is continually free cities. At a later period this 'fools,' as Guicciardini then wrote, changing his posture to escape scheme, then no more than the who drew down this storm upon from pain, he touches with the dream of a past age, brought Florence, but he confesses comparison a permanent feature (1548) a patriotic citizen of Lucca himself that they achieved things of the political life of Florence. to the scaffold. which seemed incredible; and The great modern fallacy that a when he declares that sensible constitution can be made, can be From this evil and from the ill- people would have got out of the manufactured by a combination starred Guelph sympathies of way of the danger, he means no of existing forces and tendencies, Florence for a foreign prince, more than that Florence ought to was constantly cropping up in which familiarized it with foreign have yielded itself silently and stormy times; even Machiavelli is intervention, came all the ingloriously into the hands of its not wholly free from it. disasters which followed. But enemies. It would no doubt have Constitutional artists were never who does not admire the people preserved its splendid suburbs wanting who by an ingenious which was wrought up by its and gardens, and the lives and distribution and division of venerated preacher to a mood of prosperity of countless citizens; political power, by indirect such sustained loftiness that for but it would have been the poorer elections of the most complicated the first time in Italy it set the by one of its greatest and most kind, by the establishment of example of sparing a conquered ennobling memories. nominal offices, sought to found foe while the whole history of its a lasting order of things, and to past taught nothing but In many of their chief merits the satisfy or to deceive the rich and vengeance and extermination? Florentines are the pattern and the poor alike. They naively The glow which melted patriotism the earliest type of Italians and fetch their examples from 57 classical antiquity, and borrow not lie in an affectation of genius morals, the welfare of the State the party names ottimati, or in a false order of ideas, but was yet his first and last thought. aristocrazia, as a matter of rather in a powerful imagination course. The world since then which he evidently controls with His most complete program for has become used to these difficulty. The objectivity of his the construction of a new political expressions and given them a political Judgement is sometimes system at Florence is set forth in conventional European sense, appalling in its sincerity; but it is the memorial to Leo X, whereas all former party names the sign of a time of no ordinary composed after the death of the were purely national, and oithor need and peril, when it was a younger Lorenzo Medici, Duke of rhnrnotPrimPrl tho rnilqP nt iqqllP hard matter to believe in right, or Urbino d. 1519), to whom he had or cnrsnz from the caprice of to credit others with just dealing dedicated his Prince. The State accident. But how a name colors Virtuous indignation at his was by that time in extremities or discolors a political cause! expense is thrown away on us, and utterly corrupt, and the who have seen in what sense remedies proposed are not But of all who thought it possible political morality is understood by always morally justifiable; but it is to construct a State, the greatest the statesmen of our own most interesting to see how he beyond all comparison was century. Machiavelli was at all hopes to set up the republic in Machiavelli. He treats existing events able to forget himself in the form of a moderate forces as living and active, takes his cause. In truth, although his democracy, as heiress to the a large and accurate view of writing s, with the exception of Medici. A more ingenious alternative possibilities, and very few words, are altogether scheme of concessions to the seeks to mislead neither himself destitute of enthusiasm, and Pope, to the Pope's various nor others. No man could be although the Florentines adherents, and to the different freer from vanity or ostentation; themselves treated him at last as Florentine interests, cannot be indeed, he does not write for the a criminal, he was a patriot in the imagined; we might fancy public, but either for princes and fullest meaning of the word. But ourselves looking into the works administrators or for personal free as he was, like most of his of a clock. Principles, friends. The danger for him does contemporaries, in speech and observations, comparisons, 58 political forecasts, and the like events into unqualified praise of a parallel between the few other are to be found in numbers in the the people, which chooses its republics which still existed in the Discorsi, among them flashes of officers, he says, better than any fifteenth century and this unique wonderful insight. He prince, and which can be cured city—the most important recognizes, for example, the law of its errors by 'good advice’. workshop of the Italian, and of a continuous though not With regard to the Government of indeed of the modern European uniform development in Tuscany, he has no doubt that it spirit. Siena suffered from the republican institutions, and belongs to his native city, and gravest organic maladies, and its requires the constitution to be maintains, in a special Discorso relative prosperity in art and flexible and capable of change, that the reconquest of Pisa is a industry must not mislead us on as the only means of dispensing question of life or death; he this point. Aeneas Sylvius looks with bloodshed and banishments. deplores that Arezzo, after the with longing from his native town For a like reason, in order to rebellion of 1502, was not razed over to the 'merry' German guard against private violence to the ground; he admits in imperial cities, where life is and foreign interference—'the general that Italian republics embittered by no confiscations of death of all freedom'—he wishes must be allowed to expand freely land and goods, by no arbitrary to see introduced a judicial and add to their territory in order officials, and by no political procedure (accusa) against to enjoy peace at home, and not factions. Genoa scarcely comes hated citizens, in place of which to be themselves attacked by within range of our task, as Florence had hitherto had others, but declares that before the time of Andrea it nothing but the court of scandal. Florence had un at the wrong took almost no part in the With a masterly hand the tardy end, and from the first made Renaissance. and involuntary decisions are deadly Pisa, Lucca, and Siena, characterized which at critical while Pistoia, 'treated like a Indeed, the inhabitant of the moments play so important a part brother,' had voluntarily Riviera was proverbial among in republican States. Once, it is submitted to her. Italians for his contempt of all true, he is misled by his higher culture. Party conflicts imagination and the pressure of It would be unreasonable to draw here assumed so fierce a 59 character, and disturbed so adaptation, so was their relation certain beauty and grandeur of violently the whole course of life, to one another and to foreign its own. But as a whole it gives that we can hardly understand countries also a work of art. That us the impression of a how, after so many revolutions nearly all of them were the result bottomless abyss. and invasions, the Genoese ever of recent usurpations, was a fact contrived to return to an which exercised as fatal an Intrigues, armaments, leagues, endurable condition. Perhaps it influence in their foreign as in corruption and treason make up was owing to the fact that all who their internal policy. Not one of the outward history of Italy at this took part in public affairs were at them recognized another without period. Venice in particular was the same time almost without reserve; the same play of chance long accused on all hands of exception active men of which had helped to found and seeking to conquer the whole business. The example of consolidate one dynasty might peninsula, or gradually so to Genoa shows in a striking upset another. Nor was it always reduce its strength that one State manner with what insecurity a matter of choice with the after another must fall into her wealth and vast commerce, and despot whether to keep quiet or hands. But on a closer view it is with what internal disorder the not. The necessity of movement evident that this complaint did not possession of distant colonies, and aggrandizement is common come from the people, but rather are compatible. to all illegitimate powers. Thus from the courts and official Italy became the scene of a classes, which were commonly 'foreign policy' which gradually, abhorred by their subjects, while as in other countries also, the mild government of Venice Foreign Policy acquired the position of a had secured for it general recognized system of public law. confidence Even Florence, with The purely objective treatment of its restive subject cities, found As the majority of the Italian international affairs, as free from itself in a false position with States were in their internal prejudice as from moral scruples, regard to Venice, apart from all constitution works of art, that is, attained a perfection which commercial jealousy and from the fruit of reflection and careful sometimes is not without a the progress of Venice in 60 Romagna. At last the League of shocking naivete its old Guelph about his diplomatic nets on all Cambrai actually did strike a preference for the French. And sides, and Charles of Burgundy serious blow at the State which when Charles VIII actually to embark on his foolish all Italy ought to have supported appeared on the south of the adventures, the Italian Cabinets with united strength. Alps, all Italy accepted him with came to meet them at every an enthusiasm which to himself point. It became clear that the The other States, also, were and his followers seemed intervention of France was only a animated by feelings no less unaccountable. In the question of time, even if the unfriendly, and were at all times imagination of the Italians, to claims on Naples and Milan had ready to use against one another take Savonarola for an example never existed, and that the old any weapon which their evil the ideal picture of a wise, just, interference with Genoa and conscience might suggest. and powerful savior and ruler Piedmont was only a type of Lodovico il Moro, the Aragonese was still living, with the difference what was to follow. The kings of Naples, and Sixtus IV— that he was no longer the Venetians, in fact, expected it as to say nothing of the smaller emperor invoked by Dante, but early as 1462. The mortal terror powers—kept Italy in a constant the Capetian king of France. of the Duke Galeazzo Maria of perilous agitation. It would have With his departure the illusion Milan during the Burgundian war, been well if the atrocious game was broken; but it was long in which he was apparently the had been confined to Italy; but it before all understood how ally of Charles as well as of lay in the nature of the case that completely Charles VIII, Louis Louis, and consequently had intervention sought from XII, and Francis I had mistaken reason to dread an attack from abroad—in particular the French their true relation to Italy, and by both, is strikingly shown in his and the Turks. what inferior motives they were correspondence. The plan of an led. The princes, for their part, equilibrium of the four chief The sympathies of the people at tried to make use of France in a Italian powers, as understood by large were throughout on the wholly different way. When the Lorenzo the Magnificent, was but side of France. Florence had Franco-English wars came to an the assumption of a cheerful never ceased to confess with end, when Louis XI began to cast optimistic spirit, which had 61 outgrown both the recklessness army. counter-reformation, long held of an experimental policy and the Papacy among its other subjects. superstitions of Florentine Thoughtful men, indeed, foresaw The melancholy reflections of the Guelphism, and persisted in the foreign conquest long before philosophers could only show hoping for the best. When Louis the expedition of Charles VIII. them how those who had called XI offered him aid in the war And when Charles was back in the barbarians all came to a against Ferrante of Naples and again on the other side of the bad end. Sixtus IV, he replied, 'I cannot set Alps, it was plain to every eye my own advantage above the that an era of intervention had Alliances were at the same time safety of all Italy; would to God it begun. Misfortune now followed formed with the Turks too, with never came into the mind of the on misfortune; it was understood as little scruple or disguise; they French kings to try their strength too late that France and Spain, were reckoned no worse than in this country! Should they ever the two chief invaders, had any other political expedients. do so, Italy is lost.’ For the other become great European powers, The belief in the unity of Western princes, the King of France was that they would be no longer Christendom had at various alternately a bugbear to satisfied with verbal homage, but times in the course of the themselves and their enemies, would fight to the death for been seriously shaken, and they threatened to call him in influence and territory in Italy. and Frederick II had probably whenever they saw no more They had begun to resemble the outgrown it. But the fresh convenient way out of their centralized Italian States, and advance of the Oriental nations, difficulties. The Popes, in their indeed to copy them, only on a the need and the ruin of the turn, fancied that they could gigantic scale. Schemes of Greek Empire, had revived the make use of France without any annexation or exchange of old feeling, though not in its danger to themselves, and even territory were for a time former strength, throughout Innocent VIII imagined that he indefinitely multiplied. The end, Western Europe. Italy, however, could withdraw to sulk in the as is well known, was the was a striking exception to this North, and return as a conqueror complete victory of Spain, which, rule. Great as was the terror felt to Italy at the head of a French as sword and shield of the for the Turks, and the actual 62 danger from them, there was yet of the prisoners in the hands of Bajazet II, and Alexander VI scarcely a government of any the Turks, cry to God for supported the steps taken by consequence which did not vengeance against him,' says the Lodovico il Moro in conspire against other Italian State historian. In Venice, where Constantinople to further a States with Mohammed II and his the government was informed of Turkish assault upon Venice successors. And when they did everything, it was known that (1498), whereupon the latter not do so, they still had the credit Giovanni Sforza, ruler of Pesaro, threatened him with a Council. It of it; nor was it worse than the the cousin of Lodovico, had is clear that the notorious alliance sending of emissaries to poison entertained the Turkish between Francis I and Soliman II the cisterns of Venice, which was ambassadors on their way to was nothing new or unheard of. the charge brought against the Milan. The two most respectable heirs of Alfonso, King of Naples. among the Popes of the fifteenth Indeed, we find instances of From a scoundrel like century, Nicholas V and Pius II, whole populations to whom it Sigismondo Malatesta nothing died in the deepest grief at the seemed no particular crime to go better could be expected than progress of the Turks, the latter over bodily to the Turks. Even if that he should call the Turks into indeed amid the preparations for it were held out as a threat to Italy. But the Aragonese a crusade which he was hoping oppressive governments, this is monarchs of Naples, from whom to lead in person; their at least a proof that the idea had Mohammed—at the instigation, successors embezzled the become familiar. As early as we read, of other Italian contributions sent for this 1480 Battista Mantovano gives governments, especially of purpose from all parts of us clearly to understand that Venice—had once wrested Christendom, and degraded the most of the inhabitants of the Otranto (1480), afterwards indulgences granted in return for Adriatic coast foresaw something hounded on the Sultan Bajazet II them into a private commercial of this kind, and that Ancona in against the Venetians. The speculation. Innocent VIII particular desired it. When same charge was brought consented to be gaoler to the Romagna was suffering from the against Lodovico il Moro. 'The fugitive Prince Djem, for a salary oppressive government of Leo X, blood of the slain, and the misery paid by the prisoner's brother a deputy from Ravenna said 63 openly to the Legate, Cardinal fashion, with its artificial scheme by northern contemporaries, and Giulio Medici: ‘Monsignore, the of rights; but the power which estimated the economical and honorable will each possessed he held in moral capacities of friend and foe not have us, for fear of a dispute practice as in theory. Here was down to the smallest particular. with the ; but if the Turk no attendant nobility to foster in The rulers were, notwithstanding comes to Ragusa we will put the mind of the prince the grave errors, born masters of ourselves into his hands.' mediaeval sense of honour with statistical science. With such all its strange consequences; but men negotiation was possible; it It was a poor but not wholly princes and counsellors were might be presumed that they groundless consolation for the agreed in acting according to the would be convinced and their enslavement of Italy then begun exigencies of the particular case opinion modified when practical by the Spaniards, that the and to the end they had in view. reasons were laid before them. country was at least secured Towards the men whose services When the great Alfonso of from the relapse into barbarism were used and towards allies, Naples was (1434) a prisoner of which would have awaited it come from what quarter they Filippo Maria Visconti, he was under the Turkish rule. By itself, might, no pride of caste was felt able to satisfy his gaoler that the divided as it was, it could hardly which could possibly estrange a rule of the House of Anjou have escaped this fate. supporter; and the class of the instead of his own at Naples Condottieri, in which birth was a would make the French masters If, with all these drawbacks, the matter of indifference, shows of Italy; Filippo Maria set him free Italian statesmanship of this clearly enough in what sort of without ransom and made an period deserves our praise, it is hands the real power lay; and alliance with him. A northern only on the ground of its practical lastly, the government, in the prince would scarcely have acted and unprejudiced treatment of hands of an enlightened despot, in the same way, certainly not those questions which were not had an incomparably more one whose morality in other affected by fear, passion, or accurate acquaintance with its respects was like that of Visconti. malice. Here was no feudal own country and with that of its What confidence was felt in the system after the northern neighbors than was possessed power of self-interest is shown by 64 the celebrated visit (1478) which etiquette was there in case of assumed the character of a Lorenzo Magnifico, to the need any lack of rough and frank product of reflection. Throughout universal astonishment of the speaking in diplomatic the countries of the West the Florentines, paid the faithless intercourse. A man like education of the individual soldier Ferrante at Naples—a man who Machiavelli appears in his in the Middle Ages was perfect would certainly be tempted to Legazion' in an almost pathetic within the limits of the then keep him a prisoner, and was by light. Furnished with scanty prevalent system of defence and no means too scrupulous to do instructions, shabbily equipped, attack: nor was there any want of so. For to arrest a powerful and treated as an agent of ingenious inventors in the arts of monarch, and then to let him go inferior rank, he never loses his besieging and of fortification. But alive, after extorting his signature gift of free and wide observation the development both of strategy and otherwise insulting him, as or his pleasure in picturesque and of tactics was hindered by Charles the Bold did to Louis XI description. the character and duration of at Peronne (1468), seemed military service, and by the madness to the Italians; so that A special division of this work will ambition of the nobles, who Lorenzo was expected to come treat of the study of man disputed questions of back covered with glory, or else individually and nationally, which precedence in the face of the not to come back at all. The art among the Italians went hand in enemy, and through simple want of political persuasion was at this hand with the study of the of discipline caused the loss of time raised to a point—especially outward conditions of human life. great battles like Crecy and by the Venetian ambassadors of Maupertuis. Italy, on the which northern nations first contrary, was the first country to obtained a conception from the adopt the system of mercenary Italians, and of which the official War as a Work of Art troops, which demanded a wholly addresses give a most imperfect different organization; and the idea. These are mere pieces of early introduction of firearms did humanistic rhetoric. Nor, in spite It must here be briefly indicated its part in making war a of an otherwise ceremonious by what steps the art of war democratic pursuit, not only 65 because the strongest castles knight should be wounded and and Jacopo Piccinino, the were unable to withstand a laid low by a common, despised headquarters of the latter were bombardment, but because the foot soldier. On the whole, attended by the scholar Gian skill of the engineer, of the however, the new discoveries Antonio Porcellio dei Pandoni, gunfounder, and of the were accepted and turned to commissioned by Alfonso of artillerist— men belonging to useful account, until the Italians Naples to write a report of the another class than the nobility— became the teachers of all campaign. It is written, not in the was now of the first importance in Europe, both in the building of purest, but in a fluent Latin, a a campaign. It was felt, with fortifications and in the means of little too much in the style of the regret, that the value of the attacking them. Princes like humanistic bombast of the day, is individual, which had been the Federigo of Urbino and Alfonso modelled on Caesar's soul of the small and admirably of Ferrara acquired a mastery of Commentaries, and interspersed organized bands of mercenaries, the subject compared to which with speeches, prodigies, and the would suffer from these novel the knowledge even of like. Since for the past hundred means of destruction, which did Maximilian I appears superficial. years it had been seriously their work at a distance; and In Italy, earlier than elsewhere, disputed whether Scipio there were Condottieri who there existed a comprehensive Africanus or Hannibal was the opposed to the utmost the science and art of military affairs; greater, Piccinino through the introduction at least of the here, for the first time, that whole book must needs be called musket, which had lately been impartial delight is taken in able Scipio and Sforza Hannibal. But invented in Germany. We read generalship for its own sake, something positive had to be that Paolo Vitelli, while which might, indeed, be expected reported too respecting the recognizing and himself adopting from the frequent change of party Milanese army; the sophist the cannon, put out the eyes and and from the wholly presented himself to Sforza, was cut off the hands of the captured unsentimental mode of action of led along the ranks, praised schioppettier (arquebusiers) the Condottieri. During the highly all that he saw, and because he held it unworthy that Milano-Venetian war of 1451 and promised to hand it down to a gallant, and it might be noble, 1452, between Francesco Sforza posterity. Apart from him the 66 Italian literature of the day is rich regarded as a Divine judgement, perhaps a touch of oriental blood, in descriptions of wars and but as a triumph of personal perhaps familiarity with the strategic devices, written for the merit, and to the minds of the spectacles of the Inquisition, had use of educated men in general spectators seemed to be both the unloosed the devilish element of as well as of specialists, while decision of an exciting human nature. After seeing them the contemporary narratives of competition and a satisfaction for at work at Prato, Rome, and northerners, such as the the honour of the army or the elsewhere, it is not easy to take Burgundian War by Diebold nation. any interest of the higher sort in Schilling, still retain the Ferdinand the Catholic and shapelessness and matter-of-fact It is obvious that this purely Charles V who knew what these dryness of a mere chronicle. The rational treatment of warlike hordes were, and yet unchained greatest dilettante who has ever affairs allowed, under certain them. The mass of documents treated in that character of circumstances, of the worst which are gradually brought to military affairs, Machiavelli, was atrocities, even in the absence of light from the cabinets of these then busy writing his Arte della a strong political hatred, as, for rulers will always remain an Guerra. But the development of instance, when the plunder of a important source of historical the individual soldier found its city had been promised to the information; but from such men most complete expression in troops. After the forty days' no fruitful political conception can those public and solemn conflicts devastation of Piacenza, which be looked for. between one or more pairs of Sforza was compelled to permit combatants which were practiced to his soldiers (1477), the town long before the famous long stood empty, and at last had Challenge of Barletta (1503). to be peopled by force. Yet The Papacy The victor was assured of the outrages like these were nothing praises of poets and scholars, compared with the misery which which were denied to the was afterwards brought upon The Papacy and the dominions northern warrior. The result of Italy by foreign troops, and most of the Church are creations of so these combats was no longer of all by the Spaniards, in whom peculiar a kind that we have 67 hitherto, in determining the lost State; but this was done Nevertheless, a few general general characteristics of Italian under Martin V, after the unity of remarks on the Papacy can States, referred to them only the Church was restored, and hardly be dispensed with. New occasionally. The deliberate done again under Eugenius IV, and strange perils and trials choice and adaptation of political] when the same danger was came upon it in the course of the expedients, which gives so great renewed. But the ecclesiastical fifteenth century, as the political an interest to the other States is State was and remained a spirit of the nation began to lay what we find least of all at Rome, thorough anomaly among the hold upon it on various sides, since here the spiritual power powers of Italy; in and near and to draw it within the sphere could constantly conceal or Rome itself, the Papacy was of its action. The least of these supply the defects of the defied by the great families of the dangers came from the populace temporal. And what fiery trials Colonna, Orsini, Savelli and or from abroad; the most serious did this State undergo in the Anguillara; in Umbria, in the had their ground in the fourteenth and the beginning of Marches, and in Romagna, those characters of the Popes the fifteenth century, when the civic republics had almost themselves. Papacy was led captive to ceased to exist, for whose Avignon! All, at first, was thrown devotion the Papacy had shown Let us, for this moment, leave out into confusion; but the Pope had so little gratitude; their place had of consideration the countries money, troops, and a great been taken by a crowd of beyond the Alps. At the time statesman and general, the princely dynasties, great or small, when the Papacy was exposed Spaniard Albornoz, who again whose loyalty and obedience to mortal danger in Italy, it neither brought the ecclesiastical State signified little. As self-dependent received nor could receive the into complete subjection. The powers, standing on their own slightest assistance either from danger of a final dissolution was merits, they have an interest of France, then under Louis XI, or still greater at the time of the their own; and from this point of from England, distracted by the schism, when neither the Roman view the most important of them Wars of the Roses, or from the nor the French Pope was rich have already been discussed. then disorganized Spanish enough to reconquer the newly- monarchy, or from Germany, but 68 lately betrayed at the Council of prospect of help from without against Nicholas V (1453), the Basle. In Italy itself there was a was so small, the most very Pope who had done most certain number of instructed and dangerous symptoms appeared for the prosperity of the city. even uninstructed people whose within the Papacy itself. Living Porcari aimed at the complete national vanity was flattered by as it now did, and acting in the overthrow of the papal authority, the Italian character of the spirit of the secular Italian and had distinguished Papacy; the personal interests of principalities, it was compelled to accomplices, who, though their very many depended on its go through the same dark names are not handed down to having and retaining this experiences as they; but its own us, are certainly to be looked for character; and vast masses of exceptional nature gave a among the Italian governments of the people still believed in the peculiar color to the shadows. the time. Under the pontificate of virtue of the Papal blessing and the same man, Lorenzo Valla consecration; among them As far as the city of Rome itself is concluded his famous notorious transgressors like concerned, small account was declamation against the gift of Vitelozzo Vitelli, who still prayed taken of its internal agitations, so Constantine with the wish for the to be absolved by Alexander VI, many were the Popes who had speedy secularization of the when the Pope's son had him returned after being expelled by States of the Church. strangled. But all these grounds popular tumult, and so greatly did of sympathy put together would the presence of the Curia The Catilinarian gang with which not have sufficed to save the minister to the interests of the Pius II had to (1460) avowed with Papacy from its enemies, had the Roman people. But Rome not equal frankness their resolution latter been really in earnest, and only displayed at times a specific to overthrow the government of had they known how to take anti-papal radicalism, but in the the priests, and its leader, advantage of the envy and most serious plots which were Tiburzio, threw the blame on the hatred with which the institution then contrived, gave proof of the soothsayers, who had fixed the was regarded. working of unseen hands from accomplishment of his wishes for without. It was so in the case of this very year. Several of the And at the very time when the the conspiracy of Stefano Porcari chief men of Rome, the Prince of 69 Taranto, and the Condottiere consequences on the Holy See, Jacopo Piccinino, were This task was undertaken by the but they lay in the uncertain accomplices and supporters of terrible Sixtus IV. He was the future. It was otherwise with Tiburzio. Indeed, when we think first Pope who had Rome and the nepotism, which threatened at of the booty which was neighbourhood thoroughly under one time to destroy the Papacy accumulated in the palaces of his control, especially after his altogether. Of all the nipoti, wealthy prelates—the successful attack on the House Cardinal Pietro Riario enjoyed at conspirators had the Cardinal of of Colonna, and consequently, first the chief and almost especially in view—we both in his Italian policy and in exclusive favour of Sixtus. He are surprised that, in an almost the internal affairs of the Church, soon drew upon him the eyes of unguarded city, such attempts he could venture to act with a all Italy, partly by the fabulous were not more frequent and more defiant audacity, and to set at luxury of his life, partly through successful. It was not without nought the complaints and the reports which were current of reason that Pius II preferred to threats to summon a council his irreligion and his political reside anywhere rather than in which arose from all parts of plans. He bargained with Duke Rome, and even Paul II was Europe. He supplied himself with Galeazzo Maria of Milan (1473), exposed to no small anxiety the necessary funds by simony, that the latter should become through a plot formed by some which suddenly grew to unheard- King of Lombardy, and then aid discharged abbreviators, who, of proportions, and which him with money and troops to under the command of Platina, extended from the appointment return to Rome and ascend the besieged the Vatican for twenty of cardinals down to the granting papal throne; Sixtus, it appears, days. The Papacy must sooner of the smallest favours. Sixtus would have voluntarily yielded to or later have fallen a victim to himself had not obtained the him. This plan, which, by making such enterprises, if it had not papal dignity without recourse to the Papacy hereditary, would stamped out the aristocratic the same means. have ended in the secularization factions under whose protection of the papal State, failed through these bands of robbers grew to a A corruption so universal might the sudden death of Pietro. The head. sooner or later bring disastrous second nipote, Girolamo Riario, 70 remained a layman, and did not circumstances like these, could At the death of Sixtus, Girolamo seek the Pontificate. From this guarantee the continued was only able to maintain himself time the nipoti, by their obedience of nipoti and their in his usurped principality of Forli endeavors to found principalities descendants, now turned into and Imola by the utmost for themselves, became a new sovereign rulers, to Popes with exertions of his own, and by the source of confusion to Italy. It whom they had no further aid of the , to had already happened that the concern? Even in his lifetime the which his wife belonged. In the Popes tried to make good their Pope was not always sure of his conclave (1484) which followed feudal claims on Naples un own son or nephew, and the the death of Sixtus—that in which favour of their relatives, but since temptation was strong to expel Innocent VIII was elected—an the failure of Calixtus III. such a the nipote of a predecessor and incident occurred which seemed scheme was no longer replace him by one of his own. to furnish the Papacy with a new practicable, and Girolamo Riario, The reaction of the whole system external guarantee. Two after the attempt to conquer on the Papacy itself was of the cardinals, who, at the same time, Florence (and who knows how most serious character; all were princes of ruling houses, many others places) had failed, means of compulsion, whether Giovanni d'Aragona, son of King was forced to content himself temporal or spiritual, were used Ferrante, and Ascanio Sforza, with founding a State within the without scruple for the most brother of Lodovico il Moro, sold limits of the papal dominions questionable ends, and to these their votes with shameless themselves. This was in so far all the other objects of the effrontery; so that, at any rate, justifiable as Romagna, with its Apostolic See were made the ruling houses of Naples and princes and civic despots, subordinate. And when they Milan became interested, by their threatened to shake off the papal were attained, at whatever cost participation in the booty, in the supremacy altogether, and ran of revolutions and proscriptions, continuance of the papal system. the risk of shortly falling a prey to a dynasty was founded which Once again, in the following Sforza or the Venetians, when had no stronger interest than the conclave, when all the cardinals Rome interfered to prevent it. destruction of the Papacy. but five sold themselves, Ascanio But who, at times and in received enormous sums in 71 bribes, not without cherishing the acquisition and accumulation of occasionally caught. For hope that at the next election he money. The manner, however, Franceschetto the chief point would himself be the favored in which father and son practiced was to know by what means, candidate. this occupation must have led when the Pope died, he could sooner or later to a final escape with well-filled coffers. Lorenzo the Magnificent, on his catastrophe—the dissolution of He betrayed himself at last, on part, was anxious that the House the State. If Sixtus had filled his the occasion of a false report of Medici should not be sent treasury by the sale of spiritual (1490) of his father's death; he away with empty hands. He dignities and favours, Innocent endeavored to carry off all the married his daughter Maddalena and his son, for their part, money in the papal treasury, and to the son of the new Pope— the established an office for the sale when this proved impossible, first who publicly acknowledged of secular favours, in which insisted that, at all events, the his children— Franceschetto pardons for murder and Turkish prince, Djem, should go Cibo, and expected not only manslaughter were sold for large with him, and serve as a living favours of all kinds for his own sums of money. Out of every capital, to be advantageously son, Cardinal Giovanni, fine 150 ducats were paid into disposed of, perhaps to Ferrante afterwards Leo X, but also the the papal exchequer, and what of Naples. It is hard to estimate rapid promotion of his son-in-law. was over to Franceschetto. the political possibilities of But with respect to the latter, he Rome, during the latter part of remote periods, but we cannot demanded impossibilities. Under this pontificate, swarmed with help asking ourselves the Innocent VIII there was no licensed and unlicensed question if Rome could have opportunity for the audacious assassins; the factions, which survived two or three pontificates nepotism by which States had Sixtus had begun to put down, of this kind. Also with reference been founded, since were again as active as ever; the to the believing countries of Franceschetto himself was a Pope, well guarded in the Europe, it was imprudent to let poor creature who, like his father Vatican, was satisfied with now matters go so far that not only the Pope, sought power only for and then laying a trap, in which a travellers and pilgrims, but a the lowest purpose of all—the wealthy misdoer was whole embassy of Maximilian, 72 King of the Romans, were confidential servants consisted of in Rome itself the two great stripped to their shirts in the Spaniards, as did also the most factions were annihilated, the so- neighbourhood of Rome, and ill-famed company of the troops called Guelph Orsini as well as that envoys had constantly to of Cesare in the war of 1500; and the so-called Ghibelline Colonna. turn back without setting foot even his hangman, Don But the means employed were of within the city. Micheletto, and his poisoner, so frightful a character that they Sebastiano Pinzon Cremonese, must certainly have ended in the Such a condition of things was seem to have been of the same ruin of the Papacy, had not the incompatible with the conception nation. Among his other contemporaneous death of both of power and its pleasures which achievements, Cesare, in true father and son by poison inspired the gifted Alexander VI Spanish fashion, killed, according suddenly intervened to alter the (1492-1503), and the first event to the rules of the craft, six wild whole aspect of the situation. that happened was the bulls in an enclosed court. But The moral indignation of restoration, at least provisionally, the Roman corruption, which Christendom was certainly no of public order, and the punctual seemed to culminate in this great source of danger to payment of every salary. family, was already far advanced Alexander; at home he was when they came to the city. strong enough to extort terror Strictly speaking, as we are now and obedience; foreign rulers discussing phases of Italian What they were and what they were won over to his side, and civilization, this pontificate might did has been often and fully Louis XII even aided him to the be passed over, since the described. Their immediate utmost of his power. The mass Borgias are no more Italian than purpose, which, in fact, they of the people throughout Europe the House of Naples. Alexander attained, was the complete had hardly a conception of what spoke Spanish in public with subjugation of the pontifical was passing in . The Cesare; Lucrezia, at her entrance State. All the petty despots, who only moment which was really to Ferrara, where she wore a were mostly more or less fraught with danger—when Spanish costume, was sung to refractory vassals of the Church, Charles VIII was in Italy—went by Spanish buffoons; their were expelled or destroyed; and by with unexpected fortune, and 73 even then it was not the Papacy which Alexander had formerly and the genius for deception was as such that was in peril, but held had taught him to know also greater. The manner in Alexander, who risked being better and turn to more practical which Cesare isolated his father, supplanted by a more account the various sources of murdering brother, brother-in- respectable Pope. The great, revenue than any other member law, and other relations or permanent, and increasing of the Curia. As early as 1494, a courtiers, whenever their favour danger for the Papacy lay in Carmelite, Adam of Genoa, who with the Pope or their position in Alexander himself, and, above had preached at Rome against any other respect became all, in his son Cesare Borgia. simony, was found murdered in inconvenient to him, is literally his bed with twenty wounds. appalling. Alexander was forced In the nature of the father, Hardly a single cardinal was to acquiesce in the murder of his ambition, avarice, and sensuality appointed without the payment of best-loved son, the Duke of were combined with strong and enormous sums of money. Gandia, since he himself lived in brilliant qualities. All the hourly dread of Cesare. pleasures of power and luxury he But when the Pope in course of granted himself from the first day time fell under the influence of What were the final aims of the of his pontificate in the fullest his son Cesare Borgia, his violent latter? Even in the last months of measure. In the choice of means measures assumed that his tyranny, when he had to this end he was wholly without character of devilish wickedness murdered the Condottieri at scruple; it was known at once which necessarily reacts upon Sinigaglia, and was to all intents that he would more than the ends pursued. What was and purposes master of the compensate himself for the done in the struggle with the ecclesiastical State (1503), those sacrifices which his election had Roman nobles and with the who stood near him gave the involved, and that the seller tyrants of Romagna exceeded in modest reply that the Duke would far exceed the simony of faithlessness and barbarity even merely wished to put down the the buyer. It must be that measure to which the factions and the despots, and all remembered that the vice- Aragonese rulers of Naples had for the good of the Church only; chancellorship and other offices already accustomed the world; that for himself he desired 74 nothing more than the lordship of passages in the poems of Ercole we are much deceived, this is the the Romagna, and that he had Strozza may be the echo of real reason of the secret earned the gratitude of all the expressions which she as sympathy with which Machiavelli following Popes by ridding them Duchess of Ferrara may easily treats the great criminal; from of the Orsini and Colonna. But have permitted herself to use. Cesare, or from nobody, could it no one will accept this as his Here, too, Cesare's hopes of the be hoped that he 'would draw the ultimate design. The Pope Papacy are chiefly spoken of; but steel from the wound,' in other Alexander himself, in his now and then a supremacy over words, annihilate the Papacy— discussions with the Venetian all Italy is hinted at, and finally we the source of all foreign ambassador, went further than are given to understand that as intervention and of all the this, when committing his son to temporal ruler Cesare's projects divisions of Italy. The intriguers the protection of Venice: ‘I will were of the greatest, and that for who thought to divine Cesare's see to it,' he said, ‘that one day their sake he had formerly aims, when holding out to him the Papacy shall belong either to surrendered his cardinalate. In hopes of the Kingdom of him or to you’. Cesare indeed fact, there can be no doubt Tuscany, seem to have been added that no one could become whatever that Cesare, whether dismissed with contempt. Pope without the consent of chosen Pope or not after the Venice, and for this end the death of Alexander, meant to But all logical conclusions from Venetian cardinals had only to keep possession of the pontifical his premises are idle, not keep well together. Whether he State at any cost, and that this, because of the unaccountable referred to himself or not we are after all the enormities he had genius, which in fact unable to say; at all events, the committed, he could not as Pope characterized him as little as it declaration of his father is have succeeded in doing did Wallenstein, but because the sufficient to prove his designs on permanently. He, if anybody, means which he employed were the pontifical throne. We further could have secularized the not compatible with any large obtain from a States of the Church, and he and consistent course of action. certain amount of indirect would have been forced to do so Perhaps, indeed, in the very evidence, in so far as certain in order to keep them. Unless excess of his wickedness some 75 prospect of salvation for the pontificate. Whether it were that He himself used to wander about Papacy may have existed even father and son had drawn up a Rome in the night-time with his without the accident which put an formal list of proscribed persons, guards, and there is every end to his rule. or that the murders were reason to believe that he did so resolved upon one by one, in not only because, like Tiberius, Even if we assume that the either case the Borgias were he shrank from showing his now destruction of the petty despots bent on the secret destruction of repulsive features by daylight, in the pontifical State had gained all who stood in their way or but also to gratify his insane thirst for him nothing but sympathy, whose inheritance they coveted. for blood, perhaps even on even if we take as proof of his Of this, money and movable persons unknown to him. great projects the army goods formed the smallest part; it composed of the best soldiers was a much greater source of As early as the year 1499 the and officers in Italy, with profit for the Pope that the despair was so great and so Leonardo da Vinci as chief incomes of the clerical dignitaries general that many of the Papal engineer, which followed his in question were suspended by guards were waylaid and put to fortunes in 1502, other facts their death, and that he received death. But those whom the nevertheless bear such a the revenues of their offices while Borgias could not assail with character of unreason that our vacant, and the price of these open violence fell victims to their judgement, like that of offices when they were filled by poison. For the cases in which a contemporary observers, is the successors of the murdered certain amount of discretion wholly at a loss to explain them. men. The Venetian ambassador seemed requisite, a white One fact of this kind is the Paolo Capello reported in the powder of an agreeable taste devastation and maltreatment of year 1500: ‘Every night four or was made use of, which did not the newly-won State, which five murdered men are work on the spot, but slowly and Cesare still intended to keep and discovered—, prelates gradually, and which could be to rule over. Another is the and others—so that all Rome is mixed without notice in any dish condition of Rome and of the trembling for fear of being or goblet. Prince Djem had taken Curia in the last decades of the destroyed by the Duke (Cesare).’ some of it in a sweet draught, 76 before Alexander surrendered were repeated, they were held to might not Cesare have achieved him to Charles VIII (1495), and at be cosa diabolica. The report of if, at the moment when his father the end of their career father and these events seems at last, died, he had not himself been son poisoned themselves with through the well-attended jubilee laid upon a sickbed! What a the same powder by accidentally of 1500, to have been carried far conclave would that have been, tasting a sweetmeat intended for and wide throughout the in which, armed with all his a wealthy cardinal. The official countries of Europe, and the weapons, he had extorted his epitomizer of the history of the infamous traffic in indulgences election from a college whose Popes, Onofrio Panvinio, did what else was needed to numbers he had judiciously mentions three cardinals, Orsini, draw all eyes upon Rome. reduced by poison—and this at a Ferrerio and Michiel, whom Besides the returning pilgrims, time when there was no French Alexander caused to be strange white-robed penitents army at hand! In pursuing such a poisoned, and hints at a fourth, came from Italy to the North, hypothesis the imagination loses Giovanni Borgia, whom Cesare among them disguised fugitives itself in an abyss. took into his own charge—though from the Papal State, who are probably wealthy prelates seldom not likely to have been silent. Instead of this followed the died in Rome at that time without Yet none can calculate how far conclave in which Pius III was giving rise to suspicions of this the scandal and indignation of elected, and, after his speedy sort. Even tranquil scholars who Christendom might have gone, death, that which chose Julius II had withdrawn to some provincial before they became a source of —both elections the fruits of a town were not out of reach of the pressing danger to Alexander. general reaction. merciless poison. A secret 'He would,' says Panvinio horror seemed to hang about the elsewhere, 'have put all the other Whatever may have been the Pope; storms and thunderbolts, rich cardinals and prelates out of private morals of Julius II, in all crushing in walls and chambers, the way, to get their property, essential respects he was the had in earlier times often visited had he not, in the midst of his savior of the Papacy. His and alarmed him; in the year I great plans for his son, been familiarity with the course of 500, when these phenomena struck down by death.’ And what events since the pontificate of his 77 uncle Sixtus had given him a diplomatic means, he proudly than the most indisputable right. profound insight into the grounds bestowed on the Church, not on If despite all his high-sounding and conditions of the Papal his family; the ecclesiastical 'Away with the barbarians!’, he authority. On these he founded territory, which he found in a nevertheless contributed more his own policy, and devoted to it state of dissolution, he than any man to the firm the whole force and passion of bequeathed to his successor settlement of the Spaniards in his unshaken soul. He ascended completely subdued, and Italy, he may have thought it a the steps of St. Peter's chair increased by Parma and matter of indifference to the without simony and amid general Piacenza. It was not his fault Papacy, or even, as things stood, applause, and with him ceased, that Ferrara too was not added a relative advantage. And to at all events, the undisguised the Church. The 700,000 ducats whom, sooner than to Spain, traffic in the highest offices of the which were stored up in the could the Church look for a Church. Julius had favorites, and Castel Sant' Angelo were to be sincere and lasting respect, in an among them were some the delivered by the governor to age when the princes of Italy reverse of worthy, but a special none but the future Pope. He cherished none but sacrilegious fortune put him above the made himself heir of the projects against her? Be this as temptation to nepotism. His cardinals, and, indeed, of all the it may, the powerful, original brother, Giovanni della Rovere, clergy who died in Rome, and nature, which could swallow no was the husband of the heiress this by the most despotic means; anger and conceal no genuine of Urbino, sister of the last but he murdered or poisoned good-will, made on the whole the Montefeltro, Guidobaldo, and none of them. That he should impression most desirable in his from this marriage was born, in himself lead his forces to battle situation—that of the Pontefice 1491, a son, Francesco Maria was for him an unavoidable terribile. He could even, with della Rovere, who was at the necessity, and certainly did him comparatively clear conscience, same time Papal nipote and nothing but good at a time when venture to summon a council to lawful heir to the duchy of Urbino. a man in Italy was forced to be Rome, and so bid defiance to What Julius elsewhere acquired, either hammer or anvil, and when that outcry for a council which either on the field of battle or by personality was a greater power was raised by the opposition all 78 over Europe. A ruler of this Council, Julius had solemnly dangers. Among these we do stamp needed some great denounced the simony of the not reckon the conspiracy of the outward symbol of his Papal elections. After his death Cardinals Petrucci, De Sauli, conceptions; Julius found it in the in 1513, the money-loving Riario, and Corneto (1517), reconstruction of St. Peter's. The cardinals tried to evade the which at most could have plan of it, as Bramante wished to prohibition by proposing that the occasioned a change of and to have it, is perhaps the grandest endowments and offices hitherto which Leo found the true antidote expression of power in unity held by the chosen candidate in the un-heard-of creation of which can be imagined. In other should be equally divided among thirty-one new cardinals, a arts besides architecture the face themselves, in which case they measure which additional and the memory of the Pope live would have elected the best- advantage of rewarding, in some on in their most ideal form, and it endowed cardinal, the cases at least, real merit. is not without significance that incompetent Raphael Riario. But even the Latin poetry of those a reaction, chiefly arising from But some of the paths which Leo days gives proof of a wholly the younger members of the allowed himself to tread during different enthusiasm for Julius Sacred College, who, above all the first two years of his office than that shown for his things, desired a liberal Pope, were perilous to the last degree. predecessors. The entry into rendered the miserable He seriously endeavored to Bologna, at the end of the Iter combination futile; Giovanni secure, by negotiation, the Julii Secundi by the Cardinal Medici was elected —the famous kingdom of Naples for his brother Adriano da Corneto, has a Leo X. Giuliano, and for his nephew splendor of its own, and Giovan Lorenzo a powerful North Italian Antonio Flaminio, in one of the We shall often meet with him in State, to comprise Milan, finest elegies, appealed to the treating of the noonday of the Tuscany, Urbino and Ferrara. It patriot in the Pope to grant his Renaissance; here we wish only is clear that the Pontifical State, protection to Italy. to point out that under him the thus hemmed in on all sides, Papacy was again exposed to would have become a mere In a constitution of his Lateran great inward and outward Medicean appanage, and that, in 79 fact, there would have been no gambling on a colossal scale, of Under Adrian VI (1521-1523), the further need to secularize it. which the stakes were this or that few and timid improvements, province of Italy. Who could carried out in the face of the The plan found an insuperable guarantee that, since the last great German Reformation, obstacle in the political conditions decades had seen so great an came too late. He could do little of the time. Giuliano died early. increase of their power at home, more than proclaim his horror of To provide for Lorenzo, Leo their ambition would stop short of the course which things had undertook to expel the Duke the States of the Church? Leo taken hitherto, of simony, Francesco Maria della Rovere himself witnessed the prelude of nepotism, prodigality, from Urbino, but reaped from the what was fulfilled in the year brigandage, and profligacy. The war nothing but hatred and 1527; a few bands of Spanish danger from the side of the poverty, and was forced, when in infantry appeared of their own Lutherans was by no means the 1519 Lorenzo followed his uncle accord, it seems— at the end of greatest; an acute observer from to the grave, to hand over the 1520, on the borders of the Venice, Girolamo Negro, uttered hard-won conquests to the Pontifical territory, with a view to his fears that a speedy and Church. He did on compulsion laying the Pope under terrible disaster would befall the and without credit what, if it had contribution, but were driven city of Rome itself. been done voluntarily, would back by the Papal forces. The have been to his lasting honour. public feeling, too, against the Under Clement VII the whole What he attempted against corruptions of the hierarchy had horizon of Rome was filled with Alfonso of Ferrara, and actually of late years been drawing vapors, like that leaden veil achieved against a few petty rapidly to a head, and men with which the sirocco drew over the despots and Condottieri, was an eye for the future, like the Campagna, and which made the assuredly not of a kind to raise younger Pico della Mirandola, last months of summer so his reputation. And this was at a called urgently for reform. deadly. The Pope was no less time when the monarchs of the Meantime Luther had already detested at home than abroad. West were yearly growing more appeared upon the scene. Thoughtful people were filled with and more accustomed to political anxiety, hermits appeared upon 80 the streets and squares of Rome, Charles V intended to inflict on clearly enough what was foretelling the fate of Italy and of him a severe castigation, and possible in the Sacco di Roma. the world, and calling the Pope that it could not calculate by the name of Antichrist; the beforehand how far the zeal of its Charles seems to have wished to faction of the Colonna raised its unpaid hordes would carry them. bring the Pope, who had fled a head defiantly; the indomitable It would have been vain to second time to the Castel Sant' Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, attempt to enlist men in Germany Angelo, to Naples, after extorting whose mere existence was a without paying any bounty, if it from him vast sums of money, permanent menace to the had not been well known that and Clement's flight to Orvieto Papacy, ventured to surprise the Rome was the object of the must have happened without any city in 1526, hoping with the help expedition. It may be that the connivance on the part of Spain. of Charles V, to become Pope written orders to Bourbon will be Whether the Emperor ever then and there, as soon as found some day or other, and it is thought seriously of the Clement was killed or captured. not improbable that they will secularization of the States of the It was no piece of good fortune prove to be worded mildly. But Church, for which every body for Rome that the latter was able historical criticism will not allow was quite prepared, and whether to escape to the Castel Sant' itself to be led astray. The he was really dissuaded from it Angelo, and the fate for which he Catholic King and Emperor owed by the representations of Henry himself was reserved may well it to his luck and nothing else that VIII of England, will probably be called worse than death. By a Pope and cardinals were not never be made clear. series of those falsehoods which murdered by his troops. Had this only the powerful can venture on, happened, no sophistry in the But if such projects really existed, but which bring ruin upon the world could clear him of his share they cannot have lasted long: weak, Clement brought about the in the guilt. The massacre of from the devastated city arose a advance of the Germano- countless people of less new spirit of reform both in Spanish army under Bourbon consequence, the plunder of the Church and State. It made itself and Frundsberg (1527). It is rest, and all the horrors of torture felt in a moment. Cardinal certain that the Cabinet of and traffic in human life, show Sadoleto, one witness of many, 81 thus writes: ‘If through our kings could not tolerate that one politics, to be reconciled with the suffering a satisfaction is made to of their number should arrogate Papacy, which he had so the wrath and justice of God, if to himself the right of Papal grievously wounded. For the these fearful punishments again gaoler, and concluded (August temper of the German people, open the way to better laws and 18, 1527) the Treaty of Amiens, which certainly pointed to a morals, then is our misfortune one of the objects of which was different course, seemed to him, perhaps not of the greatest.... the deliverance of Clement. like German affairs generally, to What belongs to God He will take They thus, at all events, turned to afford no foundation for a policy. care of; before us lies a life of their own account the It is possible, too, as a Venetian reformation, which no violence unpopularity which the deeds of maintains, that the memory of the can take from us. Let us so rule the Imperial troops had excited. sack of Rome lay heavy on his our deeds and thoughts as to At the same time the Emperor conscience, and tended to seek in God only the true glory of became seriously embarrassed, hasten that expiation which was the priesthood and our own true even in Spain, where the prelates sealed by the permanent greatness and power.' and grandees never saw him subjection of the Florentines to without making the most urgent the Medicean family of which the In point of fact, this critical year, remonstrances. When a general Pope was a member. The nipote 1527, so far bore fruit that the deputation of the clergy and laity, and new Duke, Alessandro voices of serious men could all clothed in mourning, was Medici, was married to the again make themselves heard. projected, Charles, fearing that natural daughter of the Emperor. Rome had suffered too much to troubles might arise out of it, like return, even under a Paul III, to those of the insurrection quelled In the following years the plan of the gay corruption of Leo X. a few years before, forbade the a Council enabled Charles to scheme. Not only did he not keep the Papacy in all essential The Papacy, too, when its dare to prolong the maltreatment points under his control, and at sufferings became so great, of the Pope, but he was one and the same time to protect began to excite a sympathy half absolutely compelled, even apart and to oppress it. The greatest religious and half political. The from all considerations of foreign danger of all—secularization— 82 the danger which came from a newborn spiritual force, found Patriotism within, from the Popes its chief work in the recovery of themselves and their nipoti, was what had been lost. It only adjourned for centuries by the existed and is only intelligible in In conclusion, let us briefly German Reformation. Just as opposition to the seceders. In consider the effect of these this alone had made the this sense it can be said with political circumstances on the expedition against Rome (1527) perfect truth that the moral spirit of the nation at large. possible and successful, so did it salvation of the Papacy is due to compel the Papacy to become its mortal enemies. And now its It is evident that the general once more the expression of a political position, too, though political uncertainty in Italy, world-wide spiritual power, to certainly under the permanent during the fourteenth and raise itself from the soulless tutelage of Spain, became fifteenth centuries, was of a kind debasement in which it lay, and impregnable; almost without to excite in the better spirits of to place itself at the head of all effort it inherited, on the the time a patriotic disgust and the enemies of this reformation. extinction of its vassals, the opposition. Dante and Petrarch, The institution thus developed legitimate line of Este and the in their day, proclaimed loudly a during the latter years of Clement house of Della Rovere, the common Italy, the object of the VII, and under Paul III, Paul IV, duchies of Ferrara and Urbino. highest efforts of all her children. and their successors, in the face But without the Reformation—if, It may be objected that this was of the defection of half Europe, indeed, it is possible to think it only the enthusiasm of a few was a new, regenerated away—the whole ecclesiastical highly instructed men, in which hierarchy, which avoided all the State would long ago have the mass of the people had no great and dangerous scandals of passed into secular hands. share; but it can hardly have former times, particularly been otherwise even in nepotism, with its attempts at Germany, although in name at territorial aggrandizement, and least that country was united, which, in alliance with the and recognized in the Emperor Catholic princes, and impelled by one supreme head. The first 83 patriotic utterances of German named, it is done in most cases literature, if we except some to annoy some other Italian verses of the Minnesanger, State. But those deeply serious belong to the humanists of the and sorrowful appeals to national time of Maximilian I and after, sentiment were not heard again and read like an echo of Italian until later, when the time for unity declamations. And yet, as a had gone by, when the country matter of fact, Germany had was inundated with Frenchmen been long a nation in a truer and Spaniards. The sense of sense than Italy ever was since local patriotism may be said in the Roman days. France owes some measure to have taken the the consciousness of its national place of this feeling, though it unity mainly to its conflicts with was but a poor equivalent for it. the English, and Spain has never permanently succeeded in absorbing Portugal, closely related as the two countries are. For Italy, the existence of the ecclesiastical State, and the conditions under which alone it could continue, were a permanent obstacle to national unity, an obstacle whose removal seemed hopeless. When, therefore, in the political intercourse of the fifteenth century, the common fatherland is sometimes emphatically 84 melted into air; an objective Part Two THE treatment and consideration of Personality the State and of all the things of DEVELOPMENT OF THE this world became possible. The INDIVIDUAL subjective side at the same time In the character of these States, asserted itself with corresponding whether republics or despotisms, emphasis; man became a lies, not the only, but the chief spiritual individual, recognized reason for the early development himself as such. In the same of the Italian. To this it is due way the Greek had once that he was the firstborn among distinguished himself from the the sons of modern Europe. barbarian, and the Arab had felt himself an individual at a time In the Middle Ages both sides of when other Asiatics knew human consciousness—that themselves only as members of which was turned within as that a race. It will not be difficult to which was turned without— lay show that this result was due dreaming or half awake beneath above all to the political a common veil. The veil was circumstances of Italy. woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through In far earlier times we can here which the world and history were and there detect a development seen clad in strange hues. Man of free personality which in was conscious of himself only as Northern Europe either did not a member of a race, people, occur at all, or could not display party, family, or corporation— itself in the same manner. The only through some general band of audacious wrongdoers in category. In Italy this veil first the tenth century described to us 85 by Liudprand, some of the psychological fact itself. This fact But even the subjects whom they contemporaries of Gregory VII appears in the most decisive and ruled over were not free from the (for example, Benzo of Alba), unmistakable form. The Italians same impulse. Leaving out of and a few of the opponents of the of the fourteenth century knew account those who wasted their first Hohenstaufen, show us little of false modesty or of lives in secret opposition and characters of this kind. But at the hypocrisy in any shape; not one conspiracies, we speak of the close of the thirteenth century of them was afraid of singularity, majority who were content with a Italy began to swarm with of being and seeming unlike his strictly private station, like most individuality; the ban laid upon neighbors. of the urban population of the human personality was Byzantine empire and the dissolved; and a thousand Despotism, as we have already Mohammedan States. No doubt figures meet us each in its own seen, fostered in the highest it was often hard for the subjects special shape and dress. degree the individuality not only of a Visconti to maintain the Dante's great poem would have of the tyrant or Condottiere dignity of their persons and been impossible in any other himself, but also of the men families, and multitudes must country of Europe, if only for the whom he protected or used as have lost in moral character reason that they all still lay under his tools—the secretary, minister, through the servitude they lived the spell of race. For Italy the poet, and companion. These under. But this was not the case august poet, through the wealth people were forced to know all with regard to individuality; for of individuality which he set forth, the inward resources of their own political impotence does not was the most national herald of nature, passing or permanent; hinder the different tendencies his time. But this unfolding of the and their enjoyment of life was and manifestations of private life treasures of human nature in enhanced and concentrated by from thriving in the fullest vigor literature and art—this many- the desire to obtain the greatest and variety. Wealth and culture, sided representation and satisfaction from a possibly very so far as display and rivalry were criticism—will be discussed in brief period of power and not forbidden to them, a separate chapters; here we have influence. municipal freedom which did not to deal only with the cease to be considerable, and a 86 Church which, unlike that of the favourable to the growth of 1446), whose work on domestic Byzantine or of the individual character. The more economy is the first complete Mohammedan world, was not frequently the governing party programme of a developed identical with the State—all these was changed, the more the private life. His estimate of the conditions undoubtedly favored individual was led to make the duties of the individual as against the growth of individual thought, utmost of the exercise and the dangers and thanklessness for which the necessary leisure enjoyment of power. The of public life is in its way a true was furnished by the cessation of statesmen and popular leaders, monument of the age. party conflicts. The private man, especially in Florentine history, indifferent to politics, and busied acquired so marked a personal Banishment, too, has this effect partly with serious pursuits, partly character that we can scarcely above all, that it either wears the with the interests of a dilettante, find, even exceptionally, a exile out or develops whatever is seems to have been first fully parallel to them in contemporary greatest in him. 'In all our more formed in these despotisms of history, hardly even in Jacob van populous cities,' says Gioviano the fourteenth century. Arteveldt. Pontano, 'we see a crowd of Documentary evidence cannot, people who have left their homes of course, be required on such a The members of the defeated of their own free will; but a man point. The novelists, from whom parties, on the other hand, often takes his virtues with him we might expect information, came into a position like that of wherever he goes.’ And, in fact, describe to us oddities in plenty, the subjects of the despotic they were by no means only men but only from one point of view States, with the difference that who had been actually exiled, but and in so far as the needs of the the freedom or power already thousands left their native place story demand. Their scene, too, enjoyed, and in some cases the voluntarily, be cause they found lies chiefly in the republican hope of recovering them, gave a its political or economic condition cities. higher energy to their intolerable. The Florentine individuality. Among these men emigrants at Ferrara and the In the latter, circumstances were of involuntary leisure we find, for Lucchese in Venice formed also, but in another way, instance, an Agnolo Pandolfini d. whole colonies by themselves. 87 despise the changes of fortune.’ which he treats his own The cosmopolitanism which grew In the same strain an exiled enjoyments, the most delicate up in the most gifted circles is in humanist writes: ‘Wherever a , and the deepest goodwill! itself a high stage of learned man fixes his seat, there individualism. Dante, as we have is home.' When this impulse to the highest already said, finds a new home in individual development was the language and culture of Italy, An acute and practiced eye might combined with a powerful and but goes beyond even this in the be able to trace, step by step, the varied nature, which had words, 'My country is the whole increase in the number of mastered all the elements of the world.’ And when his recall to complete men during the fifteenth culture of the age, then arose the Florence was offered him on century. Whether they had 'all-sided man'—l'uomo unworthy conditions, he wrote before them as a conscious universale—who belonged to back: ‘Can I not everywhere object the harmonious Italy alone. Men there were of behold the light of the sun and development of their spiritual and encyclopedic knowledge, in the stars; everywhere meditate material existence, is hard to say; many countries during the Middle on the noblest truths, without but several of them attained it, so Ages, for this knowledge was appearing ingloriously and far as is consistent with the confined within narrow limits; and shamefully before the city and imperfection of all that is earthly. even in the twelfth century there the people? Even my bread will It may be better to renounce the were universal artists, but the not fail me.’ The artists exult no attempt at an estimate of the problems of architecture were less defiantly in their freedom share which fortune, character, comparatively simple and from the constraints of fixed and talent had in the life of uniform, and in sculpture and residence. 'Only he who has Lorenzo il Magnifico. But look at painting the matter was of more learned everything,' says a personality like that of Ariosto, importance than the form. But in Ghiberti,'is nowhere a stranger; especially as shown in his Italy at the time of the robbed of his fortune and without satires. In what harmony are Renaissance, we find artists who friends, he is yet the citizen of there expressed the pride of the in every branch created new and every country, and can fearlessly man and the poet, the irony with perfect works, and who also 88 made the greatest impression as artists—he soon became himself made collections of natural men. Others, outside the arts the source of inspiration. history; the geography of the they practiced, were masters of a ancients was his guide in treating vast circle of spiritual interests. The fifteenth century is, above of modern geography, their all, that of the many-sided men. history was his pattern in writing Dante, who, even in his lifetime, There is no biography which contemporary chronicles, even was called by some a poet, by does not, besides the chief work when composed in Italian; he Dot others a philosopher, by others a of its hero, speak of other only translated the comedies of theologian, pours forth in all his pursuits all passing beyond the Plautus, but acted as manager writings a stream of personal limits of dilettantism. The when they were put on the stage; force by which the reader, apart Florentine merchant and every effective form of ancient from the interest of the subject, statesman was often learned in literature down to the dialogues feels himself carried away. What both the classical languages; the of Lucian he did his best to power of will must the steady, most famous humanists read the imitate; and besides all this, he unbroken elaboration of the Ethics and Politics of Aristotle to acted as magistrate, secretary Divine Comedy have required! him and his sons; even the and diplomatist—not always to And if we look at the matter of daughters of the house were his own advantage. the poem, we find that in the highly educated. It is in these whole spiritual or physical world circles that private education was But among these many-sided there is hardly an important first treated seriously. The men, some, who may truly be subject which the poet has not humanist, on his side, was called all-sided, tower above the fathomed, and on which his compelled to the most varied rest. Before analyzing the utterances —often only a few attainments, since his philological general phases of life and culture words—are not the most weighty learning was not limited, as it is of this period, we may here, on of his time. For the visual arts he now, to the theoretical knowledge the threshold of the fifteenth is of the first importance, and this of classical antiquity, but had to century, consider for a moment for better reasons than the few serve the practical needs of daily the figure of one of these giants references to contemporary life. While studying Pliny, he — Leon Battista Alberti (b. 1404, 89 d. 1472). His biography, which is both civil and canonical law for which others created he only a fragment, speaks of him many years, until exhaustion welcomed joyfully, and held but little as an artist , and makes brought on a severe illness. In every human achievement which no mention at all of his great his twenty-fourth year, finding his followed the laws of beauty for significance in the history of memory for words weakened, but something almost divine. To all architecture. We shall now see his sense of facts unimpaired, he this must be added his literary what he was, apart from these set to work at physics and works, first of all those on art, special claims to distinction. mathematics. And all the while which are landmarks and he acquired every sort of authorities of the first order for In all by which praise is won, accomplishment and dexterity, the Renaissance of Form, Leon Battista was from his cross-examining artists, scholars especially in architecture; then childhood the first. Of his various and artisans of all descriptions, his Latin prose writings — novels gymnastic feats and exercises down to the cobblers, about the and other works — of which we read with astonishment how, secrets and peculiarities of their some have been taken for with his feet together, he could craft. Painting and modelling he productions of antiquity; his spring over a man's head; how in practiced by the way, and elegies, eclogues, and humorous the cathedral, he threw a coin in especially excelled in admirable dinner-speeches. He also wrote the air until it was heard to ring likenesses from memory. Great an Italian treatise on domestic life against the distant roof; how the admiration was excited by his in four books; and even a funeral wildest horses trembled under mysterious camera obscura, in oration on his dog. His serious him. In three things he desired to which he showed at one time the and witty sayings were thought appear faultless to others, in stars and the moon rising over worth collecting, and specimens walking, in riding, and in rocky hills, at another wide of them, many columns long, are speaking. He learned music landscapes with mountains and quoted in his biography. And all without a master, and yet his gulfs receding into dim that he had and knew he compositions were admired by perspective, and with fleets imparted, as rich natures always professional judges. Under the advancing on the waters in do, without the least reserve, pressure of poverty, he studied shade or sunshine. And that giving away his chief discoveries 90 for nothing. But the deepest an iron will pervaded and the different classes of society spring of his nature has yet to be sustained his whole personality; lived apart, each with its own spoken of — the sympathetic like all the great men of the medieval caste sense of honour. intensity with which he entered Renaissance, he said, 'Men can The poetical fame of the into the whole life around him. At do all things if they will.' Troubadours and Minnesanger the sight of noble trees and was peculiar to the knightly waving cornfields he shed tears; And Leonardo da Vinci was to order. But in Italy social equality handsome and dignified old men Alberti as the finisher to the had appeared before the time of he honored as 'a delight of beginner, as the master to the the tyrannies or the democracies. nature,' and could never look at dilettante. Would only that We there find early traces of a them enough. Perfectly formed Vasari's work were here general society, having, as will animals won his goodwill as supplemented by a description be shown more fully later on, a being specially favored by like that of Alberti! The colossal common ground in Latin and nature; and more than once, outlines of Leonardo's nature can Italian literature; and such a when he was ill, the sight of a never be more than dimly and ground was needed for this new beautiful landscape cured him. distantly conceived. element in life to grow in. To this No wonder that those who saw must be added that the Roman him in this close and mysterious authors, who were not zealously communion with the world studied, are filled and saturated ascribed to him the gift of Glory with the conception of fame, and prophecy. He was said to have that their subject itself—the foretold a bloody catastrophe in universal empire of Rome— the family of Este, the fate of To this inward development of stood as a permanent ideal Florence and that of the Popes the individual corresponds a new before the minds of Italians. many years beforehand, and to sort of outward distinction—the From henceforth all the be able to read in the modern form of glory. aspirations and achievements of countenances and the hearts of the people were governed by a men. It need not be added that In the other countries of Europe moral postulate, which was still 91 unknown elsewhere in Europe. strove after glory and thereby disposing of the reputation of dimmed 'the beams of true love’. others. An outward symbol of Here, again, as in all essential It is characteristic that the lost this sort of fame was the points, the first witness to be souls in hell beg of Dante to keep coronation of the poets, of which called is Dante. He strove for the alive for them their memory and we shall speak later on. poet's garland with all the power fame on earth, while those in of his soul. As publicist and man Purgatory only entreat his A contemporary of Dante, of letters, he laid stress on the prayers and those of others for Albertinus Musattus or Mussatus, fact that what he did was new, their deliverance. And in a crowned poet at Padua by the and that he wished not only to famous passage, the passion for and rector, enjoyed a be, but to be esteemed the first in fame—lo gran disio fame which fell little short of his own walks. But in his prose dell'eccellenza (the great desire deification. Every Christmas Day writings he touches also on the of excelling)—is reproved for the the doctors and students of both inconveniences of fame; he reason that intellectual glory is colleges at the University came knows how often personal not absolute, but relative to the in solemn procession before his acquaintance with famous men is times, and may be surpassed house with trumpets and, it disappointing, and explains how and eclipsed by greater seems, with burning tapers, to this is due partly to the childish successors. salute him and bring him fancy of men, partly to envy, and presents. His reputation lasted partly to the imperfections of the The new race of poet-scholars till, in 1318, he fell into disgrace hero himself. And in his great which arose soon after Dante with the ruling tyrant of the poem he firmly maintains the quickly made themselves House of Carrara. emptiness of fame, although in a masters of this fresh tendency. manner which betrays that his They did so in a double sense, This new incense, which once heart was not free from the being themselves the most was offered only to saints and longing for it. In Paradise the acknowledged celebrities of Italy, heroes, was given in clouds to sphere of Mercury is the seat of and at the same time, as poets Petrarch, who persuaded himself such blessed ones as on earth and historians, consciously in his later years that it was but a 92 foolish and troublesome thing. revered in this way, like the cell graceful little villas. At this time His letter To Posterity is the of St. Thomas Aquinas in the there were no 'classic spots' in confession of an old and famous Dominican convent at Naples, Northern Europe, and man, who is forced to gratify the and the Portincula of St. Francis pilgrimages were only made to public curiosity. He admits that near Assisi; and one or two great pictures and relics. It was a point he wishes for fame in the times jurists so enjoyed the half- of honour for the different cities to come, but would rather be mythical reputation which led to to possess the bones of their without it in his own day. In his this honour. Towards the close own and foreign celebrities; and dialogue on fortune and of the fourteenth century the it is most remarkable how misfortune, the interlocutor, who people at Bagnolo, near seriously the Florentines, even in maintains the futility of glory, has Florence, called an old building the fourteenth century— long the best of the contest. But, at the Studio of Accursius (died in before the building of Santa the same time, Petrarch is 1260), but, nevertheless, Croce—labored to make their pleased that the autocrat of suffered it to be destroyed. It is cathedral a Pantheon. Accorso, Byzantium knows him as well by probable that the great incomes Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, and his writings as Charles IV knows and the political influence which the jurist Zanobi della Strada him. And in fact, even in his some jurists obtained as were to have had magnificent lifetime, his fame extended far consulting lawyers made a tombs there erected to them. beyond Italy. And the emotion lasting impression on the popular Late in the fifteenth century, which he felt was natural when imagination. Lorenzo il Magnifico applied in his friends, on the occasion of a person to the Spoletans, asking visit to his native Arezzo (1350), To the cult of the birthplaces of them to give up the corpse of the took him to the house where he famous men must be added that painter Fra Filippo Lippi for the was born, and told him how the of their graves, and, in the case cathedral, and received the city had provided that no change of Petrarch, of the spot where he answer that they had none too should be made in it. In former died. In memory of him Arqua many ornaments to the city, times the dwellings of certain became a favorite resort of the especially in the shape of great saints were preserved and Paduans, and was dotted with distinguished people, for which 93 reason they begged him to spare attached to the name. both the Plinys for its own, and at them; and, in fact, he had to be the end of the fifteenth century content with erecting a cenotaph. The Paduans, even in the erected statues in their honour, And even Dante, in spite of all sixteenth century, firmly believed sitting under graceful baldachins the applications to which that they possessed not only the on the facade of the cathedral. Boccaccio urged the Florentines genuine bones of their founder, with bitter emphasis, remained Antenor, but also those of the History and the new topography sleeping tranquilly in San historian Livy. 'Sulmona,' says were now careful to leave no Francesco at Ravenna, 'among Boccaccio, 'bewails that Ovid lies local celebrity unnoticed. At the ancient tombs of emperors and buried far away in exile; and same period the northern vaults of saints, in more Parma rejoices that Cassius chronicles only here and there, honorable company than thou, O sleeps within its walls.’ The among the list of popes, Florence, couldst offer him’. It Mantuans coined a medal in emperors, earthquakes, and even happened that a man once 1257 with the bust of Virgil, and comets, put in the remark, that at took away unpunished the lights raised a statue to represent him. such a time this or that famous from the altar on which the In a fit of aristocratic insolence, man 'flourished’. We shall crucifix stood, and set there by the guardian of the young elsewhere have to show how, the grave, with the words, 'Take Gonzaga, Carlo Malatesta, mainly under the influence of this them; thou art more worthy of caused it to be pulled down in idea of fame, an admirable them than He, the Crucified One!' 1392, and was afterwards forced, biographical literature was (Franco Sacchetti, Novella 121.) when he found the fame of the developed. We must here limit old poet too strong for him, to set ourselves to the local patriotism And now the Italian cities began it up again. Even then, perhaps, of the topographers who again to remember their ancient the grotto, a couple of miles from recorded the claims of their citizens and inhabitants. Naples, the town, where Virgil was said to native cities to distinction. perhaps, had never forgotten its have meditated, was shown to tomb of Virgil, since a kind of strangers, like the Scuola di In the Middle Ages, the cities mythical halo had become Virgilio at Naples. Como claimed were proud of their saints and of 94 the bones and relics in their Augustinian theologian, Fra not only, like so many others, churches. With these the Alberto; a string of philosophers received, but deserved, the panegyrist of Padua in 1450, beginning with Paolo Veneto and honour of knighthood’. Then Michele Savonarola, begins his the celebrated Pietro of Abano; follows a list of famous list; from them he passes to 'the the jurist Paolo Padovano; then mechanicians, painters, and famous men who were no saints, Livy and the poets Petrarch, musicians, and in conclusion the but who, by their great intellect Mussato, Lovato. If there is any name of a fencing-master and force (virtus) deserve to be want of military celebrities in the Michele Rosso, who, as the most added (adnecti) to the saints'— list, the poet consoles himself for distinguished man in his just as in classical antiquity the it by the abundance of learned profession, was to be seen distinguished man came close men whom he has to show, and painted in many places. upon the hero. The further by the more durable character of enumeration is most intellectual glory, while the fame By the side of these local characteristic of the time. First of the soldier is buried with his temples of fame, which myth, comes Antenor, the brother of body, or, if it lasts, owes its legend, popular admiration, and Priam, who founded Padua with permanence only to the scholar. literary tradition combined to a band of Trojan fugitives; King It is nevertheless honorable to create, the poet-scholars built up Dardanus, who defeated Attila in the city that foreign warriors lie a great Pantheon of worldwide the Euganean hills, followed him buried here by their own wish, celebrity. They made collections in pursuit, and struck him dead at like Pietro de' Rossi of Parma, of famous men and famous Rimini with a chessboard; the Filippo Arcelli of Piacenza, and women, often in direct imitation Emperor Henry IV, who built the especially Gattemelata of Narni of Cornelius Nepos, the pseudo- cathedral; a King Marcus, whose d. 1443), whose brazen Suetonius, Valerius Maximus, head was preserved in equestrian statue, 'like a Caesar Plutarch (Mulierum virtutes), Monselice; then a couple of in triumph,' already stood by the Jerome (De viris illustribus), and cardinals and prelates as church of the Santo. The author others: or they wrote of imaginary founders of colleges, churches, then names a crowd of jurists triumphal processions and and so forth; the famous and physicians, nobles 'who had Olympian assemblies, as was 95 done by Petrarch in his Trionfo legends and showing no traces before Charles VIII. Angelo della Fama, and Boccaccio in the of the idea of fame, that is, of Poliziano seriously exhorts Amorosa Visione, with hundreds distinction won by a man's (1491) King John of Portugal to of names, of which three-fourths personal efforts. Poetical glory think betimes of his immortality in at least belong to antiquity and was still confined to certain reference to the new discoveries the rest to the Middle Ages. By classes of society, and the in Africa, and to send him and by this new and names of northern artists are materials to Florence, there to be comparatively modern element only known to us at this period in put into shape (operosius was treated with greater so far as they were members of excolenda), otherwise it would emphasis; the historians began certain guilds or corporations. befall him as it had befallen all to insert descriptions of the others whose deeds, character, and collections arose The poet-scholar in Italy had, as unsupported by the help of the of the biographies of we have already said, the fullest learned, 'lie hidden in the vast distinguished contemporaries, consciousness that he was the heap of human frailty’. The king, like those of Filippo Villani, giver of fame and immortality, or, or his humanistic chancellor, Vespasiano Fiorentino, if he chose, of oblivion. agreed to this, and promised that Bartolommeo I Fazio, and lastly Boccaccio complains of a fair at least the Portuguese of Paolo Giovio. one to whom he had done chronicles of African affairs homage, and who remained should be translated into Italian, The North of Europe, until Italian hard-hearted in order that he and sent to Florence to be done influence began to tell upon its might go on praising her and into Latin. Whether the promise writers— for instance, on making her famous, and he gives was kept is not known. These Trithemius, the first German who her a hint that he will try the pretensions are by no means so wrote the lives of famous men, effect of a little blame. groundless as they may appear possessed only either legends of Sannazaro, in two magnificent at first sight; for the form in which the saints, or descriptions of sonnets, threatens Alfonso of events, even the greatest, are princes and churchmen partaking Naples with eternal obscurity on told to the living and to posterity largely of the character of account of his cowardly flight is anything but a matter of 96 indifference. The Italian Machiavelli's Florentine history, vanity, but something demonic, humanists, with their mode of in which he blames his involving a surrender of the will, exposition and their Latin style, predecessors Leonardo, Aretino the use of any means, however had long the complete control of and Poggio for their too atrocious, and even an the reading world of Europe, and considerate reticence with regard indifference to success itself. In until last century the Italian poets to the political parties in the city: this sense, for example, were more widely known and ‘They erred greatly and showed Machiavelli conceives the studied than those of any other that they understood little the character of Stefano Porcari; of nation. The baptismal name of ambition of men and the desire to the murderers of Galeazzo Maria the Florentine Amerigo Vespucci perpetuate a name. How many Sforza (1476), the documents tell was given, on account of his who could distinguish themselves us about the same; and the book of travels, to a new quarter by nothing praiseworthy, strove assassination of Duke of the globe, and if Paolo Giovio, to do so by infamous deeds!' Alessandro of Florence (1537) is with all his superficiality and Those writers did not consider ascribed by Varchi himself to the graceful caprice, promised that actions which are great in thirst for fame which tormented himself immortality, his themselves, as is the case with the murderer Lorenzino Medici. expectation has not altogether the actions of rulers and of Still more stress is laid on this been disappointed. States, always seem to bring motive by Paolo Giovio. more glory than blame, of Lorenzino, according to him, Amid all these preparations whatever kind they are and pilloried by a pamphlet of Molza, outwardly to win and secure whatever the result of them may broods over a deed whose fame, the curtain is now and then be. In more than one remarkable novelty shall make his disgrace drawn aside, and we see with and dreadful undertaking the forgotten, and ends by murdering frightful evidence a boundless motive assigned by serious his kinsman and prince. These ambition and thirst after writers is the burning desire to are characteristic features of this greatness, regardless of all achieve something great and age of overstrained and means and consequences. memorable. This motive is not a despairing passions and forces, Thus, in the preface to mere extreme case of ordinary and remind us of the burning of 97 the temple of Diana at Ephesus adopt this tone when necessary. utterance of scorn, leaves all in the time of Philip of Macedon But wit could not be an other poets in the world far independent element in life until behind, and who, if only on its appropriate victim, the account of his great picture of the developed individual with deceivers, must be called the Ridicule and Wit personal pretensions, had chief master of colossal comedy. appeared. Its weapons were With Petrarch begin the then by no means limited to the collections of witty sayings after The corrective, not only of this tongue and the pen, but included the pattern of Plutarch modern desire for fame, but of all tricks and practical jokes — the (Apophthegmata, etc.). highly developed individuality, is so-called burle and beffe— which found in ridicule, especially when form a chief subject of many What stores of wit were expressed in the victorious form collections of novels. concentrated in Florence during of wit. We read in the Middle this century is most Ages how hostile armies, The Hundred Old Novels, which characteristically shown in the princes, and nobles, provoked must have been composed about novels of Franco Sacchetti. one another with symbolical the end of the thirteenth century, These are, for the most part, not insult, and how the defeated have as yet neither wit, the fruit stories but answers, given under party was loaded with symbolical of contrast, nor the burla, for their certain circumstances— outrage. Here and there, too, subject; their aim is merely to shocking pieces of naivete, with under the influence of classical give simple and elegant which silly folks, court jesters, literature, wit began to be used expression to wise sayings and rogues, and profligate women as a weapon in theological pretty stories or fables. But if make their retort. The comedy of disputes, and the poetry of anything proves the great the tale lies in the startling Provence produced a whole antiquity of the collection, it is contrast of this real or assumed class of satirical compositions. precisely this absence of satire. naivete with conventional Even the Minnesanger, as their For with the fourteenth century morality and the ordinary political poems show, could comes Dante, who, in the relations of the world—things are 98 made to stand on their heads. have been some who were as something sovereign. All means of picturesque classical— far superior to all the Dolcibene, whom Charles IV had representation are made use of, mere court-jesters, to whom pronounced to be the 'king of including the introduction of competition, a changing public, Italian jesters,' said to him at certain North Italian dialects. and the quick apprehension of Ferrara: ‘You will conquer the Often the place of wit is taken by the audience, all advantages of world, since you are my friend mere insolence, clumsy trickery, life in Florence, were wanting. and the Pope's; you fight with the blasphemy, and obscenity; one Some Florentine wits went sword, the Pope with his bulls, or two jokes told of Condottieri starring among the despotic and I with my tongue.’ This is no are among the most brutal and courts of Lombardy and mere jest, but the foreshadowing malicious which are recorded. Romagna, and found themselves of Pietro Aretino. Many of the burle are thoroughly much better rewarded than at comic, but many are only real or home, where their talent was The two most famous jesters supposed evidence of personal cheap and plentiful. The better about the middle of the fifteenth superiority, of triumph over type of these people is the century were a priest near another. How much people were amusing man (l'uomo piacevole), Florence, Arlotto (1483), for more willing to put up with, how often the worse is the buffoon and the refined wit (facezie), and the the victim was satisfied with vulgar parasite who presents court-fool of Ferrara, Gonnella, getting the laugh on his side by a himself at weddings and for buffoonery. We can hardly retaliatory trick, cannot be said; banquets with the argument, 'If I compare their stories with those there was much heartless and am not invited, the fault is not of the Parson of Kalenberg and pointless malice mixed up with it mine’. Now and then the latter Until Eulenspiegel, since the all, and life in Florence was no combine to pluck a young latter arose in a different and doubt often made unpleasant spendthrift, but in general they half-mythical manner, as fruits of enough from this cause. The are treated and despised as the imagination of a whole inventors and retailers of jokes parasites, while wits of higher people, and touch rather on what soon became inevitable figures, position bear themselves like is general and intelligible to all, and among them there must princes, and consider their talent while Arlotto and Gonnella were 99 historical beings, colored and Barlacchia, and at the beginning music. The Improvisatore, shaped by local influences. But if of the seventeenth century Baraballo of Gaeta, was brought the comparison be allowed, and Francesco Ruspoli and Curzio so far by Leo's flattery that he extended to the jests of the non- Marignolli. In Pope Leo X, the applied in all seriousness for the Italian nations, we shall find in genuine Florentine love of jesters poet's coronation on the Capitol. general that the joke in the showed itself strikingly. This On the feast of St. Cosmas and French fabliaux, as among the prince, whose taste for the most St. Damian, the patrons of the Germans, is chiefly directed to refined intellectual pleasures was House of Medici, he was first the attainment of some insatiable, endured and desired compelled, adorned with laurel advantage or enjoyment; while at his table a number of witty and purple, to amuse the papal the wit of Arlotto and the practical buffoons and jack-puddings, guests with his recitations, and at jokes of Gonnella are an end in among them two monks and a last, when all were ready to split themselves, and exist simply for cripple; at public feasts he with laughter, to mount a gold- the sake of the triumph of treated them with deliberate harnessed elephant in the court production. (Until Eulenspiegel scorn as parasites, setting before of the Vatican, sent as a present again forms a class by himself, them monkeys and crows in the to Rome by Emmanuel the Great as the personified quiz, mostly place of savory meats. Leo, of Portugal, while the Pope pointless enough, of particular indeed, showed a peculiar looked down from above through classes and professions.) The fondness for the burla; it his eye-glass. The brute, court-fool of the Este retaliated belonged to his nature however, was so terrified by the more than once by his keen sometimes to treat his own noise of the trumpets and satire and refined modes of favorite pursuits—music and kettledrums, and the cheers of vengeance. poetry—ironically, parodying the crowd, that there was no them with his factotum, Cardinal getting him over the bridge of The type of the uomo piacevole Bibbiena. Neither of them found Sant' Angelo. and the buffone long survived the it beneath him to fool an honest freedom of Florence. Under old secretary until he thought The parody of what is solemn or Duke Cosimo flourished himself a master of the art of sublime, which here meets us in 100 the case of a procession, had conscious parody of the good society was regulated more already taken an important place chivalrous poetry of the Middle precisely. The theorist was in poetry. It was naturally Ages. Such a caricature was Gioviano Pontano. In his work compelled to choose victims of deliberately undertaken by the on speaking, especially in the another kind than those of great parodist Teofilo Folengo third and fourth books, he tries by Aristophanes, who introduced the (about 1520). Under the name of means of the comparison of great tragedians into his plays. Limerno Pitocco, he composed numerous jokes or facetiae to But the same maturity of culture the Orlandino, in which chivalry arrive at a general principle. which at a certain period appears only as a ludicrous How wit should be used among produced parody among the setting for a crowd of modern people of position is taught by Greeks, did the same in Italy. By figures and ideas. Under the Baldassare Castiglione in his the close of the fourteenth name of Merlinus Coccaius he Cortigiano. Its chief function is century, the love-lorn wailings of described the journeys and naturally to enliven those present Petrarch's sonnets and others of exploits of his fantastic by the repetition of comic or the same kind were taken off by vagabonds (also in the same graceful stories and sayings; caricaturists; and the solemn air spirit of parody) in half-Latin personal jokes, on the contrary, of this form of verse was hexameters, with all the affected are discouraged on the ground parodied in lines of mystic pomp of the learned Epos of the that they wound unhappy people, twaddle. A constant invitation to day (Opus Macaronicorum). show too much honour to wrong- parody was offered by the Divine Since then caricature has been doers, and make enemies of the Comedy, and Lorenzo il constantly, and often brilliantly, powerful and the spoiled children Magnifico wrote the most represented on the Italian of fortune; and even in repetition, admirable travesty in the style of Parnassus. a wide reserve in the use of the Inferno (Simposio or I Beoni). dramatic gestures is Luigi Pulci obviously imitates the About the middle period of the recommended to the gentleman. Improvisatori in his Morgante, Renaissance a theoretical Then follows, not only for and both his poetry and Boiardo's analysis of wit was undertaken, purposes of quotation, but as are in part, at least, a half- and its practical application in patterns for future jesters, a large 101 collection of puns and witty human beings, celebrities of have said, in advance of other sayings, methodically arranged every kind, statesmen, cities. 'Sharp eyes and bad according to their species, churchmen, inventors, and tongues' is the description given among them some that are discoverers, men of letters, poets of the inhabitants. An easygoing admirable. The doctrine of and artists, all of whom then contempt of everything and Giovanni della Casa, some gave the fullest and freest play to everybody was probably the twenty years later, in his guide to their individuality. This host prevailing tone of society. good manners, is much stricter existed in the fifteenth and Machiavelli, in the remarkable and more cautious; with a view to sixteenth centuries, and by its prologue to his Mandragola, the consequences, he wishes to side the general culture of the refers rightly or wrongly the see the desire of triumph time had educated a poisonous visible decline of moral force to banished altogether from jokes brood of impotent wits, of born the general habit of evil- and burle. He is the herald of a critics and railers, whose envy speaking, and threatens his reaction, which was certain called for hecatombs of victims; detractors with the news that he sooner or later to appear. and to all this was added the can say sharp things as well as envy of the famous men among they. Next to Florence comes Italy had, in fact, become a themselves. In this the the Papal court, which had long school for scandal, the like of philologists notoriously led the been a rendezvous of the which the world cannot show, not way—Filelfo, Poggio, Lorenzo bitterest and wittiest tongues. even in France at the time of Valla, and others—while the Poggio's Facetiae are dated from Voltaire. In him and his artists of the fifteenth century the Chamber of Lies (bugiale) of comrades there was assuredly lived in peaceful and friendly the apostolic notaries; and when no lack of the spirit of negation; competition with one another. we remember the number of but where, in the eighteenth The history of art may take note disappointed place-hunters, of century, was to be found the of the fact. hopeless competitors and crowd of suitable victims, that enemies of the favorites, of idle, countless assembly of highly and Florence, the great market of profligate prelates there characteristically developed fame, was in this point, as we assembled, it is intelligible how 102 Rome became the home of the gives us to understand that he had elected him. The plague, savage pasquinade as well as of preserved his ascetic pallor by which then was prevalent in more philosophical satire. If we the smoke of wet straw and other Rome, was ascribed to him; add to this the widespread hatred means of the same kind. Giovio Berni and others sketch the borne to the priests, and the well- is a genuine Curial in these environment of the Pope with the known instinct of the mob to lay matters. He generally begins by same sparkling untruthfulness any horror to the charge of the telling his story, then adds that with which the modern great, there results an untold he does not believe it, and then feuilletoniste turns black into mass of infamy. Those who hints at the end that perhaps white, and everything into were able, protected themselves after all there may be something anything. The biography which best by contempt both of the in it. But the true scapegoat of Paolo Giovio was commissioned false and true accusations, and Roman scorn was the pious and to write by the cardinal of by brilliant and joyous display. moral Adrian VI. A general Tortosa, and which was to have More sensitive natures sank into agreement seemed to be made been a eulogy, is for anyone who utter despair when they found to take him only on the comic can read between the lines an themselves deeply involved in side. He fell out from the first unexampled piece of satire. It guilt, and still more deeply in with the formidable Francesco sounds ridiculous at least for the slander. In course of time Berni, threatening to have thrown Italians of that time—to hear how calumny became universal, and into the Tiber not, as people said, Adrian applied to the Chapter of the strictest virtue was most the statue of Pasquino, but the Saragossa for the jawbone of St. certain of all to challenge the writers of the satires themselves. Lambert; how the devout attacks of malice. Of the great The vengeance for this was the Spaniards decked him out until pulpit orator, Fra Egidio of famous Capitolo against Pope he looked 'like a right well- Viterbo, whom Leo made a Adriano, inspired not exactly by dressed Pope'; how he came in a cardinal on account of his merits, hatred, but by contempt for the confused and tasteless and who showed himself a man comical Dutch barbarian; the procession from Ostia to Rome, of the people and a brave monk more savage menaces were took counsel about burning or in the calamity of 1527, Giovio reserved for the cardinals who drowning Pasquino, would 103 suddenly break off the most was developed, chiefly in Rome worship, in observing which it important business when dinner the greatest railer of modern must not be forgotten that Aretino was announced; and lastly, at the times, Pietro Aretino. A glance at constantly cherished the hope end of an unhappy reign, how be his life and character will save us that Charles would help him to a died of drinking too much beer— the trouble of noticing many less cardinal's hat. It is probable that whereupon the house of his distinguished members of his he enjoyed special protection as physician was hung with class. Spanish agent, as his speech or garlands by midnight revellers, silence could have no small and adorned with the inscription, We know him chiefly in the last effect on the smaller Italian Liberatori Patriae S.P.Q.R. It is thirty years of his life, (1527-56), courts and on public opinion in true that Giovio had lost his which he passed in Venice, the Italy. He affected utterly to money in the general only asylum possible for him. despise the Papal court because confiscation of public funds, and From hence he kept all that was he knew it so well; the true had only received a benefice by famous in Italy in a kind of state reason was that Rome neither way of compensation because he of siege, and here were delivered could nor would pay him any was 'no poet,' that is to say, no the presents of the foreign longer. Venice, which sheltered pagan. But it was decreed that princes who needed or dreaded him, he was wise enough to Adrian should be the last great his pen. Charles V and Francis I leave unassailed. The rest of his victim. After the disaster which both pensioned him at the same relations with the great is mere befell Rome in 1527, slander time, each hoping that Aretino beggary and vulgar extortion. visibly declined along with the would do some mischief to the unrestrained wickedness of other. Aretino flattered both, but Aretino affords the first great private life. naturally attached himself more instance of the abuse of publicity closely to Charles, because he to such ends. The polemical remained master in Italy. After writings which a hundred years

the Emperor's victory at Tunis in earlier Poggio and his opponents But while it was still flourishing 1535, this tone of adulation interchanged, are just as passed into the most ludicrous infamous in their tone and 104 purpose, but they were not all he wrote, and openly gloried is the mockery of a devil or a composed for the press, but for a in his notorious Ragionamenti. monkey. Sometimes, when he is sort of private circulation. Aretino His literary talent, his clear and forced to give up all hope of made all his profit out of a sparkling style, his varied presents, his fury breaks out into complete publicity, and in a observation of men and things, a savage howl, as in the Capitolo certain sense may be considered would have made him a to the Prince of Salerno, who the father of modern journalism. considerable writer under any after paying him for some time His letters and miscellaneous circumstances, destitute as he refused to do so any longer. On articles were printed periodically, was of the power of conceiving a the other hand, it seems that the after they had already been genuine work of art, such as a terrible Pierluigi Farnese, Duke of circulated among a tolerably true dramatic comedy; and to the Parma, never took any notice of extensive public. coarsest as well as the most him at all. As this gentleman had refined malice he added a probably renounced altogether Compared with the sharp pens of grotesque wit so brilliant that in the pleasures of a good the eighteenth century, Aretino some cases it does not fall short reputation, it was not easy to had the advantage that he was of that of Rabelais. cause him any annoyance; not burdened with principles, Aretino tried to do so by neither with liberalism nor In such circumstances, and with comparing his personal philanthropy nor any other virtue, such objects and means, he set appearance to that of a nor even with science; his whole to work to attack or circumvent constable, a miller, and a baker. baggage consisted of the well- his prey. The tone in which he Aretino is most comical of all in known motto, Veritas odium parit. appealed to Clement VII not to the expression of whining He never, consequently, found complain or to think of mendicancy, as in the Capitolo to himself in the false position of vengeance, but to forgive, at the Francis I; but the letters and Voltaire, who was forced to moment when the wailings of the poems made up of menaces and disown his Pucelle and conceal devastated city were ascending flattery cannot, notwithstanding all his life the authorship of other to the Castel Sant' Angelo, where all that is ludicrous in them, be works. Aretino put his name to the Pope himself was a prisoner, read without the deepest disgust. 105 A letter like that one of his written daggers of his enemies, although as Spanish agent. Aretino could to Michelangelo in November, they failed to have the effect ridicule and revile Cosimo, and in 1545, is alone of its kind; along which Berni prophesied him in a the same breath threaten the with all the admiration he famous sonnet. Aretino died in Florentine agent that he would expresses for the Last his house, of apoplexy. obtain from the Duke his Judgement he charges him with immediate recall; and if the irreligion, indecency, and theft The differences he made in his Medicean prince felt himself at from the heirs of Julius II, and modes of flattery are remarkable: last to be seen through by adds in a conciliating postscript, 'I in dealing with non-Italians he Charles V he would naturally not only want to show you that if you was grossly fulsome; people like be anxious that Aretino's jokes are divino, I am not d'acqua.' Duke Cosimo of Florence he and rhymes against him should Aretino laid great stress upon it— treated very differently. He circulate at the Imperial court. A whether from the insanity of praised the beauty of the then curiously qualified piece of conceit or by way of caricaturing youthful prince, who in fact did flattery was that addressed to the famous men—that he himself share this quality with Augustus notorious Marquis of Marignano, should be called divine, as one of in no ordinary degree; he praised who as Castellan of Musso had his flatterers had already begun his moral conduct, with an attempted to found an to do; and he certainly attained oblique reference to the financial independent State. Thanking so much personal celebrity that pursuits of Cosimo's mother, him for the gift of a hundred his house at Arezzo passed for Maria Salviati, and concluded crowns, Aretino writes: ‘All the one of the sights of the place. with a mendicant whine about the qualities which a prince should There were indeed whole months bad times and so forth. When have are present in you, and all during which he never ventured Cosimo pensioned him, which he men would think so, were it not to cross his threshold at Venice, did liberally, considering his that the acts of violence lest he should fall in with some habitual parsimony—to the inevitable at the beginning of all incensed Florentine like the extent, at least, of 160 ducats a undertakings cause you to younger Strozzi. Nor did he year—he had doubtless an eye appear a trifle rough (aspro).' escape the cudgels and the to Aretino's dangerous character 106 It has often been noticed as something singular that Aretino only reviled the world, and not God also. The religious belief of a man who lived as he did is a matter of perfect indifference, as are also the edifying writings which he composed for reasons of his own. It is in fact hard to say why he should have been a blasphemer. He was no professor, or theoretical thinker or writer; and he could extort no money from God by threats or flattery, and was consequently never goaded into blasphemy by a refusal. A man like him does not take trouble for nothing.

It is a good sign for the present spirit of Italy that such a character and such a career have become a thousand times impossible. But historical criticism will always find in Aretino an important study.

107 only with and through this revival Part Three THE that they are actually manifested Introduction to us. The Renaissance would REVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY not have been the process of world-wide significance which it Now that this point in our is, if its elements could be so historical view of Italian easily separated from one civilization has been reached, it another. We must insist upon it, is time to speak of the influence as one of the chief propositions of antiquity, the 'new birth' of of this book, that it was not the which has been one-sidedly revival of antiquity alone, but its chosen as the name to sum up union with the genius of the the whole period. The conditions Italian people, which achieved which have been hitherto the conquest of the western described would have sufficed, world. The amount of apart from antiquity, to upturn independence which the national and to mature the national mind; spirit maintained in this union and most of the intellectual varied according to tendencies which yet remain to circumstances. In the modern be noticed would be conceivable Latin literature of the period, it is without it. But both what has very small, while in the visual gone before and what we have arts, as well as in other spheres, still to discuss are colored in a it is remarkably great; and hence thousand ways by the influence the alliance between two distant of the ancient world; and though epochs in the civilization of the the essence of the phenomena same people, because might still have been the same concluded on equal terms, without the classical revival, it is proved justifiable and fruitful. 108 The rest of Europe was free new spiritual influence which, preceding tendencies—this either to repel or else partly or spreading itself abroad from Italy, civilization had long been wholly to accept the mighty became the breath of life for all exerting a partial influence on impulse which came forth from the more instructed minds in mediaeval Europe, even beyond Italy. Where the latter was the Europe. The worst that can be the boundaries of Italy. The case we may as well be spared said of the movement is, that it culture of which the complaints over the early was antipopular, that through it was a representative was, in face decay of mediaeval faith and Europe became for the first time of the barbarism of the seventh civilization. Had these been sharply divided into the cultivated and eighth centuries, essentially strong enough to hold their and uncultivated classes. The a Renaissance, and could ground, they would be alive to reproach will appear groundless appear under no other form. Just this day. If those elegiac natures when we reflect that even now as in the Romanesque which long to see them return the fact, though clearly architecture of the North, beside could pass but one hour in the recognized, cannot be altered. the general outlines inherited midst of them, they would gasp The separation, too, is by no from antiquity, remarkable direct to be back in modern air. That in means so cruel and absolute in imitations of the antique also a great historical process of this Italy as elsewhere. The most occur, so too monastic kind flowers of exquisite beauty artistic of her poets, Tasso, is in scholarship had not only may perish, without being made the hands of even the poorest. gradually absorbed an immense immortal in poetry or tradition, is mass of materials from Roman undoubtedly true; nevertheless, The civilization of Greece and writers, but the style of it, from we cannot wish the process Rome, which, ever since the the days of Einhard onwards, undone. The general result of it fourteenth century, obtained so shows traces of conscious consists in this—that by the side powerful a hold on Italian life, as imitation. of the Church which had hitherto the source and basis of culture, held the countries of the West as the object and ideal of But the resuscitation of antiquity together (though it was unable to existence, partly also as an took a different form in Italy from do so much longer) there arose a avowed reaction against that which it assumed in the 109 North. The wave of barbarism of religion and the Church— through the rhymed verses. had scarcely gone by before the combined to produce the modern Reading them through at a people, in whom the former life Italian spirit, which was destined stretch, we can scarcely help was but half effaced, showed a to serve as the model and ideal coming to the conclusion that an consciousness of its past and a for the whole western world. Italian, probably a Lombard, is wish to reproduce it. Elsewhere speaking; in fact, there are in Europe men deliberately and How antiquity influenced the positive grounds for thinking so. with reflection borrowed this or visual arts, as soon as the flood To a certain degree these Latin the other element of classical of barbarism had subsided, is poems of the Clerici vagantes of civilization; in Italy the clearly shown in the Tuscan the twelfth century, with all their sympathies both of the learned buildings of the twelfth and in the remarkable frivolity, are, and of the people were naturally sculptures of the thirteenth doubtless, a product in which the engaged on the side of antiquity centuries. In poetry, too, there whole of Europe had a share; but as a whole, which stood to them will appear no want of similar the writer of the song De Phyllide as a symbol of past greatness. analogies to those who hold that et Flora and the Aestuans The Latin language, too, was the greatest Latin poet of the Interius can have been a easy to an Italian, and the twelfth century, the writer who northerner as little as the numerous monuments and struck the keynote of a whole polished Epicurean observer to documents in which the country class of Latin poems, was an whom we owe Dum Diana vitrea abounded facilitated a return to Italian. We mean the author of sero lampas oritur. Here, in the past. With this tendency the best pieces in the so-called truth, is a reproduction of the other elements—the popular Carmina Burana. A frank whole ancient view of life, which character which time had now enjoyment of life and its is all the more striking from the greatly modified, the political pleasures, as whose patrons the medieval form of the verse in institutions imported by the gods of heathendom are invoked, which it is set forth. There are from Germany, while Catos and Scipios hold the many works of this and the chivalry and other northern forms place of the saints and heroes of following centuries, in which a of civilization, and the influence Christianity, flows in full current careful imitation of the antique 110 appears both in the hexameter Classical antiquity did not display this transformation. The and pentameter of the meter and itself before the fourteenth medieval empire, since the fall of in the classical, often century. For this a development the Hohenstaufen, had either mythological, character of the of civic life was required, which renounced, or was unable to subject, and which yet have not took place only in Italy, and there make good, its claims on Italy. anything like the same spirit of not until then. It was needful that The Popes had migrated to antiquity about them. In the noble and burgher should first Avignon. Most of the political hexametric chronicles and other learn to dwell together on equal powers actually existing owed works of Guglielmus Apuliensis terms, and that a social world their origin to violent and and his successors (from about should arise which felt the want illegitimate means. The spirit of 1100), we find frequent trace of a of culture, and had the leisure the people, now awakened to diligent study of Virgil, Ovid, and the means to obtain it. But self-consciousness, sought for Lucan, Statius, and Claudian; but culture, as soon as it freed itself some new and stable ideal on this classical form is, after all, a from the fantastic bonds of the which to rest. And thus the mere matter of archaeology, as is Middle Ages, could not at once vision of the world-wide empire of the classical subject in compilers and without help find its way to Italy and Rome so possessed the like Vincent of Beauvais, or in the the understanding of the physical popular mind that Cola di Rienzi mythological and allegorical and intellectual world. It needed could actually attempt to put it in writer, Alanus ab Insulis. The a guide, and found one in the practice. The conception he Renaissance, however, is not a ancient civilization, with its wealth formed of his task, particularly fragmentary imitation or of truth and knowledge in every when tribune for the first time, compilation, but a new birth; and spiritual interest. Both the form could only end in some the signs of this are visible in the and the substance of this extravagant comedy; poems of the unknown Clericus civilization were adopted with nevertheless, the memory of of the twelfth century. admiring gratitude; it became the ancient Rome was no slight chief part of the culture of the support to the national sentiment. But the great and general age. The general condition of Armed afresh with its culture, the enthusiasm of the Italians for the country was favourable to Italian soon felt himself in truth 111 citizen of the most advanced the walls of Rome deserve dialogues as the partisan of nation in the world. reverence, and that the ground classical, Giovanni of Christian on which the city is built is more antiquity; then they would It is now our task to sketch this worthy than men say. The discourse of philosophy and of spiritual movement, not indeed in jubilees, incessant as they were, the inventors of the arts. How all its fullness, but in its most have scarcely left a single devout often since that time, down to the salient features, and especially in record in literature properly so days of Gibbon and Niebuhr, its first beginnings. called. The best thing that have the same ruins stirred Giovanni Villani brought back men's minds to the same from the jubilee of the year 1300 reflections! was the resolution to write his The Ruins of Rome history which bad been This double current of feeling is awakened in him by the sight of also recognizable in the the ruins of Rome. Petrarch Dittamondo of Fazio degli Uberti, Rome itself, the city of ruins, now gives evidence of a taste divided composed about the year 1360— became the object of a holly between classical and Christian a description of visionary travels, different sort of piety from that of antiquity. He tells us how often in which the author is the time when the Mirabilia Roma with Giovanni Colonna he accompanied by the old and the collection of William of ascended the mighty vaults of geographer Solinus, as Dante Malmesbury ere composed. The the Baths of Diocletian, and there was by Virgil. They visit Bari in imaginations of the devout in the transparent air, amid the memory of St. Nicholas, and pilgrim, or of the seeker after wide silence with the broad Monte Gargano of the archangel marvels and treasures, are panorama stretching far around Michael, and in Rome the supplanted in contemporary them, they spoke, not of legends of Aracoeli and of Santa records by the interests of the business or political affairs, but of Maria in Trastevere are patriot and the historian. In this the history which the ruins mentioned. Still, the pagan sense we must understand beneath their feet suggested, splendor of ancient Rome Dante's words, that the stones of Petrarch appearing in these unmistakably exercises a greater 112 charm upon them. A venerable many of the remains had still and the columns in front of one of matron in torn garments—Rome their marble incrustation, their the temples on the slope of the herself is meant—tells them of pillared entrances, and their Capitol, first in full preservation, the glorious past, and gives them other ornaments, where we now and then afterwards half a minute description of the old see nothing but the skeleton of destroyed, owing to that triumphs; she then leads the brickwork. In this state of things, unfortunate quality which marble strangers through the city, and the first beginnings of a possesses of being easily burnt points out to them the seven hills topographical study of the old city into lime. A vast colonnade near and many of the chief ruins—'che were made. the Minerva fell piecemeal a comprender potrai, quanto fui victim to the same fate. A bella.' In Poggio's walks through Rome witness in the year 1443 tells us the study of the remains that this manufacture of lime still Unfortunately this Rome of the themselves is for the first time went on: 'Which is a shame, for schismatic and Avignonese more intimately combined with the new buildings are pitiful, and popes was no longer, in respect that of the ancient authors and the beauty of Rome is in its of classical remains, what it had inscriptions—the latter he sought ruins.’ The inhabitants of that been some generations earlier. out from among all the vegetation day, in their peasant's cloaks and The destruction of 140 fortified in which they were imbedded— boots, looked to foreigners like houses of the Roman nobles by the writer's imagination is cowherds; and in fact the cattle the senator Brancaleone in 1257 severely restrained, and the were pastured in the city up to must have wholly altered the memories of Christian Rome the Banchi. The only social character of the most important carefully excluded. The only pity gatherings were the services at buildings then standing: for the is that Poggio's work was not church, on which occasion it was nobles had no doubt ensconced fuller and was not illustrated with possible also to get a sight of the themselves in the loftiest and sketches. Far more was left in beautiful women. best-preserved of the ruins. his time than was found by Nevertheless, far more was left Raphael eighty years later. He In the last years of Eugenius IV than we now find, and probably saw the tomb of Caecilia Metella d. 1447) Biondus of Forli wrote 113 his Roma Instaurata, making use other parts of Italy, and was the Alba, Tibur, Ostia, Falerii, and of Frontinus and of the old Libri first to know and describe Otriculum, and whatever he saw Regionali, as well as, it seems, of accurately the remains which he noted down. He followed the Anastasius. His object is not abounded in the districts for Roman roads and aqueducts, only the description of what miles around the capital. It is and tried to fix the boundaries of existed, but still more the true that, both as priest and the old tribes which had dwelt recovery of what was lost. In cosmographer, he was interested round the city. On an excursion accordance with the dedication to alike in classical and Christian to Tivoli with the great Federigo the Pope, he consoles himself for monuments and in the marvels of of Urbino the time was happily the general ruin by the thought of nature. Or was he doing spent in talk on the military the precious relics of the saints in violence to himself when he system of the ancients, and which Rome was so rich. wrote that Nola was more highly particularly on the Trojan war. honoured by the memory of St. Even on his journey to the With Nicholas V (1447-1455) that Paulinus than by all its classical Congress of Mantua (1459) he new monumental spirit which reminiscences and by the heroic searched, though unsuccessfully, was distinctive of the age of the struggle of Marcellus? Not, for the labyrinth of Clusium Renaissance appeared on the indeed, that his faith in relics was mentioned by Pliny, and visited papal throne. The new passion assumed; but his mind was the so-called villa of Virgil on the for embellishing the city brought evidently rather disposed to an Mincio. That such a Pope should with it on the one hand a fresh inquiring interest in nature and demand a classical Latin style danger for the ruins, on the other antiquity, to a zeal for from his abbreviators, is no more a respect for them, as forming monumental works, to a keen than might be expected. It was one of Rome's claims to and delicate observation of he who, in the war with Naples, distinction. Pius II was wholly human life. In the last years of granted an amnesty to the men possessed by antiquarian his Papacy, afflicted with the gout of Arpinum, as countrymen of enthusiasm, and if he speaks and yet in the most cheerful Cicero and Marius, after whom little of the antiquities of Rome, mood, he was borne in his litter many of them were named. It he closely studied those of all over hill and dale to Tusculum, was to him alone, as both judge 114 and patron, that Blondus could connection with Rome, had which it came from Germany, dedicate his Roma Triumphans, alleged some settlement or from the Roman Ahenobarbus, the first great attempt at a colonization which started from who had led a colony to Parma, complete exposition of Roman the capital; and the obliging and whose successors had been antiquity. manufacturers of pedigrees driven by party conflicts to seem constantly to have derived migrate to Venice. That the Nor was the enthusiasm for the various families from the oldest Massimi claimed descent from Q. classical past of Italy confined at and most famous blood of Rome. Fabius Maximus, and the this period to the capital. So highly was the distinction Cornaro from the Cornelii, cannot Boccaccio had already called the valued, that men clung to it even surprise us. On the other hand, it vast ruins of Baia 'old walls, yet in the light of the dawning is a strikingly exceptional fact for new for modern spirits'; and since criticism of the fifteenth century. the sixteenth century that the his time they were held to be the When Pius II was at Viterbo he novelist Bandello tried to connect most interesting sight near said frankly to the Roman his blood with a noble family of Naples. Collections of antiquities deputies who begged him to Ostrogoths. of all sorts now became return, 'Rome is as much my common. Ciriaco of Ancona d. home as Siena, for my House, To return to Rome. The 1457) travelled not only through the Piccolomini, came in early inhabitants, 'who then called Italy, but through other countries times from the capital to Siena, themselves Romans,' accepted of the old Orbis terrarum, and as is proved by the constant use greedily the homage which was brought back countless of the names 'neas and Sylvius in offered them by the rest of Italy. inscriptions and sketches. When my family’. He would probably Under Paul II, Sixtus IV and asked why he took all this have had no objection to be held Alexander VI, magnificent trouble, he replied, 'To wake the a descendant of the Julii. Paul II, processions formed part of the dead.’ The histories of the a Barbo of Venice, found his Carnival, representing the scene various cities of Italy had from vanity flattered by deducing his most attractive to the imagination the earliest times laid claim to House, notwithstanding an of the time—the triumph of the some true or imagined adverse pedigree, according to Roman Imperator. The 115 sentiment of the people colors of life, with eyes and than anything of modern date. expressed itself naturally in this mouth half open. She was taken shape and others like it. In this to the palace of the Conservatori Meanwhile the material mood of public feeling, a report on the Capitol; and then a knowledge of old Rome was arose on April 18, 1485, that the pilgrimage to see her began. increased by excavations. Under corpse of a young Roman lady of Among the crowd were many Alexander VI the so-called the classical period—wonderfully who came to paint her; 'for she Grotesques, that is, the mural beautiful and in perfect was more beautiful than can be decorations of the ancients, were preservation—had been said or written, and, were it said discovered, and the Apollo of the discovered. Some Lombard or written, it would not be Belvedere was found at Porto masons digging out an ancient believed by those who had not d'Anzio. Under Julius II followed tomb on an estate of the convent seen her.’ By order of Innocent the memorable discoveries of the of Santa Maria Nuova, on the VIII she was secretly buried one Laocoon, of the of the Appian Way, beyond the tomb of night outside the Pincian Gate; Vatican, of the Torso of the Caecilia Metella, were said to the empty sarcophagus remained Cleopatra. The palaces of the have found a marble in the court of the Conservatori. nobles and the cardinals began sarcophagus with the inscription: Probably a colored mask of wax to be filled with ancient statues ‘Julia, daughter of Claudius’. On or some other material was and fragments. Raphael this basis the following story was modelled in the classical style on undertook for Leo X that ideal built. The Lombards the face of the corpse, with which restoration of the whole ancient disappeared with the jewels and the gilded hair of which we read city which his (or Castiglione's) treasure which were found with would harmonize admirably. The celebrated letter (1518 or 1519) the corpse in the sarcophagus. touching point in the story is not speaks of. After a bitter The body had been coated with the fact itself, but the firm belief complaint over the devastations an antiseptic essence, and was that an ancient body, which was which had not even then ceased, as fresh and flexible as that of a now thought to be at last really and which had been particularly girl of fifteen the hour after death. before men's eyes, must of frequent under Julius II, he It was said that she still kept the necessity be far more beautiful beseeches the Pope to protect 116 the few relics which were left to The Vatican resounded with song of his expected intercourse with testify to the power and and music, and their echoes the accomplished poets who greatness of that divine soul of were heard through the city as a would conduct him through the antiquity whose memory was call to joy and gladness, though city of ruins, of the learned inspiration to all who were Leo did not succeed thereby in counsel which he would there capable of higher things. He banishing care and pain from his find for his own literary efforts, then goes on with penetrating own life, and his deliberate and of the treasures of the judgement to lay the foundations calculation to prolong his days by Vatican library. These, he says, of a comparative history of art, cheerfulness was frustrated by and not the long-abandoned and concludes by giving the an early death. The Rome of hope of Medicean protection, definition of an architectural Leo, as described by Paolo were the baits which really survey which has been accepted Giovio, forms a picture too attracted him, if he were again since his time; he requires the splendid to turn away from, asked to go as Ferrarese ground plan, section and unmistakable as are also its ambassador to Rome. elevation separately of every darker aspects—the slavery of building that remained. How those who were struggling to But the ruins within and outside archaeology devoted itself after rise; the secret misery of the Rome awakened not only his day to the study of the prelates, who, notwithstanding archaeological zeal and patriotic venerated city and grew into a heavy debts, were forced to live enthusiasm, but an elegiac of special science, and how the in a style befitting their rank; the sentimental melancholy. In Vitruvian Academy at all events system of literary patronage, Petrarch and Boccaccio we find proposed to itself great him, which drove men to be parasites touches of this feeling. Poggio cannot here be related. Let us or adventurers; and, lastly, the Bracciolini often visited the rather pause at the days of Leo scandalous maladministration of temple of Venus and Roma, in X, under whom the enjoyment of the finances of the State. Yet the the belief that it was that of antiquity combined with all other same Ariosto who knew and Castor and Pollux, where the pleasures to give to Roman life a ridiculed all this so well, gives in senate used so often to meet, unique stamp and consecration. the sixth satire a longing picture and would lose himself in 117 memories of the great orators antiquity, Greek as well as Latin, from which a few favored Crassus, Hortensius, Cicero. were of far more importance than individuals in the time of Petrarch The language of Pius II, the architectural, and indeed than and Boccaccio drew their especially in describing Tivoli, all the artistic remains which it inspiration. The former, as is has a thoroughly sentimental had left. They were held in the well known, owned and kept with ring, and soon afterwards (1467) most absolute sense to be the religious care a Greek Homer, appeared the first pictures of springs of all knowledge. The which he was unable to read. A ruins, with a commentary by literary conditions of that age of complete Latin translation of the Polifilo. Ruins of mighty arches great discoveries have often Iliad and Odyssey, though a very and colonnades, half hid in been set forth; no more can here bad one, vas made at Petrarch's plane-trees, laurels, cypresses be attempted than to point out a suggestion, and with Boccaccio's and brushwood, figure in his few less-known features of the help, by a Calabrian Greek, pages. In the sacred legends it picture. Leonzio Pilato. But with the became the custom, we can fifteenth century began the long hardly say how, to lay the scene Great as was the influence of the list of new discoveries, the of the birth of Christ in the ruins old writers on the Italian mind in systematic creation of libraries by of a magnificent palace. That the fourteenth century and means of copies, and the rapid artificial ruins became afterwards before, yet that influence was multiplication of translations from a necessity of landscape due rather to the wide diffusion of the Greek. gardening is only a practical what bad long been known than consequence of this feeling. to the discovery of much that was Had it not been for the new. The most popular latin enthusiasm of a few collectors of poets, historians, orators and that age, who shrank from no letter-writers, together with a effort or privation in their The Classics number of Latin translations of researches, we should certainly single works of Aristotle, possess only a small part of the Plutarch, and a few other Greek literature, especially that of the But the literary bequests of authors, constituted the treasure Greeks, which is now in our 118 hands. Pope Nicholas V, when library of the Vatican. It was to confidence he lent his books to only a simple monk, ran deeply be preserved in the palace itself, those who asked for them, into debt through buying as its noblest ornament, the allowed all comers to study them manuscripts or having them library of Ptolemy Philadelphus at in his own house, and was ready copied. Even then he made no Alexandria. When the plague to converse with the students on secret of his passion for the two (1450) drove him and his court to what they had read. His great interests of the Fabriano, whence then, as now, collection of 800 volumes, valued Renaissance, books and the best paper was procured, he at 6,000 gold florins, passed after buildings. As Pope he kept his took his translators and his death, through Cosimo's word. Copyists wrote and spies compilers with him, that he might intervention, to the monastery of searched for him through half the run no risk of losing them. San Marco, on the condition that world. Perotto received 500 it should be accessible to the ducats for the Latin translation of The Florentine Niccolo Niccoli, a public. Polybius; Guarino, 1,000 gold member of that accomplished florins for that of Strabo, and he circle of friends which Of the two great book-finders, would have been paid 500 more surrounded the elder Cosimo de' Guarino and Poggio, the latter, but for the death of the Pope. Medici, spent his whole fortune in on the occasion of the Council of Filelfo was to have received buying books. At last, when his Constance and acting partly as 10,000 gold florins for a metrical money was all gone, the Medici the agent of Niccoli, searched translation of Homer, and was put their purse at his disposal for industriously among the abbeys only prevented by the Pope's any sum which his purpose might of South Germany. He there death from coming from Milan to require. We owe to him the later discovered six orations of Cicero, Rome. Nicholas left a collection books of Ammianus Marcellinus, and the first complete Quintilian, of 5,000 or, according to another the De Oratore of Cicero, and that of St. Gallen, now at Zurich; way of calculating, of 6,000 other works; he persuaded in thirty-two days he is said to volumes, for the use of the Cosimo to buy the best have copied the whole of it in a members of the Curia, which manuscript of Pliny from a beautiful handwriting. He was became the foundation of the monastery at Lubeck. With noble able to make important additions 119 to Silius Italicus, Manilius, The formation of the celebrated Mark at Florence, of the Visconti Lucretius, Valerius Flaccus, Medicean library has a history of at Pavia, and even of the library Asconius Pedianus, Columella, its own, into which we cannot at Oxford. It was noted with , Aulus Gellius, Statius, here enter. The chief collector pride that in richness and and others; and with the help of for Lorenzo il Magnifico was completeness none could rival Leonardo Aretino he unearthed Johannes Lascaris. It is well Urbino. Theology and the Middle the last twelve comedies of known that the collection, after Ages were perhaps most fully Plautus, as well as the Verrine the plundering in the year 1494, represented. There was a orations. had to be recovered piecemeal complete Thomas Aquinas, a by the Cardinal Giovanni Medici, complete , a The famous Greek, Cardinal afterwards Leo X. complete Bonaventura. The Bessarion, in whom patriotism collection, however, was a many- was mingled with a zeal for The library of Urbino, now in the sided one, and included every letters, collected, at a great Vatican, was wholly the work of work on medicine which was sacrifice, 600 manuscripts of the great Federigo of Montefeltro. then to be had. Among the pagan and Christian authors. He As a boy he had begun to collect; 'moderns' the great writers of the then looked round for some in after years he kept thirty or fourteenth century—Dante and receptacle where they could forty scrittori employed in various Boccaccio, with their complete safely lie until his unhappy places, and spent in the course works—occupied the first place. country, if she ever regained her of time no less than 30,000 Then followed twenty-five select freedom, could reclaim her lost ducats on the collection. It was humanists, invariably with both literature. The Venetian systematically extended and their Latin and Italian writings government declared itself ready completed, chiefly by the help of and with all their translations. to erect a suitable building, and Vespasiano, and his account of it Among the Greek manuscripts to this day the Biblioteca forms an ideal picture of a library the Fathers of the Church far Marciana retains a part of these of the Renaissance. At Urbino outnumbered the rest; yet in the treasures. there were catalogues of the list of the classics we find all the libraries of the Vatican, of St. works of Sophocles, all of Pindar, 120 and all of Menander. The last desired an addition to their own hand. Ecclesiastical codex must have quickly income. The copyists at Rome in literature and the books needed disappeared from Urbino, else the time of Nicholas V were for the choral services naturally the philologists would have soon mostly Germans or Frenchmen— held the chief place in the list. edited it. 'barbarians' as the Italian humanists called them, probably The handwriting was that We have, further, a good deal of men who were in search of beautiful modern Italian which information as to the way in favours at the papal court, and was already in use in the which manuscripts and libraries who kept themselves alive preceding century, and which were multiplied. The purchase of meanwhile by this means. When makes the sight of one of the an ancient manuscript, which Cosimo de' Medici was in a hurry books of that time a pleasure. contained a rare, or the only to form a library for his favorite Pope Nicholas V, Poggio, complete, or the only existing text foundation, the Badia below Gianozzo Manetti, Niccolo of an old writer, was naturally a Fiesole, he sent for Vespasiano, Niccoli, and other distinguished lucky accident of which we need and received from him the advice scholars, themselves wrote a take no further account. Among to give up all thoughts of beautiful hand, and desired and the professional copyists those purchasing books, since those tolerated none other. The who understood Greek took the which were worth getting could decorative adjuncts, even when highest place, and it was they not be had easily, but rather to miniatures formed no part of especially who bore the make use of the copyists; them, were full of taste, as may honorable name of scrittori. whereupon Cosimo bargained to be seen especially in the Their number was always limited, pay him so much a day, and Laurentian manuscripts, with the and the pay they received very Vespasiano, with forty-five light and graceful scrolls which large. The rest, simply called writers under him, delivered 200 begin and end the lines. The copisti, were partly mere clerks volumes in twenty-two months. material used to write on, when who made their living by such The catalogue of the works to be the work was ordered by great or work, partly schoolmasters and copied was sent to Cosimo by wealthy people, was always needy men of learning, who Nicholas V, who wrote it with his parchment; the binding, both in 121 the Vatican and at Urbino, was a publisher began to develop itself, superficial as was their own uniform crimson velvet with silver and under Alexander VI, when it acquaintance with Greek, was clasps. Where there was so was no longer easy to destroy a powerful, but did not tell much care to show honour to the book, as Cosimo could make immediately on their contents of a book by the beauty Filelfo promise to do, the contemporaries, except a few; on of its outward form, it is prohibitive censorship made its the other hand, the study of intelligible that the sudden appearance. Greek literature died out about appearance of printed books was the year 1520 with the last of the greeted at first with anything but The growth of textual criticism colony of learned Greek exiles, favour. Federigo of Urbino which accompanied the and it was a singular piece of 'would have been ashamed to advancing study of languages fortune that northerners like own a printed book.' and antiquity belongs as little to Erasmus, the Stephani, and the subject of this book as the Budaeus had meanwhile made But the weary copyists—not history of scholarship in general. themselves masters of the those who lived by the trade, but We are here occupied, not with language. That colony had the many who were forced to the learning of the Italians in begun with Manuel Chrysoloras copy a book in order to have it— itself, but with the reproduction of and his relation John, and with rejoiced at the German invention. antiquity in literature and life. George of Trebizond. Then It was soon applied in Italy to the One word more on the studies followed, about and after the time multiplication first of the Latin and themselves may still be of the conquest of then of the Greek authors, and permissible. Constantinople, John for a long period nowhere but in Argyropulos, Theodore Gaza, Italy, yet it spread with by no Greek scholarship was chiefly Demetrios Chalcondylas, who means the rapidity which might confined to Florence and to the brought up his sons Theophilos have been expected from the fifteenth and the beginning of the and Basilios to be excellent general enthusiasm for these sixteenth centuries. The impulse Hellenists, Andronikos Kallistos, works. After a while the modern which had proceeded from Marcos Musuros and the family relation between author and Petrarch and Boccaccio, of Lascaris, not to mention 122 others. But after the subjection with native Greeks. from his childhood instructed in of Greece by the Turks was Latin, Greek and Hebrew. The completed, the succession of Besides Florence, Rome and father, at the bidding of Nicholas scholars was maintained only by Padua nearly always maintained V, translated the whole Bible the sons of the fugitives and paid teachers of Greek, and afresh, as the philologists of the perhaps here and there by some Verona, Ferrara, Venice, time insisted on giving up the Candian or Cyprian refugee. Perugia, Pavia and other cities Vulgata. That the decay of Hellenistic occasional teachers. Hellenistic studies began about the time of studies owed a priceless debt to Many other humanists devoted the death of Leo X was due the press of Aldo Manuzio at themselves before Reuchlin to partly to a general change of Venice, where the most the study of Hebrew, among intellectual attitude, and to a important and voluminous writers them Pico della Mirandola, who certain satiety of classical were for the first time printed in was not satisfied with a influences which now made itself the original. Aldo ventured his all knowledge of the Hebrew felt; but its coincidence with the in the enterprise; he was an grammar and ScriptureS, but death of the Greek fugitives was editor and publisher whose like penetrated into the Jewish not wholly a matter of accident. the world has rarely seen. Cabbalah and even made The study of Greek among the himself as familiar with the Italians appears, if we take the Along with this classical revival, literature of the Talmud as any year 1500 as our standard, to Oriental studies now assumed Rabbi. have been pursued with considerable proportions. The extraordinary zeal. Many of controversial writings of the great Among the Oriental languages, those who then learned the Florentine statesman and Arabic was studied as well as language could still speak it half scholar, Giannozzo Manetti d. Hebrew. The science of a century later, in their old age, 1459) against the Jews afford an medicine, no longer satisfied with like the Popes Paul III and Paul early instance of a complete the older Latin translations of the IV. But this sort of mastery of the mastery of their language and great Arab physicians, had study presupposes intercourse science. His son Agnolo was constant recourse to the 123 originals, to which an easy the Jewish investigators, but also would have taken had not the access was offered by the the scholastic writers of the counter-reformation annihilated Venetian consulates in the East, Middle Ages, according to the the higher spiritual life of the where Italian doctors were matter of their writings. In one of people. regularly kept. Hieronimo his writings he makes them say, Ramusio, a Venetian physician, 'We shall live for ever, not in the translated a great part of schools of word-catchers, but in Avicenna from the Arabic and the circle of the wise, where they The Humanists died at Damascus in 1486. talk not of the mother of Andrea Mongaio of Belluno lived Andromache or of the sons of long at Damascus for the Niobe, but of the deeper causes Who now were those who acted purpose of studying Avicenna, of things human and divine; he as mediators between their own learnt Arabic, and emended the who looks closely will see that age and a venerated antiquity, author's text. The Venetian even the barbarians had and made the latter a chief government afterwards intelligence (mercurium), not on element in the culture of the appointed him professor of this the tongue but in the breast.’ former? subject at Padua. Himself writing a vigorous and not inelegant Latin, and a master They were a crowd of the most We must here linger for a of clear exposition, he despised miscellaneous sort, wearing one moment over Pico della the purism of pedants and the face today and another Mirandola, before passing on to current over-estimate of tomorrow; but they clearly felt the general effects of humanism. borrowed forms, especially when themselves, and it was fully He was the only man who loudly joined, as they often are, with recognized by their time that they and vigorously defended the truth one-sidedness, and involving formed, a wholly new element in and science of all ages against indifference to the wider truth of society. The clerici vagantes of the one-sided worship of the things themselves. Looking the twelfth century may perhaps classical antiquity. He knew how at Pico, we can guess at the lofty be taken as their forerunners— to value not only Averroes and flight which Italian philosophy the same unstable existence, the 124 same free and more than free year 1300, were afterwards so Henceforth men looked only to views of life, and the germs at all completely swamped by the antiquity for the solution of every events of the same pagan humanists. There was then, we problem, and consequently tendencies in their poetry. But are told, nobody in Florence who allowed literature to turn into now, as competitor with the could not read; even the mere quotation. Nay, the very whole culture of the Middle Ages, donkeymen sang the verses of fall of civil freedom is partly which was essentially clerical Dante; the best Italian ascribed to all this, since the new and was fostered by the Church, manuscripts which we possess learning rested on obedience to there appeared a new civilization, belonged originally to Florentine authority, sacrificed municipal founding itself on that which lay artisans; the publication of a rights to Roman law, and thereby on the other side of the Middle popular encyclopedia, like the both sought and found the favour Ages. Its active representatives Tesoro of Brunetto Latini, was of the despots. became influential because they then possible; and all this was knew what the ancients knew, founded on strength and These charges will occupy us because they tried to write as the soundness of character due to now and then at a later stage of ancients wrote, because they the universal participation in our inquiry, when we shall began to think, and soon to feel, public affairs, to commerce and attempt to reduce them to their as the ancients thought and felt. travel, and to the systematic true value, and to weigh the The tradition to which they reprobation of idleness. The losses against the gains of this devoted themselves passed at a Florentines, it is urged, were at movement. For the present we thousand points into genuine that time respected and must confine ourselves to reproduction. influential throughout the whole showing how the civilization even world, and were called in that of the vigorous fourteenth Some modern writers deplore the year, not without reason, by century necessarily prepared the fact that the germs of a far more Pope Boniface VIII, 'the fifth way for the complete victory of independent and essentially element’. The rapid progress of humanism, and how precisely the national culture, such as humanism after the year 1400 greatest representatives of the appeared in Florence about the paralysed native impulses. national Italian spirit were 125 themselves the men who opened together a Christian and a pagan as treatises on matters of wide the gate for the illustration of the same fact. It antiquarian interest, obtained a measureless devotion to antiquity must be remembered that the reputation which to us is in the fifteenth century. Christian cycle of history and unintelligible, but which was legend was familiar, while the natural enough in an age without To begin with Dante. If a ancient was relatively unknown, handbooks. succession of men of equal was full of promise and of genius had presided over Italian interest, and must necessarily It was the same with Boccaccio. culture, whatever elements their have gained the upper hand in For two centuries, when but little natures might have absorbed the competition for public was known of the Decameron from the antique, they still could sympathy when there was no north of the Alps, he was famous not fail to retain a characteristic longer a Dante to hold the all over Europe simply on and strongly-marked national balance between the two. account of his Latin compilations stamp. But neither Italy nor on mythology, geography and Western Europe produced Petrarch, who lives in the biography. One of these, De another Dante, and he was and memory of most people Genealogia Deorum, contains in remained the man who first thrust nowadays chiefly as a great the fourteenth and fifteenth antiquity into the foreground of Italian poet, owed his fame books a remarkable appendix, in national culture. In the Divine among his contemporaries far which he discusses the position Comedy he treats the ancient rather to the fact that he was a of the then youthful humanism and the Christian worlds, not kind of living representative of with regard to the age. We must indeed as of equal authority, but antiquity, that he imitated all not be misled by his exclusive as parallel to one another. Just styles of Latin poetry, references to poesie, as closer as, at an earlier period of the endeavored by his voluminous observation shows that he Middle Ages, types and antitypes historical and philosophical means thereby the whole mental were sought in the history of the writings not to supplant but to activity of the poet-scholars. This Old and New Testaments, so make known the works of the it is whose enemies he so does Dante constantly bring ancients, and wrote letters that, vigorously combats—the 126 frivolous ignoramuses who have had to fight its way among the ceremony peculiar to the first no soul for anything but heathen. Now—praised be generation of poet-scholars debauchery; the sophistical Jesus Christ !—true religion was which lasted on into the fifteenth theologian, to whom Helicon, the strengthened, paganism and sixteenth centuries, though Castalian fountain, and the grove destroyed, and the victorious losing the higher sentiment which of Apollo were foolishness; the Church in possession of the inspired it—the coronation of the greedy lawyers, to whom poetry hostile camp. It was now poets with the laurel wreath. The was a superfluity, since no possible to touch and study origin of this custom in the Middle money was to be made by it; paganism almost (fere) without Ages is obscure, and the ritual of finally the mendicant friars, danger. This is the argument the ceremony never became described periphrastically, but invariably used in later times to fixed. It was a public clearly enough, who made free defend the Renaissance. demonstration, an outward and with their charges of paganism visible expression of literary and immorality. Then follows the There was thus a new cause in enthusiasm, and naturally its defence of poetry, the praise of it, the world and a new class of men form was variable. Dante, for and especially of the deeper and to maintain it. It is idle to ask if instance, seems to have allegorical meanings which we this cause ought not to have understood it in the sense of a must always attribute to it, and of stopped short in its career of halfreligious consecration; he that calculated obscurity which is victory, to have restrained itself desired to assume the wreath in intended to repel the dull minds deliberately, and conceded the the baptistery of San Giovanni, of the ignorant. first place to purely national where, like thousands of other elements of culture. No Florentine children, he had And finally, with a clear reference conviction was more firmly rooted received baptism. He could, to his own scholarly work, the in the popular mind than that says his biographer, have writer justifies the new relation in antiquity was the highest title to anywhere received the crown in which his age stood to paganism. glory which Italy possessed. virtue of his fame, but desired it The case was wholly different, he nowhere but in his native city, pleads, when the Early Church There was a symbolical and therefore died uncrowned. 127 From the same source we learn examiner, King Robert of Anjou, on the merits of Italian poets. that the usage was until then would have liked to perform the But from henceforth the uncommon, and was held to be ceremony at Naples, but emperors crowned poets inherited by the ancient Romans Petrarch preferred to be crowned wherever they went on their from the Greeks. The most on the Capitol by the senator of travels; and in the fifteenth recent source to which the Rome. This honour was long the century the popes and other practices could be referred is to highest object of ambition, and princes assumed the same right, be found in the Capitoline so it seemed to Jacobus Pizinga, until at last no regard whatever contests of musicians, poets, and an illustrious Sicilian magistrate. was paid to place or other artists, founded by Then came the Italian journey of circumstances. In Rome, under Domitian in imitation of the Charles IV, whom it amused to Sixtus IV, the academy of Greeks and celebrated every five flatter the vanity of ambitious Pomponius L'tus gave the wreath years, which may possibly have men, and impress the ignorant on its own authority. The survived for a time the fall of the multitude by means of gorgeous Florentines had the good taste Roman Empire; but as few other ceremonies. Starting from the not to crown their famous men would venture to crown fiction that the coronation of humanists until after death. themselves, as Dante desired to poets was a prerogative of the Carlo Aretino and Leonardo do, the question arises, to whom old Roman emperors, and Aretino were thus crowned; the did this office belong? Albertino consequently was no less his eulogy of the first was Mussato was crowned at Padua own, he crowned (May 15, 1355) pronounced by Matteo Palmieri, in 1310 by the bishop and the the Florentine scholar, Zanobi of the latter by Giannozzo rector of the University. The della Strada, at Pisa, to the great Manetti, before the members of , the rector of disgust of Boccaccio, who the council and the whole people, which was then a Florentine declined to recognize this laurea the orator standing at the head of (1341), and the municipal Pisana as legitimate. Indeed, it the bier, on which the corpse lay authorities of Rome, competed might be fairly asked with what clad in a silken robe. Carlo for the honour of crowning right this stranger, half Slavonic Aretino was further honoured by Petrarch. His self-elected by birth, came to sit in judgement a tomb in Santa Croce, which is 128 among the most beautiful in the third for medicine; in course of one place. There were also whole course of the time professorships of rhetoric, of voluntary, unpaid professors. Renaissance. philosophy, and of astronomy were added, the last commonly, Of the chairs which have been though not always, identical with mentioned, that of rhetoric was astrology. The salaries varied especially sought by the Universities and Schools greatly in different cases. humanist; yet it depended only Sometimes a capital sum was on his familiarity with the matter paid down. With the spread of of ancient learning whether or no The influence of antiquity on culture, competition became so be could aspire to those of law, culture, of which we have now to active that the different medicine, philosophy, or speak, presupposes that the new universities tried to entice away astronomy. The inward learning had gained possession distinguished teachers from one conditions of the science of the of the universities. This was so, another, under which day were as variable as the but by no means to the extent circumstances Bologna is said to outward conditions of the and with the results which might have sometimes devoted the half teacher. Certain jurists and have been expected. of its public income (20,000 physicians received by far the ducats) to the university. The largest salaries of all, the former Few of the Italian universities appointments were as a rule chiefly as consulting lawyers for show themselves in their full made only for a certain time, the suits and claims of the State vigor until the thirteenth and sometimes for only half a year, which employed them. In Padua fourteenth centuries, when the so that the teachers were forced a lawyer of the fifteenth century increase of wealth rendered a to lead a wandering life, like received a salary of 1,000 more systematic care for actors. Appointments for life ducats, and it was proposed to education possible. At first there were, however, not unknown. appoint a celebrated physician were generally three sorts of Sometimes the promise was with a yearly payment of 2,000 professorships—one for civil law, exacted not to teach elsewhere ducats, and the right of private another for canonical law, the what had already been taught at practice, the same man having 129 previously received 700 gold was on the whole uncertain and perhaps even of Martin V florins at Pisa. When the jurist temporary, so that one and the thronged the lecture-room, when Bartolommeo Socini, professor at same teacher could be Carlo Aretino and Filelfo were Pisa, accepted a Venetian connected with a great variety of competing for the largest appointment at Padua, and was institutions. It is evident that audience, there existed, not only on the point of starting on his change was desired for its own an almost complete university journey, he was arrested by the sake, and something fresh among the Augustinians of Santo Florentine government and only expected from each newcomer, Spirito, not only an association of released on payment of bail to as was natural at a time when scholars among the Camaldolesi the amount of 18,000 gold florins. science was in the making, and of the Angeli, but individuals of The high estimation in which consequently depended to no mark, either singly or in common, these branches of science were small degree on the personal arranged to provide philosophical held makes it intelligible why influence of the teacher. Nor and philological teaching for distinguished philologists turned was it always the case that a themselves and others. their attention to law and lecturer on classical authors Linguistic and antiquarian studies medicine, while on the other really belonged to the university in Rome had next to no hand specialists were more and of the town where he taught. connection with the university more compelled to acquire Communication was so easy, (Sapienza), and depended something of a wide literary and the supply of suitable almost exclusively either on the culture. We shall presently have accommodation, in monasteries favour of individual popes and occasion to speak of the work of and elsewhere, was so prelates, or on the appointments the humanists in other abundant, that a private made in the Papal chancery. It departments of practical life. appointment was often was not until Leo X (1513) that practicable. In the first decades the great reorganization of the Nevertheless, the position of the of the fifteenth century, when the Sapienza took place, which now philologists, as such, even where University of Florence was at its had eighty-eight lecturers, among the salary was large, and did not greatest brilliance, when the whom there were the most able exclude other sources of income, courtiers of Eugenius IV, and men of Italy, reading and 130 interpreting the class;cs. But this the knowledge of Latin was a new brilliancy was of short necessity; and after Latin came He directed the education of the duration. We have already logic. It is to be noted particularly sons and daughters of the spoken briefly of the Greek that these schools did not princely house, and one of the professorships in Italy. depend on the Church, but on latter became under his care a the municipality; some of them, woman of learning. When his To form an accurate picture of too, were merely private reputation extended far and wide the method of scientific enterprises. over Italy, and members of great instruction then pursued, we and wealthy families came from must turn away our eyes as far This school system, directed by a long distances, even from as possible from our present few distinguished humanists, not Germany, in search of his academic system. Personal only attained a remarkable instructions, Gonzaga was not intercourse between the teachers perfection of organization, but only willing that they should be and the taught, public became an instrument of higher received, but seems to have held disputations, the constant use of education in the modern sense of it an honour for Mantua to be the Latin and often of Greek, the the phrase. With the education chosen school of the aristocratic frequent changes of lecturers of the children of two princely world. Here for the first time and the scarcity of books, gave houses in North Italy institutions gymnastics and all noble bodily the studies of that time a color were connected which may be exercises were treated along with which we cannot represent to called unique of their kind. scientific instruction as ourselves without effort. indispensable to a liberal At the court of Giovan Francesco education. Besides these pupils There were Latin schools in Gonzaga at Mantua (1407-1444) came others, whose instruction every town of the least appeared the illustrious Vittorino Vittorino probably held to be his importance, not by any means da Feltre, one of those men who highest earthly aim, the gifted merely as preparatory to higher devote their whole life to an poor, whom he supported in his education, but because, next to object for which their natural gifts house and educated, per l'amore reading, writing, and arithmetic, constitute a special vocation. di Dio, along with the highborn 131 youths who here learned to live house a select class of poor business of theologians, fell now under the same roof with untitled scholars, whom he partly or within their province. genius. Gonzaga paid him a wholly supported. His evening yearly salary of 300 gold florins, hours until far into the night were From the time of Pier Paolo and contributed to the expenses devoted to hearing lessons or to Vergerio the Italian princes were caused by the poorer pupils. He instructive conversation. His well taken care of in this respect, knew that Vittorino never saved a house, too, was the home of a and the custom was transplanted penny for himself, and doubtless strict religion and morality. It into Germany by Aeneas Sylvius, realized that the education of the signified little to him or to who addressed detailed poor was the unexpressed Vittorino that most of the exhortations to two young condition of his presence. The humanists of their day deserved German princes of the House of establishment was conducted on small praise in the matter of Habsburg on the subject of their strictly religious lines, stricter morals or religion. It is further education, in which they indeed than many monasteries. inconceivable how Guarino, with are both urged, as might be all the daily work which fell upon expected, to cultivate and nurture More stress was laid on pure him, still found time to write humanism. Perhaps Aeneas scholarship by Guarino of Verona translations from the Greek and was aware that in addressing (1370-1460), who in the year voluminous original works. these youths he was talking in 1429 was called to Ferrara by the air, and therefore took Niccolo d'Este to educate his son Not only in these two courts, but measures to put his treatise into Lionello, and who, when his pupil generally throughout Italy, the public circulation. But the was nearly grown up in 1436, education of the princely families relations of the humanists to the began to teach at the university was in part and for certain years rulers will be discussed of eloquence and of the ancient in the hands of the humanists, separately. languages. While still acting as who thereby mounted a step tutor to Lionello, he had many higher in the aristocratic world. other pupils from various parts of The writing of treatises on the the country, and in his own education of princes, formerly the 132 Propagators of Antiquity tolerate nothing around him out respected. Niccolò asked him of harmony with his own classical who his father was. He spirit. His handsome long-robed answered, 'Messer Andrea de' We have here first to speak of figure, his kindly speech, his Pazzi'. When he was further those citizens, mostly house adorned with the noblest asked what his pursuit was, Piero Florentines, who made remains of antiquity, made a replied, as young people are antiquarian interests one of the singular impression. He was wont to do, 'I enjoy myself' chief objects of their lives, and scrupulously cleanly in (attendo a darmi buon tempo). who were themselves either everything, most of all at table, Niccolò said to him, 'As son of distinguished scholars, or else where ancient vases and crystal such a father, and so fair to look distinguished dilettanti who goblets stood before him on the upon, it is a shame that thou maintained the scholars. They whitest linen. The way in which knowest nothing of the Latin were of peculiar significance he won over a pleasure-loving language, which would be so during the period of transition at young Florentine to intellectual great an ornament to thee. If the beginning of the fifteenth interests is too charming not to thou learnest it not, thou wilt be century, since it was in them that be here described. Piero de' good for nothing, and as soon as humanism first showed itself Pazzi, son of a distinguished the flower of youth is over, wilt be practically as an indispensable merchant, and himself destined a man of no consequence' (virtù). element in daily life. It was not to the same calling, fair to When Piero heard this, he until after this time that the popes behold, and much given to the straightway perceived that it was and princes began seriously to pleasures of the world, thought true, and said that he would occupy themselves with it. about anything rather than gladly take pains to learn, if only literature. One day, as he was he had a teacher. Whereupon Niccolò Niccoli and Giannozzo passing the Palazzo del Podestà, Niccolò answered that he would Manetti have been already Niccolò called the young man to see to that. And he found him a spoken of more than once. him, and although they had never learned man for Latin and Greek, Niccoli is described to us by before exchanged a word, the named Pontano, whom Piero Vespasiano as a man who would youth obeyed the call of one so treated as one of his own house, 133 and to whom he paid 100 gold scholars of his time. When purple cover, as a sacred relic in florins a year. Quitting all the appointed by the government as the town hall. When he took his pleasures in which he had its representative magistrate and leave the city presented him with hitherto lived, he studied day and tax-collector at Pescia and a banner bearing the municipal night, and became a friend of all Pistoia, he furfilled his duties in arms and a splendid silver learned men and a noble-minded accordance with the lofty ideal helmet. statesman. He learned by heart with which his religious feeling the whole Aeneid and many and humanistic studies combined For further information as to the speeches of Livy, chiefly on the to inspire him. He succeeded in learned citizens of Florence at way between Florence and his collecting the most unpopular this period the reader must all the country house at Trebbio. taxes which the Florentine State more be referred to Vespasiano, Antiquity was represented in imposed, and declined payment who knew them all personally, another and higher sense by for his services. As provincial because the tone and Giannozzo Maneeti (1393-1459). governor he refused all presents, atmosphere in which he writes, Precocious from his first years, abhorred all bribes, checked and the terms and conditions on he was hardly more than a child gambling, kept the country well which he mixed in their society, when he had finished his supplied with corn, was are of even more importance apprenticeship in commerce, and indefatigable in settling law-suits than the facts which he records. became book-keeper in a bank. amicably, and did wonders in Even in a translation, and still But soon the life he led seemed calming inflamed passions by his more in the brief indications to to him empty and perishable, and goodness. The Pistoiese were which we are here compelled to he began to yearn after science, never able to discover to which of limit ourselves, this chief merit of through which alone man can the two political parties he his book is lost. Without being a secure immortality. He then leaned. As if to symbolize the great writer, he was thoroughly busied himself with books as few common rights and interests of familiar with the subject he wrote laymen had done before him, all, he spent his leisure hours in on, and had a deep sense of its and became, as has been said, writing the history of the city, intellectual significance. one of the most profound which was preserved, bound in a 134 If we seek to analyse the charm story is known to us minutely. It surrounded Lorenzo was united which the Medici of the fifteenth all hangs on the calling of the together, and distinguished from century, especially Cosimo the learned Johannes Argyropulos, all other circles of the kind, by Elder d. 1464) and Lorenzo the and on the personal enthusiasm this passion for a higher and Magnificent d. 1492) exercised of Cosimo himself in his last idealistic philosophy. Only in over Florence and over all their years, which was such, that the such a world could a man like contemporaries, we shall find great Marsilio Ficino could style Pico della Mirandola feel happy. that it lay less in their political himself, as far as Platonism was But perhaps the best thing of all capacity than in their leadership concerned, the spiritual son of that can be said about it is, that, in the culture of the age. A man Cosimo. Under Pietro Medici, with all this worship of antiquity, in Cosimo's position — a great Ficino was already at the head of Italian poetry found here a merchant and party leader, who a school; to him Pietro's son and sacred refuge, and that of all the also had on his side all the Cosimo's grandson, the rays of light which streamed from thinkers, writers and illustrious Lorenzo, came over the circle of which Lorenzo was investigators, a man who was the from the Peripatetics. Among his the centre, none was more first of the Florentines by birth most distinguished fellow- powerful than this. As a and the first of the Italians by scholars were Bartolommeo statesman, let each man judge culture — such a man was to all Valori, Donato Acciaiuoli, and him as he pleases; a foreigner intents and purposes already a Pierfilippo Pandolfini. The will hesitate to pronounce what prince. To Cosimo belongs the enthusiastic teacher declares in was due to human guilt and what special glory of recognizing in the several passages of his writings to circumstances in the fate of Platonic philosophy the fairest that Lorenzo had sounded all the Florence, but no more unjust flower of the ancient world of depths of the Platonic charge was ever made than that thought, of inspiring his friends philosophy, and had uttered his in the field of culture Lorenzo with the same belief, amd thus of conviction that without Plato it was the protector of mediocrity, fostering within humanistic circles would be hard to be a good that through his fault Leonardo themselves another and a higher Christian or a good citizen. The da Vinci and the mathematician resuscitation of antiquity. The famous band of scholars which Fra Luca Pacioli lived abroad, 135 and that Toscanella, Vespucci, to be the noblest of earthly and others at least remained pursuits; exile would not have But it is now time to speak of unsupported. He was not, been turned into a happy retreat, humanism at the Italian courts. indeed, a man of universal mind; as was done by Palla Strozzi; nor The natural alliance between the but of all the great men who have would men who indulged in every despot and the scholar, each striven to favour and promote conceivable excess have relying solely on his personal spiritual interests, few certainly retained the strength and the talent, has already been touched have been so many-sided, and in spirit to write critical treatises on upon; that the latter should none probably was the inward the Natural History of Pliny like avowedly prefer the princely need to do so equally deep. Filippo Strozzi. Our business courts to the free cities, was only here is not to deal out either to be expected from the higher The age in which we live is loud praise or blame, but to pay which they there received. enough in proclaiming the worth understand the spirit of the age in At a time when the great Alfonso of culture, and especially of the all its vigorous individuality. of Aragon seemed likely to culture of antiquity. But the become master of all Italy, enthusiastic devotion to it, the Besides Florence, there were AEneas Sylvius wrote to another recognition that the need of it is many cities of Italy where citizen of Siena: ‘I had rather the first and greatest of all needs, individuals and social circles that Italy attained peace under is nowhere to be found in such a devoted all their energies to the his rule than under that of the degree as among the Florentines support of humanism and the free cities, for kingly generosity of the fifteenth and the early part protection of the scholars who rewards excellence of every of the sixteenth centuries. On lived among them. The kind'. Too much stress has this point we have indirect proof correspondence of that period is latterly been laid on the unworthy which precludes all doubt. It full of references to personal side of this relation, and the would not have been so common relations of this kind. The feeling mercenary flattery to which it to give the daughters of the of the instructed classes set gave rise, just as formerly the house a share in the same strongly and almost exclusively in eulogies of the humanists led to studies, had they not been held this direction. a too favourable judgement on 136 their patrons. Taking all things three successors, Sixtus, joyous and brilliant spirit of the together, it is greatly to the Innocent, and Alexander, Leonine days, with which the honour of the latter that they felt accepted dedications and biography of Jovius is filled, in bound to place themselves at the allowed themselves to be sung to countless epigrams, elegies, head of the culture of their age the hearts' content of the poets odes, and orations. Probably in and country, one-sided though — there even existed a Borgiad, all European history there is no this culture was. In some of the probably in hexameters — but prince who, in proportion to the popes, the fearlessness of the were too busy elsewhere, and few striking events of his life, has consequences to which the new too occupied in seeking other received such manifold homage. learning might lead strikes us as foundations for their power, to The poets had access to him something truly, but trouble themselves much about chiefly about noon, when the unconsciously, imposing. the poet-scholars. Julius II found musicians had ceased playing; Nicholas V was confident of the poets to eulogize him, because but one of the best among them future of the Church, since he himself was no mean subject tells us how they also pursued thousands of learned men for poetry, but he does not seem him when he walked in his supported her. Pius II was far to have troubled himself much garden or withdrew to the privacy from making such splendid about them. He was followed by of his chamber, and if they failed sacrifices for humanism as were Leo X, 'as Romulus by Numa' — to catch him there, would try to made by Nicholas, and the poets in other words after the warlike win him with a mendicant ode or who frequented his court were turmoil of the first pontificate, a elegy, filled, as usual, with the few in number; but he himself new one was hoped for wholly whole population of Olympus. was much more the personal given to the muses. The For Leo, prodigal of his money, head of the republic of letters enjoyment of elegant Latin prose and disliking to be surrounded by than his predecessor, and and melodious verse was part of any but cheerful faces, displayed enjoyed his position without the the programme of Leo's life, and a generosity in his gifts which least misgiving. Paul II was the his patronage certainly had the was fabulously exaggerated in first to dread and mistrust the result that his Latin poets have the hard times that followed. His culture of his secretaries, and his left us a living picture of that reorganization of the Sapienza 137 has been already spoken of. In obtaining excellent books had to his brother, and devoted order not to underrate Leo's ever been one of his highest himself wholly to his new influence on humanism we must aims; and that he now thanked possessions. He had in his guard against being misled by heaven that he could benefit the service, either successively or the toy-work that was mixed up human race by furthering the together, George of Trebizond, with it, and must not allow publication of this book. the younger Chrysoloras, ourselves to be deceived by the Lorenzo Valla, Bartolommeo apparent irony with which he The sack of Rome in the year Facio and Antonio Panormita, of himself sometimes treated these 1527 scattered the scholars no whom the two latter were his matters. Our judgement must less than the artists in every historians; Panormita daily rather dwell on the countless direction, and spread the fame of instructed the King and his court spiritual possibilities which are the great departed Maecenas to in Livy, even during military included in the word 'stimulus', the farthest boundaries of Italy. expeditions. These men cost and which, though they cannot him yearly 20,000 gold florins. be measured as a whole, can Among the secular princes of the He gave Panormita 1,000 for his still, on closer study, be actually fifteenth century, none displayed work: Facio received for the followed out in particular cases. such enthusiasm for antiquity as Historia Alfonsi, besides a yearly Whatever influence in Europe the Alfonso the Great of Aragon, income of 500 ducats, a present Italian humanists have had since King of Naples. It appears that of 1,500 more when it was 1520 depends in some way or his zeal was thoroughly finished, with the words, 'It is not other on the impulse which was unaffected, and that the given to pay you, for your work given by Leo. He was the Pope monuments and writings of the would not be paid for if I gave who in granting permission to ancient world made upon him you the fairest of my cities; but in print the newly found Tacitus, from the time of his arrival in time I hope to satisfy you'. When could say that the great writers Italy, an impression deep and he took Giannozzo Manetti as his were a rule of life and a powerful enough to reshape his secretary on the most brilliant consolation in misfortune; that life. With strange readiness he conditions, he said to him, 'My helping learned men and surrendered the stubborn Aragon last crust I will share with you'. 138 When Giannozzo first came to solemn pomp at Naples, how bring the congratulations of the strangely Christian and pagan Alfonso was far surpassed in Florentine government on the sentiment must have been learning by Federigo of Urbino, marriage of Prince Ferrante, the blended in his heart! During a who had but few courtiers around impression he made was so campaign in the Abruzzi, when him, squandered nothing, and in great, that the King sat the distant Sulmona, the his appropriation of antiquity, as motionless on the throne, 'like a birthplace of Ovid, was pointed in all other things, went to work brazen statue, and did not even out to him, he saluted the spot considerately. It was for him and brush away a fly, which had and returned thanks to its tutelary for Nicholas V that most of the settled on his nose at the genius. It gladdened him to translations from the Greek, and beginning of the oration'. His make good the prophecy of the a number of the best favourite haunt seems to have great poet as to his future fame. commentaries and other such been the library of the castle at Once indeed, at his famous entry works, were written. He spent Naples, where he would sit at a into the conquered city of Naples much on the scholars whose window overlooking the bay, and (1443) he himself chose to services he used, but spent it to listen to learned debates on the appear before the world in good purpose. There were no Trinity. For he was profoundly ancient style. Not far from the traces of the official poet at religious, and had the Bible, as market a breach forty ells wide Urbino, where the Duke himself well as Livy and Seneca, read to was made in the wall, and was the most learned in the him, until after fourteen perusals through this he drove in a gilded whole court. Classical antiquity, he knew it almost by heart. Who chariot like a Roman indeed, only formed a part of his can fully understand the feeling Triumphator. The memory of the culture. An accomplished ruler, with which he regarded the scene is preserved by a noble captain, and gentleman, he had supposititious remains of Livy at triumphal arch of marble in the mastered the greater part of the Padua? When, by dint of great Castello Nuovo. His Neapolitan science of the day, and this with entreaties, he obtained an arm- successors inherited as little of a view to its practical application. bone of the skeleton from the this passion for antiquity as of his As a theologian, he was able to Venetians, and received it with other good qualities. compare Scotus with Aquinas, 139 and was familiar with the writings with the most instructed men of Duke Alfonso, competent as he of the old fathers of the Eastern his time on an equal footing. was in practical matters, that his and Western Churches, the Lodovico il Moro, himself an weakliness in youth had forced former in Latin translations. In excellent Latin scholar, showed him to seek recreation in manual philosophy, he seems to have left an interest in intellectual matters pursuits only! Or was this merely Plato altogether to his which extended far beyond an excuse to keep the humanists contemporary Cosimo, but he classical antiquity. at a distance? A nature like his knew thoroughly not only the was not intelligible even to Ethics and Politics of Aristotle but Even the petty despots strove contemporaries. the Physics and some other after similar distinctions, and we works. The rest of his reading do them injustice by thinking that Even the most insignificant lay chiefly among the ancient they only supported the scholars despots of Romagna found it historians, all of whom he at their courts as a means of hard to do without one or two possessed; these, and not the diffusing their own fame. A ruler men of letters about them. The poets, 'he was always reading like Borso of Ferrara, with all his tutor and secretary were often and having read to him'. vanity, seems by no means to one and the same person, who have looked for immortality from sometimes, indeed, acted as a The Sforza, too, were all of them the poets, eager as they were to kind of court factotum. We are men of more or less learning and propitiate him with a Borseid and apt to treat the small scale of patrons of literature; they have the like. He had far too proud a these courts as a reason for been already referred to in sense of his own position as a dismissing them with a too ready passing. Duke Francesco ruler for that. But intercourse contempt, forgetting that the probably looked on humanistic with learned men, interest in highest spiritual things are not culture as a matter of course in antiquarian matters, and the precisely matters of the education of his children, if passion for elegant Latin measurement. only for political reasons. It was correspondence were necessities felt universally to be an for the princes of that age. What Life and manners at the court of advantage if the Prince could mix bitter complaints are those of Rimini must have been a singular 140 spectacle under the bold pagan hard for us nowadays to believe Not only was the secretary Condottiere Sigismondo that a monster like this prince felt required to be a competent Malatesta. He had a number of learning and the friendship of Latinist, but conversely, only a scholars around him, some of cultivated people to be a humanist was credited with the whom he provided for liberally, necessity of life; and yet the man knowledge and ability necessary even giving them landed estates, who excommunicated hirn, made for the post of secretary. And while others earned at least a war upon him, and burnt him in thus the greatest men in the livelihood as officers in his army. effigy, Pope Pius II, says: sphere of science during the In his citadl —arx Sismundea — ‘Sigismondo knew history and fifteenth century mostly devoted they used to hold discussions, had a great store of philosophy; a considerable part of their lives often of a very venomous kind, in he seemed born to all that he to serve the State in this the presence of the rex, as they undertook'. capacity. No importance was termed him. In their Latin poems attached to a man's home or they sing his praises and origin. Of the four great celebrate his amour with the fair Florentine secretaries who filled Isotta, in whose honour and as Epistolography: Latin the office between 1427 and whose monument the famous Orators 1465, three belonged to the rebuilding of San Francesco at subject city of Arezzo, namely, Rimini took place — Divae Leonardo (Bruni), Carlo Isottae Sacrum. When the There were two purposes, (Marzuppini), and Benedetto humanists themselves came to however, for which the humanist Accolti; Poggio was from Terra die, they were laid in or under the was as indispensable to the Nuova, also in Florentine sarcophagi with which the niches republics as to princes or popes, territory. For a long period, of the outside walls of the church namely, the official indeed, many of the highest were adorned, with an inscription correspondence of the State, and offices of State were on principle testifying that they were laid here the making of speeches on public given to foreigners. Leonardo, at the time when Sigismundus, and solemn occasions. Poggio, and Giannozzo Manetti the son of Pandulfus, ruled. It is were at one time or another 141 private secretaries to the popes, superior rank to theirs. The attained by the two famous and Carlo Aretino was to have Apostle John, to whom the secretaries and stylists of Leo X: been so. Biondo of Forli, and, in Secreta caelestia were revealed; Pietro Bembo and Jacopo spite of everything, at last even the secretary of Porsenna, whom Sadoleto. Lorenzo Valla, filled the same Mucius Scaevola mistook for the office. From the time of Nicholas king; Maecenas, who was private All the chanceries did not turn out V and Pius II onwards, the Papal secretary to Augustus; the equally elegant documents. A chancery continued more and archbishops, who in Germany leathern official style, in the more to attract the ablest men, were called chancellors, are all impurest of Latin, was very and this was still the case even appealed to in turn. 'The common. In the Milanese under the last popes of the apostolic secretaries have the documents preserved by Corio fifteenth century, little as they most weighty business of the there is a remarkable contrast cared for letters. In Platina's world in their hands. For who but between this sort of composition History of the Popes, the life of they decide on matters of the and the few letters written by Paul II is a charming piece of Catholic faith, who else combat members of the princely house, vengeance taken by a humanist heresy, re-establish peace, and which must have been written, on the one Pope who did not mediate between great too, in moments of critical know how to behave to his monarchs; who but they write the importance. They are models of chancery—to that circle 'of poets statistical accounts of pure Latinity. To maintain a and orators who bestowed on the Christendom? It is they who faultless style under all Papal court as much glory as astonish kings, princes, and circumstances was a rule of good they received from it.’ It is nations by what comes forth from breeding, and a result of habit. delightful to see the indignation the Pope. They write commands of these haughty gentlemen, and instructions for the legates, The letters of Cicero, Pliny, and when some squabble about and receive their orders only others, were at this time diligently precedence happened, when, for from the Pope, on whom they studied as models. As early as instance, the Advocati wait day and night.’ But the the fifteenth century a great mass consistoriales claimed equal or highest summit of glory was only of manuals and models for Latin 142 correspondence had appeared influence, and yet its spirit is humanistic talent. At the court of (as off-shoots of the great thoroughly penetrated and Borso of Ferrara, the Duke's grammatical and lexicographic possessed by the ideas of physician, Girolamo da Castello, works), a mass which is antiquity.But at a time and was chosen to deliver the astounding to us even now when among a people where 'listening' congratulatory address on the we look at them in the libraries. was among the chief pleasures visits of Frederick III and of Pius But just as the existence of these of life, and where every II. Married laymen ascended the helps tempted many to undertake imagination was filled with the pulpits of the churches at any a task to which they had no memory of the Roman senate scene of festivity or mourning) vocation, so were the really and its great speakers, the orator and even on the feastdays of the capable men stimulated to a occupied a far more brilliant saints. It struck the non-Italian more faultless excellence, until at place than the letter-writer. members of the Council of Basle length the letters of Politian, and Eloquence had shaken off the as something strange that the at the beginning of the sixteenth influence of the Church, in which Archbishop of Milan should century those of Pietro Bembo, it had found a refuge during the summon Aeneas Sylvius, who appeared, and took their place as Middle Ages, and now became was then unordained, to deliver a unrivalled masterpieces, not only an indispensable element and public discourse at the feast of of Latin style in general, but also ornament of all elevated lives. Saint Ambrose; but they suffered of the more special art of letter- Many of the social hours which it in spite of the murmurs of the writing. are now filled with music were theologians, and listened to the then given to Latin or Italian speaker with the greatest Together with these there oratory, with results which every curiosity. appeared in the sixteenth century reader can imagine. the classical style of Italian Let us glance for a moment at correspondence, at the head of The social position of the the most frequent and important which stands Bembo again. Its speaker was a matter of perfect occasions of public speaking. form is wholly modern, and indifference; what was desired deliberately kept free from Latin was simply the most cultivated It was not for nothing, in the first 143 place, that the ambassadors from Pius himself through all his life opportunity was seized with the one State to another received the did much by his oratory to same eagerness, and according title of orators. Whatever else prepare the way for his final to the reputation of the speaker, might be done in the way of elevation to the Papal chair. the concourse of the lovers of secret negotiation, the envoy Great as he was both as scholar culture was great or small. At the never failed to make a public and diplomatist, he would yearly change of public officers, appearance and deliver a public probably never have become and even at the consecration of speech, under circumstances of Pope without the fame and the new bishops, a humanist was the greatest possible pomp and charm of his eloquence. 'For sure to come forward, and ceremony. As a rule, however nothing was more lofty than the sometimes addressed his numerous the embassy might be, dignity of his oratory.’ Without audience in hexameters or one individual spoke for all; but it doubt this was a reason why Sapphic verses. Often a newly happened to Pius II, a critic multitudes held him to be the appointed official was himself before whom all were glad to be fittest man for the office even forced to deliver a speech more heard, to be forced to sit and before his election. or less relevant to his listen to a whole deputation, one department, as, for instance, on after another. Learned princes Princes were also commonly justice; and lucky for him if he who had the gift of speech were received on public occasions with were well up in his part! At themselves fond of discoursing in speeches, which sometimes Florence even the Condottieri, Latin or Italian. The children of lasted for hours. This happened whatever their origin or education the House of Sforza were trained of course only when the prince might be, were compelled to to this exercise. The boy was known as a lover of accommodate themselves to the Galeazzo Maria delivered in eloquence, or wished to pass for popular sentiment, and on 1455 a fluent speech before the such, and when a competent receiving the insignia of their Great Council at Venice, and his speaker was present, whether office, were harangued before sister Ippolita saluted Pope Pius university professor, official, the assembled people by the II with a graceful address at the ecclesiastic, physician, or court- most learned secretary of state. Congress of Mantua (1459). scholar. Every other political It seems that beneath or close to 144 the Loggia de' Lanzi—the porch ceremony may have taken place enriched with all sorts of where the government was wont in the chapel of the castle. philosophical and antiquarian to appear solemnly before the Private families of distinction no learning. people a tribune or platform doubt also employed such (rostra, ringhiera) was erected for wedding orators as one of the As a special class of speeches such purposes. luxuries of high life. At Ferrara, we may mention the address Guarino was requested on these made in Italian on the battlefield, Anniversaries, especially those of occasions to send some one or either before or after the combat. the death of princes, were other of his pupils. The clergy Federigo of Urbino was commonly celebrated by performed only the purely esteemed a classic in this style; memorial speeches. Even the religious ceremonies at weddings he used to pass round among his funeral oration strictly so called and funerals. squadrons as they stood drawn was generally entrusted to a up in order of battle, inspiring humanist, who delivered it in The academical speeches, both them in turn with pride and church, clothed in a secular those made at the installation of enthusiasm. Many of the dress; nor was it only princes, but a new teacher and at the opening speeches in the military officials, or persons otherwise of a new course of lectures were historians of the fifteenth century, distinguished, to whom this delivered by the professor as for instance in Porcellius, may honour was paid. This was also himself, and treated as occasions be, in part at least, imaginary, but the case with the speeches of great rhetorical display. The may be also in part faithful delivered at weddings or ordinary university lectures also representations of words actually betrothals, with the difference usually had an oratorical spoken. The addresses again that they seem to have been character. which were delivered to the made in the palace, instead of in Florentine Militia, organized in church, like that of Filelfo at the With regard to forensic 1506 chiefly through the betrothal of Anna Sforza to eloquence, the quality of the influence of Machiavelli, and Alfonso of Este in the castle of audience determined the form of which were spoken first at Milan. It is still possible that the speech. In case of need it was reviews, and afterwards at 145 special annual festivals, were of only tolerate, but which canon at St. John Lateran; and another kind. They were simply demanded a strong dose of besides him, elegant Latinists general appeals to the patriotism philosophy from the pulpit. But were now common enough of the hearers, and were we have here especially to speak among the prelates. In this addressed to the assembled of the distinguished occasional matter, as in others, the troops in the church of each preachers in Latin. Many of their exaggerated privileges of the quarter of the city by a citizen in opportunities had been taken profane humanists appear armor, sword in hand. away from them, as has been lessened in the sixteenth century observed, by learned laymen. on which point we shall presently Finally, the oratory of the pulpit Speeches on particular saints' speak more fully. began in the fifteenth century to days, at weddings and funerals, lose its distinctive peculiarities. or at the installation of a bishop, What now was the subject and Many of the clergy had entered and even the introductory speech general character of these into the circle of classical culture, at the first mass of a clerical speeches? The national gift of and were ambitious of success in friend, or the address at the eloquence was not wanting to the it. The street-preacher festival of some religious order, Italians of the Middle Ages, and a Bernardino da Siena, who even were all left to laymen. But at all so-called 'rhetoric' belonged from in his lifetime passed for a saint events at the Papal court in the the first to the seven liberal arts; and who was worshipped by the fifteenth century, whatever the but so far as the revival of the populace, was not above taking occasion might be, the preachers ancient methods is concerned, lessons in rhetoric from the were generally monks. Under this merit must be ascribed, famous Guarino, although he had Sixtus IV, Giacomo da Volterra according to Filippo Villani, to the only to preach in Italian. Never regularly enumerates these Florentine Bruno Casini, who indeed was more expected from preachers, and criticizes them died of the plague in 1348. With preachers than at that time according to the rules of the art. the practical purpose of fitting his especially from the Lenten Fedra Inghirami, famous as an countrymen to speak with ease preachers; and there were not a orator under Julius II, had at least and effect in public, he treated, few audiences which could not received holy orders and was after the pattern of the ancients, 146 invention, declamation, bearing, of; of this kind is the mass of of Petrarch's letters. But some and gesticulation, each in its what is left to us of Pius II. The speakers went too far. Most of proper connection. Elsewhere miraculous effects produced by Filelfo's speeches are an too we read of an oratorical Giannozzo Manetti point to an atrocious patchwork of classical training directed solely to orator the like of whom has not and biblical quotations, tacked on practical application. No been often seen. His great to a string of commonplaces, accomplishment was more highly audiences as envoy before among which the great people he esteemed than the power of Nicholas V and before the Doge wishes to flatter are arranged elegant improvisation in Latin. and Council of Venice were under the head of the cardinal The growing study of Cicero's events not to be soon forgotten. virtues, or some such category, speeches and theoretical Many orators, on the contrary, and it is only with the greatest writings, of Quintilian and of the would seize the opportunity, not trouble, in his case and in that of imperial panegyrists, the only to flatter the vanity of many others, that we can appearance of new and original distinguished hearers, but to load extricate the few historical treatises, the general progress of their speeches with an enormous notices of any value which they antiquarian learning, and the mass of antiquarian rubbish. really contain. The speech, for stores of ancient matter and How it was possible to endure instance, of a scholar and thought which now could and this infliction for two and even professor of Piacenza at the must be drawn from, all three hours, can only be reception of the Duke Galeazzo combined to shape the character understood when we take into Maria, in 1467, begins with Julius of the new eloquence. account the intense interest then Caesar, then proceeds to mix up felt in everything connected with a mass of classical quotations This character nevertheless antiquity, and the rarity and with a number from an allegorical differed widely according to the defectiveness of treatises on the work by the speaker himself, and individual. Many speeches subject at a time when printing concludes with some exceedingly breathe a spirit of true was but little diffused. Such indiscreet advice to the ruler. eloquence, especially those orations had at least the value Fortunately it was late at night, which keep to the matter treated which we have claimed for many and the orator had to be satisfied 147 with handing his written shorthand writers. We must Plautus and Terence, once a panegyric to the prince. Filelfo further remember that not all the school of Latin style for the begins a speech at a betrothal orations which have come down educated Romans, are banished with the words: ‘Aristotle, the to us were intended to be to make room for Italian peripatetic.’ Others start with P. actually delivered. The comedies. Graceful speakers no Cornelius Scipio, and the like, as panegyric, for example, of the longer find the recognition and though neither they nor their elder Beroaldus on Lodovico il reward which they once did. The hearers could wait a moment for Moro was presented to him in Consistorial advocates no longer a quotation. At the end of the manuscript. In fact, just as prepare anything but the fifteenth century public taste letters were written addressed to introductions to their speeches, suddenly improved, chiefly all conceivable persons and parts and deliver the rest—a confused through Florentine influence, and of the world as exercises, as muddle—on the inspiration of the the practice of quotation was formularies, or even to serve a moment. Sermons and restricted within due limits. Many controversial end, so there were occasional speeches have sunk works of reference were now in speeches for imaginary to the same level. If a funeral existence, in which the first occasions to be used as models oration is wanted for a cardinal or comer could find as much as he for the reception of princes, other great personage, the wanted of what had hitherto been bishops, and other dignitaries. executors do not apply to the the admiration of princes and best orators in the city, to whom people. For oratory, as for the other arts, they would have to pay a the death of Leo X (1521) and hundred pieces of gold, but they As most of the speeches were the sack of Rome (1527) mark hire for a trifle the first impudent written out beforehand in the the epoch of decadence. Giovio, pedant whom they come across, study, the manuscripts served as but just escaped from the and who only wants to be talked a means of further publicity desolation of the eternal city, of, whether for good or ill. The afterwards. The great described, not impartially, but on dead, they say, is none the wiser extemporaneous speakers, on the whole correctly, the causes of if an ape stands in a black dress the other hand, were attended by this decline: ‘The plays of in the pulpit, and beginning with a 148 hoarse, whimpering mumble, treatise, which often took the became in itself the source of a passes little by little into a loud shape of a dialogue. In this case special pleasure. Several Italian howling. Even the sermons it was borrowed directly from compositions of this kind still hold preached at great Papal Cicero. In order to do anything their place as patterns of style. ceremonies are no longer like justice to this class of Many of these works have been, profitable, as they used to be. literature—in order not to throw it or will be mentioned on account Monks of all orders have again aside at first sight as a bore two of their contents; we here refer to got them into their hands, and things must be taken into them as a class. From the time preach as if they were speaking consideration. The century of Petrarch's letters and treatises to the mob. Only a few years which escaped from the influence down to near the end of the ago a sermon at mass before the of the Middle Ages felt the need fifteenth century, the heaping up Pope might easily lead the way of something to mediate between of learned quotations, as in the to a bishopric.' itself and antiquity in many case of the orators, is the main questions of morals and business of most of these writers. philosophy; and this need was Subsequently the whole style, met by the writer of treatises and especially in Italian, was purified, The Treatise, and dialogues. Much which appears until, in the Asolani of Bembo, History in Latin to us as mere commonplace in and the Vita Sobria of Luigi their writings, was for them and Cornaro, a classical perfection their contemporaries a new and was reached. Here too the From the oratory and the hard-won view of things upon decisive fact was this, that epistolary writings of the which mankind had been silent antiquarian matter of every kind humanists, we shall here pass on since the days of antiquity. The had meantime begun to be to their other creations, which language too, in this form of deposited in encyclopedic works were all, to a greater or less writing, whether Italian or Latin, (now printed), and no longer extent, reproductions of antiquity. moved more freely and flexibly stood in the way of the essayist. than in historical narrative, in Among these must be placed the letters, or in oratory, and thus It was inevitable too that the 149 humanistic spirit should control this school of writers, was copied Sanuto, Corio, and Infessura— the writing of history. A just where he is least worthy of who were followed at the superficial comparison of the imitation—on the ground, beginning of the sixteenth histories of this period with the namely, 'that he turned a dry and century by that new and earlier chronicles, especially with walled tradition into grace and illustrious band of great national works so full of life, color, and richness.’ In the same place we historians who wrote in their brilliancy as those of the Villani, meet with the suspicious mother tongue. will lead us loudly to deplore the declaration that it is the function change. How insipid and of the historian— just as if he Contemporary history, no doubt, conventional appear by their side were one with the poet—to was written far better in the the best of the humanists, and excite, charm, or overwhelm the language of the day than when particularly their immediate and reader. We ask ourselves finally, forced into Latin. Whether Italian most famous successors among whether the contempt for modern was also more suitable for the the historians of Florence, things, which these same narrative of events long past, or Leonardo Aretino and Poggio! humanists sometimes avowed for historical research, is a The enjoyment of the reader is openly, must not necessarily question which admits, for that incessantly marred by the sense have had an unfortunate period, of more answers than that, in the classical phrases of influence on their treatment of one. Latin was, at that time, the Fazio, Sabellico, Foglietta, them. Unconsciously the reader Lingua franca of instructed Senarega, Platina in the finds himself looking with more people, not only in an chronicles of Mantua, Bembo in interest and confidence on the international sense, as a means the annals of Venice, and even of unpretending Latin and Italian of intercourse between Giovio in his histories, the best annalists, like those of Bologna Englishmen, Frenchmen, and local and individual coloring and and Ferrara, who remained true Italians, but also in an the full sincerity of interest in the to the old style, and still more interprovincial sense. The truth of events have been lost. grateful does he feel to the best Lombard, the Venetian, and the Our mistrust is increased when of the genuine chroniclers who Neapolitan modes of writing, we hear that Livy, the pattern of wrote in Italian—to Marino though long modelled on the 150 Tuscan, and bearing but slight imbued with humanism, but in surprised to find among these traces of the dialect were still not order to be more widely read. humanists are some recognized by the Florentines. considerable works on the history This was of less consequence in Finally, there exist certain Latin of the Middle Ages. The first of local contemporary histories, essays in contemporary history this kind was the chronicle of which were sure of readers at the which stand on a level with the Matteo Palmieri (449-1449), place where they were written, best Italian works of the kind. beginning where Prosper than in the narratives of the past, When the continuous narrative Accedence ceases. On opening for which a larger public was after the manner of Livy—that the Decades of Biondo of Forli, desired. In these the local Procrustean bed of so many we are surprised to find a interests of the people had to be writers is abandoned, the change universal history, ab inclinatione sacrificed to the general interests is marvelous. The same Platina Romanorum imperii, as in of the learned. How far would and Giovio, whose great histories Gibbon, full of original studies on the influence of a man like we only read because and so far the authors of each century, and Biondo of Forli have reached if as we must, suddenly come occupied, through the first 300 he had written his great forward as masters in the folio pages, with early mediaeval monuments of learning in the biographical style. We have history down to the death of dialect of the Romagna? They already spoken of Tristano Frederick II. And this when in would have assuredly sunk into Caracciolo, of the biographical Northern countries nothing more neglect, if only through the works of Fazio and of the was current than chronicles of contempt of the Florentines, Venetian topography of the popes and emperors, and the while written in Latin they Sabellico, and others will be Fasciculus temporum. We exercised the profoundest mentioned in the sequel. cannot here stay to show what influence on the whole European writings Biondo made use of, and world of learning. And even the The Latin treatises on past where he found his materials, Florentines in the fifteenth history were naturally concerned, though this justice will some day century wrote Latin, not only for the most part, with classical be done to him by the historians because their minds were antiquity. What we are most of literature. This book alone 151 would entitle us to say that it was makes men immortal.’ But this glory has already been touched the study of antiquity which made narrow and unjust temper did not on in reference to Florence. the study of the Middle Ages preclude investigation in the Venice would not be behindhand. possible, by first training the mind minds of the more gifted men, at Just as a great rhetorical triumph to habits of impartial historical a time, too, when elsewhere in of the Florentines would cause a criticism. To this must be added, Europe any such investigation Venetian embassy to write home that the Middle Ages were now would have been out of the posthaste for an orator to be sent over for Italy, and that the Italian question. A historical criticism of after them, so too the Venetians mind could the better appreciate the Middle Ages was practicable, felt the need of a history which them, because it stood outside just because the rational would bear comparison with them. It cannot, nevertheless, be treatment of all subjects by the those of Leonardo Aretino and said that it at once judged them humanists had trained the Poggio. And it was to satisfy this fairly, let alone with piety. In the historical spirit. In the fifteenth feeling that, in the fifteenth arts a strong prejudice century this spirit had so far century, the Decades of established itself against all that penetrated the history even of Sabellico appeared, and in the those centuries had created, and the individual cities of Italy that sixteenth the Historia rerum the humanists date the new era the stupid fairy tales about the Venetarum of Pietro Bembo, both from the time of their own origin of Florence, Venice, and written at the express charge of appearance. 'I begin,' says Milan vanished, while at the the republic, the latter a Boccaccio, 'to hope and believe same time, and long after, the continuation of the former. that God has had mercy on the chronicles of the North were Italian name, since I see that His stuffed with this fantastic rubbish, The great Florentine historians at infinite goodness puts souls into destitute for the most part of all the beginning of the sixteenth the breasts of the Italians like poetical value, and invented as century were men of a wholly those of the ancients souls which late as the fourteenth century. different kind from the Latinists seek fame by other means than Bembo and Giovio. They wrote robbery and violence, but rather The close connection between Italian, not only because they on the path of poetry, which local history and the sentiment of could not vie with the Ciceronian 152 elegance of the philologists, but through the school of humanism philosophers on Italian culture because, like Machiavelli, they and have in them more of the will appear at times immense, at could only record in a living spirit of the ancient historians times inconsiderable; the former, tongue the living results of their than most of the imitators of Livy. when we consider how the own immediate observations and Like the ancients, they were doctrines of Aristotle, chiefly we may add in the case of citizens who wrote for citizens. drawn from the Ethics and Machiavelli, of his observation of Politics—both widely diffused at the past—and because, as in the an early period—became the case of Guicciardini, Varchi, and common property of educated many others, what they most Antiquity as the Italians, and how the whole desired was, that their view of the Common Source method of abstract thought was course of events should have as governed by him; the latter, when wide and deep a practical effect we remember how slight was the as possible. Even when they We cannot attempt to trace the dogmatic influence of the old only write for a few friends, like influence of humanism in the philosophies, and even of the Francesco Vettori, they feel an special sciences. Each has its enthusiastic Florentine inward need to utter their own history, in which the Italian Platonists, on the spirit of the testimony on men and events, investigators of this period, people at large. What looks like and to explain and justify their chiefly through their rediscovery such an influence is generally no share in the latter. of the results attained by more than a consequence of the antiquity, mark a new epoch, with new culture in general, and of the And yet, with all that is which the modern period of the special growth and development characteristic in their language science in question begins with of the Italian mind. When we and style, they were powerfully more or less distinctness. With come to speak of religion, we affected by antiquity, and, without regard to philosophy, too, we shall have more to say on this its influence, would be must refer the reader to the head. But in by far the greater inconceivable. They were not special historical works on the number of cases, we have to do, humanists, but they had passed subject. The influence of the old not with the general culture of the 153 people with the utterances of instead of a family name, which the change of half a name, individuals or of learned circles; people were often glad to get rid baptismal or family, to give it a and here, too, a distinction must of, a well-sounding ancient name classical sound and a new be drawn between the true was chosen. A local name, sense. Thus Giovanni was assimilation of ancient doctrines shared by all residents in the turned into Jovianus or Janus, and fashionable make-believe. place, and not yet transformed Pietro to Petreius or Pierius, For with many, antiquity was only into a family name, was willingly Antonio to Aoniuss Sannazaro to a fashion, even among very given up, especially when its Syncerus, Luca Grasso to Lucius learned people. religious associations made it Crassus. Ariosto, who speaks inconvenient. Filippo da San with such derision of all this, lived Nevertheless, all that looks like Gimignano called himself to see children called after his affectation to our age, need not Callimachus. The man, own heroes and heroines. then have actually been so. The misunderstood and insulted by giving of Greek and Latin names his family, who made his fortune Nor must we judge too severely to children, for example, is better as a scholar in foreign cities, the latinization of many usages of and more respectable than the could afford, even if he were a social life, such as the titles of present practice of taking them, Sanseverino, to change his name officials, of cere monies, and the especially the female names, to Julius Pomponius Laetus. like, in the writers of the period. from novels. When the Even the simple translation of a As long as people were satisfied enthusiasm for the ancient world name into Latin or Greek, as was with a simple, fluent Latin style, was greater than for the saints, it almost uniformly the custom in as was the case with most was simple and natural enough Germany, may be excused to a writers from Petrarch to, Aeneas that noble families called their generation which spoke and Sylvius, this practice was not so sons Agamemnon, Tydeus, and wrote Latin, and which needed frequent and striking; it became Achilles, and that a painter names that could be not only inevitable when a faultless, named his son Apelles and his declined, but used with facility in Ciceronian Latin was demanded. daughter Minerva. Nor will it verse and prose. What was Modern names and things no appear unreasonable that, blameworthy and ridiculous was longer harmonized with the style, 154 unless they were first artificially humanists acted as if Latin were, Perhaps the same may be said changed. Pedants found a and must remain, the only of prose. The position and pleasure in addressing municipal language worthy to be written. influence of Italian culture counsellors as Patres Conscripti, Poggio deplores that Dante wrote throughout the world depended nuns as Virgines Vestales, and his great poem in Italian; and on the fact that certain subjects entitling every saint Divus or Dante, as is well known, actually were treated in Latin—urbi et Deus; but men of better taste, made the attempt in Latin, and orbi—while Italian prose was such as Paolo Giovio, only did so wrote the beginning of the written best of all by those to when and because they could Inferno first in hexameters. The whom it cost an inward struggle not help it. But as Giovio does it whole future of Italian poetry not to write in Latin. naturally, and lays no special hung on his not continuing in the stress upon it, we are not same style, but even Petrarch From the fourteenth century offended if, in his melodious relied more on his Latin poetry Cicero was recognized language, the cardinals appear than on the Sonnets and universally as the purest model as Senatores, their dean as Canzoni, and Ariosto himself was of prose. This was by no means Princeps Senatus, desired by some to write his due solely to a dispassionate excommunication as Dirae, and poem in Latin. A stronger opinion in favour of his choice of the carnival as Lupercalia. The coercion never existed in language, of the structure of his example of this author alone is literature; but poetry shook it off sentences, and of his style of enough to warn us against for the most part, and it may be composition, but rather to the fact drawing a hasty inference from said, without the risk of too great that the Italian spirit responded these peculiarities of style as to optimism, that it was well for fully and instinctively to the the writer's whole mode of Italian poetry to have had both amiability of the letter writer, to thinking. means of expressing itself. In the brilliancy of the orator, and to both something great and the lucid exposition of the The history of Latin composition characteristic was achieved, and philosophical thinker. Even cannot here be traced in detail. in each we can see the reason Petrarch recognized dearly the For fully two centuries the why Latin or Italian was chosen. weakness of Cicero as a man 155 and a statesman, though he almost heavenly age of Cicero’. naturally on the basis of their respected him too much to Men like Pietro Bembo and Pierio 'overflowing' learning, and our rejoice over them. After Valeriano now turned all their informant of this fact, Paolo Petrarch's time, the epistolary energies to this one object. Even Giovio, pursued the same end. style was formed entirely on the those who had long resisted the He first attempted, not always pattern of Cicero; and the rest, tendency, and had formed for successfully, but often with with the exception of the themselves an archaic style from remarkable power and elegance, narrative style, followed the same the earlier authors, yielded at and at no small cost of effort, to influence. Yet the true last, and joined in the worship of reproduce in Latin a number of Ciceronianism, which rejected Cicero. Longolius, at Bembo's modern, particularly of aesthetic, every phrase which could not be advice, determined to read ideas. His Latin characteristics justified out of the great authority, nothing but Cicero for five years of the great painters and did not appear until the end of long, and finally took an oath to sculptors of his time contain a the fifteenth century, when the use no word which did not occur mixture of the most intelligent grammatical writings of Lorenzo in this author. It was this temper and of the most blundering Valla had begun to tell on all which broke out at last in the interpretation. Even Leo X, who Italy, and when the opinions of great war among the scholars, in placed his glory in the fact, ut the Roman historians of literature which Erasmus and the elder lingua latina nostro pontificatu had been sifted and compared. Scaliger led the battle. dicatur facta auctior, was inclined Then every shade of difference in to a liberal and not too exclusive the style of the ancients was For all the admirers of Cicero Latinity, which, indeed, was in studied with closer and doser were by no means so one-sided harmony with his pleasure-loving attention until the consoling as to consider him the only nature. He was satisfied if the conclusion was at last reached source of language. In the Latin which he had to read and to that in Cicero alone was the fifteenth century, Politian and hear was lively, elegant, and perfect model to be found, or, if Ermolao Barbaro made a idiomatic. Then, too, Cicero all forms of literature were to be conscious and deliberate effort to offered no model for Latin embraced, in 'that immortal and form a style of their own, conversation, so that here other 156 gods had to be worshipped the houses of great churchmen. Neo-Latin Poetry beside him. The want was That these representations supplied by representations of became less in common after the comedies of Plautus and 1520, is mentioned by Giovio, as The chief pride of the humanists Terence, frequent both in and out we have seen, among the is, however, their modern Latin of Rome, which for the actors causes of the decline of poetry. It lies within the limits of were an incomparable exercise eloquence. our task to treat of it, at least in in Latin as the language of daily so far as it serves to characterize life. A few years later, in the We may mention, in conclusion, the humanistic movement. pontificate of Paul II, the learned the analogy between Cardinal of Teano (probably Ciceronianism in literature and How favourable public opinion Niccolo Forteguerra of Pistoia) the revival of Vitruvius by the was to that form of poetry, and became famous for his critical architects in the sphere of art. how nearly it supplanted all labors in this branch of And here, too, the law holds others, has been already shown. scholarship. He set to work upon good which prevails elsewhere in We may be very sure that the the most defective plays of the history of the Renaissance, most gifted and highly developed Plautus, which were destitute that each artistic movement is nation then existing in the world even of a list of the characters, preceded by a corresponding did not renounce the language and went carefully through the movement in the general culture such as the Italian out of mere whole remains of this author, of the age. In this case, the folly and without knowing what chiefly with an eye to the interval is not more than about they were doing. It must have language. Possibly it was he twenty years, if we reckon from been a weighty reason which led who gave the first impulse for the Cardinal Adrian of Corneto them to do so. public representations of these (1505) to the first avowed plays. Afterwards Pomponius Vitruvians. This cause was the devotion to Laetus took up the same subject, antiquity. Like all ardent and and acted as producer when genuine devotion it necessarily Plautus was put on the stage in prompted men to imitation. At 157 other times and among other criticism, but to give pleasure to would probably have chosen nations we find many isolated the poet and to thousands of his another subject; but as it was, attempts of the same kind. But contemporaries. the glorification of Scipio only in Italy were the two chief Africanus the Elder was so much conditions present which were The least success of all was in accordance with the spirit of needful for the continuance and attained by the epic narratives the fourteenth century, that development of neo-Latin poetry: drawn from the history or legends another poet, Zanobi di Strada, a general interest in the subject of antiquity. The essential also proposed to himself the among the instructed classes, conditions of a living epic poetry same task, and only from respect and a partial re-awakening of the were denied, not only to the for Petrarch withdrew the poem old Italian genius among the Romans who now served as with which he had already made poets themselves—the wondrous models, but even to the Greeks great progress. If any echo of a far-off strain. The best after Homer. They could not be justification were sought for the of what is produced under these looked for among the Latins of Africa, it lies in the fact that in conditions is not imitation, but the Renaissance. And yet the Petrarch's time and afterwards free production. If we decline to Africa of Petrarch probably found Scipio was as much an object of tolerate any borrowed forms in as many and as enthusiastic public interest as if he were then art, if we either set no value on readers and hearers as any epos alive, and that he was regarded antiquity at all, or attribute to it of modern times. Purpose and as greater than Alexander, some magical and origin of the poem are not without Pompey, and Caesar. How unapproachable virtue, or if we interest. The fourteenth century many modern epics treat of a will pardon no slips in poets who recognized with sound historical subject at once so popular, so were forced, for instance, to sense that the time of the second historical in its basis, and so guess or to discover a multitude Punic war had been the noonday striking to the imagination? For of syllabic quantities, then we of Roman greatness; and us, it is true, the poem is had better let this class of Petrarch could not resist writing unreadable. For other themes of literature alone. Its best works of this time. Had Silius Italicus the same kind the reader may be were not created in order to defy been then discovered, Petrarch referred to the histories of 158 literature. possible feelings and fancies; of the brilliant marriage feast in a and this point will be touched on cave of Monte Baldo; of the A richer and more fruitful vein again in the sequel. For the prophecies of Manto, daughter of was discovered in expanding and moment, we have only to do with Tiresias; of the birth of the child completing the Greco-Roman the new myths. In them, more Mincius; of the founding of mythology. In this too, Italian clearly than anywhere else, we Mantua, and of the future glory of poetry began early to take a part, see the double significance of the Virgil, son of Mincius and of beginning with the Teseid of old gods to the men of the Magia, nymph of Andes. This Boccaccio, which passes for his Renaissance. On the one hand, humanistic rococo is set forth by best poetical work. Under Martin they replace abstract terms in Bembo in verses of great beauty, V, Maffeo Vegio wrote in Latin a poetry, and render allegorical concluding with .an address to thirteenth book to the, Aeneid; figures superfluous; and, on the Virgil, which any poet might envy besides which we meet with other, they serve as free and him. Such works are often many less considerable attempts, independent elements in art, as slighted as mere declamation. especially in the style of forms of beauty which can be This is a matter of taste on which Claudian—a Meleagris, a turned to some account in any we are all free to form our own Hesperis, and so forth. Still more and every poem. The example opinion. curious were the newly-invented was boldly set by Boccaccio, with myths, which peopled the fairest his fanciful world of gods and Further, we find long epic poems with a primeval shepherds who people the in hexameters on biblical or race of gods, nymphs, genii, and country round Florence in his ecclesiastical subjects. The even shepherds, the epic and Ninfale d'Ameto and Ninfale authors were by no means bucolic styles here passing into Fiesolano. Both these poems always in search of preferment or one another. In the narrative or were written in Italian. But the of papal favour. With the best of conversational eclogue after the masterpiece in this style was the them, and even with less gifted time of Petrarch, pastoral life was Sarca of Pietro Bembo, which writers, like Battista Mantovano, treated in a purely conventional tells how the river-god of that the author of the Parthenice, manner, as a vehicle of all name wooed the nymph Garda; there was probably an honest 159 desire to serve religion by their Eternal, sitting on the throne clad matter. Honest Battista Latin verses—a desire with which in a mantle shining with pictures Mantovano, in his calendar of the their half-pagan conception of of all the elements, addresses festivals, tried another expedient. Catholicism harmonized well the heavenly host. At other times Instead of making the gods and enough. Gyraldus goes through he does not hesitate to weave demigods serve the purposes of a list of these poets, among the whole classical mythology sacred history, he put them, as whom Vida, with his Christiad into his subject, yet without the Fathers of the Church did, in and Sannazaro, with his three spoiling the harmony of the active opposition to it. When the books, De partu Virginis hold the whole, since the pagan deities angel Gabriel salutes the Virgin first place. Sannazaro (b. 1458, are only accessory figures, and at Nazareth, Mercury flies after d. 1530) is impressive by the play no important part in the him from Carmel, and listens at steady and powerful flow of his story. To appreciate the artistic the door. He then announces the verse, in which Christian and genius of that age in all its result of his eavesdropping to the pagan elements are mingled bearings, we must not refuse to assembled gods, and stimulates without scruple, by the plastic notice such works as these. The them thereby to desperate vigor of his description, and by merit of Sannazaro will appear resolutions. Elsewhere, it is true, the perfection of his the greater, when we consider in his writings, Thetis, Ceres, workmanship. He could venture that the mixture of Christian and Aeolus, and other pagan deities to introduce Virgil's fourth pagan elements is apt to disturb pay willing homage to the glory of Eclogue into his song of the us much more in poetry than in the Madonna. shepherds at the manger without the visual arts. The latter can still fearing a comparison. In treating satisfy the eye by beauty of form The fame of Sannazaro, the of the unseen world, he and color, and in general are number of his imitators, the sometimes gives proofs of a much more independent of the enthusiastic homage which was boldness worthy of Dante, as significance of the subject than paid to him by the greatest men, when King David in the Limbo of poetry. With them, the all show how dear and necessary the Patriarchs rises up to sing imagination is interested chiefly he was to his age. On the and prophesy, or when the in the form, with poetry, in the threshold of the Reformation he 160 solved for the Church the simpler and more unpretentious by the ill-timed introduction of problem, whether it were scenes from the lives of mythological elements, an possible for a poet to be a distinguished men, such as the impression that is indescribably Christian as well as a classic; beautiful poem on Leo X's Hunt ludicrous. Such, for instance, is and both Leo and Clement were at Palo, or the Journey of Aulius the lament of Ercole Strozzi on loud in their thanks for his II by Adrian of Corneto. Brilliant Cesare Borgia. We there listen achievements. descriptions of hunting-parties to the complaint of Roma, who are found in Ercole Strozzi, in the had set all her hopes on the And, finally, contemporary history above-mentioned Adrian, and in Spanish Popes, Calixtus III and was now treated in hexameters others; and it is a pity that the Alexander VI, and who saw her or distichs, sometimes in a modern reader should allow promised deliverer in Cesare. narrative and sometimes in a himself to be irritated or repelled His history is related down to the panegyrical style, but most by the adulation with which they catastrophe of 1503. The poet commonly to the honour of some are doubtless filled. The then asks the Muse what were prince or princely family. We masterly treatment and the the counsels of the gods at that thus meet with a Sforziad, a considerable historical value of moment, and Erato tells how, Borseid, a Laurentiad, a Borgiad, many of these most graceful upon Olympus, Pallas took the a Trivulziad, and the like. The poems guarantee to them a part of the Spaniards, Venus of object sought after was certainly longer existence than many the Italians, how both then not attained; for those who popular works of our own day are embrace the knees of , became famous and are now likely to attain. how thereupon he kisses them, immortal owe it to anything rather soothes them, and explains to than to this sort of poems, for In general, these poems are them that he can do nothing which the world has always had good in proportion to the sparing against the fate woven by the an ineradicable dislike, even use of the sentimental and the Parc, but that the divine promises when they happen to be written general. Some of the smaller will be fulfilled by the child of the by good poets. A wholly different epic poems, even of recognized House of Este-Borgia. After effect is produced by smaller, masters, unintentionally produce, relating the fabulous origin of 161 both families, he declares that he be found by lovers of that class constitution, Machiavelli his view can confer immortality on Cesare of literature, e.g. in the of the history of his own time, a as little as he could once, in spite Macaroneid— to which the comic third, the life of Savonarola, and of all entreaties, on Memnon or Feast of the Gods, by Giovanni a fourth the siege of Piombino by Achilles; and concludes with the Bellini, forms an early parallel. Alfonso the Great, in this difficult consoling assurance that Cesare, meter, in order to produce a before his own death, will destroy Many, too, of the narrative stronger effect, so did many many people in war. Mars then poems in hexameters are merely others feel the need of hastens to Naples to stir up war exercises, or adaptations of hexameters, in order to win their and confusion, while Pallas goes histories in prose, which latter the special public. What was then to Nepi, and there appears to the reader will prefer, where he can tolerated and demanded, in this dying Cesare under the form of find them. At last, everything— shape, is best shown by the Alexander VI. After giving him every quarrel and every didactic poetry of the time. Its the good advice to submit to his ceremony—came to be put into popularity in the fifteenth century fate and be satisfied with the verse, and this even by the is something astounding. The glory of his name, the papal German humanists of the most distinguished humanists goddess vanishes 'like a bird.' Reformation. and yet it would be were ready to celebrate in Latin unfair to attribute this to mere hexameters the most Yet we should needlessly deprive want of occupation, or to an commonplace, ridiculous, or ourselves of an enjoyment which excessive facility in stringing disgusting themes, such as the is sometimes very great, if we verses together. In Italy, at all making of gold, the game of threw aside everything in which events, it was rather due to an chess, the management of classical mythology plays a more abundant sense of style, as is silkworms, astrology, and or less appropriate part. Here, further proved by the mass of venereal diseases (morbus as in painting and sculpture, art contemporary reports, histories, gallicus), to say nothing of many has often ennobled what is in and even pamphlets, in the terza long Italian poems of the same itself purely conventional. The rima. Just as Niccolo da Uzzano kind. Nowadays this class of beginnings of parody are also to published his scheme for a new poem is condemned unread, and 162 how far, as a matter of fact, they account, an authority of some of which even a critic would be are really worth the reading, we weight in the history of morals. unable to fix, in the absence of are unable to say. One thing is On the whole, however, his hi positive evidence that they are certain: epochs far above our fruit of contrast, nor the burla, for works of the fifteenth and own in the sense of beauty—the their subject; their aim is merely sixteenth centuries. Renaissance and the Greco- to give simple and elegant Roman world—could not expression to wise sayings and On the other hand, we can find dispense with this form of poetry. pretty stories or fables. But if scarcely an ode in the Sapphic or It may be urged in reply, that it is anything proves the great Alcaic meter, which does not not the lack of a sense of beauty, antiquity of the collection, it is clearly betray its modern origin. but the greater seriousness and precisely this absence of satire. This is shown mostly by a the altered method of scientific For with the fourteenth century rhetorical verbosity, rare in treatment which renders the comes Dante, who, in the antiquity before the time of poetical form inappropriate, on utterance of scorn, leaves all Statius, and by a singular want of which point it is unnecessary to other poets in the world far the lyrical concentration which is enter. behind, and who, if only on indispensable to this style of account of his great picture of the poetry. Single passages in an One of these didactic works has deceivers, must be called the ode, sometimes two or three been occasionally republished— chief master of colossal comedy. strophes together, may look like the Zodiac of Life, by Marcellus With Petrarch begin the an ancient fragment; but a longer Palingenius (Pier Angelo collections of witty sayings after extract will seldom keep this Manzolli), a secret adherent of the pattern of Plutarch character throughout. And where Protestantism at Ferrara, written (Apophthegmata, etc.). it does so, as, for instance, in the about 1528. With the loftiest fine Ode to Venus, by Andrea .speculations on God, virtue, and is no verbal imitation, in precisely Navagero, it is easy to detect a immortality, the writer connects the tone and style of the verses simple paraphrase of ancient the discussion of many questions on Lesbia's sparrow. There are masterpieces. Some of the ode- of practical life, and is, on this short poems of this sort, the date writers take the saints for their 163 subject, and invoke them in thinking of former years, when all the Anthology, of Ovid, of verses tastefully modelled after the youth of Posilippo used to Catullus, or of the Virgilian the pattern of analogous odes of come forth to greet him on eclogues. He makes a sparing Horace and Catullus. This is the flower-hung boats, and praying use of mythology, only, for manner of Navagero, in the Ode that he may return home. instance, to introduce a sketch of to the Archangel Gabriel, and country life, in a prayer to Ceres particularly of Sannazaro, who Perhaps the most deceptive and other rural divinities. An goes still further in his likeness to the classical style is address to his country, on his appropriation of pagan borne by a class of poems in return from an embassy to Spain, sentiment. He celebrates above elegiacs or hexameters, whose though left unfinished, might all his patron saint, whose chapel subject ranges from elegy, strictly have been worthy of a place was attached to his lovely villa on so called, to epigram. As the beside the Bella Italia, amate the shores of Posilippo, 'there humanists dealt most freely of all sponde of Vincenzo Monti, if the where the waves of the sea drink with the text of the Roman rest had been equal to this up the stream from the rocks, elegiac poets, so they felt beginning: and surge against the walls of themselves most at home in the little sanctuary’. His delight is imitating them. The elegy of ‘Salve cura Deum, mundi felicior in the annual feast of St. Navagero addressed to the ora, Formosae Veneris dulces Nazzaro, and the branches and Night, like other poems of the salvete recessus; Ut vos post garlands with which the chapel is same age and kind, is full of tantos animi mentisque labores hung on this day seem to him like points which remind us of his Aspicio lustroque libens, ut sacrificial gifts. Full of sorrow, model; but it has the finest munere vestro Sollicitas toto and far off in exile, at St. antique ring about it. Indeed depello e pectore curas! ' Nazaire, on the banks of the Navagero always begins by Loire, with the banished Federigo choosing a truly poetical subject, The elegiac or hexametric form of Aragon, he brings wreaths of which he then treats, not with was that in which all higher box and oak leaves to his patron servile imitation, but with sentiment found expression, both saint on the same anniversary, masterly freedom, in the style of the noblest patriotic enthusiasm 164 and the most elaborate eulogies importance, since a few clever marble, or if it was so good that on the ruling houses, as well as lines, engraved on a monument all Italy learned it by heart, as the tender melancholy of a or quoted with laughter in happened in the case of some of Tibullus. Francesco Maria society, could lay the foundation Bembo's. When the Venetian Molza, who rivals Statius and of a scholar's celebrity. This government paid Sannazaro 600 Martial in his flattery of Clement tendency showed itself early in ducats for a eulogy in three VII and the Farnesi, gives us in Italy. When it was known that distichs, no one thought it an act his elegy to his 'comrades,' Guido da Polenta wished to erect of generous prodigality. The written from a sick-bed, thoughts a monument at Dante's grave, epigram was prized for what it on death as beautiful and epitaphs poured in from all was, in truth, to all the educated genuinely antique as can be directions, 'written by such as classes of that age—the found in any of the poets of wished to show themselves, or to concentrated essence of fame. antiquity, and this without honour the dead poet, or to win Nor, on the other hand, was any borrowing anything worth the favour of Polenta’. On the man then so powerful as to be speaking of from them. The spirit tomb of the Archbishop Giovanni above the reach of a satirical and range of Roman elegy were Visconti d. 1354), in the epigram, and even the most best understood and reproduced Cathedral at Milan, we read at powerful needed, for every by Sannazaro, and no other the foot of thirty-six hexameters: inscription which they set before writer of his time offers us so ‘Master Gabrius de Zamoreis of the public eye, the aid of careful varied a choice of good poems in Parma, Doctor of Laws, wrote and learned scholars, lest some this style as he. We shall have these verses.’ In course of time, blunder or other should qualify it occasion now and then to speak chiefly under the influence of for a place in the collections of of some of these elegies in Martial, and partly of Catullus, an ludicrous epitaphs. Epigraphy reference to the matter they treat extensive literature of this sort and literary epigrams began to of. was formed. It was held the link up; the former was based on greatest of all triumphs, if an a most diligent study of the The Latin epigram finally became epigram was mistaken for a ancient monuments. in those days an affair of serious genuine copy from some old 165 The city of epigrams and strengthened his guard by 800 a long poem De poetis urbanis, inscriptions was, above all men; we can imagine what he the whole crowd of singers who others, Rome. In this state would have done to the poet if he sought their fortune at the court without hereditary honours, each had caught him. Under Leo X, of Leo. This was done by man had to look after his own Latin epigrams were like daily Franciscus Arsillus—a man who immortality, and at the same time bread. For complimenting or for needed the patronage neither of found the epigram an effective reviling the Pope, for punishing pope nor prince, and who dared weapon against competitors. enemies and victims, named or to speak his mind, even against Pius II enumerates with unnamed, for real or imaginary his colleagues. The epigram satisfaction the distichs which his subjects of wit, malice, grief, or survived the pontificate of Paul III chief poet Campanus wrote on contemplation, no form was held only in a few rare echoes, while any event of his government more suitable. On the famous epigraphy continued to flourish which could be turned to poetical group of the Virgin with Saint until the seventeenth century, account. Under the following Anne and the Child, which when it perished finally of popes satirical epigrams came Andrea Sansovino carved for bombast. into fashion, and reached, in the Sant' Agostino, no fewer than opposition to Alexander VI and 120 persons wrote Latin verses, In Venice, also, this form of his family, the highest pitch of not so much, it is true, from poetry had a history of its own, defiant invective. Sannazaro, it devotion, as from regard for the which we are able to trace with is true, wrote his verses in a patron who ordered the work. the help of the Venezia of place of comparative safety, but This man, Johann Goritz of Francesco Sansovino. A others in the immediate Luxemburg, papal referendary of standing task for the epigram- neighbourhood of the court petitions, not only held a religious writers was offered by the ventured on the most reckless service on the feast of Saint mottoes (Brievi) on the pictures attacks. On one occasion when Anne, but gave a great literary of the Doges in the great hall of eight threatening distichs were dinner in his garden on the the ducal palace—two or four found fastened to the doors of slopes of the Capitol. It was then hexameters, setting forth the the library, Alexander worth while to pass in, review, in most noteworthy facts in the 166 government of each. In addition Northern Gothic seldom, and with the fact that these combinations to this, the tombs of the Doges in difficulty, offered a suitable place sound like so many slips of the the fourteenth century bore short for them, and in sepulchral tongue, or like the effusions of an inscriptions in prose, recording monuments, for example, left over-hasty Latin improvisatore. merely facts, and beside them free only the most exposed parts The German imitations do not turgid hexameters or leonine — namely the edges. give the smallest notion of this verses. In the fifteenth century effect. more care was taken with the By what has been said hitherto style; in the sixteenth century it is we have, perhaps, failed to seen at its best; and then coon convince the reader of the after came pointless antithesis, characteristic value of this Latin Fall of the Humanists in prosopopceia, false pathos, poetry of the Italians. Our task the Sixteenth Century praise of abstract qualities— in a was rather to indicate its position word, affectation and bombast. and necessity in the history of A good many traces of satire can civilization. In its own day, a Why, it may be asked, were not be detected, and veiled criticism caricature of it appeared—the so- these reproaches, whether true of the living is implied in open called macaronic poetry. The or false, heard sooner? As a praise of the dead. At a much masterpiece of this style, the matter of fact, they were heard at later period we find a few opus macaronicorum, was a very early period, but the effect instances of deliberate written by Merlinus Coccaius they produced was insignificant, recurrence to the old, simple (Teofilo Folengo of Mantua). Vi/e for the plain reason that men style. shall now and then have were far too dependent on the occasion to refer to the matter of scholars for their knowledge of Architectural works and this poem. As to the form— antiquity—that the scholars were decorative works in general were hexameter and other verses, personally the possessors and constructed with a view to made up of Latin words and diffusers of ancient culture. But receiving inscriptions, often in Italian words with Latin endings the spread of printed editions of frequent repetition; while the —its comic effect lies chiefly in the classics, and of large and 167 well-arranged handbooks and Something of this must be put to circulation, and such things as dictionaries, went far to free the the account of their position and ribaldry on the subject of one's people from the necessity of circumstances; we have seen own family, as in Pontano's personal intercourse with the how fiercely the age, whose dialogue Antonius, did the rest to humanists, and, as soon as they loudest spokesmen they were, discredit the class. The sixteenth could be but partly dispensed was borne to and fro by the century was not only familiar with with, the change in popular passion for glory and the passion all these ugly symptoms, but had feeling became manifest. It was for satire. Their position, too, in also grown tired of the type of the a change under which the good practical life was one that they humanist. These men had to pay and bad suffered had continually to fight for. In both for the misdeeds they had indiscriminately. such a temper they wrote and done, and for the excess of spoke and described one honour which had hitherto fallen The first to make these charges another. Poggio's works alone to their lot. Their evil fate willed it were certainly the humanists contain dirt enough to create a that the greatest poet of the themselves. Of all men who ever prejudice against the whole nation, Ariosto, wrote of them in formed a class, they had the class—and these Opera Poggii a tone of calm and sovereign least sense of their common were just those most often contempt. interests, and least respected printed, on the north as well as what there was of this sense. All on the south side of the Alps. Of the reproaches which means were held lawful, if one of We must take care not to rejoice combined to excite so much them saw a chance of too soon, when we meet among hatred, many were only too well supplanting another. From these men a figure which seems founded. Yet a clear and literary discussion they passed immaculate; on further inquiry unmistakable tendency to with astonishing suddenness to there is always a danger of strictness in matters of religion the fiercest and the most meeting with some foul charge, and morality was alive in many of groundless vituperation. Not which, even if it is incredible, still the philologists, and it is a proof satisfied with refuting, they discolors the picture. The mass of small knowledge of the period, sought to annihilate an opponent. of indecent Latin poems in if the whole class is condemned. 168 Yet many, and among them the exclusive devotion was not the humanists were a perilous loudest speakers, were guilty. fault of individuals. It was the temptation; it seemed to him that work of an historical providence, he too 'through inborn pride could Three facts explain and perhaps and if the culture of the ages no longer regard the low and diminish their guilt: the which have followed, and of the common things of life’. He was overflowing excess of fervour ages to come, rests upon the fact thus led to plunge into a life of and fortune, when the luck was that it was so, and that all the excitement and vicissitude, in on their side; the uncertainty of ends of life but this one were which exhausting studies, the future, in which luxury or then deliberately put aside. tutorships, secretaryships, misery depended on the caprice professorships, offices in princely of a patron or the malice of an The career of the humanists was, households, mortal enmities and enemy; and finally, the as a rule, of such a kind hat only perils, luxury and beggary, misleading influence of antiquity. the strongest characters could boundless admiration and This undermined their morality, pass through it unscathed. The boundless contempt, followed without giving them its own first danger came, in some confusedly one upon the other, instead; and in religious matters, cases, from the parents, rho and in which the most solid worth since they could never think of sought to turn a precocious child and learning were often pushed accepting the positive belief in into a miracle of learning, with an aside by superficial impudence. the old gods, it affected them eye to his future position in that But the worst of all was, that the only on the negative and class which then was supreme. position of the humanist was sceptical side. Just because Youthful prodigies, however, almost incompatible with a fixed they conceived of antiquity seldom rise above a certain level; home, since it either made dogmatically—that is, took it as or, if they do, are forced to frequent changes of dwelling the model or all thought and achieve their further progress necessary for a livelihood, or so action—its influence was here and development at the cost of affected the mind of the pernicious. But that an age the bitterest trials. For an individual that he could never be existed which idolized the ancient ambitious youth, the fame and happy for long in one place. He world and its products with an the brilliant position of the grew tired of the people, and had 169 no peace among the enmities inordinate pride. They needed it, they walk along with affected which he excited, while the if only to keep their heads above solemnity and with sullen, people themselves in their turn water, and were confirmed in it malicious looks, now gazing to demanded something new. by the admiration which their own shadow, now brooding Much as this life reminds us of alternated with hatred in the over the popular praise they the Greek sophists of the Empire, treatment they received from the hunted after, like cranes in as described to us by world. They are the most striking search of food. But in the Philostratus, yet the position of examples and victims of an sixteenth century the indictment the sophists was more unbridled subjectivity. was presented in full. Besides favourable. They often had Ariosto, their own historian money, or could more easily do The attacks and the satirical Gyraldus gives evidence of this, without it than the humanists, pictures began, as we have said, whose treatise, written under Leo and as professional teachers of at an early period. For all X, was probably revised about rhetoric, rather than men of strongly marked individuality, for the year 1540. Warning learning, their life was freer and every kind of distinction, a examples from ancient and simpler. But the scholar of the corrective was at hand in the modern times the moral disorder Renaissance was forced to national taste for ridicule. And in and the wretched existence of combine great learning with the this case the men themselves the scholars meet us in power of resisting the influence offered abundant and terrible astonishing abundance, and of ever-changing pursuits and materials which satire had but to along with these, accusations of situations. Add to this the make use of. In the fifteenth the most serious nature are deadening effect of licentious century, Battista Mantovano, in brought formally against them. excess, and—since do what he discoursing of the seven Among these are anger, vanity, might, the worst was believed of monsters, includes the obstinacy, self-adoration, him—a total indifference to the humanists, with any others, dissolute private life, immorality moral laws recognized by others. under the head Superbia. He of all descriptions, heresy, Such men can hardly be describes how, fancying theism; further, the habit of conceived to exist without an themselves children of Apollo, speaking without conviction, a 170 sinister influence on government, everyday life. We are introduced pedantry of speech, But if it is the duty of the historian to men who, in times of trouble, thanklessness towards teachers, to seek for evidence in which lose first their incomes and then and abject flattery of the great, moral judgement is tempered by their places; to others who, in who give the scholar a taste of human sympathy, he 11 find no trying to get two appointments, their favours and then leave him authority comparable in value to miss both; to unsociable misers to starve. The description is the work so often quoted of who carry about their money closed by a reference to the den Pierio Valeriano, 'On the Infelicity sewn into their clothes, and die age, when no such thing as of the Scholar’. It was written mad when they are robbed of it; science existed on the earth. under the gloomy impressions to others, who accept well-paid these charges, that of heresy left by the sack of Rome, which offices, and then sicken with a soon became the most dangers, seems to the writer, not only the melancholy longing for their lost and Gyraldus himself, when he direct cause of untold misery to freedom. We read how some afterwards republished a the men of learning, but, as it died young of a plague or fever, perfectly harmless youthful work, were, the fulfilment of an evil and how the writings which had was compelled to take refuge destiny which had long pursued cost them so much toil were neath the mantle of Duke Ercole them. Pierio is here led by a burnt with their bed and clothes; II of Ferrara, since men had the simple and, on the whole, just how others lived in terror of the upper hand who held that people feeling. He does not introduce a murderous threats of their had better spend their time on special power, which plagued the colleagues; how one was slain by Christian themes than on men of genius on account of their a covetous servant, and another mythological researches. genius, but he states facts, in caught by highwaymen on a justifies himself on the ground which an unlucky chance often journey, and left to pine in a that the latter, on the contrary, wears the aspect of fatality. Not dungeon, because unable to pay were at such a time almost the wishing to write a tragedy or to his ransom. Many died of only harmless branches of study, refer events to the conflict of unspoken grief from the insults as they deal with subjects of a higher powers, he is content to they received and the prizes of perfectly neutral character. lay before us the scenes of which they were defrauded. We 171 are told how a Venetian died this country, now through that, to it. 'Amid want and toil he was because of the death of his son, without ever mounting a horse; happy, because he willed to be a youthful prodigy; and how who never had a penny of his so, because he had contracted mother and brothers followed, as own, rejected all honours and no evil habits, was not if the lost child drew them all after distinctions, and after a gay old capricious, inconstant, him. Many, especially age, died in his eighty-fourth immoderate; but was always Florentines, ended their lives by year, without, if we except a fall contented with little or nothing.’ If suicide; others through the secret from a ladder, having ever known we heard Contarini himself, justice of a tyrant. Who, after all, an hour of sickness. And what religious motives would no doubt is happy?—and by what means? was the difference between such play a part in the argument—but By blunting all feeling for such a man and the humanists? The the practical philosopher in misery? One of the speakers in latter had more free will, more sandals speaks plainly enough. the dialogue in which Pierio subjectivity, than they could turn An allied character, but placed in clothed his argument, can give to purposes of happiness. The other circumstances, is that of an answer to these questions— mendicant friar, who had lived Fabio Calvi of Ravenna, the the illustrious Gasparo Contarini, from his boyhood in the commentator of Hippocrates. He at the mention of whose name monastery, and never eaten or lived to a great age in Rome, we turn with the expectation to slept except by rule, ceased to eating only pulse 'like the hear at least something of the feel the compulsion under which Pythagoreans’, and dwelt in a truest and deepest which was he lived. Through the power of hovel little better than the tub of then thought on such matters. this habit he led, amid all outward Diogenes. Of the pension which As a type of the happy scholar, hardships, a life of inward peace, Pope Leo gave him, he spent he mentions Fra Urbano by which he impressed his enough to keep body and soul Valeriano of Belluno, who was for hearers far more than by his together, and gave the rest away. years a teacher of Greek at teaching. Looking at him, they He was not a healthy man, like Venice, who visited Greece and could believe that it depends on Fra Urbano, nor is it likely that, the East, and towards the close ourselves whether we bear up like him, he died with a smile on of his life travelled, now through against misfortune or surrender his lips. At the age of ninety, in 172 the sack of Rome, he was Yet many of its features are banks of the Tiber. Wealth and dragged away by the Spaniards, clearly recognizable. He was a luxury he despised. Free himself who hoped for a ransom, and bastard of the House of the from envy and uncharitable died of hunger in a hospital. But Neapolitan Sanseverini, princes speech, he would not suffer them his name has passed into the of Salerno, whom he in others. It was only against the kingdom of the immortals, for nevertheless refused to hierarchy that he gave his tongue Raphael loved the old man like a recognize, writing, in reply to an free play, and passed, until his father, and honoured him as a invitation to live with them, the latter years, for a scorner of teacher, and came to him for famous letter: Pomponius religion altogether. He was advice in all things. Perhaps Laetus cognatis et propinquis involved in the persecution of the they discoursed chiefly of the suis salutem. Quod petitis fieri humanists begun by Pope Paul projected restoration of ancient non potest. Valete. An II, and surrendered to this pontiff Rome, perhaps of still higher insignificant little figure, with by the Venetians; but no means matters. Who can tell what a small, quick eyes, and quaint could be found to wring unworthy share Fabio may have had in the dress, he lived, during the last confessions from him. He was conception of the School of decades of the fifteenth century, afterwards befriended and Athens, and in other great works as professor in the University of supported by popes and prelates, of the master? Rome, either in his cottage in a and when his house was garden on the Esquiline hill, or in plundered in the disturbances We would gladly close this part of his vineyard on the Quirinal. In under Sixtus IV, more was our essay with the picture of the one he bred his ducks and collected for him than he had some pleasing and winning fowls; the other he cultivated lost. No teacher was more character. Pomponius Laetus, of according to the strictest conscientious. Before daybreak whom we shall briefly speak, is precepts of Cato, Varro, and he was to be seen descending known to us principally through Columella. He spent his holidays the Esquiline with his lantern, the letter of his pupil Sabellicus, in fishing or bird-catching in the and on reaching his lecture-room in which an antique coloring is Campagna, or in feasting by found it always filled to purposely given to his character. some shady spring or on the overflowing. A stutter compelled 173 him to speak with care, but his chiefly Plautine, plays in Rome. acquired the reputation of delivery was even and effective. Every year, he celebrated the epicures. At other times, the His few works give evidence of anniversary of the foundation of guests performed farces in the careful writing. No scholar the city by a festival, at which his old Atellan style. As a free treated the text of ancient friends and pupils recited association of very varied authors more soberly and speeches and poems. Such elements, the academy lasted in accurately. The remains of meetings were the origin of what its original form down to the sack antiquity which surrounded him in acquired, and long retained, the of Rome, and included among its Rome touched him so deeply name of the Roman Academy. It hosts Angelus Coloccius, that he would stand before them was simply a free union of Johannes Corycius and others. as if entranced, or would individuals, and was connected Its precise value as an element in suddenly burst into tears at the with no fixed institution. Besides the intellectual life of the people sight of them. As he was ready the occasions mentioned, it met is as hard to estimate as that of to lay aside his own studies in at the invitation of a patron, or to any other social union of the order to help others, he was celebrate the memory of a same kind; yet a man like much loved and had many deceased member, as of Platina. Sadoleto reckoned it among the friends; and at his death, even At such times, a prelate most precious memories of his Alexander VI sent his courtiers to belonging to the academy would youth. A large number of other follow the corpse, which was first say mass; Pomponio would academies appeared and passed carried by the most distinguished then ascend the pulpit and away in many Italian cities, of his pupils. The funeral service deliver a speech; someone else according to the number and in the Aracceli was attended by would then follow him and recite significance of the humanists forty bishops and by all the an elegy. The customary living in them, and to the foreign ambassadors. banquet, with declamations and patronage bestowed by the great recitations, concluded the and wealthy. Of these we may It was Laetus who introduced festival, whether joyous or mention the Academy of Naples, and conducted the serious, and the academicians, of which Jovianus Pontanus was representations of ancient, notably Platina himself, early the centre, and which sent out a 174 colony to Lecce, and that of of plays, sometimes acted by the Pordenone, which formed the members themselves, court of the Condottiere Alviano. sometimes under their direction The circle of Lodovico il Moro, by young amateurs, and and its peculiar importance for sometimes by paid players. The that prince, has been already fate of the Italian stage, and spoken of. afterwards of the opera, was long in the hands of these About the middle of the sixteenth associations. century, these associations seem to have undergone a complete change. The humanists, driven in other spheres from their commanding position, and viewed askance by the men of the Counter-reformation, lost the control of the academies: and here, as elsewhere, Latin poetry was replaced by Italian. Before long every town of the least importance had its academy, with some strange, fantastic name, and its own endowment and subscriptions. Besides the recitation of verses, the new institutions inherited from their predecessors the regular banquets and the representation 175 of, the thirst for knowledge; but it Part Four THE was in Italy that this was first and Journeys of the Italians most completely the case. Even DISCOVERY OF THE in the Crusades the interest of WORLD AND OF MAN the Italians was wider than that of Freed from the countless bonds other nations, since they already which elsewhere in Europe were a naval power and had checked progress, having commercial relations with the reached a high degree of East. From time immemorial the individual development and been had given to schooled by the teachings of the nations that dwelt on its antiquity, the Italian mind now shores mental impulses different turned to the discovery of the from those which governed the outward universe, and to the peoples of the North; and never, representation of it in speech and from the very structure of their form. character, could the Italians be adventurers in the sense which On the journeys of the Italians to the word bore among the distant parts of the world, we can Teutons. After they were once at here make but a few general home in all the eastern harbors observations. The Crusades had of the Mediterranean, it was opened unknown distances to natural that the most enterprising the European mind, and among them should be led to join awakened in all the passion for that vast international movement travel and adventure. It may be of the Mohammedans which hard to indicate precisely the there found its outlet. A new half point where this passion allied of the world lay, as it were, itself with, or became the servant freshly discovered before them. 176 Or, like Polo of Venice, they were relationship will also determine the thankless Catholic kings, caught in the current of the the account he gives of his which the ages to come can Mongolian peoples, and carried search. For which reason the never read without profound on to the steps of the throne of Italians, although their claim to emotion. In a codicil to his will, the Great Khan. At an early be the first comers on this or that dated Valladolid, May 4, I 506, he period, we find Italians sharing in shore may be disputed, will yet bequeathed to 'his beloved the discoveries made in the retain their title to be pre- home, the , Atlantic Ocean; it was the eminently the nation of the prayer-book which Pope Genoese who, in the thirteenth discoverers for the whole latter Alexander had given him, and century found the Canary part of the Middle Ages. The which in prison, in conflict, and in Islands. In the same year, 1291, fuller proof of this assertion every kind of adversity, had been when Ptolemais, the last remnant belongs to the special history of to him the greatest of comforts’. of the Christian East, was lost, it discoveries. Yet ever and again It seems as if these words cast was again the Genoese who we turn with admiration to the upon the abhorred name of made the first known attempt to august figure of the great Borgia one last gleam of grace find a sea-passage to the East Genoese, by whom a new and mercy. Indies. Columbus himself is but continent beyond the ocean was the greatest of a long list of demanded, sought and found; The development of geographical Italians who, in the service of the and who was the first to be able and allied sciences among the western nations, sailed into to say: il mondo e poco—the Italians must, like the history of distant seas. The true world is not so large as men their voyages, be touched upon discoverer, however, is not the have thought. At the time when but very briefly. A superficial man who first chances to stumble Spain gave Alexander VI to the comparison of their upon anything, but the man who Italians, Italy gave Columbus to achievements with those of other finds what he has sought. Such the Spaniards. Only a few weeks nations shows an early and a one alone stands in a link with before the death of that pope striking superiority on their part. the thoughts and interests of his Columbus wrote from Jamaica Where, in the middle of the predecessors, and this his noble letter (July 7, 1503) to fifteenth century, could be found, 177 anywhere but in Italy, such a knew what he did, but they felt no simple dilettante of a science— if union of geographical, statistical, impulse to draw a picture of it, in the present case we should and historical knowledge as was and were unconscious that the assign to Aeneas Sylvius so low found in Aeneas Sylvius? Not world desired such pictures. a rank—can diffuse just that sort only in his great geographical of general interest in the subject work, but in his letters and In geography, as in other which prepares for new pioneers commentaries, he describes with matters, it is vain to attempt to the indispensable favourable equal mastery landscapes, cities, distinguish how much is to be predisposition in the public mind. manners, industries and attributed to the study of the True discoverers in any science products, political conditions and ancients, and how much to the know well what they owe to such constitutions, wherever he can special genius of the Italians. meditation. use his own observation or the They saw and treated the things evidence of eye-witnesses. of this world from an objective What he takes from books is point of view, even before they naturally of less moment. Even were familiar with ancient The Natural Sciences in the short sketch of that valley in literature, partly because they Italy the Tyrolese Alps where were themselves a half-ancient Frederick III had given him a people, and partly because their benefice, and still more his political circumstances For the position of the Italians in description of Scotland, leaves predisposed them to it; but they the sphere of the natural untouched none of the relations would not so rapidly have sciences, we must refer the of human life, and displays a attained to such perfection had reader to the special treatises on power and method of unbiased not the old geographers shown the subject, of which the only one observation and comparison them the way. The influence of with which we are familiar is the impossible in any but a the existing Italian geographies superficial and depreciatory work countryman of Columbus, trained on the spirit and tendencies of of Libri. The dispute as to the in the school of the ancients. the travellers and discoverers priority of particular discoveries Thousands saw and, in part, was also inestimable. Even the concerns us all the less, since we 178 hold that, at any time, and among can count on the friendly support appear to us learned, must then any civilized people, a man may of congenial spirits. That this have been intelligible to the appear who, starting with very was the case in Italy is general reader. Dante, learning scanty preparation, is driven by unquestionable. The Italian apart, appeals to a popular an irresistible impulse into the students of nature trace with knowledge of the heavens, which path of scientific investigation, pride in the Divine Comedy the the Italians of his day, from the and through his native gifts hints and proofs of Dante's mere fact that they were a achieves the most astonishing scientific interest in nature. On nautical people, had in common success. Such men were his claim to priority in this or that with the ancients. This Gerbert of Rheims and Roger discovery or reference, we must knowledge of the rising and Bacon. That they were masters leave the men of science to setting of the constellations has of the whole knowledge of the decide; but every layman must been rendered superfluous to the age in their several departments be struck by the wealth of his modern world by calendars and was a natural consequence of observations on the external clocks, and with it has gone the spirit in which they worked. world, shown merely in his whatever interest in astronomy When once the veil of illusion picture and comparisons. He, the people may once have had. was torn asunder, when once the more than any other modern Nowadays, with our schools and dread of nature and the slavery poet, takes them from reality, handbooks, every child knows— to books and tradition were whether in nature or human life, what Dante did not know—that overcome, countless problems and uses them never as mere the earth moves round the sun; lay before them for solution. It is ornament, but in order to give the but the interest once taken in the another matter when a whole reader the fullest and most subject itself has given place, people takes a natural delight in adequate sense of his meaning. except in the case of the study and investigation of It is in astronomy that he appears astronomical specialists, to the nature, at a time when other chiefly as a scientific specialist, most absolute indifference. nations are indifferent, that is to though it must not be forgotten say, when the discoverer is not that many astronomical allusions The pseudo-science which dealt threatened or wholly ignored, but in his great poem, which now with the stars proves nothing 179 against the inductive spirit of the science, and particularly to North. Tyrants and free cities in Italians of that day. That spirit experiments. The latter the fourteenth century treated the was but crossed, and at times doubtless occurred, but it is not clergy at times with such overcome, by the passionate easy to prove the fact. What sovereign contempt that very desire to penetrate the future. helped to cause such different matters from natural We shall recur to the subject of persecutions in the North, science went unpunished. But astrology when we come to namely, the opposition made to when, with the fifteenth century, speak of the moral and religious the innovators by the upholders antiquity became the leading character of the people. of the received official, scholastic power in Italy, the breach it made system of nature, was of little or in the old system was turned to The Church treated this and no weight in Italy. Pietro of account by every branch of other pseudo-sciences nearly Abano, at the beginning of the secular science. Humanism, always with toleration; and fourteenth century, is well known nevertheless, attracted to itself showed itself actually hostile to have fallen a victim to the envy the best strength of the nation, even to genuine science only of another physician, who and thereby, no doubt, did injury when a charge of heresy accused him before the to the inductive investigation of together with necromancy was Inquisition of heresy and magic; nature. Here and there the also in question—which certainly and something of the same kind Inquisition suddenly started into was often the case. A point may have happened in the case life, and punished or burned which it would be interesting to of his Paduan contemporary, physicians as blasphemers or decide is this: whether and in Giovannino Sanguinacci, who magicians. In such cases it is what cases the Dominican (and was known as an innovator in hard to discover what was the also the Franciscan) Inquisitors medical practice. He escaped, true motive underlying the in Italy were conscious of the however, with banishment. Nor condemnation. But even so, falsehood of the charges, and yet must it be forgotten that the Italy, at the close of the fifteenth condemned the accused, either inquisitorial power of the century, with Paolo Toscanelli, to oblige some enemy of the Dominicans was exercised less Luca Pacioli and Leonardo da prisoner or from hatred to natural uniformly in Italy than in the Vinci, held incomparably the 180 highest place among European wealthy men, in laying out their were to be found in the garden of nations in mathematics and the pleasure-gardens, instinctively any castle or monastery in natural sciences, and the learned made a point of collecting the Western Europe. Along with a men of every country, even greatest possible number of careful cultivation of fruit for the Regiomontanus and Copernicus, different plants in all their species purposes of the table, we find an confessed themselves its pupils. and varieties. Thus in the interest in the plant for its own This glory survived the Counter- fifteenth century the noble sake, on account of the pleasure reformation, and even today the grounds of the Medicean Villa it gives to the eye. We learn Italians would occupy the first Careggi appear from the from the history of art at how late place in this respect if descriptions we have of them to a period this passion for circumstances had not made it have been almost a botanical botanical collections was laid impossible for the greatest minds garden, with countless aside, and gave place to what to devote themselves to tranquil specimens of different trees and was considered the picturesque research. shrubs. Of the same kind was a style of landscape-gardening. villa of the Cardinal Trivulzio, at A significant proof of the the beginning of the sixteenth The collections, too, of foreign widespread interest in natural century, in the Roman animals not only gratified history is found in the zeal which Campagna towards Tivoli, with curiosity, but served also the showed itself at an early period hedges made up of various higher purposes of observation. for the collection and species of roses, with trees of The facility of transport from the comparative study of plants and every description—the fruit-trees southern and eastern harbors of animals. Italy claims to be the especially showing an the Mediterranean, and the first creator of botanical gar dens, astonishing variety—with twenty mildness of the Italian climate, though possibly they may have different sorts of vines and a made it practicable to buy the served a chiefly practical end, large kitchen-garden. This is largest animals of the south, or to and the claim to priority may be evidently something very accept them as presents from the itself disputed. It is of far greater different from the score or two of Sultans. The cities and princes importance that princes and familiar medicinal plants which were especially anxious to keep 181 live lions even where a lion was Ferrara used to set his lion to Northern Europe, amounted to not, as in Florence, the emblem fight with bulls, bears, and wild 3,000 pieces of gold a month. of the State. The lions' den was boars. King Emanuel the Great of generally in or near the Portugal knew well what he was government palace, as in By the end of the fifteenth about when he presented Leo X Perugia and Florence; in Rome, century, however, true with an elephant and a it lay on the slope of the Capitol. menageries (serragli), now rhinoceros. It was under such The beasts sometimes served as reckoned part of the suitable circumstances that the executioners of political appointments of a court, were foundations of a scientific judgements, and no doubt, apart kept by many of the princes. 'It zoology and botany were laid. from this, they kept alive a belongs to the position of the certain terror in the popular mind. great,' says Matarazzo, 'to keep A practical fruit of these Their condition was also held to horses, dogs, mules, falcons, zoological studies was the be ominous of good or evil. Their and other birds, court-jesters, establishment of studs, of which fertility, especially, was singers, and foreign animals.' the Mantuan, under Francesco considered a sign of public The menagerie at Naples, in the Gonzaga, was esteemed the first prosperity, and no less a man time of Ferrante, contained even in Europe. All interest in, and than Giovanni Villani thought it a giraffe and a zebra, presented, knowledge of the different breeds worth recording that he was it seems, by the ruler of of horses is as old, no doubt, as present at the delivery of a Baghdad. Filippo Maria Visconti riding itself, and the crossing of lioness. The cubs were often possessed not only horses which the European with the Asiatic given to allied States and cost him each 500 or 1,000 must have been common from princes, or to Condottieri as a pieces of gold, and valuable the time of the Crusades. In reward of their valor. In addition English dogs, but a number of Italy, a special inducement to to the lions, the Florentines leopards brought from all parts of perfect the breed was offered by began very early to keep the East; the expense of his the prizes at the horse-races held leopards, for which a special hunting birds, which were in every considerable town in the keeper was appointed. Borso of collected from the countries of peninsula. In the Mantuan 182 stables were found the infallible divers, and Turks, who generally Discovery of the Beauty winners in these contests, as well accompanied the Cardinal on his as the best military chargers, and hunting expeditions. When he of Landscape the horses best suited by their was overtaken by an early death stately appearance for presents (1535), this motley band carried But outside the sphere of to great people. Gonzaga kept the corpse on their shoulders scientific investigation, there is stallions and mares from Spain, from Itri to Rome, and mingled another way to draw near to Ireland, Africa, Thrace, and with the general mourning for the nature. The Italians are the first Cilicia, and for the sake of the open-handed Cardinal their among modern peoples by whom last he cultivated the friendship of medley of tongues and violent the outward world was seen and the Sultans. All possible gesticulations. felt as something beautiful. experiments were here tried, in order to produce the most perfect These scattered notices of the The power to do so is always the animals. relations of the Italians to natural result of a long and complicated science, and their interest in the development, and its origin is not Even human menageries were wealth and variety of the easily detected, since a dim not wanting. The famous products of nature, are only feeling of this kind may exist long Cardinal Ippolito Medici, bastard fragments of a great subject. No before it shows itself in poetry of Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, one is more conscious than the and painting and thereby kept at his strange court a troop author of the defects in his becomes conscious of itself. of barbarians who talked no less knowledge on this point. Of the Among the ancients, for than twenty different languages, multitude of special works in example, art and poetry had and who were all of them perfect which the subject is adequately gone through the whole circle of specimens of their races. Among treated, even the names are but human interests, before they them were incomparable imperfectly known to him. turned to the representation of voltigeurs of the best blood of the nature, and even then the latter North African Moors, Tartar filled always a limited and bowmen, Negro wrestlers, Indian subordinate place. And yet, from 183 the time of Homer downwards, pictures are all foreground poet — for such we take him to the powerful impression made by without perspective. Even the be—of the twelfth century? nature upon man is shown by crusaders, who travelled so far countless verses and chance and saw so much, are not 'Immortalis fieret Ibi manens expressions. The Germanic recognizable as such in their homo; Arbor ibi quaelibet Suo races, which founded their States poems. The epic poetry, which gaudet pomo; Viae myrrha, on the ruins of the Roman describes amour and costumes cinnamo Fragrant, et amomo— Empire, were thoroughly and so fully, does not attempt more Conjectari poterat Dominus ex specially fitted to understand the than a sketch of outward nature; domo' etc. spirit of natural scenery; and and even the great Wolfram von though Christianity compelled Eschenbach scarcely anywhere To the Italian mind, at all events, them for a while to see in the gives us an adequate picture of nature had by this time lost its springs and mountains, in the the scene on which his heroes taint of sin, and had shaken off lakes and woods, which they had move. From these poems it all trace of demoniacal powers. until then revered, the working of would never be guessed that Saint Francis of Assisi, in his evil demons, yet this transitional their noble authors in all Hymn to the Sun, frankly praises conception was soon outgrown. countries inhabited or visited lofty the Lord for creating the By the year 1200, at the height of castles, commanding distant heavenly bodies and the four the Middle Ages, a genuine, prospects. Even in the Latin elements. hearty enjoyment of the external poems of the wandering clerks, world was again in existence, we find no traces of a distant But the unmistakable proofs of a and found lively expression in the view—of landscape properly so deepening effect of nature on the minstrelsy of different nations, called— but what lies near is human spirit begin with Dante. which gives evidence of the sometimes described with a glory Not only does he awaken in us sympathy felt with all the simple and splendor which none of the by a few vigorous lines the sense phenomena of nature —spring knightly minstrels can surpass. of the morning air and the with its flowers, the green fields What picture of the Grove of trembling light on the distant and the woods. But these Love can equal that of the Italian ocean, or of the grandeur of the 184 storm-beaten forest, but he but Petrarch is also conscious of makes the ascent of lofty peaks, Petrarch was not only a the beauty of rock scenery, and with the only possible object of distinguished geographer—the is perfectly able to distinguish the enjoying the view—the first man, first map of Italy is said to have picturesqueness from the utility perhaps, since the days of been drawn by his direction—and of nature. During his stay among antiquity who did so. In not only a reproducer of the the woods of Reggio, the sudden Boccaccio we can do little more sayings of the ancients, but felt sight of an impressive landscape than infer how country scenery himself the influence of natural so affected him that he resumed affected him; yet his pastoral beauty. The enjoyment of nature a poem which he had long laid romances show his imagination is, for him, the favorite aside. But the deepest to have been filled with it. But accompaniment of intellectual impression of all was made upon the significance of nature for a pursuits; it was to combine the him by the ascent of Mont receptive spirit is fully and clearly two that he lived in learned Ventoux, near Avignon. An displayed by Petrarch—one of retirement at Vaucluse and indefinable longing for a distant the first truly modern men. That elsewhere, that he from time to panorama grew stronger and clear soul—who first collected time fled from the world and from stronger in him, until at length the from the literature of all countries his age. We should do him accidental sight of a passage in evidence of the origin and wrong by inferring from his weak Livy, where King Philip, the progress of the sense of natural and undeveloped power of enemy of Rome, ascends the beauty, and himself, in his describing natural scenery that Haemus, decided him. He Aspects of Nature, achieved the he did not feel it deeply. His thought that what was not noblest masterpiece of picture, for instance, of the lovely blamed in a greyheaded description—Alexander von Gulf of Spezia and Porto Venere, monarch, might well be excused Humboldt has not done full which he inserts at the end of the in a young man of private station. justice to Petrarch; and following sixth book of the Africa, for the The ascent of a mountain for its in the steps of the great reaper, reason that none of the ancients own sake was unheard of, and we may still hope to glean a few or moderns had sung of it, is no there could be no thought of the ears of interest and value. more than a simple enumeration, companionship of friends or 185 acquaintances. Petrarch took longing gaze towards his native only occur at a height of 10,000 with him only his younger brother country; he opened a book which feet or more above the sea— and two country people from the then was his constant mountain-sickness and its last place where he halted. At companion, the Confessions of accompaniments—of which his the foot of the mountain an old St. Augustine, and his eye fell on imaginary comrade Solinus tries herdsman besought him to turn the passage in the tenth chapter, to cure him with a sponge dipped back, saying that he himself had 'and men go forth, and admire in an essence. The ascents of attempted to climb it fifty years lofty mountains and broad seas, Parnassus and Olympus, of before, and had brought home and roaring torrents, and the which he speaks, are perhaps nothing but repentance, broken ocean, and the course of the only fictions. bones, and torn clothes, and that stars, and forget their own selves neither before nor after had while doing so.’ His brother, to In the fifteenth century, the great anyone ventured to do the same. whom he read these words, masters of the Flemish school, Nevertheless, they struggled could not understand why he Hubert and Jan van Eyck, forward and upward, until the closed the book and said no suddenly lifted the veil from clouds lay beneath their feet, and more. nature. Their landscapes are not at last they reached the top. A merely the fruit of an endeavor to description of the view from the Some decades later, about 1360, reflect the real world in art, but summit would be looked for in Fazio degli Uberti describes, in have, even if expressed vain, not because the poet was his rhyming geography, the wide conventionally, a certain poetical insensible to it, but, on the panorama from the mountains of meaning—in short, a soul. Their contrary, because the impression Auvergne, with the interest, it is influence on the whole art of the was too overwhelming. His true, of the geographer and West is undeniable, and whole past life, with all its follies, antiquarian only, but still showing extended to the landscape- rose before his mind; he clearly that he himself had seen painting of the Italians, but remembered that ten years ago it. He must, however, have without preventing the that day he had quitted Bologna ascended far higher peaks, since characteristic interest of the a young man, and turned a he is familiar with facts which Italian eye for nature from finding 186 its own expression. details. The ecclesiastical State shores of St. Peter from and the south of Tuscany—his Terracina and the promontory of On this point, as in the scientific native home—he knew Circe as far as Monte Argentaro, description of nature, Aeneas thoroughly, and after he became and the wide expanse of country Sylvius is again one of the most Pope he spent his leisure during round about, with the ruined weighty voices of his time. Even the favourable season chiefly in cities of the past, and with the if we grant the justice of all that excursions to the country. Then mountain-chains of Central Italy has been said against his at last the gouty man was rich beyond; and then his eye would character, we must nevertheless enough to have himself carried in turn to the green woods in the admit that in few other men was a litter across the mountains and hollows beneath and the the picture of the age and its valleys; and when we compare mountain-lakes among them. He culture so fully reflected, and that his enjoyments with those of the feels the beauty of the position of few came nearer to the normal Popes who succeeded him, Pius, Todi, crowning the vineyards and type of the men of the early whose chief delight was in olive-clad slopes, looking down Renaissance. It may be added nature, antiquity, and simple, but upon distant woods and upon the parenthetically, that even in noble, architecture, appears valley of the Tiber, where towns respect to his moral character he almost a saint. In the elegant and castles rise above the will not be fairly judged, if we and flowing Latin of his winding river. The lovely hills listen solely to the complaints of Commentaries he freely tells us about Siena, with villas and the German Church, which his of his happiness. monasteries on every height, are fickleness helped to balk of the his own home, and his Council it so ardently desired. His eye seems as keen and descriptions of them are touched practiced as that of any modern with a peculiar feeling. Single He here claims our attention as observer. He enjoys with rapture picturesque glimpses charm him the first who not only enjoyed the the panoramic splendor of the too, like the little promontory of magnificence of the Italian view from the summit of the Capo di Monte that stretches out landscape, but described it with Alban Hills—from the Monte into the Lake of Bolsena. 'Rocky enthusiasm down to its minutest Cavo—whence he could see the steps,' we read, 'shaded by 187 vines, descend to the water's meadows where there were no edge, where the evergreen oaks The height of his enthusiasm for thorns to wound the feet, and no stand between the cliffs, alive natural beauty was reached snakes or insects to hurt or to with the song of thrushes.’ On during his stay on Monte Amiata, annoy, the Pope passed days of the path round the Lake of Nemi, in the summer of 1462, when unclouded happiness. For the beneath the chestnuts and fruit- plague and heat made the Segnatura, which took place on trees, he feels that here, if lowlands uninhabitable. Half-way certain days of the week, he anywhere, a poet's soul must up the mountain, in the old selected on each occasion some awake—here in the hiding-place Lombard monastery of San new shady retreat 'novos in of Diana! He often held Salvatore, he and his court took convallibus fontes et novas consistories or received up their quarters. There, inveniens umbras, quae dubiam ambassadors under huge old between the chestnuts which facerent electionem.’ At such chestnut-trees, or beneath the clothe the steep declivity, the eye times the dogs would perhaps olives on the greensward by may wander over all Southern start a great stag from his lair, some gurgling spring. A view like Tuscany, with the towers of who, after defending himself a that of a narrowing gorge, with a Siena in the distance. The while with hoofs and antlers, bridge arched boldly over it, ascent of the highest peak he left would fly at last up the mountain. awakens at once his artistic to his companions, who were In the evening the Pope was sense. Even the smallest details joined by the Venetian envoy; accustomed to sit before the give him delight through they found at the top two vast monastery on the spot from something beautiful, or perfect, blocks of stone one upon the which the whole valley of the or characteristic in them—the other—perhaps the sacrificial Paglia was visible, holding lively blue fields of waving flax, the altar of a prehistoric people—and conversations with the cardinals. yellow gorse which covers the fancied that in the far distance The courtiers, who ventured hills, even tangled thickets, or they saw Corsica and Sardinia down from the heights on their single trees, or springs, which rising above the sea. In the cool hunting expeditions, found the seem to him like wonders of air of the hills, among the old heat below intolerable, and the nature. oaks and chestnuts, on the green scorched plains like a very hell, 188 while the monastery, with its something else to paint nature We sometimes find the feeling of cool, shady woods, seemed like vigorously, but no effort to appeal the poets, also, itself with an abode of the blessed. by their reader, which they tenderness to graceful scenes of endeavor to reach solely by their country Strozzi, about the year All this is genuine modern narrative and characters. Letter- 1480, describes in a Latin elegy enjoyment, not a reflection of writers and the authors of the dwelling of his mistress. We antiquity. As surely as the philosophical dialogues are, in are shown an old ivy-clad house, ancients themselves felt in the fact, better evidence of the half hidden in trees, and adorned same manner, so surely, growing love of nature than the with weather-stained frescoes of nevertheless, were the scanty poets. The novelist Bandello, for the saints, and near it a chapel expressions of the writers whom example, observes rigorously the much damaged by the violence Pius knew insufficient to awaken rules of his department of of the River Po, which flowed in him such enthusiasm. literature; he gives us in his hard by; not far off, the priest novels themselves not a word ploughs his few barren roods The second great age of Italian more than is necessary on the with borrowed cattle. This is no poetry, which now followed at the natural scenery amid which the reminiscence of the Roman end of the fifteenth and the action of his tales takes place, elegists, but true modern beginning of the sixteenth but in the dedications which sentiment; and the parallel to it— centuries, as well as the Latin always precede them we meet a sincere, unartificial description poetry of the same period, is rich with charming descriptions of of country life in general—will be in proofs of the powerful effect of nature as the setting for his found at the end of this part of nature on the human mind. The dialogues and social pictures. our work. first glance at the lyric poets of Among letter-writers, Aretino that time will suffice to convince unfortunately must be named as It may be objected that the us. Elaborate descriptions of the first who has fully painted in German painters at the beginning natural scenery, it is true, are words the splendid effect of light of the sixteenth century very rare, for the reason that, in and shadow in an Italian sunset. succeeded in representing with this energetic age, poetry had perfect mastery these scenes of 189 country life, as, for instance, most zealous and thorough study fourteenth and fifteenth Albrecht Durer, in his engraving of himself in all forms and under centuries, may not be equally of the Prodigal Son. But it is one all conditions. Indeed, the plain to others. The gradual thing if a painter, brought up in a development of personality is awakening of the soul of a school of realism, introduces essentially involved in the people is a phenomenon which such scenes, and quite another recognition of it in oneself and in may produce a different thing if a poet, accustomed to an others. Between these two great impression on each spectator. ideal or mythological framework, processes our narrative has Time will judge which impression is driven by inward impulse into placed the influence of ancient is the most faithful. realism. Besides which, priority literature because the mode of in point of time is here, as in the conceiving and representing both Happily the study of the descriptions of country life, on the individual and human nature intellectual side of human nature the side of the Italian poets. in general was defined and began, not with the search after a colored by that influence. But the theoretical psychology—for that, power of conception and Aristotle still sufficed—but with representation lay in the age and the endeavor to observe and to Discovery of Man in the people. describe. The indispensable ballast of theory was limited to The facts which we shall quote in the popular doctrine of the four To the discovery of the outward evidence of our thesis will be few temperaments, in its then world the Renaissance added a in number. Here, if anywhere in habitual union with the belief in still greater achievement, by first the course of this discussion, the the influence of the planets. discerning and bringing to light author is conscious that he is Such conceptions may remain the full, whole nature of man. treading on the perilous ground ineradicable in the minds of This period, as we have seen, of conjecture, and that what individuals, without hindering the first gave the highest seems to him a clear, if delicate general progress of the age. It development to individuality, and and gradual, transition in the certainly makes on us a singular then led the individual to the intellectual movement of the impression, when we meet them 190 at a time when human nature in delineation of the human spirit, share in the poetry of the courts its deepest essence and in all its we shall first speak of the great and of chivalry. To them is characteristic expressions was poets of the fourteenth century. mainly due the Canzone, whose not only known by exact construction is as difficult and observation, but represented by If we were to collect the pearls artificial as that of the songs of an immortal poetry and art. It from the courtly and knightly any northern minstrel. Their sounds almost ludicrous when an poetry of all the countries of the subject and mode of thought otherwise competent observer West during the two preceding represents simply the considers Clement VII to be of a centuries, we should have a conventional tone of the courts, melancholy temperament, but mass of wonderful divinations be the poet a burgher or a defers his judgement to that of and single pictures of the inward scholar. the physicians, who declare the life, which at first sight would Pope of a sanguine-choleric seem to rival the poetry of the But two new paths at length nature; or when we read that the Italians. Leaving lyrical poetry showed themselves, along which same Gaston de Foix, the victor out of account, Godfrey of Italian poetry could advance to of Ravenna, whom Giorgione Strassburg gives us, in Tristram another and a characteristic painted and Bambaia carved, and Isolt, a representation of future. They are not the less and whom all the historians human passion, some features of important for being concerned describe, had the saturnine which are immortal. But these only with the formal and external temperament. No doubt those pearls lie scattered in the ocean side of the art. who use these expressions mean of artificial convention, and they something by them; but the terms are altogether something very To the same Brunetto Latini—the in which they tell us their different from a complete teacher of Dante—who, in his meaning are strangely out of objective picture of the inward Canzoni, adopts the customary date in the Italy of the sixteenth man and his spiritual wealth. manner of the Trovatori, we owe century. the first-known versi sciolti, or Italy, too, in the thirteenth century blank hendecasyllabic verses, As examples of the free had, through the Trovatori, its and in his apparent absence of 191 form, a true and genuine passion form all higher lyrical and beauty of its structure, the suddenly showed itself. The meditative subjects, and at a invitation it gave to elevate the same voluntary renunciation of later time subjects of every thought in the second and more outward effect, through possible description, were rapidly moving half, and the ease confidence in the power of the treated, and the madrigals, the with which it could be learned by inward conception, can be sestine, and even the Canzoni heart, made it valued even by the observed some years later in were reduced to a subordinate greatest masters. In fact, they fresco-painting, and later still in place. Later Italian writers would not have kept it in use painting of all kinds, which began complain, half jestingly, half down to our own century had to cease to rely on color for its resentfully, of this inevitable they not been penetrated with a effect, using simply a lighter or mould, this Procrustean bed, to sense of its singular worth. darker shade. For an age which which they were compelled to These masters could have given laid so much stress on artificial make their thoughts and feelings us the same thoughts in other form in poetry, these verses of fit. Others were, and still are, and wholly different forms. But Brunetto mark the beginning of a quite satisfied with this particular when once they had made the new epoch. form of verse, which they freely sonnet the normal type of lyrical use to express any personal poetry, many other writers of About the same time, or even in reminiscence or idle sing-song great, if not the highest, gifts, the first half of the thirteenth without necessity or serious who otherwise would have lost century, one of the many strictly purpose. For which reason there themselves in a sea of balanced forms of mere, in which are many more bad or diffusiveness, were forced to Europe was then so fruitful, insignificant sonnets than good concentrate their feelings. The became a normal and recognized ones. sonnet became for Italian form in Italy—the sonnet. The literature a condenser of order of rhymes and even the Nevertheless, the sonnet must thoughts and emotions such as number of lines varied for a be held to have been an was possessed by the poetry of whole century, until Petrarch unspeakable blessing for Italian no other modern people. fixed them permanently. In this poetry. The clearness and 192 Thus the world of Italian wrote under the influence of of each poem, is as wonderful as sentiment comes before us in a antiquity. The simplicity and the verses themselves, and series of pictures, clear, concise, strength of their feeling, the forms with them a uniform whole, and most effective in their vigorous delineation of fact, the inspired with the deepest glow of brevity. Had other nations precise expression and rounding passion. With unflinching possessed a form of expression off of their sonnets and other frankness and sincerity he lays of the same kind, we should poems, herald the coming of a bare every shade of his joy and perhaps have known more of Dante. Some political sonnets of his sorrow, and molds it their inward life; we might have the Guelphs and Ghibellines resolutely into the strictest forms had a number of pictures of (1260-1270) have about them the of art. Reading attentively these inward and outward situations— ring of his passion, and others Sonnets and Canzoni and the reflexions of the national remind us of his sweetest lyrical marvelous fragments of the diary character and temper—and notes. of his youth which lie between should not be dependent for such them, we fancy that throughout knowledge on the so-called Of his own theoretical view of the the Middle Ages the poets have lyrical poets of the fourteenth and sonnet, we are unfortunately been purposely fleeing from fifteenth centuries, who can ignorant, since the last books of themselves, and that he was the hardly ever be read with any his work, De vulgari eloquentia, first to seek his own soul. Before serious enjoyment. In Italy we in which he proposed to treat of his time we meet with many an can trace an undoubted progress ballads and sonnets, either artistic verse; but he is the first from the time when the sonnet remained unwritten or have been artist in the full sense of the came into existence. In the lost. But, as a matter of fact, he word—the first who consciously second half of the thirteenth has left us in his Sonnets and cast immortal matter into an century the Trovatori della Canzoni a treasure of inward immortal form. Subjective feeling transizione, as they have been experience. And in what a has here a full objective truth and recently named, mark the framework he has set them! The greatness, and most of it is so passage from the Troubadours to prose of the Vita Nuova, in which set forth that all ages and the poets—that is, to those who he gives an account of the origin peoples can make it their own. 193 Where he writes in a thoroughly whole poem, one canto after certainly always easy to settle objective spirit, and lets the force another, in order to do justice to satisfactorily—an equality of of his sentiment be guessed at its value from this point of view. natural gifts to start with. only by some outward fact, as in Happily we have no need to do the magnificent sonnets Tanto this, as it has long been a daily Here, as in other things in Italy, gentile, etc., and Vede food of all the countries of the culture—to which poetry perfettamente, etc., he seems to West. Its plan, and the ideas on belongs—precedes the visual feel the need of excusing himself. which it is based, belong to the arts and, in fact, gives them their The most beautiful of these Middle Ages, and appeal to our chief impulse. More than a poems really belongs to this interest only historically; but it is century elapsed before the class— the Deh peregrini che nevertheless the beginning of all spiritual element in painting and pensosi andate, (‘Oh, pilgrims, modern poetry, through the sculpture attained a power of walking deep in thoughts,' from power and richness shown in the expression in any way analogous Vita Nuova.) Even apart from the description of human nature in to that of the Divine Comedy. Divine Comedy, Dante would every shape and attitude. From How far the same rule holds have marked by these youthful this time forward poetry may good for the artistic development poems the boundary between have experienced unequal of other nations, and of what and modern times. fortunes, and may show, for half importance the whole question The human spirit had taken a a century together, a so-called may be, does not concern us mighty step towards the relapse. But its nobler and more here. For Italian civilization it is consciousness of its own secret vital principle was saved for ever; of decisive weight. life. and whenever in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and in the beginning of The position to be assigned to The revelations in this matter the sixteenth centuries, an Petrarch in this respect must be which are contained in the Divine original mind devotes himself to settled by the many readers of Comedy itself are simply it, he represents a more the poet. Those who come to immeasurable; and it would be advanced stage than any poet him in the spirit of a cross- necessary to go through the out of Italy, given—what is examiner, and busy themselves 194 in detecting the contradictions celebrated people goes on for between the poet and the man, another half-century as it has Boccaccio, too, in his imperfectly- his infidelities in love, and the begun in England and Germany, known Sonnets, succeeds other weak sides of his illustrious company enough sometimes in giving a most character, may perhaps, after sitting with him on repentance. powerful and effective picture of sufficient effort, end by losing all his feeling. The return to a spot taste for his poetry. In place, Without shutting our eyes to consecrated by love (Son. 22), then, of artistic enjoyment, we much that is artificial in his the melancholy of spring (Son. may acquire a knowledge of the poetry, where the writer is merely 33), the sadness of the poet who man in his 'totality.’ What a pity imitating himself and singing on feels himself growing old (Son. that Petrarch's letters from in the old strain, we cannot fail to 65), are admirably treated by Avignon contain so little gossip to admire the marvelous abundance him. And in the Ameto he has take hold of, and that the letters of pictures of the inmost soul — described the ennobling and of his acquaintances and of the descriptions of moments of joy transfiguring power of love in a friends of these acquaintances and sorrow which must have manner which would hardly be have either been lost or never been thoroughly his own, since expected from the author of the existed! Instead of Heaven being no one before him gives us Decameron. In the Fiammetta thanked when we are not forced anything of the kind, and on we have another great and to inquire how and through what which his significance rests for minutely-painted picture of the struggles a poet has rescued his country and for the world. His human soul, full of the keenest something immortal from his own verse is not in all places equally observation, though executed poor life and lot, a biography has transparent; by the side of his with anything but uniform power, been stitched together for most beautiful thoughts stands at and in parts marred by the Petrarch out of these so-called times some allegorical conceit or passion for high-sounding 'remains,' which reads like an some sophistical trick of logic, language and by an unlucky indictment. But the poet may altogether foreign to our present mixture of mythological allusions take comfort. If the printing and taste. But the balance is on the and learned quotations. The editing of the correspondence of side of excellence. Fiammetta, if we are not 195 mistaken, is a sort of feminine Why did the Italians of the It is an obvious reply that all counterpart to the Vita Nuova of Renaissance do nothing above Europe produced but one Dante, or at any rate owes its the second rank in tragedy? Shakespeare, and that such a origin to it. That was the field on which to mind is the rarest of Heaven's display human character, gifts. It is further possible that That the ancient poets, intellect, and passion, in the the Italian stage was on the way particularly the elegists, and thousand forms of their growth, to something great when the Virgil, in the fourth book of the their struggles, and their decline. Counter-reformation broke in Aeneid, were not without In other words: why did Italy upon it, and, aided by the influence on the Italians of this produce no Shakespeare? For Spanish rule over Naples and and the following generation is with the stage of other northern Milan, and indirectly over almost beyond a doubt; but the spring of countries besides England the the whole peninsula, withered the sentiment within the latter was Italians of the sixteenth and best flowers of the Italian spirit. It nevertheless powerful and seventeenth centuries had no would be hard to conceive of original. If we compare them in reason to fear a comparison; and Shakespeare himself under a this respect with their with the Spaniards they could not Spanish viceroy, or in the contemporaries in other enter into competition, since Italy neighbourhood of the Holy countries, we shall find in them had long lost all traces of Inquisition at Rome, or in his own the earliest complete expression religious fanaticism, treated the country a few decades later, at of modern European feeling. chivalrous code of honour only the time of English Revolution. The question, be it remembered, as a form, and was both too The stage, which in its perfection is not to know whether eminent proud and too intelligent to bow is a product of every civilization, men of other nations did not feel down before its tyrannical and must wait for its own time and as deeply and as nobly, but who illegitimate masters. We have fortune. first gave documentary proof of therefore only to consider the the widest knowledge of the English stage in the period of its We must not, however, quit this movements of the human heart. brief splendor. subject without mentioning certain circumstances which 196 were of a character to hinder or drama. academies of which we have retard a high development of the already spoken, made this one of drama in Italy, until the time for it And when the latter did at length their chief objects, and that the had gone by. appear, it at once gave itself up poets of the Renaissance to magnificence of scenic effects, followed these models too As the most weighty of these to which the mysteries had servilely, were all untoward causes we must mention without already accustomed the public conditions for the Italian stage at doubt that the scenic tastes of taste to far too great an extent. the period in question. Yet I hold the people were occupied We learn with astonishment how them to be of secondary elsewhere, and chiefly in the rich and splendid the scenes in importance. Had not the mysteries and religious Italy were, at a time when in the Counter-reformation and the rule processions. Throughout all North the simplest indication of of foreigners intervened, these Europe dramatic representations the place was thought sufficient. very disadvantages might have of sacred history and legend form This alone might have had no been turned into useful means of the origin of the secular drama; such unfavorable effect on the transition. At all events, by the but Italy, as will be shown more drama, if the attention of the year 1520 the victory of the fully in the sequel, had spent on audience had not been drawn mother-tongue in tragedy and the mysteries such a wealth of away from the poetical comedy was, to the great disgust decorative splendor as could not conception of the play partly by of the humanists, as good as but be unfavorable to the the splendor of the costumes, won. On this side, then, no dramatic element. Out of all the partly and chiefly by fantastic obstacle stood in the way of the countless and costly interludes (Intermezzi). most developed people in representations, there sprang not Europe, to hinder them from even a branch of poetry like the That in many places, particularly raising the drama, in its noblest Autos Sagramentales of in Rome and Ferrara, Plautus forms, to be a true reflection of Calderon and other Spanish and Terence, as well as pieces human life and destiny. It was poets, much less any advantage by the old tragedians, were given the Inquisitors and Spaniards or foundation for the secular in Latin or in Italian, that the who cowed the Italian spirit, and 197 rendered impossible the Isabella Gonzaga, and that while with music than as a drama. In representation of the greatest the play was going on everybody any case, the accessories were and most sublime themes, most was longing for the interludes, is more considerable than the play of all when they were associated quite intelligible, when we think of itself. There was a choral dance with patriotic memories. At the the picturesque brilliancy with of ivy-clad youths, moving in same time, there is no doubt that which they were put on the intricate figures, done to the the distracting Intermezzi did stage. There were to be seen music of a ringing orchestra; then serious harm to the drama. We combats of Roman warriors, who came Apollo, striking the lyre with must now consider them a little brandished their weapons to the the plectrum, and singing an ode more closely. sound of music, torch-dances to the praise of the House of executed by Moors, a dance of Este; then followed, as an When the marriage of Alfonso of savages with horns of plenty, out interlude within an interlude, a Ferrara with Lucrezia Borgia was of which streamed waves of kind of rustic farce, after which celebrated, Duke Ercole in fire— all as the ballet of a the stage was again occupied by person showed his illustrious pantomime in which a maiden classical mythology—Venus, guests the 110 costumes which was delivered from a dragon. Bacchus and their followers— were to serve at the Then came a dance of fools, got and by a pantomime representation of five comedies up as Punches, beating one representing the judgement of of Plautus, in order that all might another with pigs' bladders, with Paris. see that not one of them was more of the same kind. At the used twice. But all this display of Court of Ferrara they never gave Not until then was the second silk and camlet was nothing to a comedy without its' ballet half of the fable of Amphitruo the ballets and pantomimes (Moresca). In what style the performed, with unmistakable which served as interludes Amphitruo of Plautus was there references to the future birth of a between the acts of the Plautine represented (1491) at the first Hercules of the House of Este. dramas. That, in comparison, marriage of Alfonso with Anna At a former representation of the Plautus himself seemed mortally Sforza), is doubtful. Possibly it same piece in the courtyard of dull to a lively young lady like was given rather as a pantomime the palace (1487), 'a paradise 198 with stars and other wheels’, was performances are given by sixteenth century, ceased to constantly burning, by which is private individuals in their own afford a ground for public attacks. probably meant an illumination houses, and the custom has long If in the Sofonisba the portrayal with fireworks, that, no doubt, been fixed of passing the carnival of character gave place to absorbed most of the attention of in comedies and other cheerful brilliant declamation, the latter, the spectators. It was certainly entertainments.’ In other words, with its half-sister, caricature, better when such performances scenic display had helped to kill was used far too freely in were given separately, as was tragedy. comedy also. the case at other courts. We shall have to speak of the The various starts or attempts of The writing of tragedies and entertainments given by the these modern tragedians, among comedies, and the practice of Cardinal Pietro Riario, by the which the Sofonisba of Trissino putting both ancient and modern Bentivogli at Bologna, and by (1515) was the most celebrated, plays on the stage, continued others, when we come to treat of belong in the history of literature. without intermission; but they the festivals in general. The same may be said of genteel served only as occasions for comedy, modelled on Plautus display. The national genius This scenic magnificence, now and Terence. Even Ariosto could turned elsewhere for living become universal, had a do nothing of the first order in this interest. When the opera and the disastrous effect on Italian style. On the other hand, popular pastoral fable came up, these tragedy. 'In Venice formerly’, prose-comedy, as treated by attempts were at length wholly writes Francesco Sansovino, Machiavelli, Bibbiena, and abandoned. about 1570, 'besides comedies, Aretino, might have had a future, tragedies by ancient and modern if its matter had not condemned it One form of comedy only was writers were put on the stage to destruction. This was, on the and remained national—the with great pomp. The fame of one hand, licentious to the last unwritten, improvised Commedia the scenic arrangements degree, and on the other, aimed dell' Arte. It was of no great (apparati) brought spectators at certain classes in society, service in the delineation of from far and near. Nowadays, which, after the middle of the character, since the masks used 199 were few in number and familiar Cornaro (Aloysius Cornelius) at power was destined to be marred to everybody. But the talent of Codevico. Gradually all the for centuries by hostile forces, for the nation had such an affinity for famous local masks made their whose predominance the Italians this style, that often in the middle appearance, whose remains still were only in part responsible. of written comedies the actors delight the Italian populace in our The universal talent for dramatic would throw themselves on their day: Pantalone, the Doctor, representation could not indeed own inspiration, so that a new Brighella, Pulcinella, Arlecchino, be uprooted, and in music Italy mixed form of comedy came into and the rest. Most of them are of long made good its claim to existence in some places. The great antiquity, and possibly are supremacy in Europe. Those plays given in Venice by historically connected with the who can find in this world of Burchiello, and afterwards by the masks in the old Roman farces; sound a compensation for the company of Armonio, Val. but it was not until the sixteenth drama, to which all future was Zuccato, Lod. Dolce, and others, century that several of them were denied, have, at all events, no were perhaps of this character. combined in one piece. At the meagre source of consolation. Of Burchiello we know expressly present time this is less often the that he used to heighten the case; but every great city still But perhaps we can find in epic comic effect by mixing Greek and keeps to its local mask—Naples poetry what the stage fails to Slavonic words with the Venetian to the Pulcinella, Florence to the offer us. Yet the chief reproach dialect. A complete Commedia Stentorello, Milan to its often so made against the heroic poetry of dell' Arte, or very nearly so, was admirable Meneghino. Italy is precisely on the score of represented by Angelo Beolco, the insignificance and imperfect known as Il Ruzzante (1502-42), This is indeed scanty representation of its characters. whose customary masks were compensation for a people which Paduan peasants, with the possessed the power, perhaps to Other merits are allowed to names Menato, Vezzo, Billora, a greater degree than any other, belong to it, among the rest, that etc. He studied their dialect to reflect and contemplate its for three centuries it has been when spending the summer at own highest qualities in the actually read and constantly the villa of his patron Luigi mirror of the drama. But this reprinted, while nearly the whole 200 of the epic poetry of other nations novels in prose. The latter was not be expected of them that they has become a mere matter of the case in Italy during the should treat such subjects with literary or historical curiosity. fourteenth century; but the newly- the respect once felt for them. Does this perhaps lie in the taste awakened memories of antiquity All other countries must envy of the readers, who demand were rapidly growing up to a them the advantage of having a something different from what gigantic size, and soon cast into popular interest of this kind to would satisfy a northern public? the shade all the fantastic appeal to; but they could not Certainly, without the power of creations of the Middle Ages. without hypocrisy treat these entering to some degree into Boccaccio, for example, in his myths with any respect. Italian sentiment, it is impossible Visione Amorosa, names among to appreciate the characteristic the heroes in his enchanted Instead of this, they moved with excellence of these poems, and palace Tristram, Arthur, Galeotto, victorious freedom in the new many distinguished men declare and others, but briefly, as if he field which poetry had won. that they can make nothing of were ashamed to speak of them; What they chiefly aimed at them. And in truth, if we criticize and following writers either do seems to have been that their Pulci, Boiardo, Ariosto, and Berni not name them at all, or name poems, when recited, should solely with an eye to their thought them only for purposes of produce the most harmonious and matter, we shall fail to do ridicule. But the people kept and exhilarating effect. These them justice. They are artists of them in its memory, and from the works indeed gain immensely a peculiar kind, who write for a people they passed into the when they are repeated, not as a people which is distinctly and hands of the poets of the fifteenth whole, but piecemeal, and with a eminently artistic. century. These were now able to slight touch of comedy in voice conceive and represent their and gesture. A deeper and more The mediaeval legends had lived subjects in a wholly new manner. detailed portrayal of character on after the gradual extinction of But they did more. They would do little to enhance this the poetry of chivalry, partly in introduced into it a multitude of effect; though the reader may the form of rhyming adaptations fresh elements, and in fact recast desire it, the hearer, who sees and collections, and partly of it from beginning to end. It must the rhapsodist standing before 201 him, and who hears only one special stress on these two rough naturally formed no complete piece at a time, does not think and vigorous characters, and his whole, and might just as well be about it at all. With respect to the story, long after they had half or twice as long as they now figures, which the poet found disappeared from it, maintains its are. Their composition is not that ready made for him, his feeling singular course. Boiardo treats of a great historical picture, but was of a double kind; his his characters with the same rather that of a frieze, or of some humanistic culture protested mastery, using them for serious rich festoon entwined among against their mediaeval or comic purposes as he groups of picturesque figures. character, and their combats as pleases; he has his fun even out And precisely as in the figures or counterparts of the battles and of supernatural beings, whom he tendrils of a frieze we do not look tournaments of the poet's own sometimes intentionally depicts for minuteness of execution in age exercised all his knowledge as louts. But there is one artistic the individual forms, or for distant and artistic power, while at the aim which he pursues as perspectives and different same time they called forth all earnestly as Pulci, namely, the planes, so we must as little the highest qualities in the lively and exact description of all expect anything of the kind from reciter. Even in Pulci, that goes forward. Pulci recited these poems. accordingly, we find no parody, his poem, as one book after strictly speaking, of chivalry, another was finished, before the The varied richness of invention nearly humour of his paladins at society of Lorenzo il Magnifico, which continually astonishes us, times approaches it. By their and in the same way Boiardo most of all in the case of Boiardo, side stands the ideal of recited his at the court of Ercole turns to ridicule all our school pugnacity—the droll and jovial of Ferrara. It may be easily definitions as to the essence of Morgante—who masters whole imagined what sort of excellence epic poetry. For that age, this armies with his bellclapper, and such an audience demanded, form of literature was the most who is himself thrown into relief and how little thanks a profound agreeable diversion from by contrast with the grotesque exposition of character would archaeological studies, and, and most interesting monster have earned for the poet. Under indeed, the only possible means Margutte. Yet Pulci lays no these circumstances the poems of re-establishing an independent 202 class of narrative poetry. For the Dante's first canto, and provide poems, they satisfied, as we versification of ancient history themselves with some allegorical have already said, a practical could only lead to the false tracks comparison, to take the place of interest of which it is hard for us which were trodden by Petrarch Virgil. Uberti, for example, chose to form a just conception—as in his Africa, written in Latin Solinus for his geographical hard, indeed, as of the esteem in hexameters, and a hundred and poem—the Dittamondo—and which a lively and faithful fifty years later by Trissino in his Giovanni Santi, Plutarch for his reflection of the passing moment 'Italy delivered from the Goths’, encomium on Federigo of Urbino. was then held. composed in versi sciolti—a The only salvation of the time never-ending poem of faultless from these false tendencies lay in Nor can a more inappropriate language and versification, which the new epic poetry which was test be applied to Ariosto than only makes us doubt whether this represented by Pulci and the degree in which his Orlando unlucky alliance has been more Boiardo. The admiration and Furioso serves for the disastrous to history or to poetry. curiosity with which it was representation of character. received, and the like of which Characters, indeed, there are, And whither did the example of will perhaps never fall again to and drawn with an affectionate Dante beguile those who imitated the lot of epic poetry to the end of care; but the poem does not him? The visionary Trionfi of time, is a brilliant proof of how depend on these for its effect, Petrarch were the last of the great was the need of it. It is idle and would lose, rather than gain, works written under this influence to ask whether that epic ideal if more stress were laid upon which satisfy our taste. The which our own day has formed them. But the demand for them Amorosa Visione of Boccaccio is from Homer and the is part of a wider and more at bottom no more than an Nibelungenlied is or is not general desire which Ariosto fails enumeration of historical or realized in these works; an ideal to satisfy as our day would wish it fabulous characters, arranged of their own age certainly was. satisfied. From a poet of such under allegorical categories. By their endless descriptions of fame and such mighty gifts we Others preface what they have to combats, which to us are the would gladly receive something tell with a baroque imitation of most fatiguing part of these better than the adventures of 203 Orlando. From him we might only from all deeper expression without all lyrical tenderness, have hoped for a work of character, but also from must be reckoned a merit, expressing the deepest conflicts maintaining any strict connection though from a moral point of view of the human soul, the highest in his narrative. He must be they cannot always be approved. thoughts of his time on human allowed to take up lost and Yet at times they are of such and divine things—in a word, one forgotten threads when and truth and reality, notwithstanding of those supreme syntheses like where he pleases; his heroes all and romance which surrounds the Divine Comedy or Faust. must come and go, not because them, that we might think them Instead of which he goes to work their character, but because the personal affairs of the poet like the visual artists of his own story requires it. Yet in this himself. In the full day, not caring for originality in apparently irrational and arbitrary consciousness of his own genius, our sense of the word, simply style of composition he displays he does not scruple to reproducing a familiar circle of a harmonious beauty, never interweave the events of his own figures, and even, when it suits losing himself in description, but day into the poem, and to his purpose, making use of the giving only such a sketch of celebrate the fame of the house details left him by his scenes and persons as does not of Este in visions and predecessors. The excellence hinder the flowing movement of prophecies. The wonderful which, in spite of all this, can the narrative. Still less does he stream of his octaves bears it all nevertheless be attained, will be lose himself in conversation and forward in even and dignified the more incomprehensible to monologue, but maintains the movement. people born without the artistic lofty privilege of the true epos, by sense, the more learned and transforming all into living With Teofilo Folengo, or, as he intelligent in other respects they narrative. His pathos does not lie here calls himself, Limerno are. The artistic aim of Ariosto is in the words, not even in the Pitocco, the parody of the whole brilliant, living action, which he famous twentythird and following system of chivalry attained the distributes equally through the cantos, where Roland's madness end it had so long desired. But whole of his great poem. For this is described. That the love- here comedy, with its realism, end he needs to be excused, not stories in the heroic poem are demanded of necessity a stricter 204 delineation of character. some, like the close of cap. vi. His admirable work is a true Exposed to all the rough usage are exceedingly fine), and monument of the Counter- of the half-savage street-lads in a indecent jokes. Mixed with all reformation which had Roman country town, Sutri, the this, a certain derision of Ariosto meanwhile been accomplished, little Orlando grows up before our is unmistakable, and it was and of the spirit and tendency of eyes into the hero, the priest- fortunate for the Orlando Furioso that movement. hater, and the disputant. The that the Orlandino, with its conventional world which had Lutheran heresies, was soon put been recognized since the time out of the way by the Inquisition. of Pulci and had served as a The parody is evident when (cap. Biography in the Middle framework for the epos, here falls vi, 28) the house of Gonzaga is Ages and in the to pieces. The origin and deduced from the paladin position of the paladins is openly Guidone, since the Colonna Renaissance ridiculed, as in the tournament of claimed Orlando, the Orsini donkeys in the second book, Rinaldo, and the house of Este— Outside the sphere of poetry where the knights appear with according to Ariosto— Ruggiero also, the Italians were the first of the most ludicrous armament. as their ancestors. Perhaps all European nations who The poet utters his ironical Ferrante Gonzaga, the patron of displayed any remarkable power regrets over the inexplicable the poet, was a party to this and inclination accurately to faithlessness which seems sarcasm on the house of Este. describe man as shown in implanted in the house of Gano history, according to his inward of Mainz, over the toilsome That in the Jerusalem Delivered and outward characteristics. acquisition of the sword of Torquato Tasso the Durindana, and so forth. delineation of character is one of It is true that in the Middle Ages Tradition, in fact, serves him only the chief tasks of the poet, considerable attempts were as a substratum for episodes, proves only how far his mode of made in the same direction; and ludicrous fancies, allusions to thought differed from that the legends of the Church, as a events of the time (among which prevalent half a century before. kind of standing biographical 205 task, must, to some extent, have that a sincere and naive observer and become themselves kept alive the interest and the gift caught the spirit of all the events individuals. for such descriptions. In the and actions of his life, and annals of the monasteries and represented it admirably. From Under the influence of the cathedrals, many of the what scanty sources are we left prevailing conception of fame an churchmen, such as Meinwerk of to guess at the inward nature of art of comparative biography Paderborn, Godehard of Frederick II or of Philip the Fair. arose which no longer found it Hildesheim, and others, are Much of what, until the close of necessary, like Anastasius, brought vividly before our eyes; the Middle Ages, passed for Agnellus, and their successors, and descriptions exist of several biography, is properly speaking or like the biographers of the of the German emperors, nothing but contemporary Venetian doges, to adhere to a modelled after old authors— narrative, written without any dynastic or ecclesiastical particularly Suetonius—which sense of what is individual in the succession. It felt itself free to contain admirable features. subject of the memoir. describe a man if and because Indeed these and other profane he was remarkable. It took as vita' came in time to form a Among the Italians, on the models Suetonius, Nepos (the continuous counterpart to the contrary, the search for the viri illustres), and Plutarch, so far sacred legends. Yet neither characteristic features of as he was known and translated; Einhard nor Wippo nor remarkable men was a prevailing for sketches of literary history, Radevicus can be named by the tendency; and this it is which the lives of the grammarians, side of Joinville's picture of St. separates them from the other rhetoricians, and poets, known to Louis, which certainly stands western peoples, among whom us as the Appendices to almost alone as the first the same thing happens but Suetonius, seem to have served complete spiritual portrait of a seldom, and in exceptional as patterns, as well as the modern European nature. cases. This keen eye for widely-read life of Virgil by Characters like St. Louis are individuality belongs only to Donatus. rare at all times, and his was those who have emerged from favored by the rare good fortune the halfconscious life of the race It has already been mentioned 206 that biographical collections — characteristic, and are piquant sketches of members of lives of famous men and famous noteworthy for including the the Curia in the time of Sixtus IV. women—began to appear in the inward and outward Vespasiano Fiorentino has often fourteenth century. Where they physiognomy in the same sketch. been referred to already, and as do not describe contemporaries, From that time forward, the a historical authority a high place they are naturally dependent on Tuscans never ceased to must be assigned to him; but his earlier narratives. The first great consider the description of man gift as a painter of character is original effort is The Life of Dante as lying within their special not to be compared with that of by Boccaccio. Lightly and competence, and to them we Machiavelli, Niccolo Valori, rhetorically written, and full, as it owe the most valuable portraits Guicciardini, Varchi, Francesco is, of arbitrary fancies, this work of the Italians of the fifteenth and Vettori, and others, by whom nevertheless gives us a lively sixteenth centuries. Giovanni European historical literature has sense of the extraordinary Cavalcanti, in the appendices to probably been as much features in Dante's nature. Then his Florentine history, written influenced in this direction as by follow, at the end of the before the year 1450, collects the ancients. It must not be fourteenth century, the vite of instances of civil virtue and forgotten that some of these illustrious Florentines, by Filippo abnegation, of political authors soon found their way into Villani. They are men of every discernment and of military valor, northern countries by means of calling: poets, jurists, physicians, all shown by Florentines. Pius II Latin translations. And without scholars, artists, statesmen, and gives in his Commentaries Giorgio Vasari of Arezzo and his soldiers, some of them then still valuable portraits of famous all-important work, we should living. Florence is here treated contemporaries; and not long perhaps to this day have no like a gifted family, in which all ago a separate work of his earlier history of Northern art, or of the the members are noticed in years, which seems preparatory art of modern Europe, at all. whom the spirit of the house to these portraits, but which has expresses itself vigorously. The colors and features that are very Among the biographers of North descriptions are brief, but show a singular, was reprinted. To Italy in the fifteenth century, remarkable eye for what is Jacopo of Volterra we owe Bartolommeo Fazio of Spezia 207 holds a high rank. Platina, born portrait-painter; and after him wondrously mingled. He is a in the territory of Cremona, gives came Paolo Giovio of Como, kind of unconscious tragedian. us, in his Life of Paul II, whose larger biographies and That genuine tragedy which then examples of biographical shorter Elogia have achieved a found no place on the stage, caricatures. The description of world-wide reputation, and 'swept by' in the palace, the the last Visconti, written by become models for subsequent street, and the public square. Piercandido Decembrio—an writers in all countries. It is easy The Words and Deeds of Alfonso enlarged imitation of Suetonius— to prove by a hundred passages the Great, written by Antonio is of special importance. how superficial and even Panormita during the lifetime of Sismondi regrets that so much dishonest he was; nor from a the king, are remarkable as one trouble has been spent on so man like him can any high and of the first of such collections of unworthy an object, but the serious purpose be expected. anecdotes and of wise and witty author would hardly have been But the breath of the age moves sayings. equal to deal with a greater man, in his pages, and his Leo, his while he was thoroughly Alfonso, his Pompeo Colonna, The rest of Europe followed the competent to describe the mixed live and act before us with such example of Italy in this respect nature of Filippo Maria, and in perfect truth and reality, that we but slowly, although great and through it to represent with seem admitted to the deepest political and religious movements accuracy the conditions, the recesses of their nature. had broken so many bonds, and forms, and the consequences of had awakened so many this particular kind of despotism. Among Neapolitan writers, thousands to new spiritual life. The picture of the fifteenth Tristano Caracciolo, so far as we Italians, whether scholars or century would be incomplete are able to judge, holds diplomatists, still remained, on without this unique biography, indisputably the first place in this the whole, the best source of which is characteristic down to its respect, although his purpose information for the characters of minutest details. Milan was not strictly biographical. In the leading men all over Europe. afterwards possessed, in the the figures which he brings It is well known how speedily and historian Corio, an excellent before us, guilt and destiny are unanimously in recent times the 208 reports of the Venetian libraries—unaffected narratives needed. And at all events, after embassies in the sixteenth and written for the sake of the taking part in every intellectual seventeenth centuries have been individual or of his family, like movement which interested his recognized as authorities of the that of Buonaccorso Pitti. age, and notably furthering some first order for personal of them, he still at the close of his description. Even autobiography A profound self-analysis is not to earthly course retained character takes here and there in Italy a be looked for in the enough to preach a crusade bold and vigorous flight, and puts Commentaries of Pius II. What against the Turks, and to die of before us, together with the most we here learn of him as a man grief when it came to nothing. varied incidents of external life, seems at first sight to be chiefly striking revelations of the inner confined to the account which he Nor is the autobiography of man. Among other nations, even gives of the various steps in his Benvenuto Cellini, any more than in Germany at the time of the career. But further reflection will that of Pius II, founded on Reformation, it deals only with lead us to a different conclusion introspection. And yet it outward experiences, and leaves with regard to this remarkable describes the whole man—not us to guess at the spirit within book. There are men who are by always willingly—with marvelous from the style of the narrative. It nature mirrors of what surrounds truth and completeness. It is no seems as though Dante's Vita them. It would be irrelevant to small matter that Benvenuto, Nuova, with the inexorable ask incessantly after their whose most important works truthfulness which runs through convictions, their spiritual have perished half finished, and it, had shown his people the way. struggles, their inmost victories who, as an artist, is perfect only and achievements. Aeneas in his little decorative speciality, The beginnings of autobiography Sylvius lived wholly in the interest but in other respects, if judged by are to be traced in the family which lay near, without troubling the works of him which remain, is histories of the fourteenth and himself about the problems and surpassed by so many of his fifteenth centuries, which are said contradictions of life. His greater contemporaries—that to be not uncommon as Catholic orthodoxy gave him all Benvenuto as a man will interest manuscripts in the Florentine the help of this kind which he mankind to the end of time. It 209 does not spoil the impression thrown his works into the shade. did him much harm in his youth. when the reader often detects Cardano is a physician who feels But there is no need to quote him bragging or lying; the stamp his own pulse, and describes his from so well-known md of a mighty, energetic, and own physical, moral, and accessible a book; whoever thoroughly developed nature intellectual nature, together with opens it will not lay it down il] the remains. By his side our modern all the conditions under which it last page. Cardano admits that autobiographers, though their had developed, and this, to the he cheated at play, that he was tendency and moral character best of his ability, honestly and vindictive, incapable of all may stand much higher, appear sincerely. The work which he compunction, purposely cruel in incomplete beings. He is a man avowedly took as his model—the his speech. He confesses it who can do all and dares do all, Confessions of Marcus without impudence and without and who carries his measure in Aurelius—he was able, feigned contrition, without even himself. Whether we like him or hampered as he was by no wishing to make himself an not, he lives, such as he was, as stoical maxims, to surpass in this object of interest, but with the a significant type of the modern particular. He desires to spare same simple and sincere love of spirit. neither himself nor others, and fact which guided him in his begins the narrative of his career scientific researches. And, what Another man deserves a brief with the statement that his is to us the most repulsive of all, mention in connection with this mother tried, and failed, to the old man, after the most subject—a man who, like procure abortion. It is worth shocking experiences and with Benvenuto, was not a model of remark that he attributes to the his confidence in his fellowmen veracity: Girolamo Cardano of stars which presided over his gone, finds himself after all Milan (b. 1500). His little book, birth only the events of his life tolerably happy and comfortable. De propria vita, will outlive and and his intellectual gifts, but not He has still left him a grandson, eclipse his fame in philosophy his moral qualities; he confesses immense learning, the fame of and natural science, just as (cap. 10) that the astrological his works, money, rank and Benvenuto's Life, though its prediction that he would not live credit, powerful friends, the value is of another kind, has to the age of forty or fifty years knowledge of many secrets, and, 210 best of all, belief in God. After succeeded, after a sickly youth, of architecture, and provided with this, he counts the teeth in his in reaching an advanced and a garden by the running water. head, and finds that he was healthy age, then of eighty-three In the spring and autumn, I go for fifteen. years. He goes on to answer awhile to my hill in the most those who despise life after the beautiful part of the Euganean Yet when Cardano wrote, age of sixty-five as a living death, mountains, where I have Inquisitors and Spaniards were showing them that his own life fountains and gardens, and a already busy in Italy, either had nothing deadly about it. 'Let comfortable dwelling; and there I hindering the production of such them come and see, and wonder amuse myself with some easy natures, or, where they existed, at my good health, how I mount and pleasant chase, which is by some means or other putting on horseback without help, how I suitable to my years. At other them out of the way. There lies a run upstairs and up hills, how times I go to my villa on the plain; gulf between this book and the cheerful, amusing, and contented there all the paths lead to an memoirs of Alfieri. I am, how free from care and open space, in the middle of disagreeable thoughts. Peace which stands a pretty church; an Yet it would be unjust to close and joy never quit me.... My arm of the Brenta flows through this list of autobiographers friends are wise, learned, and the plantations— fruitful, well- without listening to a word from distinguished people of good cultivated fields, now fully one man who was both worthy position, and when they are not peopled, which the marshes and and happy. This is the well- with me I read and write, and try the foul air once made fitter for known philosopher of practical thereby, as by all other means. snakes than for men. It was I life, Luigi Cornaro, whose to be useful to others. Each of who drained the country; then the dwelling at Padua, classical as these things I do at the proper air became good, and people an architectural work, was at the time, and at my ease, in my settled there and multiplied, and same time the home of all the dwelling, which is beautiful and the land became cultivated as it muses. In his famous treatise lies in the best part of Padua, now is, so that I can truly say: On the Sober Life, he describes and is arranged both for summer ‘On this spot I gave to God an the strict regimen by which he and winter with all the resources altar and a temple, and souls to 211 worship Him.’ This is my God!) are in the best condition, are generally the business of consolation and my happiness including the sense of taste; for I youth, as tragedy is the business whenever I come here. In the enjoy more the simple food which of old age. If it is reckoned to the spring and autumn, I also visit I now take in moderation, than all credit of the famous Greek that the neighbouring towns, to see the delicacies which I ate in my he wrote a tragedy in his and converse with my friends, years of disorder.’ After seventythird year, must I not, through whom I make the mentioning the works he had with my ten years more, be more acquaintance of other undertaken on behalf of the cheerful and healthy than he ever distinguished men, architects, republic for draining the marshes, was? And that no consolation painters, sculptors, musicians, and the projects which he had may be wanting in the and cultivators of the soil. I see constantly advocated for overflowing cup of my old age, I what new things they have done, preserving the lagoons, he thus see before my eyes a sort of I look again at what I know concludes: bodily immortality in the persons already, and learn much that is of of my descendants. When I use to me. I see palaces, 'These are the true recreations of come home I see before me, not gardens, antiquities, public an old age which God has one or two, but eleven grounds, churches, and permitted to be healthy, and grandchildren, between the ages fortifications. But what most of which is free from those mental of two and eighteen, all from the all delights me when I travel, is and bodily sufferings to which so same father and mother, all the beauty of the country and the many young people and so many healthy, and, so far as can places, lying now on the plain, sickly older people succumb. already be judged, all gifted with now on the slopes of the hills, or And if it be allowable to add the the talent and disposition for on the banks of rivers and little to the great, to add jest to learning and a good life. One of streams, surrounded by gardens earnest, it may be mentioned as the younger I have as my and villas. And these a result of my moderate life, that playmate (buffoncello), since enjoyments are not diminished in my eightythird year I have children from the third to the fifth through weakness of the eyes or written a most amusing comedy, year are born to tricks; the elder the ears; all my senses (thank full of blameless wit. Such works ones I treat as my companions, 212 and, as they have admirable whole peoples. Throughout the easy to be distinguished. Next to voices, I take delight in hearing Middle Ages the cities, families, some famous passages in the them sing and play on different and nations of all Europe were in Divine Comedy, we have here instruments. And I sing myself, the habit of making insulting and the Dittamondo of Uberti (about and find my voice better, clearer, derisive attacks on one another, 1360). As a rule, only single and louder than ever. These are which, with much caricature, remarkable facts and the pleasures of my last years. contained commonly a kernel of characteristics are here My life, therefore, is alive, and truth. But from the first the mentioned: the Feast of the not dead; nor would I exchange Italians surpassed all others in Crows at Sant' Apollinare in my age for the youth of such as their quick apprehension of the Ravenna, the springs at Treviso, live in the service of their mental differences among cities the great cellar near , the passions.' and populations. Their local high duties at Mantua, the forest patriotism, stronger probably of towers at Lucca. Yet mixed up In the Exhortation which Cornaro than in any other medieval with all this, we find laudatory added at a much later time, in his people, soon found expression in and satirical criticisms of every ninety-fifth year, he reckons it literature, and allied itself with the kind. Arezzo figures with the among the elements of his current conception of Fame. crafty disposition of its citizens, happiness that his Treatise had Topography became the Genoa with the artificially made many converts. He died at counterpart of biography; while blackened eyes and teeth of its Padua in 1565, at the age of over all the more important cities women, Bologna with its a hundred years. began to celebrate their own prodigality, Bergamo with its praises in prose and verse, coarse dialect and hard-headed This national gift did not, writers appeared who made the people. In the fifteenth century however, confine itself to the chief towns and districts the the fashion was to belaud one's criticism and description of subject partly of a serious own city even at the expense of individuals, but felt itself comparative description, partly of others. Michele Savonarola competent to deal with the satire, and sometimes of notices allows that, in comparison with qualities and characteristics of in which jest and earnest are not his native Padua, only Rome and 213 Venice are more splendid, and they derive the artistic pre- conditions prevailing about the Florence perhaps more joyous— eminence of Tuscany among middle of the century. by which our knowledge is Italians, not from any special gifts naturally not much extended. At of nature, but from hard, patient To what extent this comparative the end of the century, Jovianus work. The homage of famous study of national and local Pontanus, in his Antonius, writes men from other parts of Italy, of characteristics may, by means of an imaginary journey through which the sixteenth Capitolo of Italian humanism, have Italy, simply as a vehicle for Ariosto is a splendid example, influenced the rest of Europe, we malicious observations. But in they accepted as a merited cannot say with precision. To the sixteenth century we meet tribute to their excellence. Italy, at all events, belongs the with a series of exact and priority in this respect, as in the profound studies of national Of an admirable description of description of the world in characteristics, such as no other the Italians, with their various general. people of that time could rival. pursuits and characteristics, Machiavelli sets forth in some of though in a few words and with his valuable essays the character special stress laid on the and the political condition of the Lucchese, to whom the work was Description of the Germans and French in such a dedicated, we can give only the Outward Man way that the born northerner, title: Forcianae Questiones, by familiar with the history of his Ortensio Landi, Naples, 1536. own country, is grateful to the Leandro Alberti is not so fruitful But the discoveries made with Florentine thinker for his flashes as might be expected in his regard to man were not confined of insight. The Florentines begin description of the character of the to the spiritual characteristics of to take pleasure in describing different cities. A Commentario individuals and nations; his themselves; and basking in the (by Ortensio Landi, Venice, outward appearance was in Italy well-earned sunshine of their 1553) contains among many the subject of an entirely different intellectual glory, their pride absurdities some valuable interest from that shown in it by seems to attain its height when information on the unfortunate northern peoples. 214 characteristic is an essential describes a blonde and a Of the position held by the great condition for detecting and brunette much as an artist a Italian physicians with respect to representing the beautiful. In hundred years later would have the progress of physiology, we poetry, it is true, circumstantial painted them—for here, too, cannot venture to speak; and the description may be a fault, not a culture long precedes art. In the artistic study of the human figure merit, since a single feature, account of the brunette—or, belongs, not to a work like the suggested by deep passion or strictly speaking, of the less present, but to the history of art. insight, will often awaken in the blonde of the two—there are But something must here be said reader a far more powerful touches which deserve to be of that universal education of the impression of the figure called classical. In the words la eye, which rendered the described. Dante gives us spaziosa testa e distesa lies the judgement of the Italians as to nowhere a more splendid idea of feeling for grander forms, which bodily beauty or ugliness perfect his Beatrice than where he only go beyond a graceful prettiness; and final. describes the influence which the eyebrows with him no longer goes forth from her upon all resemble two bows, as in the On reading the Italian authors of around. But here we have not to Byzantine ideal, but a single that period attentively, we are treat particularly of poetry, which wavy line; the nose seems to astounded at the keenness and follows its own laws and pursues have been meant to be aquiline; accuracy with which outward its own ends, but rather of the the broad, full breast, the arms of features are seized, and at the general capacity to paint in words moderate length, the effect of the completeness with which real or imaginary forms. beautiful hand, as it lies on the personal appearance in general purple mantle—all this foretells is described. Even today the In this Boccaccio is a master— the sense of beauty of a coming Italians, and especially the not in the Decameron, where the time, and unconsciously Romans, have the art of character of the tales forbids approaches to that of classical sketching a man's picture in a lengthy description, but in the antiquity. In other descriptions couple of words. This rapid romances, where he is free to Boccaccio mentions a flat (not apprehension of what is take his time. In his Ameto he medievally rounded) brow, a 215 long, earnest, brown eye, and observation, illustrated with blue, the iris not actually black, round, not hollowed neck, as well examples of women and girls though all the poets praise occhi as—in a very modern tone—the from Prato. As his little work is a neri as a gift of Venus, despite 'little feet' and the 'two roguish kind of lecture, delivered before that even goddesses were known eyes' of a black-haired nymph. the women of this city—that is to for their eyes of heavenly blue, say, before very severe critics— and that soft, joyous, brown eyes Whether the fifteenth century has he must have kept pretty closely were admired by everybody. The left any written account of its to the truth. His principle is eye itself should be large and full ideal of beauty, I am not able to avowedly that of Zeuxis and of and brought well forward; the lids say. The works of the painters Lucian—to piece together an white, and marked with almost and sculptors do not render such ideal beauty out of a number of invisible tiny red veins; the lashes an account as unnecessary as beautiful parts. He defines the neither too long, nor too thick, might appear at first sight, since shades of color which occur in nor too dark. The hollow round possibly, as opposed to their the hair and skin, and gives to the eye should have the same realism, a more ideal type might the biondo the preference, as the color as the cheek. The ear, have been favored and most beautiful color for the hair, neither too large nor too small, preserved by the writers. In the understanding by it a soft yellow, firmly and neatly fitted on, should sixteenth century Firenzuola inclining to brown. He requires show a stronger color in the came forward with his that the hair should be thick, winding than in the even parts, remarkable work on female long, and locky; the forehead with an edge of the transparent beauty. We must clearly serene, and twice as broad as ruddiness of the pomegranate. distinguish in it what he had high; the skin bright and clear The temples must be white and learned from old authors or from (candida), but not of a dead white even, and for the most perfect artists, such as the fixing of (bianchezza); the eyebrows dark, beauty ought not to be too proportions according to the silky, most strongly marked in the narrow. The red should grow length of the head, and certain middle, and shading off towards deeper as the cheek gets abstract conceptions. What the ears and the nose; the white rounder. The nose, which chiefly remains is his own genuine of the eye faintly touched with determines the value of the 216 profile, must recede gently and from one another, and of the white, and in the upper parts uniformly in the direction of the color of ivory; and the gums must tinted with red; in their eyes; where the cartilage ceases, not be too dark or even like red consistence fleshy and muscular, there may be a slight elevation, velvet. The chin is to be round, but still soft as those of Pallas, but not so marked as to make the neither pointed nor curved when she stood before the nose aquiline, which is not outwards, and growing slightly shepherd on Mount Ida—in a pleasing in women; the lower red as it rises; its glory is the word, ripe, fresh, and firm. The part must be less strongly dimple. The neck should be hand should be white, especially colored than the ears, but not of white and round and rather long towards the wrist, but large and a chilly whiteness, and the than short, with the hollow and plump, feeling soft as silk, the middle partition above the lips the Adam's apple but faintly rosy palm marked with a few, but lightly tinted with red. The marked; and the skin at every distinct and not intricate lines; the mouth, our author would have movement must show pleasing elevations in it should be not too rather small, and neither lines. The shoulders he desires great, the space between thumb projecting to a point, nor quite broad, and in the breadth of the and forefinger brightly colored flat, with the lips not too thin, and bosom sees the first condition of and without wrinkles, the fingers fitting neatly together; an its beauty. No bone may be long, delicate, and scarcely at all accidental opening, that is, when visible upon it, its fall and swell thinner towards the tips, with the woman is neither speaking must be gentle and gradual, its nails clear, even, not too long nor nor laughing, should not display color candidissimo. The leg to square, and cut so as to show more than six upper teeth. As should be long and not too hard a white margin about the breadth delicacies of detail, he mentions in the lower parts, but still not of a knife's back. a dimple in the upper lip, a without flesh on the shin, which certain fullness of the under lip, must be provided with white, full Aesthetic principles of a general and a tempting smile in the left calves. He likes the foot small, character occupy a very corner of the mouth—and so on. but not bony, the instep (it subordinate place to these The teeth should not be too seems) high, and the color white particulars. The ultimate small, regular, well marked off as alabaster. The arms are to be principles of beauty, according to 217 which the eye judges senza Description of Human the beginnings of a true genre, appello, are for Firenzuola a long before it found any secret, as he frankly confesses; Life expression in painting. That and his definitions of Leggiadria, genre and satire are often met Grazia, Aria, Maesta, Vaghezza, Among the new discoveries with in union, does not prevent Venusta, are partly, as has been made with regard to man, we them from being wholly different remarked, philological, and partly must reckon, in conclusion, the things. vain attempts to utter the interest taken in descriptions of unutterable. Laughter he prettily the daily course of human life. How much of earthly business defines, probably following some must Dante have watched with old author, as a radiance of the The comical and satirical attentive interest, before he was soul. The literature of all literature of the Middle Ages able to make us see with our own countries can, at the close of the could not dispense with pictures eyes all that happened in his Middle Ages, show single of everyday events. But it is spiritual world. The famous attempts to lay down theoretic another thing, when the Italians pictures of the busy movement in principles of beauty; but no other of the Renaissance dwelt on this the arsenal at Venice, of the blind work can be compared to that of picture for its own sake—for its men laid side by side before the Firenzuola. Brantome, who inherent interest— and because church door, and the like, are by came a good half-century later, is it forms part of that great, no means the only instances of a bungling critic by his side, universal life of the world whose this kind: for the art, in which he because governed by magic breath they felt is a master, of expressing the lasciviousness and not by a everywhere around them. inmost soul by the outward sense of beauty. Instead of and together with the gesture, cannot exist without a satirical comedy, which wanders close and incessant study of through houses, villages, and human life. (Cf. Inferno xxi, 1-6, streets, seeking food for its Purgatorio xiii, 61-66.) The poets derision in parson, peasant, and who followed rarely came near burgher, we now see in literature him in this respect, and the 218 novelists were forbidden by the impulse was derived to which we women caught in the woods by a first laws of their literary style to owe such lifelike pictures. shower of rain. linger over details. Their Indeed, the whole spiritual prefaces and narratives might be communion between antiquity Other scenes of moving life are as long as they pleased, but what and the Renaissance is full of to be looked for in the military we understand by genre was delicacy and of mystery. historians. In a lengthy poem, outside their province. The taste dating from an earlier period, we for this class of description was To this class belong those find a faithful picture of a combat not fully awakened until the time descriptive Latin poems of which of mercenary soldiers in the of the revival of antiquity. we have already spoken— fourteenth century, chiefly in the hunting-scenes, journeys, shape of the orders, cries of And here we are again met by ceremonies, and so forth. In battle, and dialogue with which it the man who had a heart for Italian we also find something of is accompanied. everything—Aeneas Sylvius. Not the same kind, as, for example, only natural beauty, not only that the descriptions of the famous But the most remarkable which has an antiquarian or a Medicean tournament by Politian productions of this kind are the geographical interest, finds a and Luca Pulci. The true epic realistic descriptions of country place in his descriptions, but any poets, Luigi Pulci, Boiardo, and life, which are found most living scene of daily life. Among Ariosto, are carried on more abundantly in Lorenzo il the numerous passages in his rapidly by the stream of their Magnifico and the poets of his memoirs in which scenes are narrative; yet in all of them we circle. described which hardly one of his must recognize the lightness and contemporaries would have precision of their descriptive Since the time of Petrarch, an thought worth a line of notice, we touch as one of the chief unreal and conventional style of will here only mention the boat- elements of their greatness. bucolic poetry had been in race on the Lake of Bolsena. We Franco Sacchetti amuses himself vogue, which, whether written in are not able to detect from what with repeating the short Latin or Italian, was essentially a old letter-writer or story-teller the speeches of a troop of pretty copy of Virgil. Parallel to this, we 219 find the pastoral novel of smaller towns are peopled accentuate what is great or Boccaccio and other works of the almost exclusively by peasants remarkable in the life of the same kind down to the Arcadia of who, on coming home at nightfall peasant. Gioviano Pontano Sannazaro, and later still, the from their work, are transformed mentions with admiration pastoral comedy of Tasso and into townsfolk. The masons of instances of the fortitude of the Guarini. They are works whose Como wandered over nearly all savage inhabitants of the style, whether poetry or prose is Italy; the child was free to Abruzzi; in the biographical admirably finished and perfect, leave his sheep and join a guild collections and in the novelists but in which pastoral life is ideal at Florence; everywhere there we meet with the figure of the dress for sentiments which was a human stream flowing heroic peasant-maiden who belong to a wholly sphere of from the country into the cities, hazards her life to defend her culture. and some mountain populations family and her honour. seemed born to supply this But by the side of all this there current. It is true that the pride Such conditions made the appeared in Italian poetry, and local conceit supplied poets poetical treatment of country life towards the close of the fifteenth and novelists with abundant possible. The first instance we century, signs of a more realistic motives for making game of the shall mention is that of Battista treatment of rustic life. This was villano, and what they left undone Mantovano, whose eclogues, not possible out of Italy; for here was taken charge of by the comic once much read and still worth only did the peasant, whether improvisers. But nowhere do we reading, appeared among his laborer or proprietor, possess find a trace of that brutal and earliest works about 1480. They human dignity, personal freedom, contemptuous class-hatred are a mixture of real and and the right of settlement, hard against the 'villains' which conventional rusticity, but the as his lot might sometimes be in inspired the aristocratic poets of former tends to prevail. They other respects. The difference Provence, and often, too, the represent the mode of thought of between town and country is far French chroniclers. On the a well-meaning village from being so marked here as in contrary, Italian authors of every clergyman, not without a certain northern countries. Many of the sort gladly recognize and leaning to liberal ideas. As 220 Carmelite monk, the writer may Pulci is an admitted counterpart has fine passages; but the have had occasion to mix freely to the Nencia of Lorenzo. But vintage-feast in autumn is one of with the peasantry. the deeper purpose is wanting. the gems of modern Latin poetry. The Beca is written not so much Politian wrote poems in Italian as But it is with a power of a wholly from the inward need to give a well as Latin, from which we may different kind that Lorenzo il picture of popular life, as from the infer that in Lorenzo's circle it Magnifico transports himself into desire to win the approbation of was possible to give a realistic the peasant's world. His Nencia the educated Florentine world by picture of the passionate life of di Barberino reads like a crowd of a successful poem. Hence the the lower classes. His gipsy's genuine extracts from the greater and more deliberate love-song is one of the earliest popular songs of the Florentine coarseness of the scenes, and products of that wholly modern country, fused into a great the indecent jokes. tendency to put oneself with stream of octaves. The Nevertheless, the point of view of poetic consciousness into the objectivity of the writer is such the rustic lover is admirably position of another class. This that we are in doubt whether the maintained. had probably been attempted for speaker—the young peasant ages with a view to satire, and Vallera, who declares his love to Third in this company of poets the opportunity for it was offered Nencia—awakens his sympathy comes Angelo Poliziano, with his in Florence at every carnival by or ridicule. The deliberate Rusticus in Latin hexameters. the songs of the maskers. But contrast to the conventional Keeping clear of all imitation of the sympathetic understanding of eclogue is unmistakable. Virgil's Georgics, he describes the feeling of another class was Lorenzo surrenders himself the year of the Tuscan peasant, new; and with it the Nencia and purposely to the realism of beginning with the late autumn, this Canzone zingaresca mark a simple, rough country life, and when the countryman gets ready new starting-point in the history yet his work makes upon us the his new plough and prepares the of poetry. impression of true poetry. seed for the winter. The picture of the meadows in spring is full Here, too, we must briefly The Beca da Dicomano of Luigi and beautiful, and the Summer indicate how culture prepared the 221 way for artistic development. universe, to love its beauty, to From the time of the Nencia, a admire its greatness. He bound period of eighty years elapses to him to no fixed place, to no the rustic genre-painting of prescribed form of work, and by Jacopo Bassano and his school. no iron necessity, but gave him freedom to will and to love. 'I In the next part of this work we have set thee,' says the Creator shall show how differences of to Adam, 'in the midst of the birth had lost their significance in world, that thou mayst the more Italy. Much of this was doubtless easily behold and see all that is owing to the fact that men and therein. I created thee a being mankind were here first neither heavenly nor earthly, thoroughly and profoundly neither mortal nor immortal only, understood. This one single that thou mightest be free to result of the Renaissance is shape and to overcome thyself. enough to fill us with everlasting Thou mayst sink into a beast, thankfulness. The logical notion and be born anew to the divine of humanity was old enough—but likeness. The brutes bring from here the notion became a fact. their mother's body what they will carry with them as long as they The loftiest conceptions on this live; the higher spirits are from subject were uttered by Pico the beginning, or soon after, what della Mirandola in his Speech on they will be for ever. To thee the Dignity of Man, which may alone is given a growth and a justly be called one of the noblest development depending on thine of that great age. God, he tells own free will. Thou bearest in us, made man at the close of the thee the germs of a universal creation, to know the laws of the life.' 222 the existence of an educated Part Five SOCIETY AND class as we now understand the Equality of Classes word. Birth and origin were FESTIVALS without influence, unless combined with leisure and Every period of civilization which inherited wealth. Yet this forms a complete and consistent assertion must not be taken in an whole manifests itself not only in absolute and unqualified sense, political life, in religion, art, and since medieval distinctions still science, but also sets its sometimes made themselves felt characteristic stamp on social to a greater or less degree, if life. Thus the Middle Ages had only as a means of maintaining their courtly and aristocratic equality with the aristocratic manners and etiquette, differing pretensions of the less advanced but little in the various countries countries of Europe. But the of Europe, as well as their main current of the time went peculiar forms of middle-class steadily towards the fusion of life. classes in the modern sense of the phrase. Italian customs at the time of the Renaissance offer in these The fact was of vital importance respects the sharpest contrasts that, from certainly the twelfth to medievalism. The foundation century onwards, the nobles and on which they rest is wholly the burghers dwelt together different. Social intercourse in its within the walls of the cities. The highest and most perfect form interests and pleasures of both now ignored all distinctions of classes were thus identified, and caste, and was based simply on the feudal lord learned to look at 223 society from another point of at the same time hardly excellence or on that of view than that of his mountain distinguishable from that of the forefathers.’ But elsewhere he is castle. The Church, too, in Italy wealthy burgher. And after the not satisfied with this conclusion. never suffered itself, as in time of Dante, when the new He blames himself, because northern countries, to be used as poetry and literature were in the even in Paradise, while talking a means of providing for the hands of all Italy, when to this with his ancestor Cacciaguida, younger sons of noble families. was added the revival of ancient he made mention of his noble Bishoprics, abbacies, and culture and the new interest in origin, which is but a mantle from canonries were often given from man as such, when the which time is ever cutting the most unworthy motives, but successful Condottiere became a something away, unless we still not according to the prince, and not only good birth, ourselves add daily fresh worth pedigrees of the applicants; and but legitimate birth, ceased to be to it. And in the Convito he if the bishops in Italy were more indispensable for a throne, it disconnects nobile and nobilita numerous, poorer, and, as a rule, might well seem that the age of from every condition of birth, and destitute of all sovereign rights, equality had dawned, and the identifies the idea with the they still lived in the cities where belief in nobility vanished for capacity for moral and intellectual their cathedrals stood, and ever. eminence, laying a special stress formed, together with their on high culture by calling nobilita chapters, an important element in From a theoretical point of view, the sister of filosofia. the cultivated society of the when the appeal was made to place. In the age of despots and antiquity, the conception of And as time went on, the greater absolute princes which followed, nobility could be both justified the influence of humanism on the the nobility in most of the cities and condemned from Aristotle Italian mind, the firmer and more had the motives and the leisure alone. Dante, for example, widespread became the to give themselves up to a derives from Aristotle's definition, conviction that birth decides private life free from the political 'Nobility rests on excellence and nothing as to the goodness or danger and adorned with all that inherited wealth,' his own saying, badness of a man. In the was elegant and enjoyable, but 'Nobility rests on personal fifteenth century this was the 224 prevailing opinion. Poggio, in his business of a lifetime.’ The life of one, since it makes nobility dialogue On nobility, agrees with the English and French chivalry depend on a man's deeds. his interlocutors— Niccolo in the country or in the woody Together with these discussions, Niccoli, and Lorenzo Medici, fastnesses seems to him we find a sketch of the conditions brother of the great Cosimo— thoroughly ignoble, and worst of of the nobles in various parts of that there is no other nobility than all the doings of the robber- Italy. In Naples they will not that of personal merit. The knights of Germany. Lorenzo work, and busy themselves keenest shafts of his ridicule are here begins to take the part of neither with their own estates nor directed against much of what the nobility, but not— which is with trade and commerce, which vulgar prejudice thinks characteristic—appealing to any they hold to be discreditable; indispensable to an aristocratic natural sentiment in its favour, they either loiter at home or ride life. 'A man is the farther but because Aristotle in the fifth about on horseback. The Roman removed from true nobility, the book of the Politics recognizes nobility also despise trade, but longer his forefathers have plied the nobility as existent, and farm their own property; the the trade of brigands. The taste defines it as resting on cultivation of the land even opens for hawking and hunting saviours excellence and inherited wealth. the way to a title; it is a no more of nobility than the nests To this Niccoli retorts that respectable but boorish nobility. and lairs of the hunted creatures Aristotle gives this not as his own In Lombardy the nobles live upon of spikenard. The cultivation of conviction, but as the popular the rent of their inherited estates; the soil, as practiced by the impression; in his Ethics, where descent and the abstinence from ancients, would be much nobler he speaks as he thinks, he calls any regular calling, constitute than this senseless wandering him noble who strives after that nobility. In Venice, the nobili, the through the hills and woods, by which is truly good. Lorenzo ruling caste, were all merchants. which men make themselves like urges upon him vainly that the Similarly in Genoa the nobles to the brutes than to the Greek word for nobility and non-nobles were alike reasonable creatures. It may (Eugeneia) means good birth; merchants and sailors, and only serve well enough as a Niccoli thinks the Roman word separated by their birth: some recreation, but not as the nobilis (i.e. remarkable) a better few of the former, it is true, still 225 lurked as brigands in their which the strict isolation and the now, since instead of looms and mountain castles. In Florence a ostentatious vanity of its nobility trowels nothing but spurs, part of the old nobility had excluded, above all other causes, stirrups and gilded belts was to devoted themselves to trade; from the spiritual movement of be seen, since everybody was another, and certainly by far the the Renaissance. The traditions trying to become Doctor of Laws smaller part, enjoyed the of medieval Lombardy and or of Medicine, Notary, Officer or satisfaction of their titles, and Normandy, and the French Knight, the most intolerable spent their time, either in nothing aristocratic influences which poverty prevailed. In Florence an at all, or else in hunting and followed, all tended in this analogous change appears to hawking. direction; and the Aragonese have taken place by the time of government, which was Cosimo, the first Grand Duke; he The decisive fact was, that nearly established by the middle of the is thanked for adopting the young everywhere in Italy, even those fifteenth century, completed the people, who now despise trade who might be disposed to pride work, and accomplished in and commerce, as knights of his themselves on their birth could Naples what followed a hundred order of St. Stephen. This goes not make good the claims years later in the rest of Italy—a straight in the teeth of the good against the power of culture and social transformation in old Florentine custom, by which of wealth, and that their obedience to Spanish ideas, of fathers left property to their privileges in politics and at court which the chief features were the children on the condition that were not sufficient to encourage contempt for work and the they should have some any strong feeling of caste. passion for titles. The effect of occupation. But a mania for titles Venice offers only an apparent this new influence was evident, of a curious and ludicrous sort exception to this rule, for there even in the smaller towns, before sometimes crossed and the nobili led the same life as the year 1500. We hear thwarted, especially among the their fellow-citizens, and were complaints from La Cava that the Florentines, the levelling distinguished by few honorary place had been proverbially rich, influence of art and culture. This privileges. The case was as long as it was filled with was the passion hood, which certainly different at Naples, masons and weavers; whilst became one of the most striking 226 follies at a time when the dignity Sacchetti tells by way of practiced, and no one could take itself had lost every significance. illustration speak plainly enough. part in them who was not a There we read how Bernabo knight. But the combat in the 'A few years ago,' writes Franco Visconti knighted the victor in a lists, and especially the difficult Sacchetti, towards the end of the drunken brawl, and then did the and perilous tilting with the lance, fourteenth century, 'everybody same derisively to the offered a favourable opportunity saw how all the workpeople vanquished; how German knights for the display of strength, skill, down to the bakers, how all the with their decorated helmets and and courage, which no one, wool-carders, usurers money- devices were ridiculed—and whatever might be his origin, changers and blackguards of all more of the same kind. At a later would willingly neglect in an age description, became knights. period Poggio makes merry over which laid such stress on Why should an official need the many knights of his day personal merit. knighthood when he goes to without a horse and without preside over some little provincial military training. Those who It was in vain that from the time town? What has this title to do wished to assert the privilege of of Petrarch downwards the with any ordinary bread-winning the order, and ride out with lance tournament was denounced as a pursuit? How art thou sunken, and colors, found in Florence that dangerous folly. No one was unhappy dignity! Of all the long they might have to face the converted by the pathetic appeal list of knightly duties, what single government as well as the jokers. of the poet: ‘In what book do we one do these knights of ours read that Scipio and Caesar were discharge? I wished to speak of On considering the matter more skilled at the joust?' The practice these things that the reader closely, we shall find that this became more and more popular might see that knighthood is belated chivalry, independent of in Florence. Every honest citizen dead. And as we have gone so all nobility of birth, though partly came to consider his far as to confer the honour upon the fruit of an insane passion for tournament— now, no doubt, dead men, why not upon figures titles, had nevertheless another less dangerous than formerly— of wood and stone, and why not and a better side. Tournaments as a fashionable sport. Franco upon an ox?' The stories which had not yet ceased to be Sacchetti has left us a ludicrous 227 picture of one of these holiday elder Pietro, brilliant tournaments cavaliers—a notary seventy were held at Florence. The But, great as were individual years old. He rides out on younger Pietro neglected the ambitions, and the vanities of horseback to Peretola, where the duties of government for these nobles and knights, it remains a tournament was cheap, on a jade amusements and would never fact that the Italian nobility took hired from a dyer. A thistle is suffer himself to be painted its place in the centre of social stuck by some wag under the tail except clad in armor. The same life, and not at the extremity. We of the steed, who takes fright, practice prevailed at the Court of find it habitually mixing with other runs away, and carries the Alexander VI, and when the classes on a footing of perfect helmeted rider, bruised and Cardinal Ascanio Sforza asked equality, and seeking its natural shaken, back into the city. The the Turkish Prince Djem how he allies in culture and intelligence. inevitable conclusion of the story liked the spectacle, the barbarian It is true that for the courtier a is a severe curtain-lecture from replied with much discretion that certain rank of nobility was the wife, who is not a little such combats in his country only required, but this exigence is enraged at these break-neck took place among slaves, since expressly declared to be caused follies of her husband. then, in the case of accident, by a prejudice rooted in the nobody was the worse for it. The public mind—per l'opinion It may be mentioned in Oriental was unconsciously in universale—and never was held conclusion that a passionate accord with the old Romans in to imply the belief that the interest in this sport was condemning the manners of the personal worth of one who was displayed by the Medici, as if Middle Ages. not of noble blood was in any they wished to show— private degree lessened thereby, nor did citizens as they were, without Apart, however, from this it follow from this rule that the noble blood in their veins— that particular prop of knighthood, we prince was limited to the nobility the society which surrounded find here and there in Italy, for for his society. It meant simply them was in no respect inferior to example at Ferrara, orders of that the perfect man—the true a Court. Even under Cosimo courtiers whose members had a courtier—should not be wanting (1459), and afterwards under the right to the title of Cavaliere. in any conceivable advantage, 228 and therefore not in this. If in all worth and charm in itself. The time, as given us by the Italian the relations of life he was demeanor of individuals, and all painters, are the most specially bound to maintain a the higher forms of social convenient, and the most dignified and reserved intercourse, became ends pleasing to the eye which were demeanor, the reason was not pursued a deliberate and artistic then to be found in Europe; but found in the blood which flowed purpose. we cannot be sure if they in h-s veins, but in the perfection represent the prevalent fashion, of manner which was demanded Even the outward appearance of or if they are faithfully reproduced from him. We are here in the men and women and the habits by the artist. It is nevertheless presence of a modern distinctiori, of daily life were more perfect, beyond a doubt that nowhere based on culture and on wealth, more beautiful, and more was so much importance but on the latter solely because it polished than among the other attached to dress as in Italy. The enables men to devote their life nations of Europe. The dwellings nation was, and is, vain; and to the former, and effectually to of the upper classes fall rather even serious men among it promote its interests and within the province of the history looked on a handsome and advancement. of art; but we may note how far becoming costume as an the castle and the city mansion in element in the perfection of the Italy surpassed in comfort, order, individual. At Florence, indeed, and harmony the dwellings of the there was a brief period when Costumes and Fashions northern noble. The style of dress was a purely personal dress varied sc continually that it matter, and every man set the is impossible to make any fashion for himself, and until far But in proportion as distinctions complete comparison with the into the sixteenth century there of birth ceased to confer any fashions of other countries, all were exceptional people who still special privilege, was the the more because since the had the courage to do so; and individual himself compelled to close of the fifteenth century the majority at all events showed make the most of his personal imitations of the latter were themselves capable of varying qualities, and society to find its frequent. The costumes of the the fashion according to their 229 individual tastes. It is a symptom whatever comes from France, Leaving out of account costume of decline when Giovanni della though in many cases the in general, which in the Casa warns his readers not to be fashions which were received fourteenth century was in the singular or to depart from existing back from the French were highest degree varied in color fashions Our own age, which, in originally Italian. It does not and loaded with ornament, and at men's dress at any rate, treats further concern us how far these a later period assumed a uniformity as the supreme law, frequent changes, and the character of more harmonious gives up by so doing far more adoption of French and Spanish richness, we here limit ourselves than it is aware of. But it saves ways, contributed to the national more particularly to the toilette in itself much time, and this, passion for external display; but the narrower sense. according to our notions of we find in them additional business, outweighs all other evidence of the rapid movement No sort of ornament was more in disadvantages. of life in Italy in the decades use than false hair, often made of before and after the year 1500. white or yellow silk. The law In Venice and Florence at the denounced and forbade it in vain, time of the Renaissance there We may note in particular the until some preacher of were rules and regulations efforts of the women to alter their repentance touched the worldly prescribing the dress of the men appearance by all the means minds of the wearers. Then was and restraining the luxury of the which the toilette could afford. In seen, in the middle of the public women. Where the fashions no country of Europe since the square, a lofty pyre (talamo), on were more free, as in Naples, the fall of the Roman Empire was so which, besides lutes, diceboxes, moralists confess with regret that much trouble taken to modify the masks, magical charms, song- no difference can be observed face, the color of the skin and the books, and other vanities, lay between noble and burgher. growth of the hair, as in Italy at masses of false hair, which the They further deplore the rapid this time. All tended to the purging fires soon turned into a changes of fashion, and—if we formation of a conventional type, heap of ashes. The ideal color rightly understand their words— at the cost of the most striking sought for both natural and the senseless idolatry of and transparent deceptions. artificial hair was blond. And as 230 the sun was supposed to have countrywomen vied in this roll of money. the power of making the hair this respect with their sisters in the color, many ladies would pass towns. It was vain to preach that The Italians of that day lived in their whole time in the open air such decorations were the mark the belief that they were more on sunshiny days. Dyes and of the courtesan; the most cleanly than other nations. There other mixtures were also used honorable matrons, who all the are in fact general reasons which freely for the same purpose. year round never touched paint, speak rather for than against this Besides all these, we meet with used it nevertheless on holidays claim. Cleanliness is an endless list of beautifying when they showed themselves in indispensable to our modern waters, plasters, and paints for public. But whether we look on notion of social perfection, which every single part of the face— this bad habit as a remnant of was developed in Italy earlier even for the teeth and eyelids— barbarism, to which the painting than elsewhere. That the Italians of which in our day we can form of savages is a parallel, or as a were one of the richest of no conception. The ridicule of consequence of the desire for existing peoples, is another the poets, the invectives of the perfect youthful beauty in feature presumption in their favour. preachers, and the experience of and in color, as the art and Proof, either for or against these the baneful effects of these complexity of the toilette would pretensions, can of course never cosmetics on the skin, were lead us to think—in either case be forthcoming, and if the powerless to hinder women from there was no lack of good advice question were one of priority in giving their faces an unnatural on the part of the men. The use establishing rules of cleanliness, form and color. It is possible that of perfumes, too, went beyond all the chivalrous poetry of the the frequent and splendid reasonable limits. They were Middle Ages is perhaps in representations of Mysteries, at applied to everything with which advance of anything that Italy which hundreds of people human beings came into contact. can produce. It is nevertheless appeared painted and masked, At festivals even the mules were certain that the singular neatness helped to further this practice in treated with scents and and cleanliness of some daily life. It is certain that it was ointments, and Pietro Aretino distinguished representatives of widespread, and that the thanks Cosimo I for a perfumed the Renaissance, especially in 231 their behavior at meals, was politeness which Giovanni della men from the dawn of civilization, noticed expressly, and that Casa, a Florentine by birth, and acquired through force of will 'German' was the synonym in published under the title Il by others; but the Italians were Italy for all that is filthy. The dirty Galateo. Not only cleanliness in the first to recognize it as a habits which Massimiliano Sforza the strict sense of the word, but universal social duty and a mark picked up in the course of his the dropping of all the habits of culture and education. And German education, and the which we consider unbecoming, Italy itself had altered much in notice they attracted on his return is here prescribed with the same the course of two centuries. We to Italy, are recorded by Giovio. unfailing tact with which the feel at their close that the time for It is at the same time very moralist discerns the highest practical jokes between friends curious that, at least in the ethical truths. In the literature of and acquaintances —for burle fifteenth century, the inns and other countries the same lessons and beffe—was over in good hotels were left chiefly in the are taught, though less society, that the people had hands of Germans, who systematically, by the indirect emerged from the walls of the probably, however, made their influence of repulsive cities and had learned a profit mostly out of the pilgrims descriptions. cosmopolitan politeness and journeying to Rome. Yet the consideration. We shall speak statements on this point may In other respects also, the later on of the intercourse of refer mainly to the country Galateo is a graceful and society in the narrower sense. districts, since it is notorious that intelligent guide to good in the great cities Italian hotels manners—a school of tact and Outward life, indeed, in the held the first place. The want of delicacy. Even now it may be fifteenth and the early part of the decent inns in the country may read with no small profit by sixteenth centuries, was polished also be explained by the general people of all classes, and the and ennobled as among ¦ no insecurity of life and property. politeness of European nations is other people in the world. A not likely to outgrow its precepts. countless number of those small To the first half of the sixteenth So far as tact is an affair of the things and great things which century belongs the manual of heart, it has been inborn in some combine to make up what we: 232 mean by comfort, we know to All Western Europe, as soon as product and one of the highest have first appeared in Italy. In | its wealth enabled it to do so, set products of national life have no the well-paved streets of the to work in the same way at the more important foundation and Italian cities, driving was close of the Middle Ages. But its condition than language. In the universal, while elsewhere in efforts produced either childish most flourishing period of the Europe walking or riding was the and fantastic toy-work, or were Middle Ages, the nobility of custom, and at all events no one bound by the chains of a narrow Western Europe had sought to drove for amusement. We read and purely Gothic art, while the establish a 'courtly' speech for in the novelists of soft, elastic Renaissance moved freely, social intercourse as well as for beads, of costly carpets and entering into the spirit of every poetry. In Italy, too, where the bedroom furniture, of which we task it undertook and working for dialects differed so greatly from hear nothing in other countries. a far larger circle of patrons and one another, we find in the We often hear especially of the admirers than the northern thirteenth century a so-called abundance and beauty of the artists. The rapid victory of Curiale, which was common to linen. Much of all this is drawn Italian decorative art over the courts and to the poets. It is within the sphere of art. We note northern in the course sixteenth of decisive importance for Italy with admiration the thousand century is due partly to this fact, that the attempt was there ways in which art ennobles though the result of wider and seriously and deliberately made luxury, not only adorning the more general causes. to turn this into the language of massive sideboard or the light literature and society. The brackets with noble vases, introduction to the Cento Novelle clothing the walls with the Antiche, which were put into their movable splendor of tapestry, Language and Society present shape before 1300, and covering the toilet-table with avows this object openly. numberless graceful trifles, but Language is here considered absorbing whole branches of The higher forms of social apart from its uses in poetry; its mechanical work—especially intercourse, which here meet us highest function is clear, simple, carpentering—into its province. as a work of art—as a conscious intelligent utterance in short 233 speeches, epigrams, and been the object of study and expressed. A very insignificant answers. This faculty was dispute, and that the birth of the melody, played upon such an admired in Italy, as nowhere else one ideal was not accomplished instrument, can produce a very but among the Greeks and without many throes. great effect. But however this Arabs: ‘how many in the course may be, it is certain that socially long life have scarcely produced Nothing certainly contributed so the language had great value. It a single bel parlare’. much to this end as the great was, as it were, that the crown of poem of Dante. The Tuscan a noble and dignified behavior, But the matter was rendered dialect became the basis of the and compelled the gentleman, more difficult by the diversity of new national speech. If this both in his ordinary bearing and the aspects under which it was assertion may seem to some to in exceptional moments to considered. The writings of go too far, as foreigners we may observe external propriety. No Dante transport us into the midst be excused, in a matter on which doubt this classical garment, like of the struggle. His work On the much difference of opinion the language of Attic society, Italian Language is not only of prevails, for following the general served to drape much that was the utmost importance for the belief. foul and malicious; but it was subject itself, but is also the first also the adequate expression of complete treatise on any modern Literature and poetry probably all that is noblest and most language. His method and lost more than they gained by the refined. But politically and results belong to the history of contentious purism which was nationally it was of supreme linguistic science, in which they long prevalent in Italy, and which importance, serving as an ideal will always hold a high place. marred the freshness and vigor home for the educated classes in We must here content ourselves of many an able writer. Others, all the States of the divided with the remark that long before again, who felt themselves peninsula. Nor was it the special the appearance of this book the masters of this magnificent property of the nobles or of any subject must have been one of language, were tempted to rely one class, but the poorest and daily and pressing importance, upon its harmony and flow, apart humblest might learn it if they various dialects of Italy had long from the thought which it would. Even now— and perhaps 234 more than ever —in those parts through its influences. It was not altogether in speech, and is of Italy where, as a rule, the most until the present century that unwilling to permit them even in unintelligible dialect prevails, the Piedmont became of its own free writing, which he considers a stranger is often astonished at will a genuine Italian province by form of speech. Upon this hearing pure and well-spoken sharing in this chief treasure of follows the admission that the Italian from the mouths of the people—pure speech. The best style of speech is that which peasants or artisans, and looks dialects were from the beginning most resembles good writing. in vain for anything analogous in of the sixteenth century We can clearly recognize the France or in Germany, where purposely left to deal with a author's feeling that people who even the educated classes retain certain class of subjects, serious have anything of importance to traces of a provincial speech. as well as comic, and the style say must shape their own There is certainly a larger which was thus developed speech, and that language is number of people able to read in proved the equal to all its tasks. something flexible and changing Italy than we should be led to Among other nations a conscious because it is something living. It expect from the condition of separation of this kind did not is allowable to make use of any many parts of the country—as for occur until a much later period. expression, however ornate, as instance, the States of the long as it is used by the people; Church—in other respects; but The opinion of educated people nor are non-Tuscan words, or what is more important is the as to the social value of language even French and Spanish words general and undisputed respect is fully set forth in the Cortigiano. forbidden, if custom has once for pure language and There were then persons, at the applied them to definite pronunciation as something beginning of the sixteenth purposes. Thus care and precious and sacred. One part of century, who purposely kept to intelligence will produce a the country after another came to the antiquated expressions of language, which, if not the pure adopt the classical dialect Dante and the other Tuscan old Tuscan, is still Italian, rich in officially. Venice, Milan, and writers of his time, simply flowers and fruit like a well-kept Naples did so at the noontime of because they were old. Our garden. It belongs to the Italian literature, and partly author forbids the use of them completeness of the Cortigiano 235 that his wit, his polished conversation was not pressed this feeling was prevalent, the manners, and his poetry, must be too far. They repudiated, indeed, fanaticism of the purists—their clothed in this perfect dress. the forms and idioms of their linguistic congresses and the rest dialect; and Bandello, with what a of it—did little harm. Their bad When style and language had foreigner might suspect to be influence was not felt until much once become the property of a false modesty, is never tired of later, when the original power of living society, all the efforts of declaring: ‘I have no style; I do Italian literature relaxed and purists and archaists failed to not write like a Florentine, but like yielded to other and far worse secure their end. Tuscany itself a barbarian; I am not ambitious influences. At last it became was rich in writers and the first of giving new graces to my possible for the Accademia della order, who ignored and ridiculed language; I am a Lombard, and Crusca to treat Italian like a dead these endeavors. Ridicule in from the Ligurian border into the language. But this association abundance awaited the foreign bargain.’ But the claims of the proved so helpless that it could scholar who explained to the purists were most successfully not even hinder the invasion of Tuscans how little they met by the express renunciation Gallicism in the eighteenth understood their language. The of the higher qualities of style, century. life and influence of a writer like and the adoption of a vigorous, Machiavelli was enough to popular language in their stead. This language—loved, tended, sweep away all these cobwebs. Few could hope to rival Pietro and trained to every use—now His vigorous thoughts, his clear Bembo who, though born in served as the basis of social and simple mode of expression Venice, nevertheless wrote the intercourse. In northern wore a form which had any merit purest Tuscan, which to him was countries, the nobles and the but that of the Trecentisti. And a foreign language, or the princes passed their leisure on the other hand there were too Neapolitan Sannazaro, who did either in solitude, or in hunting, many North Italians, Romans, the same. But the essential point fighting, drinking, and the like; and Neapolitans, who were was that language, whether the burghers in games and bodily thankful if the demand for purity spoken or written, was held to be exercises, with a mixture of of style in literature and an object of respect. As long as literary or festive amusements. 236 In Italy there existed a neutral Social Etiquette Decameron, and looks on the ground, where people of every presidency of Pampinea as a origin, if they had the needful graceful fiction. That it was so in talent and culture, spent their This society, at all events at the this particular case is a matter of time in conversation change of beginning of the sixteenth course; but the fiction was jest and earnest. As eating small century, was a matter of art; and nevertheless based on a practice part of such entertainments, it not had, and rested on, tacit or which often occurred in reality. difficult to keep at a distance avowed rules of good sense and Firenzuola, who nearly two those who sought society for propriety, which are the exact centuries later (1523) prefaces these objects. If we are to take reverse of all mere etiquette. In his collection of tales in a similar the writers of dialogues literally, less polished circles, where manner, with express reference the loftiest problems of human society took the form of a to Boccaccio, comes assuredly existence were not excluded permanent corporation, we meet nearer to the truth when he puts from the conversation of thinking with a system of formal rules and into the mouth of the queen of men, and the production of noble a prescribed mode of entrance, the society a formal speech on thoughts was not, as was as was the case with those wild the mode of spending the hours commonly the case in the North, sets of Florentine artists of whom during the stay which the the work of solitude, but of Vasari tells us that they were company proposed to make in society. But we must here limit capable of giving representations the country. The day was to ourselves to the less serious side of the best comedies of the day. begin with a stroll among the hills of social intercourse—to the side In the easier intercourse of passed in philosophical talk; then which existed only for the sake of society it was not unusual to followed breakfast, with music amusement. select some distinguished lady and singing, after which came as president, whose word was the recitation, in some cool, law for the evening. shady spot, of a new poem, the subject of which had been given Everybody knows the the night before; in the evening introduction to Boccaccio's the whole party walked to a 237 spring of water where they all sat decency, and which knew how to compromising their reputation. down and each one told a tale; vary such pastimes with serious Among the patronesses of last of all came supper and lively and solid discussion. The need Bandello, for example, Isabella conversation 'of such a kind that of noble forms of social Gonzaga (born an Este) was the women might listen to it intercourse was felt to be talked of unfavorably not through without shame and the men stronger than all others. To any fault of her own, but on might not seem to be speaking convince ourselves of it, we are account of the too-free-lived under the influence of wine.’ not obliged to take as our young ladies who filled her court. Bandello, in the introductions and standard the idealized society Giulia Gonzaga Colonna, Ippolita dedications to single novels, which Castiglione depicts as Sforza married to a Bentivoglio, does not give us, it is true, such discussing the loftiest sentiments Bianca Rangona, Cecilia inaugural discourses as this, and aims of human life at the Gallerana, Camilla Scarampa, since the circles before which the court of Guidobaldo of Urbino, and others, were either stories are told are represented and Pietro Bembo at the castle of altogether irreproachable, or their as already formed; but he gives Asolo The society described by social fame threw into the shade us to understand in other ways Bandello, with all the frivolities whatever they may have done how rich, how manifold, and how which may be laid to its charge, amiss. The most famous woman charming the conditions of enables us to form the best of Italy, Vittoria Colonna (b. society must have been. Some notion of the easy and polished 1490, d. 1547), the friend of readers may be of opinion that dignity, of the urbane kindliness, Castiglioni and Michelangelo, no good was to be got from a of the intellectual freedom, of the enjoyed the reputation of a saint. world which was willing to be wit and the graceful dilettantism, It is hard to give such a picture of amused by such immoral which distinguished these circles. the unconstrained intercourse of literature. It would be juster to A significant proof of the value of these circles in the city, at the wonder at the secure foundations such circles lies in the fact that baths, or in the country, as will of a society which, the women who were the centers furnish literal proof of the notwithstanding these tales, still of them could become famous superiority of Italy in this respect observed the rules of order and and illustrious without in any way over the rest of Europe. But let 238 us read Bandello, and then ask Magnificent was supreme over Hawking Party—he gives us a ourselves if anything of the same his circle, not, as we might be led humorous description of his kind would have been possible, to believe, through the princely comrades, and in the Symposium say, in France, before this kind of position which he occupied, but a burlesque of them, but in both society was there introduced by rather through the wonderful tact cases in such a manner that we people like himself. No doubt the he displayed in giving perfect clearly feel his capacity for more supreme achievements of the freedom of action to the many serious companionship. Of this human mind were then produced and varied natures which intercourse his correspondence independently of the help of the surrounded him. We see how and the records of his literary and drawing-room. Yet it would be gently he dealt with his great philosophical conversation give unjust to rate the influence of the tutor Politian, and how the ample proof. Some of the social latter on art and poetry too low, if sovereignty of the poet and unions which were afterwards only for the reason that society scholar was reconciled, though formed in Florence were in part helped to shape that which not without difficulty, with the political clubs, though not without existed in no other country—a inevitable reserve prescribed by a certain poetical and widespread interest in artistic the approaching change in the philosophical character. Of this production and an intelligent and position of the house of Medici kind was the so-called Platonic critical public opinion. And apart and by consideration for the Academy which met after from this, society of the kind we sensitiveness of the wife. In Lorenzo's death in the gardens of have described was in itself a return for the treatment he the Rucellai. natural flower of that life and received, Politian became the culture which was then purely herald and the living symbol of At the courts of the princes, Italian, and which since then has Medicean glory. Lorenzo, after society naturally depended on extended to the rest of Europe. the fashion of a true Medici, the character of the ruler. After delighted in giving an outward the beginning of the sixteenth In Florence society was and artistic expression to his century they became few in powerfully affected by literature social amusements. In his number, and these few soon lost and politics. Lorenzo the brilliant improvisation—the their importance. Rome, 239 however, possessed in the independent nature. The inner whatever with the special object unique court of Leo X a society to impulse which inspired him was of the work. Yet here, as in the which the history of the world directed, though our author does Asolani of Bembo, the culture of offers no parallel. not acknowledge the fact, not to the time shows itself in the the service of the prince, but to delicacy with which this his own perfection. One instance sentiment is represented and will make this clear. In time of analyzed. It is true that these Education of the war the courtier refuses even writers are not in all cases to be 'Cortigiano' useful and perilous tasks, if they taken literally; but that the are not beautiful and dignified in discourses they give us were themselves, such as, for actually frequent in good society, It was for this society—or rather instance, the capture of a herd of cannot be doubted, and that it for his own sake—that the cattle; what urges him to take was an affectation, but genuine Cortigiano, as described to us by part in war is not duty but l'onore. passion, which appeared in this Castiglione, educated himself. The moral relation to the prince, dress, we shall see further on. He was the ideal man of society, as described in the fourth book, and was regarded by the is singularly free and Among outward civilization of that age as its independent. The theory of well- accomplishments, the so-called choicest flower; and the court bred love-making, set forth in the knightly exercises were expected existed for him rather than he for third book, is full of delicate in thorough perfection from the the court. Indeed, such a man psychological observation, which courtier, and besides these much would have been out of place at perhaps would be more in place that could only exist at courts any court, since he himself in a treatise on human nature highly organized and based on possessed all the gifts and the generally; and the magnificent personal emulation, such as bearing of an accomplished ruler, praise of ideal love, which occurs were not to be found out of Italy. and because his calm supremacy at the end of the fourth book, and Other points obviously rest on an in all things, both outward and which rises to a lyrical elevation abstract notion of individual spiritual, implied a too of feeling, has no connection perfection. The courtier must be 240 at home in all noble sports, in the habits and manners of people committed to his care. among them running, leaping, good society. Their instructions swimming and wrestling; he and their illustrated books on The games and contests of the must, above all things, be a good riding, fencing, and dancing popular classes did not differ dancer and, as a matter of served as the model to other essentially from those which course, an accomplished rider. countries. Gymnastics as an art, prevailed elsewhere in Europe. He must be master of several apart both from military training In the maritime cities boat-racing languages, at all events of Latin and from mere amusement, was was among the number, and the and Italian; he must be familiar probably first taught by Vittorino Venetian regattas were famous with literature and have some da Feltre and after his time at an early period. The classical knowledge of the fine arts. In became essential to a complete game of Italy was and is the ball; music a certain practical skill was education. The important fact is and this was probably played at expected of him, which he was that they were taught the time of the Renaissance with bound, nevertheless, to keep as systematically, though what more zeal and brilliancy than secret as possible. All this is not exercises were most in favour, elsewhere. But on this point no to be taken too seriously, except and whether they resembled distinct evidence is forthcoming. what relates to the use of arms. those now in use, we are unable The mutual interaction of these to say. But we may infer, not gifts and accomplishments only from the general character results in the perfect man, in of the people, but from positive Music whom no one quality usurps the evidence which has been left for place of the rest. us, that not only strength and skill, but grace of movement was A few words on music will not be So much is certain, that in the one of the main objects of out of place in this part of our sixteenth century the Italians had physical training. It is enough to work. Musical composition down all Europe for their pupils both remind the reader of the great to the year 1500 was chiefly in theoretically and practically in Federigo of Urbino directing the the hands of the Flemish school, every noble bodily exercise and evening games of the young whose originality and artistic 241 dexterity were greatly admired. their whole attention to particular Sansecondo were among the Side by side with this, there instruments or particular most famous. The former nevertheless existed an Italian branches of music. received from Leo the title of school, which probably stood count and a small town; the latter nearer to our present taste. Half Of the more complex has been taken to be the Apollo a century later came Palestrina, instruments, which were in the Parnassus of Raphael. In whose genius still works perfected and widely diffused at the course of the sixteenth powerfully among us. We learn a very early period, we find not century, celebrities in every among other facts that he was a only the organ, but a branch of music appeared in great innovator; but whether he corresponding string instrument, abundance, and Lomazzo (1584) or others took the decisive part in the gravicembalo or names the three most shaping the musical language of clavicembalo. Fragments of distinguished masters of the art the modern world lies beyond the these dating from the beginning of singing, of the organ, the lute, judgement of the unprofessional of the fourteenth century have the lyre, the viola da gamba, the critic. Leaving on one side the come down to our own days, harp, the cithern, the horn, and history of musical composition, adorned with paintings from the the trumpet, and wishes that their we shall confine ourselves to the hands of the greatest masters. portraits might be painted on the position which music held in the Among other instruments the first instruments themselves. Such social life of the day. place was held by the violin, many-sided comparative criticism which even then conferred great would have been impossible A fact most characteristic of the celebrity on the successful anywhere but in Italy, although Renaissance and of Italy is the player. At the court of Leo X, the same instruments were to be specialization of the orchestra, who, when cardinal, had filled his found in other countries. the search for new instruments house with singers and and modes of sound, and, in musicians, and who enjoyed the The number and variety of these close connection with this reputation of a critic and instruments is shown by the fact tendency, the formation of a performer, the Jew Giovan Maria that collections of them were now class of virtuosi, who devoted del Corneto and Jacopo made from curiosity. In Venice, 242 which was one of the most masters of the art. People of song should be enhanced by the musical cities of Italy, there were position were averse to wind impression made on the sight. several such collections, and instruments, for the same reason We hear nothing, however, of the when a sufficient number of which made them distasteful to treatment in these circles of performers happened to be on Alcibiades and Pallas Athene. In musical composition as an the spot, a concert was at once good society singing, either alone independent branch of art. On improvised. In one of these or accompanied with the violin, the other hand it happened museums there was a large was usual; but quartettes of sometimes that the subject of the number of instruments, made string instruments were also song was some terrible event after ancient pictures and common, and the clavicembalo which had befallen the singer descriptions, but we are not told was liked on account of its varied himself. if anybody could play them, or effects. In singing, the solo only how they sounded. It must not was permitted, 'for a single voice This dilettantism, which pervaded be forgotten that such is heard, enjoyed, and judged far the middle as well as the upper instruments were often better.’ In other words, as classes, was in Italy both more beautifully decorated, and could singing, notwithstanding all widespread and more genuinely be arranged in a manner conventional modesty, is an artistic than in any other country pleasing to the eye. We thus exhibition of the individual man of of Europe. Wherever we meet meet with them in collections of society, it is better that each with a description of social other rarities and works of art. should be seen and heard intercourse, there music and separately. The tender feelings singing are always and expressly The players, apart from the produced in the fair listeners are mentioned. Hundreds of portraits professional performers, were taken for granted, and elderly show us men and women, often either single amateurs, or whole people are therefore several together, playing or orchestras of them, organized recommended to abstain from holding some musical instrument, into a corporate Academy. Many such forms of art, even though and the angelic concerts artists in other branches were at they excel in them. It was held represented in the ecclesiastical home in music, and often important that the effect of the pictures prove how familiar the 243 painters were with the living period, we must keep before our The education given to women in effects of music. We read of the minds the fact that women stood the upper classes was essentially lute-player Antonio Rota, at on a footing of perfect equality the same as that given to men. Padua d. 1549), who became a with men. We must not suffer The Italian, at the time of the rich man by his lessons, and ourselves to be misled by the Renaissance, felt no scruple in published a handbook to the sophistical and often malicious putting sons and daughters alike practice of the lute. talk about the assumed inferiority under the same course of literary of the female sex, which we meet and even philological instruction. At a time when there was no with now and then in the Indeed, looking at this ancient opera to concentrate and dialogues of this time, nor by culture as the chief treasure of monopolize musical talent, this such satires as the third of life, he was glad that his girls general cultivation of the art must Ariosto, who treats woman as a should have a share in it. We have been something dangerous grown-up child, whom have seen what perfection was wonderfully varied, intelligent, a man must learn how to attained by the daughters of and original. It is another manage, in spite of the great gulf princely houses in writing and question how much we should between them. There is, indeed, speaking Latin. Many others find to satisfy us in these forms of a certain amount of truth in what must at least have been able to music, could they now be he says. Just because the read it, in order to follow the reproduced for us. educated woman was on a level conversation of the day, which with the man, that communion of turned largely on classical mind and heart which comes subjects. An active interest was from the sense of mutual taken by many in Italian poetry, Equality of Men and dependance and completion, in which, whether prepared or Women could not be developed in improvised, a large number of marriage at this time, as it has Italian women, from the time of been developed later in the the Venetian Cassandra Fedele To understand the higher forms cultivated society of the North. onwards (about the close of the of social intercourse at this fifteenth century), made 244 themselves famous. One, Bavaria, Margaret of Anjou, and development which perfected the indeed, Vittoria Colonna, may be Isabella of Castile, are the forced man, was demanded for the called immortal. If any proof result of very unusual perfection of the woman. Active were needed of the assertion circumstances. In Italy, literary world, nevertheless, was made above, it would be found in throughout the whole of the not expected from her, and if she the manly tone of this poetry. fifteenth century, the wives of the were a poet, some powerful Even the love-sonnets and rulers, and still more those of the utterance of feeling, rather than religious poems are so precise Condottieri, have nearly all a the confidences of the novel or and definite in their character, distinct, recognizable personality, the diary, was looked for. These and so far removed from the and take their share of notoriety women had no thought of the tender twilight of sentiment, and and glory. To these came public; their function was to from all the dilettantism which we gradually to be added a crowd of influence distinguished men, and commonly find in the poetry of famous women of the most to moderate male impulse and women, that we should not varied kind; among them those caprice. hesitate to attribute them to male whose distinction consisted in the authors, if we had not clear fact that their beauty, disposition, The highest praise which could external evidence to prove the education, virtue, and piety, then be given to the great Italian contrary. combined to render them women was that they had the harmonious human beings. mind and the courage of men. For, with education, the There was no question of We have only to observe the individuality of women in the 'woman's rights' or female thoroughly manly bearing of most upper classes was developed in emancipation, simply because of the women in the heroic the same way as that of men. the thing itself was a matter of poems, especially those of Until the time of the Reformation, course. The educated woman, Boiardo and Ariosto, to convince the personality of women out of no less than the man, strove ourselves that we have before us Italy, even of the highest rank, naturally after a characteristic the ideal of the time. The title comes forward but little. and complete individuality. The virago, which is an equivocal Exceptions like Isabella of same intellectual and emotional compliment in the present day, 245 then implied nothing but praise. but the consciousness of energy, cause of the greater freedom of It was borne in all its glory by of beauty, and of a social state conversation, or whether they Caterina Sforza, wife and full of danger and opportunity. were removed on account of it. afterwards widow of Girolamo And for this reason we find, side Riario, whose hereditary by side with the most measured Even the intercourse with possession, Forli, she gallantly and polished social forms, courtesans seems to have defended first against his something our age would call assumed a more elevated murderers, and then against immodesty, forgetting that by character, reminding us of the Cesare Borgia. Though finally which it was corrected and position of the Hetairae in vanquished, she retained the counter-balanced— the powerful classical Athens. The famous admiration of her countrymen characters of the women who Roman courtesan Imperia was a and the title prima donna d'Italia. were exposed to it. woman of intelligence and This heroic vein can be detected culture, had learned from a in many of the women of the That in all the dialogues and certain Domenico Campana the Renaissance, though none found treatises together we can find no art of making sonnets, and was the same opportunity of showing absolute evidence on these not without musical their heroism to the world. In points is only natural, however accomplishments. The beautiful Isabella Gonzaga this type is freely the nature of love and the Isabella de Luna, of Spanish clearly recognizable. position and capacities of women extraction, who was reckoned were discussed. amusing company, seems to Women of this stamp could listen have been an odd compound of to novels like those of Bandello, What seems to have been a kind heart with a shockingly without social intercourse wanting in this society were the foul tongue, which latter suffering from it. The ruling young girls who, even when not sometimes brought her into genius of society was not, as brought up in the monasteries, trouble. At Milan, Bandello knew now, womanhood, or the respect were still carefully kept away the majestic Caterina di San for certain presuppositions, from it. It is not easy to say Celso, who played and sang and mysteries, and susceptibilities, whether their absence was the recited superbly. It is clear from 246 all we read on the subject that scarcely a single woman seems contemporaries and to posterity. the distinguished people who to have been remarkable for any But we hardly know more than visited these women, and from higher gifts. Those whom we the name of Alice Perries; and of time to time lived with them, have mentioned all belong to the Dettin, the mistress of demanded from them a period which immediately Frederick the Victorious, and of considerable degree of followed. The mode of life, the Agnes Sorel we have only a half- intelligence and instruction, and morals and the philosophy of the legendary story. With the that the famous courtesans were public women, who with all their concubines of the Renaissance treated with no slight respect and sensuality and greed were not monarchs—Francis I and Henry consideration. Even when always incapable of deeper II—the case is different. relations with them were broken passions, as well as the off, their good opinion was still hypocrisy and devilish malice desired, which shows that shown by some in their later departed passion had left years, are best set forth by Domestic Life permanent traces behind. But on Giraldi, in the novels which form the whole this intellectual the introduction to the intercourse is not worth Hecatommithi. Pietro Aretino, in After treating of the intercourse of mentioning by the side of that his Ragionamenti, gives us rather society, let us glance for a sanctioned by the recognized a picture of his own depraved moment at the domestic life of forms of social life, and the character than of this unhappy this period. We are commonly traces which it has left in poetry class of women as they really disposed to look on the family life and literature are for the most were. of the Italians at this time as part of a scandalous nature. We hopelessly ruined by the national may well be astonished that The mistresses of the princes, as immorality, and this side of the among the 6,800 persons of this has been pointed out, were sung question will be more fully class, who were to be found in by poets and painted by artists, discussed in the sequel. For the Rome in 1490—that is, before and thus have become moment we must content the appearance of syphilis— personally familiar to their ourselves with pointing out that 247 conjugal infidelity has by no served to promote this end. But pursuit, such as the weaving of means so disastrous an influence the chief cause of the change wool or silk. The dwelling is solid on family life in Italy as in the was the thoughtful study of all and the food good. All that has North, so long at least as certain questions relating to social to do with the plan and limits are not overstepped. intercourse, to education, to arrangement of the house is domestic service and great, durable and costly, but the The domestic life of the Middle organization. daily life within it is as simple as Ages was a product of popular possible. All other expenses, morals, or if we prefer to put it The most precious document on from the largest in which the otherwise, a result of the inborn this subject is the treatise on the family honour is at stake, down to tendencies of national life, management of the home by the pocket-money of the younger modified by the varied Agnolo Pandolfini (actually sons, stand to one another in a circumstances which affected written by L. B. Alberti, d. rational, not a conventional them. Chivalry at the time of its 1472). He represents a father relation. Nothing is considered of splendor left domestic economy speaking to his grown-up sons, so much importance as untouched. The knight wandered and initiating them into his education, which the head of the from court to court, and from one method of administration. We house gives not only to the battlefield to another. His are introduced into a large and children, but to the whole homage was given systematically wealthy household, which, if household. He first develops his to some other woman than his governed with moderation and wife from a shy girl, brought up in own wife, and things went how reasonable economy, promises careful seclusion, to the true they might at home in the castle. happiness and prosperity for woman of the house, capable of The spirit of the Renaissance first generations to come. A commanding and guiding the brought order into domestic life, considerable landed estate, servants. The sons are brought treating it as a work of deliberate whose produce furnishes the up without any undue severity, contrivance. Intelligent table of the house, and serves as carefully watched and economical views, and a rational the basis of the family fortune, is counselled, and controlled 'rather style of domestic architecture combined with some industrial by authority than by force’. And 248 finally the servants are chosen world was thus revived, as soon buildings many are like palaces, and treated on such principles as the wealth and culture of the many like castles costly and that they gladly and faithfully hold people were sufficiently beautiful to behold.’ He is by the family. advanced. speaking of those unrivalled villas, of which the greater One feature of that book must be Pandolfini finds at his villa a number were sacrificed, though referred to, which is by no means peace and happiness, for an vainly, by the Florentines peculiar to it, but which it treats account of which the reader must themselves in the defence of with special warmth— the love of hear him speak himself. The their city in 1529. the educated Italian for country economical side of the matter is life. In northern countries the that one and the same property In these villas, as in those on the nobles lived in the country in their must, if possible, contain Brenta, on the Lombard hills, at castles, and the monks of the everything: corn, wine, oil, Posilippo and on the Vomero, higher orders in their well- pastureland and woods, and that social life assumes a freer and guarded monasteries, while the in such cases the property was more rural character than in the wealthiest burghers dwelt from paid for well, since nothing palaces within the city. We meet one year's end to another in the needed then to be got from the with charming descriptions of the cities. But in Italy, so far as the market. But the higher intercourse of the guests, the neighbourhood of certain towns enjoyment derived from the villa hunting-parties, and all the open- at all events was concerned, the is shown by some words of the air pursuits and amusements. security of life and property was introduction: ‘Round about But the noblest achievements of so great, and the passion for a Florence lie many villas in a poetry and thought are country residence was so strong, transparent atmosphere, amid sometimes also dated from these that men were willing to risk a cheerful scenery, and with a scenes of rural peace. loss in time of war. Thus arose splendid view; there is little fog the villa, the country-house of the and no injurious winds; all is well-to-do citizen. This precious good, and the water pure and inheritance of the old Roman healthy. Of the numerous 249 Festivals in these festivals, deserves a favorably affected by the chapter to itself in the history of progress of poetry and of the art, although our imagination can other arts. In the course of time It is by no arbitrary choice that in only form a picture of it from the not only did the farce and the discussing the social life of this descriptions which have been left secular drama branch off from period, we are led to treat of the to us. We are here more the Mystery, as in other countries processions and shows which especially concerned with the of Europe, but the pantomime formed part of the popular festival as a higher phase in the also, with its accompaniments of festivals. The artistic power of life of the people, in which its singing and dancing, the effect of which the Italians of the religious, moral, and poetical which depended on the richness Renaissance gave proof on such ideas took visible shape. The and beauty of the spectacle. occasions, was attained only by Italian festivals in their best form means of that free intercourse of mark the point of transition from The Procession, in the broad, all classes which formed the real life into the world of art. level, and well-paved streets of basis of Italian society. In the Italian cities, was soon Northern Europe the The two chief forms of festal developed into the Trionfo, or monasteries, the courts, and the display were originally here, as train of masked figures on foot burghers had their special feasts elsewhere in the West, the and in chariots, the ecclesiastical and shows as in Italy; but in the Mystery, or the dramatization of character of which gradually one case the form and substance sacred history and legend, and gave way to the secular. The of these displays differed the Procession, the motive and processions at the Carnival and according to the class which took character of which was also at the feast of Corpus Christi part in them, in the other an art purely ecclesiastical. were alike in the pomp and amid culture common to the brilliancy with which they were whole nation stamped them with The performances of the conducted, and set the pattern both a higher and a more popular Mysteries in Italy were from the afterwards followed by the royal character. The decorative first more frequent and splendid or princely progresses. Other architecture, which served to aid than elsewhere, and were most nations were willing to spend 250 vast sums of money on these from such interests. superiority in the Italian festivals shows, but in Italy alone do we over those of other countries, the find an artistic method of The festivals did not reach their first that we shall have to remark treatment which arranged the full development until after the is the developed sense of processions as a harmonious decision victory of the modern individual characteristics, in other and significative whole. spirit in the fifteenth century, words, the capacity to invent a unless perhaps Florence was given mask, and to act the part What is left of these festivals is here, as in other things, in with dramatic propriety. Painters but a poor remnant of what once advance of the rest of Italy. In and sculptors not merely did their existed. Both religious and Florence, the several quarters of part towards the decoration of secular displays of this kind have the city were, in early times, the place where the festival was abandoned the dramatic organized with a view to such held, but helped in getting up the element—the costumes—partly exhibitions, which demanded no characters themselves, and from dread of ridicule, and partly small expenditure of artistic prescribed the dress, the paints, because the cultivated classes, effort. Of this kind was the and the other ornaments to be which formerly gave their whole representation of Hell, with a used. The second fact to be energies to these things, have for scaffold and boats in the , pointed out is the universal several reasons lost their interest on the 1st of May, 1304, when familiarity of the people with the in them. Even at the Carnival, the Ponte alla Carraia broke poetical basis of the show. The the great processions of masks down under the weight of the Mysteries, indeed, were equally are out of fashion. What still spectators. That at a later time well understood all over Europe, remains, such as the costumes the Florentines used to travel since the biblical story and the adopted in imitation of certain through Italy as directors of legends of the saints were the religious confraternities, or even festivals (festaiuoli), shows that common property of the brilliant festival of Santa the art was early perfected at Christendom; but in all other Rosalia at , shows home. respects the advantage was on clearly how far the higher culture the side of Italy. For the of the country has withdrawn In setting forth the chief points of recitations, whether of religious 251 or secular heroes, she concrete shape, the costume and to all that is not meat and drink. possessed a lyrical poetry so rich attributes were likely to be We cannot here discuss the bad and harmonious that none could unintelligible and unsuited to the influence of these resist its charm. The majority, popular taste. This, even in Italy, misunderstandings on the plastic too, of the spectators—at least in was often the case, and not only arts. They, like poetry, might the cities—understood the so during the whole period of the think themselves fortunate if meaning of mythological figures, Renaissance, but down to a still allegory could be expressed by a and could guess without much later time. To produce the mythological figure—by a figure difficulty at the allegorical and confusion, it was enough if a which antiquity saved from historical, which were drawn from predicate of the allegorical absurdity—if Mars might stand sources familiar to the mass of figures was wrongly translated by for war, and Diana for the love of Italians. an attribute. Even Dante is not the chase. wholly free from such errors, and, This point needs to be more fully indeed, he prides himself on the Nevertheless art and poetry had discussed. The Middle Ages obscurity of his allegories in better allegories than these to were essentially the ages of general. Petrarch, in his Trionfi, offer, and we may assume with allegory. Theology and attempts to give clear, if short, regard to such figures of this kind philosophy treated their descriptions of at all events the as appeared in the Italian categories as independent figures of Love, of Chastity, of festivals, that the public required beings, and poetry and art had Death, and of Fame. Others them to be clearly and vividly but little to add, in order to give again load their allegories with characteristic, since its previous them personality. Here all the inappropriate attributes. In the training had fitted it to be a countries of the West were on Satires of Vinciguerra, for competent critic. Elsewhere, the same level. example, Envy is depicted with particularly at the Burgundian rough, iron teeth, Gluttony as court, the most inexpressive Their world of ideas was rich biting its own lips, and with a figures, and even mere symbols, enough in types and figures, but shock of tangled hair, the latter were allowed to pass, since to when these were put into probably to show its indifference understand, or to seem to 252 understand them, was a part of unbelievers. now appeared at festivals, either aristocratic breeding. On the individualized, as definite masks, occasion of the famous Oath of But although the allegorical or in groups, as characteristic the Pheasant in the year 1454, element in the poetry, the art, attendants on some leading the beautiful young horsewoman, and the festivals of Italy is allegorical figure. The art of who appears as Queen of superior both in good taste and in grouping and composition was Pleasure, is the only pleasing unity of conception to what we thus learnt in Italy at a time when allegory. The huge epergnes, find in other countries, yet it is the most splendid exhibitions in with automatic or even living not in these qualities that it is other countries were made up of figures within them, are either most characteristic and unique. unintelligible symbolism or mere curiosities or are intended The decisive point of superiority unmeaning puerilities. to convey some clumsy moral lay rather in the fact that, besides lesson. A naked female statue the personifications of abstract Let us begin with that kind of guarding a live lion was qualities, historical festival which is perhaps the supposed to represent representatives of them were oldest of all—the Mysteries. Constantinople and its future introduced in great number—that They resembled in their main savior, the Duke of Burgundy. both poetry and plastic art were features those performed in the The rest, with the exception of a accustomed to represent famous rest of Europe. In the public Pantomime— Jason in Colchis— men and women. The Divine squares, in the churches and in seems either too recondite to be Comedy, the Trionfi of Petrarch, the cloisters, extensive scaffolds understood or to have no sense the Amorosa Visione of were constructed, the upper story at all. Oliver de la Marche, to Boccaccio—all of them works of which served as a Paradise to whom we owe the description of constructed on this principle— open and shut at will, and the the scene (Memoires, ch. 29), and the great diffusion of culture ground-floor often as Hell, while appeared costumed as The which took place under the between the two lay the stage Church, in a tower on the back of influence of antiquity, had made properly so called, representing an elephant, and sang a long the nation familiar with this the scene of all the earthly elegy on the victory of the historical element. These figures events of the drama In Italy, as 253 elsewhere, the biblical or which Gabriel flew down in a piazza, or the slender columns of legendary play often began with machine shaped like an almond. some great courtyard or cloister, an introductory dialogue between Cecca, too, devised mechanisms the effect is one of great Apostles, Prophets, Sibyls, for such displays. The spiritual brilliance. But just as the secular Virtues, and Fathers of the corporations or the quarters of drama suffered from this passion Church, and sometimes ended the city which undertook the for display, so the higher poetical with a dance. As a matter of charge and in part the development of the Mystery was course the half-comic Intermezzi performance of these plays arrested by the same cause. In of secondary characters were not spared, at all events in the larger the texts which are left we find for wanting in Italy, yet this feature towns, no trouble and expense to the most part the poorest was hardly so broadly marked as render them as perfect and dramatic groundwork, relieved in northern countries. The artistic as possible. The same now and then by a fine lyrical or artificial means by which figures was no doubt the case at the rhetorical passage, but no trace were made to rise and float in the great court festivals, when of the grand symbolic air—one of the chief delights of Mysteries were acted as well as enthusiasm which distinguishes these representations—were pantomimes and secular dramas. the Autos Sacramentales of probably much better understood The court of Pietro Riario and Calderon. in Italy than elsewhere; and at that of Ferrara were assuredly Florence in the fourteenth not wanting in all that human In the smaller towns, where the century the hitches in these invention could produce. When scenic display was less, the performances were a stock we picture to ourselves the effect of these spiritual plays on subject of ridicule. Soon theatrical talent and the splendid the character of the spectators afterwards Brunellesco invented costumes of the actors, the may have been greater. We for the Feast of the Annunciation scenes constructed in the style of read that one of the great in the Piazza San Felice a the architecture of the period, preachers of repentance of marvelous apparatus consisting and hung with garlands and whom more will be said later on, of a heavenly globe surrounded tapestry, and in the background Roberto da Lecce, closed his by two circles of angels, out of the noble buildings of an Italian Lenten sermons during the 254 plague of 1448, at Perugia, with imitation of the ceremony a representation of the Passion. (rappresentazione) took place, If any church festival was held by The piece followed the New probably on the great square of universal consent to call for Testament closely. The actors his native city, and for two days exceptional efforts, it was the were few, but the whole people there was feasting with meat and feast of Corpus Christi, which in wept aloud. It is true that on drink for all comers. We are told Spain gave rise to a special class such occasions emotional that a learned monk celebrated of poetry. We possess a stimulants were resorted to which his promotion to the degree of splendid description of the were borrowed from the crudest Doctor of Theology by giving a manner in which that feast was realism. We are reminded of the representation of the legend celebrated at Viterbo by Pius II in pictures of Matteo da Siena, or of about the patron saint of the city. 1462. The procession itself, the groups of clay-figures by Charles VIII had scarcely entered which advanced from a vast and Guido Mazzoni, when we read Italy before he was welcomed at gorgeous tent in front of San that the actor who took the part Turin by the widowed Duchess Francesco along the main street of Christ appeared covered with Bianca of Savoy with a sort of to the Cathedral, was the least welts and apparently sweating half-religious pantomime, in part of the ceremony. The blood, and even bleeding from a which a pastoral scene first cardinals and wealthy prelates wound in the side. symbolized the Law of Nature, had divided the whole distance and then a procession of into parts, over which they The special occasions on which patriarchs the Law of Grace. severally presided, and which these mysteries were performed, Afterwards followed the story of they decorated with curtains, apart from the great festivals of Lancelot of the lake, and that 'of tapestry, and garlands. Each of the Church, from princely Athens’. And no sooner had the them had also erected a stage of weddings, and the like, were of King reached Chieri than he was his own, on which, as the various kinds. When, for received with another procession passed by, short example, St. Bernardino of pantomime, in which a woman in historical and allegorical scenes Siena was canonized by the childbed was shown surrounded were represented. It is not clear Pope (1450), a sort of dramatic by distinguished visitors. from the account whether all the 255 characters were living beings or obscure symbolism. It offers an scenic effects. The subjects some merely draped figures; the early instance of the fondness for were mythological or allegorical, expense was certainly very great. salvos of artillery which was and the interpretation commonly There was a suffering Christ characteristic of the house of lay on the surface. amid singing cherubs, the Last Borgia. Extravagances, indeed, were not Supper with a figure of St. wanting—gigantic animals from Thomas Aquinas, the combat The account is briefer which Pius which a crowd of masked figures between the Archangel Michael II gives us of the procession held suddenly emerged, as at Siena in and the devils, fountains of wine the same year in Rome on the the year 1465, when at a public and orchestras of angels, the arrival of the skull of St. Andrew reception a ballet of twelve grave of Christ with all the scene from Greece. There, too, persons came out of a golden of the Resurrection, and finally, Roderigo Borgia distinguished wolf; living table ornaments, not on the square before the himself by his magnificence; but always, however, showing the Cathedral, the tomb of the Virgin. this festival has a more secular tasteless exaggeration of the It opened after High Mass and character than the other, as, Burgundian Court and the like. Benediction, and the Mother of besides the customary choirs of Most of them showed some God ascended singing to angels, other masks were artistic or poetical feeling. The Paradise, where she was exhibited, as well as 'strong mixture of pantomime and drama crowned by her Son, and led into men’, who seem to have at the Court of Ferrara has been the presence of the Eternal performed various feats of already referred to in the treating Father. muscular prowess. of poetry. The entertainments given in 1473 by the Cardinal Among these representations in Such representations as were Pietro Riario at Rome when the public street, that given by wholly or chiefly secular in their Leonora of Aragon, the destined the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor character were arranged, bride of Prince Hercules of Roderigo Borgia, afterwards especially at the more important Ferrara, was passing through the Pope Alexander VI, was princely courts, mainly with a city, were famous far beyond the remarkable for its splendor and view to splendid and striking limits of Italy. The plays acted 256 were mysteries on some removed; while in the house of some leading citizens. One of ecclesiastical subject, the Riario there was exhibited a his machines, which must have pantomimes, on the contrary, living child, gilt from head to foot, rivalled that of Brunellesco, were mythological. There were who showered water round him represented the heavenly bodies represented Orpheus with the from a spring. with all their movements on a beasts, Perseus and Andromeda, colossal scale. Whenever a Ceres drawn by dragons, Brilliant pantomimes of the same planet approached Isabella, the Bacchus and Ariadne by kind were given at Bologna, at bride of the young Duke, the panthers, and finally the the marriage of Annibale divinity whose name it bore education of Achilles. Then Bentivoglio with Lucrezia of Este. stepped forth from the globe, and followed a ballet of the famous Instead of the orchestra, choral sang some verses written by the lovers of ancient times, with a songs were sung, while the court-poet Bellincioni (1490). At troop of nymphs, which was fairest of Diana's nymphs flew another festival (1493) the model interrupted by an attack of over to the Juno Pronuba, and of the equestrian statue of predatory centaurs, who in their while Venus walked with a lion— Francesco Sforza appeared with turn were vanquished and put to which in this case was a other objects under a triumphal flight by Hercules. The fact, in disguised man—among a troop arch on the square before the itself a trifle, may be mentioned of savages. The decorations castle. We read in Vasari of the as characteristic of the taste of were a faithful representation of a ingenious automata which the time, that the human beings forest. At Venice, in 1491, the Leonardo invented to welcome who at all festivals appeared as princesses of the house of Este the French kings as masters of statues in niches or on pillars and were met and welcomed by the Milan. Even in the smaller cities triumphal arches, and then Bucentaur, and entertained by great efforts were sometimes showed themselves to be alive boat-races and a splendid made on these occasions. When by singing or speaking, wore pantomime, called Meleager, in Duke Borso came in 1453 to their natural complexion and a the court of the ducal palace. At Reggio, to receive the homage of natural costume, and thus the Milan Leonardo da Vinci directed the city, he was met at the gate sense of incongruity was the festivals of the Duke and of by a great machine, on which St. 257 Prospero, the patron saint of the concealed within it. The whole already mentioned. To conclude town, appeared to float, shaded procession now advanced before all, three angels flew down from by a baldachin held by angels, the Duke. In front of the church an adjacent building, and, amid while below him was a revolving of St. Pietro, a halt was again songs of joy, delivered to him disc with eight singing cherubs, made. The saint, attended by palm branches, as symbols of two of whom received from the two angels, descended in an peace. saint the scepter and keys of the aureole from the facade, placed city, which they then delivered to a wreath of laurel on the head of Let us now give a glance at those the Duke, while saints and the Duke, and then floated back festivals the chief feature of angels held forth in his praise. A to his former position. The clergy which was the procession itself. chariot drawn by concealed provided another allegory of a horses now advanced, bearing purely religious kind. Idolatry There is no doubt that from an an empty throne, behind which and Faith stood on two lofty early period of the Middle Ages stood a figure of Justice attended pillars, and after Faith, the religious processions gave by a genius. At the corners of represented by a beautiful girl, rise to the use of masks. Little the chariot sat four grey-headed had uttered her welcome, the angels accompanied the lawgivers, encircled by angels other column fell to pieces with sacrament or the sacred pictures with banners; by its side rode the lay figure upon it. Further on, and relics on their way through standard-bearers in complete Borso was met by a Caesar with the streets; or characters in the armor. It need hardly be added seven beautiful women, who Passion—such as Christ with the that the goddess and the genius were presented to him as the cross, the thieves and the did not suffer the Duke to pass Virtues which he was exhorted to soldiers, or the faithful women— by without an address. A second pursue. At last the Cathedral were represented for public car, drawn by a unicorn, bore a was reached, but after the edification. But the great feasts Caritas with a burning torch; service the Duke again took his of the Church were from an early between the two came the seat on a lofty golden throne, and time accompanied by a civic classical spectacle of a car in the a second time received the procession, and the naivete of form of a ship, moved by men homage of some of the masks the Middle Ages found nothing 258 unfitting in the many secular processions of clerical masks. chariot as a symbol of victory and elements which it contained. We Their origin is perhaps to be triumph, and that his poem rather may mention especially the naval found in the parties of actors who served to give rise to these car (carrus navalis), which had wound their way through the processions, the form of which been inherited from pagan times, streets of the city to the place was borrowed from the triumph and which, as an instance where they were about to act the of the Roman Emperors. already quoted shows, was mystery; but it is possible that at However this may be, poetry and admissible at festivals of very an early per;od the clerical theology continued to make free various kinds, and is associated procession may have constituted use of the symbol. Savonarola in with one of them in particular— itself as a distinct species. Dante his Triumph of the Cross the Carnival. Such ships, described the Trionfo of represents Christ on a Chariot of decorated with all possible Beatrice, with the twenty-four Victory, above his head the splendor, delighted the eyes of Elders of the Apocalypse, with shining sphere of the Trinity, in spectators long after the original the four mystical Beasts, with the his left hand the Cross, in his meaning of them was forgotten. three Christian and four Cardinal right the Old and New When Isabella of England met Virtues, and with Saint Luke, Testaments; below him the Virgin her bridegroom, the Emperor Saint Paul, and other Apostles, in Mary; on both sides the Martyrs Frederick II, at Cologne, she was a way which almost forces us to and Doctors of the Church with met by a number of such conclude that such processions open books; behind him all the chariots, drawn by invisible actually occurred before his time. multitude of the saved; and in the horses, and filled with a crowd of We are chiefly led to this distance the countless host of his priests who welcomed her with conclusion by the chariot in enemies—emperors, princes, music and singing. which Beatrice drives, and which philosophers, heretics—all in the miraculous forest of the vanquished, their idols broken, But the religious processions vision would have been and their books burned. A great were not only mingled with unnecessary or rather out of picture of Titian, which is known secular accessories of all kinds, place. It is possible, on the other only as a woodcut, has a good but were often replaced by hand, that Dante looked on the deal in common with this 259 description. The ninth and tenth Francesco Sforza had the brandishing their lances, of a of Sabellico's thirteen Elegies on courage (1450) to refuse the chariot with the figure of Fortune, the Mother of God contain a triumphal chariot which had been and of seven Virtues on minute account of her triumph, prepared for his return to Milan, horseback. The goddess herself, richly adorned with allegories, on the ground that such things in accordance with the inexorable and especially interesting from were monarchial superstitions. logic of allegory to which even that matter-of-fact air which also Alfonso the Great, on his the painters at that time characterizes the realistic entrance into Naples (1443), conformed, wore hair only on the painting of the fifteenth century. declined the wreath of laurel, front part of her head, while the which Napoleon did not disdain back part was bald, and the Nevertheless, the secular Trionfi to wear at his coronation in genius who sat on the lower were far more frequent than the Notre-Dame. For the rest, steps of the car, and who religious. They were modelled Alfonso's procession, which symbolized the fugitive character on the procession of the Roman passed by a breach in the wall of fortune, had his feet immersed Imperator, as it was known from through the city to the cathedral, in a basin of water Then the old reliefs and the writings of was a strange mixture of antique, followed, equipped by the same ancient authors. The historical allegorical, and purely comic Florentines, a troop of horsemen conceptions then prevalent in elements. The car, drawn by in the costumes of various Italy, with which these shows four white horses, on which he nations, dressed as foreign were closely connected, have sat enthroned, was lofty and princes and nobles, and then, already been discussed. covered with gilding; twenty crowned with laurel and standing patricians carried the poles of the above a revolving globe, a Julius We now and then read of the canopy of cloth of gold which Caesar, who explained to the actual triumphal entrance of a shaded his head. The part of the king in Italian verse the meaning victorious general, which was procession which the Florentines of the allegories, and then took organized as far as possible on then present in Naples had his place in the procession. Sixty the ancient pattern, even against undertaken was composed of Florentines, all in purple and the will of the hero himself. elegant young cavaliers, skillfully scarlet, closed this splendid 260 display of what their home could found a compensation for Segnatura, found this mode of achieve. Then a band of themselves and their patrons. artistic thought completely Catalans advanced on foot, with Petrarch and Boccaccio had vulgarized and worn out. The lay figures of horses fastened on described the representation of new and final consecration which to them before and behind, and every sort of fame as attendants he gave to it will remain a wonder engaged in a mock combat with each of an allegorical figure; the to all ages. a body of Turks, as though in celebrities of past ages were now derision of the Florentine made attendants of the prince. The triumphal processions, sentimentalism. Last of all came The poetess Cleofe Gabrielli of strictly speaking, of victorious a gigantic tower, the door Gubbio paid this honour to Borso generals, formed the exception. guarded by an angel with a of Ferrara. She gave him seven But all the festive processions, drawn sword; on it stood four queens—the seven liberal arts— whether they celebrated any Virtues, who each addressed the as his handmaids, with whom he special event or were mainly held king with a song. The rest of the mounted a chariot; further, a for their own sakes, assumed show had nothing specially crowd of heroes, distinguished by more or less the character and characteristic about it. names written on their foreheads; nearly always the name of a then followed all the famous Trionfo. It is a wonder that At the entrance of Louis XII into poets; and after them the gods funerals were not also treated in Milan in the year 1507 we find, driving in their chariots. There is, the same way. besides the inevitable chariot in fact, at this time simply no end with Virtues, a living group to the mythological and It was the practice, both at the representing Jupiter, Mars, and a allegorical charioteering, and the Carnival and on other occasions, figure of Italy caught in a net. most important work of art of to represent the triumphs of After which came a car laden Borso's time—the frescoes in the ancient Roman commanders, with trophies, and so forth. Palazzo Schifanoia—shows us a such as that of Paulus Aemilius whole frieze filled with these under Lorenzo the Magnificent at And when there were in reality no motives. Raphael, when he had Florence, and that of Camillus on triumphs to celebrate, the poets to paint the Camera della the visit of Leo X. Both were 261 conducted by the painter people. Later, at the Carnival of cities had been satisfied merely Francesco Granacci. In Rome, the year 1500, Cesare Borgia, to present their symbolical gifts— the first complete exhibition of with a bold allusion to himself, costly stuffs and wax-candles— this kind was the triumph of celebrated the triumph of Julius on the day when they annually Augustus after the victory over Caesar, with a procession of did homage. The guild of Cleopatra, under Paul II, where, eleven magnificent chariots, merchants now built ten chariots, besides the comic and doubtless to the scandal of the to which others were afterwards mythological masks, which, as a pilgrims who had come fm the to be added, not so much to matter of fact, were not wanting Jubilee. Two Trionfi, famous for carry as to symbolize the tribute, in the ancient triumphs, all the their taste and beauty, were and Andrea del Sarto, who other requisites were to be given by rival companies in painted some of them, no doubt found—kings in chains, tablets Florence, on the election of Leo did his work to perfection. These with decrees of the senate and X to the Papacy. One of them cars, whether used to hold tribute people, a senate clothed in the represented the three Ages of or trophies, now formed part of ancient costume, praetors, Man, the other the Ages of the all such celebrations, even when aediles, and quaestors, four World, ingeniously set forth in there was not much money to be chariots filled with singing masks, five scenes of Roman history, laid out. The Sienese and, doubtless, cars laden with and in two allegories of the announced, in 1477, the alliance trophies. Other processions golden age of Saturn and of its between Ferrante and Sixtus IV, rather aimed at setting forth, in a final return. The imagination with which they themselves were general way, the universal displayed in the adornment of the associated, by driving a chariot empire of ancient Rome; and in chariots, when the great round the city, with 'one clad as answer to the very real danger Florentine artists undertook the the goddess of peace standing which threatened Europe from work, made the scene so on a hauberk and other arms.' the side of the Turks, a impressive that such cavalcade of camels bearing representations became in time a At the Venetian festivals the masks representing Ottoman permanent element in the processions, not on land but on prisoners, appeared before the popular life. Hitherto the subject water, were marvelous in their 262 fantastic splendor. The sailing of festivals, whose most noteworthy treasures, and a second car with the Bucentaur to meet the feature was some extraordinary a group of political figures— Italy Princesses of Ferrara in the year machine placed on a ship. So, sitting be tween Venice and 1491 seems to have been for instance, in the year 1541, at —and on a raised step something belonging to fairyland. the festival of the Sempiterni, a three female symbolical figures Countless vessels with garlands round universe floated along the with the arms of the allied and hangings, filled with the Grand Canal, and a splendid ball princes. This was followed by a richly dressed youth of the city, was given inside it. The great globe with the moved in front; genii with Carnival, too, in this city was constellations, as it seems, round attributes symbolizing the various famous for its dances, it. The princes themselves, or gods, floated on machines hung processions, and exhibitions of rather their bodily in the air; below stood others every kind. The Square of St. representatives, appeared on grouped as tritons and nymphs; Mark was found to give space other chariots with their servants the air was filled with music, enough not only for tournaments, and their coats of arms, if we sweet odors, and the fluttering of but for Trionfi, similar to those have rightly interpreted our embroidered banners. The common on the mainland. At a author. Bucentaur was followed by such festival held on the conclusion of a crowd of boats of every sort peace, the pious brotherhoods The Carnival, properly so called, that for a mile all round (octo (scuole) took each its part in the apart from these great triumphal stadia) the water could not be procession. There, among marches, had nowhere, perhaps, seen. With regard to the rest of golden chandeliers with red in the fifteenth century so varied the festivities, besides the candles, among crowds of a character as in Rome. There pantomime mentioned above, we musicians and winged boys with were races of every kind—of may notice as something new a golden bowls and horns of horses, asses, buffaloes, old boat-race of fifty powerful girls. plenty, was seen a car on which men, young men, Jews, and so In the sixteenth century the Noah and David sat together on. Paul II entertained the nobility were divided into enthroned; then came Abigail, people in crowds before the corporations with a view to these leading a camel laden with Palazzo di Venezia, in which he 263 lived. The games in the Piazza by men on horseback. Apart temperaments with the planets Navona, which had probably from the Carnival, the Romans belonging to them; the three never altogether ceased since seem to have been the first to Fates; Prudence enthroned the classical times, were discover the effect of a great above Hope and Fear, which lay remarkable for their warlike procession by torchlight. When bound before her; the four splendor. We read of a sham Pius II came back from the Elements, Ages, Winds, fight of cavalry, and a review of Congress of Mantua in 1459, the Seasons, and so on; as well as all the citizens in arms. The people waited on him with a the famous chariot of Death with greatest freedom existed with squadron of horsemen bearing the coffins, which presently regard to the use of masks, torches, who rode in shining opened. Sometimes we meet which were sometimes allowed circles before his palace. Sixtus with a splendid scene from for several months together. IV, however, thought it better to classical mythology—Bacchus Sixtus IV ventured, in the most decline a nocturnal visit of the and Ariadne, Paris and Helen, populous part of the city—at the people, who proposed to wait on and others. Or else a chorus of Campofiore and near the Banchi him with torches and olive- figures forming some single class —to make his way through branches.But the Florentine or category, as the beggars, the crowds of masks, though he Carnival surpassed the Roman in hunters and nymphs, the lost declined to receive them as a certain class of processions, souls who in their lifetime were visitors in the Vatican. Under which have left their mark even in hardhearted women, the hermits, Innocent VIII, a discreditable literature. Among a crowd of the astrologers, the vagabonds, usage, which had already masks on foot and on horseback the devils, the sellers of various appeared among the Cardinals, appeared some huge, fantastic kinds of wares, and even on one attained its height. In the chariots, and upon each an occasion il popolo, the people as Carnival of 1491, they sent one allegorical figure or group of such, who all reviled one another another chariots full of splendid figures with the proper in their songs. The songs, which masks, of singers, and of accompaniments, such as still remain and have been buffoons, chanting scandalous Jealousy with four spectacled collected, give the explanation of verses. They were accompanied faces on one head; the four the masquerade sometimes 264 pathetic, sometimes in a humorous, and sometimes in an excessively indecent tone. Some of the worst in this respect are attributed to Lorenzo the Magnificent, probably because the real author did not venture to declare himself. However this may be, we must certainly ascribe to him the beautiful song which accompanied the masque of Bacchus and Ariadne, whose refrain still echoes to us from the fifteenth century, like a regretful presentiment of the brief splendor of the Renaissance itself:

'Quanto è bella giovinezza,Che si fugge tuttavia! Chi vuol esser lieto, sia: Di doman non c'è certezza.'

265 with respect to the character, the Part Six MORALITY conscience, and the guilt of a Morality and Judgement people remains for ever a secret; AND RELIGION if only for the reason that its defects have another side, where The relation of the various they reappear as peculiarities or peoples of the earth to the even as virtues. We must leave supreme interests of life, to God, those who find pleasure in virtue, and immortality, may be passing sweeping censures on investigated up to a certain point, whole nations, to do so as they but can never be compared to like. The people of Europe can one another with absolute maltreat, but happily not judge strictness and certainty. The one another. A great nation, more plainly in these matters our interwoven by its civilization, its evidence seems to speak, the achievements, and its fortunes more carefully must we refrain with the whole life of the modern from unqualified assumptions world, can afford to ignore both and rash generalizations. its advocates and its accusers. It lives on with or without the This remark is especially true approval of theorists. with regard to our judgement on questions of morality. It may be Accordingly, what here follows is possible to indicate many no judgement, but rather a string contrasts and shades of of marginal notes, suggested by difference among different a study of the Italian nations, but to strike the balance Renaissance extending over of the whole is not given to some years. The value to be human insight. The ultimate truth attached to them is all the more 266 qualified as they mostly touch on form, which was peculiar to him century, when the civilization of the life of the upper classes, with later? And if no answer can be the Renaissance had reached its respect to which we are far better found to these questions, how highest pitch, and at the same informed in Italy than in any other can we possibly judge of the time the political ruin of the country in Europe at that period. infinite and infinitely intricate nation seemed inevitable, there But though both fame and infamy channels through which were not wanting serious thinkers sound louder here than character and intellect are who saw a connexion between elsewhere, we are not helped incessantly pouring their this ruin and the prevalent thereby in forming an adequate influence one upon the other. A immorality. It was not one .of moral estimate of the people. tribunal there is for each one of those methodistical moralists us, whose voice is our who in every age think What eye can pierce the depths conscience; but let us have done themselves called to declaim in which the character and fate of with these generalities about against the wickedness of the nations are determined?—in nations. For the people that time, but it was Machiavelli, who, which that which is inborn and seems to be most sick the cure in one of his best-considered that which has been experienced may be at hand; and one that works, said openly: ‘We Italians combine to form a new whole appears to be healthy may bear are irreligious and corrupt above and a fresh nature?—in which within it the ripening germs of others.’ Another man would even those intellectual capacities death, which the hour of danger perhaps have said, 'We are which at first sight we should will bring forth from their hiding- individually highly developed; we take to be most original are in place. have outgrown the limits of fact evolved late and slowly? morality and religion which were Who can tell if the Italian before natural to us in our undeveloped the thirteenth century possessed state, and we despise outward that flexible activity and certainty Morality and Immorality law, because our rulers are in his whole being—that play of illegitimate, and their judges and power in shaping whatever officers wicked men.’ Machiavelli subject he dealt with in word or in At the beginning of the sixteenth adds, 'because the Church and 267 her representatives set us the subject, we are again forced to gifted man of that day thought to worst example’. appeal to humanists like Paolo find it in the sentiment of honour. Giovio, who excuses the perjury This is that enigmatic mixture of Shall we add also, 'because the of Giangaleazzo Visconti, conscience and egotism which influence exercised by antiquity through which he was enabled to often survives in the modern man was in this respect unfavorable'? found an empire, by the example after he has lost, whether by his The statement can only be of Julius Caesar. The great own fault or not, faith, love, and received with many Florentine historians and hope. This sense of honour is qualifications. It may possibly be statesmen never stoop to these compatible with much selfishness true of the humanists, especially slavish quotations, and what and great vices, and may be the as regards the profligacy of their seems antique in their deeds and victim of astonishing illusions; lives. Of the rest it may perhaps their judgements is so because yet, nevertheless, all the noble be said with some approach to the nature of their political life elements that are left in the accuracy that, after they became necessarily fostered in them a wreck of a character may gather familiar with antiquity, they mode of thought which has some around it, and from this fountain substituted for holiness—the analogy with that of antiquity. may draw new strength. It has Christian ideal of life—the cult of become, in a far wider sense historical greatness. We can Nevertheless, it cannot be denied than is commonly believed, a understand, therefore, how easily that Italy at the beginning of the decisive test of conduct in the they would be tempted to sixteenth century found itself in minds of the cultivated consider those faults and vices to the midst of a grave moral crisis, Europeans of our own day, and be matters of indifference, in out of which the best men saw many of those who yet hold spite of which their heroes were hardly any escape. faithfully by religion and morality great. They were probably are unconsciously guided by this scarcely conscious of this Let us begin by saying a few feeling in the gravest decisions of themselves, for if we are words about that moral force their lives. summoned to quote any which was then the strongest statement of doctrine on this bulwark against evil. The highly It lies without the limits of our 268 task to show how the men of representative of the rest. We he tells us as follows: antiquity also experienced this read in the recently published feeling in a peculiar form, and Aphorisms' of Guicciardini: ‘who 'En leur reigle n'estoit que ceste how, afterwards, in the Middle esteems honour highly succeeds clause: Fay ce que vouldras. Ages, a special sense of honour in all that he undertakes, since Parce que gens liberes, bien became the mark of a particular he fears neither trouble, danger, nayz, bien instruictz, conversans class. Nor can we here dispute nor expense; I have found it so in en compaignies honnestes, ont with those who hold that my own case, and may say it and par nature ung instinct et aguillon conscience, rather than honour, write it; vain and dead are the qui tousjours les poulse ... faictz is the motive power. It would deeds of men which have not this tueux, et retire de vice: lequel ilz indeed be better and nobler if it as their motive.’ It is necessary nommoyent honneur.' were so; but since it must be to add that, from what is known granted that even our worthier of the life of the writer, he can This is that same faith in the resolutions result from 'a here be only speaking of honour goodness of human nature which conscience more or less dimmed and not of fame. Rabelais has inspired the men of the second by selfishness’, it is better to call put the matter more clearly than half of the eighteenth century, the mixture by its right name. It perhaps any Italian. We quote and helped to prepare the way is certainly not always easy, in him, indeed, unwillingly in these for the French Revolution. treating of the Italian of this pages. What the great, baroque Among the Italians, too, each period, to distinguish this sense Frenchman gives us is a picture man appeals to this noble instinct of honour from the passion for of what the Renaissance would within him, and though with fame, into which, indeed, it easily be without form and without regard to the people as a passes. Yet the two sentiments beauty. But his description of an whole—chiefly in consequence of are essentially different. ideal state of things in the the national disasters— Thelemite monastery is decisive judgements of a more pessimistic There is no lack of witnesses on as historical evidence. In sort became prevalent, the this subject. One who speaks speaking of his gentlemen and importance of this sense of plainly may here be quoted as a ladies of the Order of Free Will, honour must still be rated highly. 269 If the boundless development of enjoyment rose in such lifelike compete with him. That great individuality, stronger than the colors before his eyes, that he lottery-bank, which was called will of the individual, be the work was ready to hazard everything the Court of Rome, accustomed of a historical providence, not to reach them. The people to a need of excitement, less so is the opposing force Mohammedan nations would which found its satisfaction in which then manifested itself in doubtless have anticipated him in games of hazard during the Italy. How often, and against this respect, had not the Koran, intervals between one intrigue what passionate attacks of from the beginning, set up the and another. We read, for selfishness it won the day, we prohibition against gambling as a example, how Franceschetto cannot tell, and therefore no chief safeguard of public morals, Cibo, in two games with the human judgement can estimate and directed the imagination of Cardinal Raffaello Riario, lost no with certainty the absolute moral its followers to the search after less than 14,000 ducats, and value of the nation.A force which buried treasures. In Italy, the afterwards complained to the we must constantly take into passion for play reached an Pope that his opponent has account in judging of the morality intensity which often threatened cheated him. Italy has since that of the more highly developed or altogether broke up the time been the home of the Italian of this period, is that of the existence of the gambler. lottery. imagination. It gives to his Florence had already, at the end virtues and vices a peculiar color, of the fourteenth century, its It was to the imagination of the and under its influence his Casanova —a certain Italians that the peculiar unbridled egotism shows itself in Buonaccorso Pitti, who, in the character of their vengeance was its most terrible shape. course of his incessant journeys due. The sense of justice was, as merchant, political agent, indeed, one and the same The force of his imagination diplomatist and professional throughout Europe, and any explains, for example, the fact gambler, won and lost sums so violation of it, so long as no that he was the first gambler on a enormous that none but princes punishment was inflicted, must large scale in modern times. like the Dukes of Brabant, have been felt in the same Pictures of future wealth and Bavaria, and Savoy, were able to manner. But other nations, 270 though they found it no easier to rope round the neck of the first, novels of the period are full of forgive, nevertheless forgot more was tying it to an oak, a wolf such instances, especially of easily, while the Italian came, and the two who were free vengeance taken for the violation imagination kept the picture of ran away and left the other of women. The classic land for the wrong alive with frightful hanging. Afterwards they found these feuds was Romagna, vividness. The fact that, him dead, and buried him. On where the vendetta was according to the popular morality, the Sunday his father came to interwoven with intrigues and the avenging of blood is a duty— bring him bread, and one of the party divisions of every a duty often performed in a way two confessed what had conceivable sort. The popular to make us shudder—gives to happened, and showed him the legends present an awful picture this passion a peculiar and still grave. The old man then killed of the savagery into which this firmer basis. The government him with a knife, cut him up, brave and energetic people had and the tribunals recognize its brought away the liver, and relapsed. We are told, for existence and justification, and entertained the boy's father with instance, of a nobleman at only attempt to keep it within it at home. After dinner, he told Ravenna who had got all his certain limits. Even among the him whose liver it was. enemies together in a tower, and peasantry, we read of Thyestean Hereupon began a series of might have burned them; instead banquets and mutual reciprocal murders between the of which he let them out, assassination on the widest two families, and within a month embraced them, and entertained scale. Let us look at an instance. thirty-six persons were killed, them sumptuously; whereupon women as well as men. shame drove them mad, and In the district of Acquapendente they conspired against him. three boys were watching cattle, And such vendette, handed down Pious and saintly monks and one of them said: ‘Let us from father to son, and extending exhorted unceasingly to find out the way how people are to friends and distant relations, reconciliation, but they can hanged.’ While one was sitting were not limited to the lower scarcely have done more than on the shoulders of the other, classes, but reached to the restrain to a certain extent the and the third, after fastening the highest. The chronicles and feuds already established; their 271 influence hardly prevents the and son from Rome. The oaths felt by the cultivated and highly growth of new ones. The and ceremonies by which placed Italian, resting on the solid novelists sometimes describe to reconciled enemies attempted to basis of an analogous popular this effect of religion—how guard themselves against a custom, naturally displays itself sentiments of generosity and relapse, are sometimes utterly under a thousand different forgiveness were suddenly horrible. When the parties of the aspects, and receives the awakened, and then again Nove and the Popolari met and unqualified approval of public paralysed by the force of what kissed one another by twos in the opinion, as reflected in the works had once been done and could cathedral at Siena on New Year's of the novelists. All are at one on never be un. done. The Pope Eve, 1494, an oath was read by the point that, in the case of himself was not always lucky as which all salvation in time and those injuries and insults for a peacemaker. Pope Paul II eternity was denied to the future which Italian justice offered no desired that the quarrel between violator of the treaty—'an oath redress, and all the more in the Antonio Caffarello and the family more astonishing and dreadful case of those against which no of Alberino should cease, and than had ever yet been heard’. human law can ever adequately ordered Giovanni Alberino and The last consolations of religion provide, each man is free to take Antonio Caffarello to come in the hour of death were to turn the law into his own hands. Only before him bade them kiss one to the damnation of the man who there must be art in the another, and threatened them should break it. It is clear, vengeance, and the satisfaction with a fine of 2,000 ducats if they however, that such a ceremony must be compounded of the renewed this strife, and two days rather represents the despairing material injury and moral after Antonio was stabbed by the mood of the mediators than humiliation of the offender. A same Giacomo Alberino, son of offers any real guarantee of mere brutal, clumsy triumph of Giovanni, who had wounded him peace, inasmuch as the truest force was held by public opinion once before; and the Pope was reconciliation is just that one to be no satisfaction. The whole full of anger, and confiscated the which has least need of it. man with his sense of fame and goods of Alberino, and destroyed of scorn, not only his fist, must be his houses, and banished father This personal need of vengeance victorious. 272 necessarily goes much further, suffered, might be expected also The Italian of that time shrank, it not only requiring the sanction of to keep alive the memory of is true, from no dissimulation in the sense of justice, but craving kindness received. It is not order to attain his ends, but was admiration, and even striving to possible, however, to prove this wholly free from hypocrisy in get the laugh on its own side. with regard to the nation as a matters of principle. In these he whole, though traces of it may be attempted to deceive neither Here lies the reason why men seen in the Italian character of himself nor others. Accordingly, were willing to wait so long for today. The gratitude shown by revenge was declared with their revenge. A bella vendetta the inferior classes for kind perfect frankness to be a demanded as a rule a treatment, and the good memory necessity of human nature. combination of circumstances for of the upper for politeness in Cool-headed people declared which it was necessary to wait social life, are instances of this. that it was then most worthy of patiently. The gradual ripening of praise when it was disengaged such opportunities is described This connexion between the from passion, and worked simply by the novelists with heartfelt imagination and the moral from motives of expedience, 'in delight. qualities of the Italian repeats order that other men may learn to itself continually. If, leave us unharmed’. Yet such There is no need to discuss the nevertheless, we find more cold instances must have formed only morality of actions in which calculation in cases where the a small minority in comparison plaintiff and judge are one and Northerner rather follows his with those in which passion the same person. If this Italian impulses, the reason is that sought an outlet. This sort of thirst for vengeance is to be individual development in Italy revenge differs clearly from the palliated at all, it must be by was not only more marked and avenging of blood, which has proving the existence of a earlier in point of time, but also already been spoken of; while corresponding national virtue, far more frequent. Where this is the latter keeps more or less namely gratitude. The same the case in other countries, the within the limits of retaliation— force of imagination which retains results are also analogous. We the ius talionis— the former and magnifies wrong once find, for example, that the early 273 emancipation of the young from questions does not belong to our itself towards the middle of the domestic and paternal authority present work. What seems sixteenth century may be is common to North America with characteristic of Italy at this time, certainly accounted for by Italy. Later on, in the more is that here marriage and its political and ecclesiastical generous natures, a tie of freer rights were more often and more causes, even if we are not to affection grows up between deliberately trampled underfoot assume that the circle of parents and children. than anywhere else. The girls of achievements possible to the the higher classes were carefully Renaissance had been It is, in fact, a matter of extreme secluded, and of them we do not completed. Notwithstanding their difficulty to judge fairly of other speak. All passion was directed profligacy, the Italians continued nations in the sphere of character to the married women. to be, physically and mentally, and feeling. In these respects a one of the healthiest and best- people may be developed highly, Under these circumstances it is born populations in Europe, and and yet in a manner so strange remarkable that, so far as we have retained this position, with that a foreigner is utterly unable know, there was no diminution in improved morals, down to our to understand it. Perhaps all the the number of marriages, and own time. nations of the West are in this that family life by no means point equally favored. underwent that disorganization When we come to look more which a similar state of things closely at the ethics of love at the But where the imagination has would have produced in the time of the Renaissance, we are exercised the most powerful and North. Men wished to live as struck by a remarkable Contrast. despotic influence on morals is in they pleased, but by no means to The novelists and comic poets the illicit intercourse of the two renounce the family, even when give us to understand that love sexes. It is well known that they were not sure that it was all consists only in sensual prostitution was freely practiced their own. Nor did the race sink, enjoyment, and that to win this, in the Middle Ages, before the either physically or mentally, on all means, tragic or comic, are appearance of syphilis. A this account; for that apparent not only permitted, but are discussion, however, on these intellectual decline which showed interesting in proportion to their 274 audacity and unscrupulousness. and consequently of adultery. ius quaesitum thinks only of the But if we turn to the best of the outward conditions of the lyric poets and writers of The opinion mentioned above of contract, not of the affections. dialogues, we find in them a the equality of the two sexes is of The beautiful young wife of an deep and spiritual passion of the great importance in relation to old man sends back the presents noblest kind, whose last and this subject. The highly and letters of a youthful lover, in highest expression is a revival of developed and cultivated woman the firm resolve to keep her the ancient belief in an original disposes of herself with a honour (onesta). 'But she unity of souls in the Divine Being. freedom unknown in Northern rejoiced in the love of the youth And both modes of feeling were countries; and her unfaithfulness for his great excellence; and she then genuine, and could co-exist does not break up her life in the perceived that a noble woman in the same individual. It is not same terrible manner, so long as may love a man of merit without exactly a matter of glory, but it is no outward consequences follow loss to her honour.’ But the way a fact, that, in the cultivated man from it. The husband's claim on is short from such a distinction to of modern times, this sentiment her fidelity has not that firm a complete surrender. can be not merely unconsciously foundation which it acquires in present in both its highest and the North through the poetry and The latter seems indeed as good lowest stages, but may also passion of courtship and as justified when there is manifest itself openly, and even betrothal. After the briefest unfaithfulness on the part of the artistically. The modern man, acquaintance with her future husband. The woman, like the man of antiquity, is in this husband, the young wife quits conscious of her own dignity, respect too a microcosm, which the convent or the paternal roof feels this not only as a pain, but the medieval man was not and to enter upon a world in which also as a humiliation and deceit, could not be. her character begins rapidly to and sets to work, often with the develop. The rights of the calmest consciousness of what To begin with the morality of the husband are for this reason she is about, to devise the novelists. They treat chiefly, as conditional, and even the man vengeance which the husband we have said, of married women, who regards them in the light of a deserves. Her tact must decide 275 as to the measure of punishment the brothers and the father of the infidelity; that another has killed which is suited to the particular woman feel themselves not only his daughter, on account of a case. The deepest wound, for justified in taking vengeance, but secret marriage; that a third has example, may prepare the way bound to take it. Jealousy, caused his sister to be murdered, for a reconciliation and a therefore, has nothing to do with because she would not marry as peaceful life in the future, if only it the matter, moral reprobation but he wished! It is great cruelty that remain secret. The novelists, little; the real reason is the wish we claim the right to do whatever who themselves undergo such to spoil the triumph of others. we list, and will not suffer women experiences or invent them 'Nowadays,' says Bandello, 'we to do the same. If they do according to the spirit of the age, see a woman poison her anything which does not please are full of admiration when the husband to gratify her lusts, us, there we are at once with vengeance is skillfully adapted to thinking that a widow may do cords and daggers and poison. the particular case, in fact, when whatever she desires. Another, What folly it is of men to suppose it is a work of art. As a matter of fearing the discovery of an illicit their own and their house's course, the husband never at amour, has her husband honour depend on the appetite of bottom recognizes this right of murdered by her lover. And a woman.’ The tragedy in which retaliation, and only submits to it though fathers, brothers, and such affairs commonly ended from fear or prudence. Where husbands arise to extirpate the was so well known that the these motives are absent, where shame with poison, with the novelist looked on the threatened his wife's unfaithfulness exposes sword, and by every other gallant as a dead man, even him or may expose him to the means, women still continue to while he went about alive and derision of outsiders, the affair follow their passions, careless of merry. The physician and lute- becomes tragical, and not their honour and their lives.’ player Antonio Bologna had seldom ends in murder or other Another time, in milder strain, he made a secret marriage with the vengeance of a violent sort. It is exclaims: ‘Would that we were widowed Duchess of Amalfi, of characteristic of the real motive not daily forced to hear that one the house of Aragon. Soon from which these deeds arise, man has murdered his wife afterwards her brother that not only the husbands, but because he suspected her of succeeded in securing both her 276 and her children, and murdered the house, all the means and distinguished from the them in a castle. Antonio, devices by which he punishment of infidelity which ignorant of their fate, and still communicates with his mistress, existed before, and which was cherishing the hope of seeing the boxes with cushions and founded in the spirit of the Italian them again, was staying at Milan, sweetmeats in which he can be Renaissance itself. As the closely watched by hired hidden and carried out of danger. influence of Spain declined, assassins, and one day in the The deceived husband is these excesses of jealousy society of Ippolita Sforza sang to described sometimes as a fool to declined also, until towards the the lute the story of his be laughed at, sometimes as a close of the seventeenth century misfortunes. A friend of the bloodthirsty avenger of his they had wholly disappeared, house, Delio, 'told the story up to honour; there is no third situation and their place was taken by that this point to Scipione Atellano, except when the woman is indifference which regarded the and added that he would make it painted as wicked and cruel, and Cicisbeo as an indispensable the subject of a novel, as he was the husband or lover is the figure in every household, and sure that Antonio would be innocent victim. It may be took no offence at one or two murdered’. The manner in which remarked, however, that contemporary lovers (Patiti). this took place, almost under the narratives of the latter kind are eyes of both Delio and Atellano, not strictly speaking novels, but But who can undertake to is movingly described by rather warning examples taken compare the vast sum of Bandello. from real life. wickedness which all these facts imply, with what happened in Nevertheless, the novelists When in the course of the other countries? Was the habitually show a sympathy for sixteenth century Italian life fell marriage-tie, for instance, really all the ingenious, comic, and more and more under Spanish more sacred in France during the cunning features which may influence, the violence of the fifteenth century than in Italy? happen to attend adultery. They means to which jealousy had The fabliaux and farces would describe with delight how the recourse perhaps increased. But lead us to doubt it, and rather lover manages to hide himself in this new phase must be incline us to think that 277 unfaithfulness was equally which trespassed upon forbidden doctrine of the soul, and of which common, though its tragic ground among the Italians of that Pietro Bembo is the most famous consequences were less day, but also the passion of the representative. His thoughts on frequent, because the individual best and noblest; and this, not this subject are set forth by was less developed and his only because the unmarried girl himself in the third book of the claims were less consciously felt did not appear in society, but Asolani, and indirectly by than in Italy. More evidence, also because the man, in Castiglione, who puts in his however, in favour of the proportion to the completeness of mouth the splendid speech with Germanic peoples lies in the fact his own nature, felt himself most which the fourth book of the of the social freedom enjoyed strongly attracted by the woman Cortigiano concludes. Neither of among them by girls and women, whom marriage had developed. these writers was a stoic in his which impressed Italian travellers These are the men who struck conduct, but at that time it meant so pleasantly in England and in the loftiest notes of lyrical poetry, something to be at once a the Netherlands. And yet we and who have attempted in their famous and a good man, and this must not attach too much treatises and dialogues to give us praise must be accorded to both importance to this fact. an idealized image of the of them; their contemporaries Unfaithfulness was doubtless devouring passion—l'amor took what these men said to be a very frequent, and in certain divino. When they complain of true expression of their feeling, cases led to a sanguinary the cruelty of the winged god, and we have not the right to vengeance. We have only to they are not only thinking of the despise it as affectation. Those remember how the northern coyness or hard-heartedness of who take the trouble to study the princes of that time dealt with the beloved one, but also of the speech in the Cortigiano will see their wives on the first suspicion unlawfulness of the passion how poor an idea of it can be of infidelity. itself. They seek to raise given by an extract. There were themselves above this painful then living in Italy several But it was not merely the sensual consciousness by that distinguished women, who owed desire, not merely the vulgar spiritualization of love which their celebrity chiefly to relations appetite of the ordinary man, found a support in the Platonic of this kind, such as Giulia 278 Gonzaga, Veronica da There is a violence which cannot admiration that the narrator often Correggio, and, above all, Vittoria control itself because it is born of forgets to tell us for what offence Colonna. The land of profligates weakness; but in Italy we find the criminal was put to death. and scoffers respected these what is the corruption of powerful But when we add to this inward women and this sort of love—and natures. Sometimes this contempt of law and to the what more can be said in their corruption assumes a colossal countless grudges and enmities favour? We cannot tell how far shape, and crime seems to which called for satisfaction, the vanity had to do with the matter, acquire almost a personal impunity which crime enjoyed how far Vittoria was flattered to existence of its own. during times of political hear around her the sublimated disturbance, we can only wonder utterances of hopeless love from The restraints of which men were that the State and society were the most famous men in Italy. If conscious were but few. Each not utterly dissolved. Crises of the thing was here and there a individual, even among the this kind occurred at Naples, fashion, it was still no trifling lowest of the people, felt himself during the transition from the praise for Vittoria that she, as inwardly emancipated from the Aragonese to the French and least, never went out of fashion, control of the State and its police, Spanish rule, and at Milan, on and in her latest years produced whose title to respect was the repeated expulsions and the most profound impressions. illegitimate, and itself founded on returns of the Sforzas; at such It was long before other countries violence; and no man believed times those men who have never had anything similar to show. any longer in the justice of the in their hearts recognized the law. When a murder was bonds of law and society, come In the imagination then, which committed, the sympathies of the forward and give free play to their governed this people more than people, before the circumstances instincts of murder and rapine. any other, lies one general of the case were known, ranged Let us take, by way of example, a reason why the course of every themselves instinctively on the picture drawn from a humbler passion was violent, and why the side of the murderer. A proud, sphere. means used for the gratification manly bearing before and at the of passion were often criminal. execution excited such When the Duchy of Milan was 279 suffering from the disorders characteristic of the temper hard to say for certain, whether in which followed the death of which prompted these outrages. the year 1500 men were any Galeazzo Maria Sforza, about It is impossible to say what would safer, whether human life was the year 1480, all safety came to happen now in any country of the any better protected, in powerful, an end in the provincial cities. world, if the government and wealthy Germany, with its robber This was the case in Parma, police ceased to act, and yet knights, extortionate beggars, where the Milanese Governor, hindered by their presence the and daring highwaymen. But terrified by threats of murder, establishment of a provisional one thing is certain, that consented to throw open the authority; but what then occurred premeditated crimes, committed gaols and let loose the most in Italy wears a character of its professionally and for hire by abandoned criminals. Burglary, own, through the great share third parties, occurred in Italy the demolition of houses, public which the personal hatred and with great and appalling assassination and murders, were revenge had in it. The frequency. events of everyday occurrence. impression, indeed, which Italy at At first the authors of these this period makes on us is, that So far as regards brigandage, deeds prowled about singly, and even in quiet times great crimes Italy, especially in the more masked; soon large gangs of were commoner than in other fortunate provinces, such as armed men went to work every countries. We may, it is true, be Tuscany, was certainly not more, night without disguise. misled by the fact that we have and probably less, troubled than Threatening letters, satires, and far fuller details on such matters the countries of the North. But scandalous jests circulated here than elsewhere, and that the figures which do meet us are freely; and a sonnet in ridicule of the same force of imagination, characteristic of the country. It the Government seems to have which gives a special character would be hard, for instance, to roused its indignation far more to crimes actually committed, find elsewhere the case of a than the frightful condition of the causes much to be invented priest, gradually driven by city. In many churches the which never really happened. passion from one excess to sacred vessels with the host The amount of violence was another, until at last he came to were stolen, and this fact is perhaps as great elsewhere. It is head a band of robbers. That 280 age offers us this example plenty of murderers and other This was especially the case in among others. On August 12, malefactors—but hardly a the more remote parts of the 1495, the priest Don Niccolo de' second Pelagati. It is another Kingdom of Naples, where the Pelagati of Figarolo was shut up matter, though by no means barbarism dated probably from in an iron cage outside the tower creditable, when ruined the days of the Roman latifundia, of San Giuliano at Ferrara. He characters sheltered themselves and when the stranger and the had twice celebrated his first in the cowl in order to escape the enemy (hospes and hostis) were mass; the first time he had the arm of the law, like the corsair in all good faith held to be one same day committed murder, but whom Masuccio knew in a and the same. These people afterwards received absolution at convent at Naples. What the real were far from being irreligious. A Rome; he then killed four people truth was with regard to Pope herdsman once appeared in and married two wives, with John XXIII in this respect, is not great trouble at the confessional, whom he travelled about. He known with certainty. avowing that, while making afterwards took part in many cheese during Lent, a few drops assassinations, violated women, The age of the famous brigand of milk had found their way into carried others away by force, chief did not begin until later, in his mouth. The confessor, skilled plundered far and wide, and the seventeenth century, when in the customs of the country, infested the territory of Ferrara the political strife of Guelph and discovered in the course of his with a band of followers in Ghibelline, of Frenchman and examination that the penitent and uniform, extorting food and Spaniard, no longer agitated the his friends were in the practice of shelter by every sort of violence. country. The robber then took robbing and murdering travellers, When we think of what all this the place of the partisan. but that, through the force of implies, the mass of guilt on the habit, this usage gave rise to no head of this one man is In certain districts of Italy, where twinges of conscience within something tremendous. The civilization had made little them. We have already clergy and monks had many progress, the country people mentioned to what a degree of privileges and little supervision, were disposed to murder any barbarism the peasants and among them were doubtless stranger who fell into their hands. elsewhere could sink in times of 281 political confusion. higher culture of the individual attributed to violence were really gave him different views as to the murders, the crime must have A worse symptom than right of men to interfere with the been terribly frequent. The worst brigandage of the morality of that decrees of fate. In Florence, if example of all was set by princes time was the frequency of paid anywhere, men were able to feel and governments, who without assassination. In that respect the incalculable consequences of the faintest scruple reckoned Naples was admitted to stand at a deed of blood, and to murder as one of the instruments the head of all the cities of Italy. understand how uncertain the of their power. And this, without 'Nothing,' says Pontano, 'is author of a so-called profitable being in the same category with cheaper here than human life’. crime is of any true and lasting Cesare Borgia. The Sforzas, the But other districts could also gain. After the fall of Florentine Aragonese monarchs, and, later show a terrible list of these liberty, assassination, especially on, the agents of Charles V crimes. It is hard, of course, to by hired agents, seems to have resorted to it whenever it suited classify them according to the rapidly increased, and continued their purpose. The imagination motives by which they were until the government of Grand of the people at last became so prompted, since political Duke Cosimo I de' Medici had accustomed to facts of this kind expediency, personal hatred, attained such strength that the that the death of any powerful party hostility, fear, and revenge, police were at last able to man was seldom or never all play into one another. It is no repress it. attributed to natural causes. small honour to the Florentines, There were certainly absurd the most highly developed Elsewhere in Italy paid crimes notions current with regard to the people of Italy, that offenses of were probably more or less effect of various poisons. There this kind occurred more rarely frequent in proportion to the may be some truth in the story of among them than anywhere else, number of powerful and solvent that terrible white powder used perhaps because there was a buyers. Impossible as it is to by the Borgias, which did its work justice at hand for legitimate make any statistical estimate of at the end of a definite period, grievances which was their amount, yet if only a fraction and it is possible that it was really recognized by all, or because the of the deaths which public report a venenum atterminatum which 282 the Prince of Salerno handed to administer to another person terror on the head of some hated the Cardinal of Aragon, with the without his knowledge. The enemy. At the courts of France words: ‘In a few days you will secret use of weapons, and England in the fourteenth die, because your father, King especially of the dagger, in the and fifteenth centuries, magic, Ferrante, wished to trample upon service of powerful individuals, practiced with a view to the death us all.’ But the poisoned letter was habitual in Milan, Naples, of an opponent, plays a far more which Caterina Riario sent to and other cities. Indeed, among important part than in Italy. In Pope Alexander VI would hardly the crowds of armed retainers this country, finally, where have caused his death even if he who were necessary for the individuality of every sort attained had read it; and when Alfonso personal safety of the great, and its highest development, we find the Great was warned by his who lived in idleness, it was instances of that ideal and physicians not to read in the Livy natural that outbreaks of this absolute wickedness which which Cosimo de' Medici had mania for blood should from time delights in crimes for their own presented to him, he told them to time occur. Many a deed of sake, and not as means to an with justice not to talk like fools. horror would never have been end, or at any rate as means to Nor can that poison with which committed, had not the master ends for which our psychology the secretary of Piccinino wished known that he needed but to give has no measure. to anoint the sedan-chair of Pius a sign to one or other of his II have affected any other organ followers. Among these appalling figures than the imagination. The we may first notice certain of the proportion which mineral and Among the means used for the Condottieri, such as Braccio da vegetable poisons bore to one secret destruction of others— so Montone, Tiberto Brandolino, and another, cannot be ascertained far, that is, as the intention that Werner von Urslingen whose precisely. The poison with which goes—we find magic, practiced, silver hauberk bore the the painter Rosso Fiorentino however, sparingly. Where inscription: ‘The enemy of God, destroyed himself (1541) was maleficii, malie, and so forth, are of pity and of mercy.’ This class evidently a powerful acid, which it mentioned, they appear rather as of men offers us some of the would have been impossible to a means of heaping up additional earliest instances of criminals 283 deliberately repudiating every barbarities of the House of conjecture has been made to moral restraint. Yet we shall be Aragon, as we have seen, were account for the rape of the more reserved in our judgement mainly due to fear and to the Bishop of Fano by Pierluigi of them when we remember that desire for vengeance. The thirst Farnese of Parma, son of Paul the worst part of their guilt—in for blood on its own account, the III. the estimate of those who record devilish delight in destruction, is it— lay in their defiance of most clearly exemplified in the If we now attempt to sum up the spiritual threats and penalties, case of the Spaniard Cesare principal features in the Italian and that to this fact is due that air Borgia, whose cruelties were character of that time, as we of horror with which they are certainly out of all proportion to know it from a study of the life of represented as surrounded. In the end which he had in view. In the upper classes, we shall the case of Braccio, the hatred of Sigismondo Malatesta, tyrant of obtain something like the the Church went so far that he Rimini, the same disinterested following result. The was infuriated at the sight of love of evil may also be detected. fundamental vice of this monks at their psalms, and had It is not only the Court of Rome, character was at the same time a them thrown down from the top but the verdict of history, which condition of its greatness, of a tower; but at the same time convicts him of murder, rape, namely, excessive individualism. 'he was loyal to his soldiers and a adultery, incest, sacrilege, The individual first inwardly casts great general.’ As a rule, the perjury and treason, committed off the authority of a State which, crimes of the Condottieri were not once but often. The most as a fact, is in most cases committed for the sake of some shocking crime of all—the tyrannical and illegitimate, and definite advantage, and must be unnatural attempt on his own son what he thinks and does is, attributed to a position in which Roberto, who frustrated it with his rightly or wrongly, now called men could not fail to be drawn dagger—may have been treason. The sight of victorious demoralized. Even their the result not merely of moral egotism in others drives him to apparently gratuitous cruelty had corruption, but perhaps of some defend his own right by his own commonly a purpose, if it were magical or astrological arm. And, while thinking to only to strike terror. The superstition. The same restore his inward equilibrium, he 284 falls, through the vengeance own, but rather through the life of man a lustre which which he executes, into the necessity. It did not come upon neither antiquity nor medievalism hands of the powers of darkness. him alone, but also, and chiefly, could or would bestow upon it. His love, too, turns mostly for by means of Italian culture, upon satisfaction to another the other nations of Europe, and individuality equally developed, has constituted since then the namely, to his neighbor's wife. In higher atmosphere which they Religion in Daily Life face of all objective facts, of laws breathe. In itself it is neither and restraints of whatever kind, good nor bad, but necessary; he retains the feeling of his own within it has grown up a modern The morality of a people stands sovereignty, and in each single standard of good and evil— a in the closest connection with its instance forms his decision sense of moral responsibility— consciousness of God, that is to independently, according as which is essentially different from say, with its firmer or weaker faith honour or interest, passion or that which was familiar to the in the divine government of the calculation, revenge or Middle Ages. world, whether this faith looks on renunciation, gain the upper the world as destined to hand in his own mind. But the Italian of the happiness or to misery and Renaissance had to bear the first speedy destruction. The infidelity If therefore egotism in its wider mighty surging of a new age. then prevalent in Italy is as well as narrower sense is the Through his gifts and his notorious, and whoever takes the root and fountain of all evil, the passions, he has become the trouble to look about for proofs, more highly developed Italian most characteristic will find them by the hundred. was for this reason more inclined representative of all the heights Our present task, here as to wickedness than the members and all the depths of his time. By elsewhere, is to separate and of other nations of that time. the side of profound corruption discriminate; refraining from an appeared human personalities of absolute and final verdict. But this individual development the noblest harmony, and an did not through any fault of his artistic splendor which shed upon The belief in God at earlier times 285 had its source and chief support multitudes of the noblest spirits, Germany, and this not until the in Christianity and the outward whom she had inwardly power of Spain was sufficiently symbol of Christianity, the estranged, into the arms of great to root them out without Church. When the Church unbelief and despair. difficulty, partly by itself and became corrupt, men ought to partly by means of the Papacy, have drawn a distinction, and Here we are met by the question: and its instruments.105 kept their religion in spite of all. Why did not Italy, intellectually so Nevertheless, in the earlier But this is more easily said than great, react more energetically religious movements of Italy, done. It is not every people against the hierarchy; why did from the Mystics of the thirteenth which is calm enough, or dull she not accomplish a reformation century down to Savonarola, enough, to tolerate a lasting like that which occurred in there was a large amount of contradiction between a principle Germany, and accomplish it at positive religious doctrine which, and its outward expression. But an earlier date? like the very definite Christianity history does not record a heavier of the Huguenots, failed to responsibility than that which A plausible answer has been achieve success only because rests upon the decaying Church. Italian mind, we are told, never of circumstances were against it. She set up as absolute truth, and the hierarchy, while the origin Mighty events like the by the most violent means, a given to this question. The went Reformation elude, as respects doctrine which she had distorted further than the denial and the their details, their outbreak and to serve her own vigor of the German Reformation their development, the aggrandizement. Safe in the was due to its positive religious deductions of the philosophers, sense of her inviolability, she doctrines, most of all to the however clearly the necessity of abandoned herself to the most doctrines of justification by faith them as a whole may be scandalous profligacy, and, in and of the inefficacy of good demonstrated. The movements order to maintain herself in this works. of the human spirit, its sudden state, she levelled mortal blows flashes, its expansions and its against the conscience and the It is certain that these doctrines pauses, must for ever remain a intellect of nations, and drove only worked upon Italy through mystery to our eyes, since we 286 can but know this or that of the Papacy. Those who wish for the these forms of literature need forces at work in it, never all of strongest evidence which the fixed and well-known types them together. best authorities offer us, can find where the imagination of the it in the famous passages of reader can easily fill up an The feeling of the upper and Machiavelli's Discorsi, and in the outline. Besides which, the middle classes in Italy with unmutilated edition of novelists do not as a fact spare regard to the Church at the time Guicciardini. Outside the Roman the secular clergy. In the third when the Renaissance Curia, some respect seems to place, we have abundant proof in culminated, was compounded of have been felt for the best men the rest of Italian literature that deep and contemptuous among the bishops, and for many men could speak boldly enough aversion, of acquiescence in the of the parochial clergy. On the about the Papacy and the Court outward ecclesiastical customs other hand, the mere holders of of Rome. In works of imagination which entered into daily life, and benefices, the canons and the we cannot expect to find criticism of a sense of dependence on monks were held in almost of this kind. Fourthly, the monks, sacraments and ceremonies. universal suspicion, and were when attacked, were sometimes The great personal influence of often the objects of the most able to take a terrible vengeance. religious preachers may be scandalous aspersions, added as a fact characteristic of extending to the whole of their It is nevertheless true that the Italy. order. monks were the most unpopular class of all, and that they were That hostility to the hierarchy, It has been said that the monks reckoned a living proof of the which displays itself more were made the scapegoats for worthlessness of conventual life, especially from the time of Dante the whole clergy, for the reason of the whole ecclesiastical onwards in Italian literature and that none but they could be organization, of the system of history, has been fully treated by ridiculed without danger. But this dogma, and of religion several writers. We have already is certainly incorrect. They are altogether, according as men said something of the attitude of introduced so frequently in the pleased, rightly or wrongly, to public opinion with regard to the novels and comedies, because draw their conclusions. We may 287 also assume that Italy retained a free play to his own poisonous displaying the cloak of St. clearer recollection of the origin nature, we may quote one author Vincent, another the handwriting of the two great mendicant as typical of the rest—Masuccio, of St. Bernardino, a third the orders than other countries, and in the first ten of his fifty novels. bridle of Capistrano's donkey.’ had not forgotten that they were They are written in a tone of the Others 'bring with them the chief agents in the reaction deepest indignation, and with the confederates who pretend to be against what is called the heresy purpose to make this indignation blind or afflicted with some mortal of the thirteenth century, that is to general; and are dedicated to disease, and after touching the say, against an unruly and men in the highest position, such hem of the monk's cowl, or the vigorous movement of the as King Ferrante and Prince relics which he carries, are modern Italian spirit. And that Alfonso of Naples. The stories healed before the eyes of the spiritual police which was are many of them old, and some multitude. All then shout permanently entrusted to the of them familiar to readers of Misericordia, the bells are rung, Dominicans certainly never Boccaccio. But others reject, and the miracle is recorded in a excited any other feeling than with a frightful realism, the actual solemn protocol.’ Or else the secret hatred and contempt. state of things at Naples. The monk in the pulpit is denounced way in which the priests befool as a liar by another who stands After reading the Decameron and and plunder the people by means below among the audience; the the novels of Franco Sacchetti, of spurious miracles, added to accuser is immediately we might imagine that the their own scandalous lives, is possessed by the devil, and then vocabulary of abuse directed at enough to drive any thoughtful healed by the preacher. The the monks and nuns was observer to despair. We read of whole thing was a prearranged exhausted. But towards the time the Minorite friars who travelled comedy, in which, however, the of the Reformation this abuse to collect alms: ‘They cheat, principal with his assistant made became still fiercer. To say steal, and fornicate, and when so much money that he was able nothing of Aretino, who in the they are at the end of their to buy a bishopric from a Ragionamenti uses conventual resources, they set up as saints Cardinal, on which the two life merely as a pretext for giving and work miracles, one confederates lived comfortably to 288 the end of their days. Masuccio the nunneries well, and he will this strain, the reason is perhaps makes no great distinction find there as many little bores as to be found in the fact that the between Franciscans and in Bethlehem at Herod's time.’ king himself had been incensed Dominicans, finding the one These things, and the like, are by a false miracle which had worth as much as the other. 'And among the secrets of monastic been palmed off on him. An yet the foolish people lets itself life. The monks are by no means attempt had been made to urge be drawn into their hatreds and too strict with one another in the him to a persecution of the Jews, divisions, and quarrels about confessional, and impose a like that carried out in Spain and them in public places, and calls Paternoster in cases where they imitated by the Popes, by itself franceschino or would refuse all absolution to a producing a tablet with an domenichino’. The nuns are the layman as if he were a heretic. inscription bearing the name of exclusive property of the monks. 'Therefore may the earth open St. Cataldus, said to have been Those of the former who have and swallow up the wretches buried at Taranto, and afterwards anything to do with the laity, are alive, with those who protect dug up again. When he prosecuted and put in prison, them.’ In another place discovered the fraud, the monks while others are wedded in due Masuccio, speaking of the fact defied him. He had also form to the monks, with the that the influence of the monks managed to detect and expose a accompaniments of mass, a depends chiefly on the dread of pretended instance of fasting, as marriage-contract, and a liberal another world, utters the his father, Alfonso, had done indulgence in food and wine. 'I following remarkable wish: ‘The before him. The Court, certainly, myself,' says the author, 'have best punishment for them would was no accomplice in been there not once, but several be for God to abolish Purgatory; maintaining these blind times, and seen it all with my they would then receive no more superstitions. own eyes. The nuns afterwards alms, and would be forced to go bring forth pretty little monks or back to their spades.' We have been quoting from an else use means to hinder that author who wrote in earnest, and result. And if anyone charges If men were free to write, in the who by no means stands alone in me with falsehood, let him search time of Ferrante, and to him, in his judgement. All the Italian 289 literature of that time is full of exercise in the city where it was Niccolo da Verona had been ridicule and invective aimed at situated, was in the latter part of publicly degraded on a wooden the begging friars. It can hardly the fifteenth century just scaffold in front of San Domenico be doubted that the Renaissance considerable enough to hamper as a wizard and profaner of the would soon have destroyed and irritate cultivated people, but sacraments, and was about to be these two Orders, had it not been not strong enough to extort any led away to the stake, when he for the German Reformation and lasting fear or obedience. It was was set free by a gang of armed the Counter-Reformation which no longer possible to punish men men, sent by Achille Malvezzi, a intervened. Their saints and for their thoughts, as it once was, noted friend of heretics and popular preachers could hardly and those whose tongues violator of nuns. The legate, have saved them. It would only wagged most impudently against Cardinal Bessarion, was only have been necessary to come to the clergy could easily keep clear able to catch and hang one of the an understanding at a favourable of heretical doctrine. Except party; Malvezzi lived on in peace. moment with a Pope like Leo X, when some powerful party had who despised the Mendicant an end to serve, as in the case of It deserves to be noticed that the Orders. If the spirit of the age Savonarola, or when there was a higher monastic orders— e.g. found them ridiculous or question of the use of magical Benedictines, with their many repulsive? they could no longer arts, as was often the case in the branches—were, notwithstanding be anything but an cities of North Italy, we seldom their great wealth and easy lives, embarrassment to the Church. read at this time of men being far less disliked than the And who can say what fate was burnt at the stake. The mendicant friars. For ten novels in store for the Papacy itself, if Inquisitors were in some which treat of frati hardly one can the Reformation had not saved instances satisfied with the most be found in which a monaco is it? superficial retraction, in others it the subject and the victim. It was even happened that the victim no small advantage to these The influence which the Father was saved out of their hands on orders that they were founded Inquisitor of a Dominican the way to the place of execution. earlier, and not as an instrument monastery was able habitually to In Bologna (1452) the priest of police, and that they did not 290 interfere with private life. They That the reputation attaching to singular natures. Nevertheless, contained men of learning, wit, the monks and the secular clergy my position at the Court of and piety, but the average has must have shattered the faith of several Popes forced me to been described by a member of multitudes in all that is sacred is, desire their greatness for the it, Firenzuola, who says: ‘These of course, obvious. sake of my own interest. But, well-fed gentlemen with the had it not been for this, I should capacious cowls do not pass And some of the judgements have loved Martin Luther as their time in barefooted journeys which we read are terrible; we myself, not in order to free myself and in sermons, but sit in elegant will quote one of them in from the laws which Christianity, slippers with their hands crossed conclusion, which has been as generally understood and over their paunches, in charming published only lately and is but explained, lays upon us, but in cells wainscoted with cyprus- little known. The historian order to see this swarm of wood. And when they are Guicciardini who was for many scoundrels (questa caterva di obliged to quit the house, they years in the service of the scelerati) put back into their ride comfortably, as if for their Medicean Popes, says (1529) in proper place, so that they may be amusement, on mules and sleek, his Aphorisms: ‘No man is more forced to live either without vices quiet horses. They do not disgusted than I am with the or without power.' overstrain their minds with the ambition, the avarice and the study of many books, for fear lest profligacy of the priests, not only The same Guicciardini is of knowledge might put the pride of because each of these vices is opinion that we are in the dark as Lucifer in the place of monkish hateful in itself, but because each to all that is supernatural, that simplicity.' and all of them are most philosophers and theologians unbecoming in those who have nothing but nonsense to tell Those who are familiar with the declare themselves to be men in us about it, that miracles occur in literature of the time, will see that special relations with God, and every religion and prove the truth we have only brought forward also because they are vices so of none in particular, and that all what is absolutely necessary for opposed to one another, that of them may be explained as the understanding of the subject. they can only co-exist in very unknown phenomena of nature. 291 The faith which moves were themselves mostly monks have already touched upon in mountains, then common among or beneficed priests. Poggio, speaking of the Papacy, is not the followers of Savonarola, is who wrote the Facetiae, was a surprising among that part of the mentioned by Guicciardini as a clergyman; Francesco Berni, the people which still believed in the curious fact, but without any satirist, held a canonry; Teofilo Church. Among those who were bitter remark. Folengo, the author of the more emancipated, it testifies to Orlandino, was a Benedictine, the strength of youthful Notwithstanding this hostile certainly by no means a faithful impressions, and to the magical public opinion, the clergy and the one; Matteo Bandello, who held force of traditional symbols. The monks had the great advantage up his own order to ridicule, was universal desire of dying men for that the people were used to a Dominican, and nephew of a priestly absolution shows that the them, and that their existence general of this order. Were they last remnant of the dread of hell was interwoven with the encouraged to write by the sense had not, even in the case of one everyday existence of all. This is that they ran no risks. Or did like Vitellozzo, been altogether the advantage which every old they feel an inward need to clear extinguished. It would hardly be and powerful institution themselves personally from the possible to find a more instructive possesses. Everybody had infamy which attached to their instance than this. The doctrine some cowled or frocked relative, order? Or were they moved by taught by the Church of the some prospect of assistance or that selfish pessimism which character indelibilis of the future gain from the treasure of takes for its maxim, 'it will last our priesthood, independently of the the Church; and in the centre of time'. Perhaps all of these personality of the priest, had so Italy stood the Court of Rome, motives were more or less at far borne fruit that it was possible where men sometimes became work. In the case of Folengo, the to loathe the individual and still rich in a moment. Yet it must unmistakable influence of desire his spiritual gifts. It is true, never be forgotten that all this did Lutheranism must be added. nevertheless, that there were not hinder people from writing defiant natures like Galeotto of and speaking freely. The authors The sense of dependence on Mirandola, who died unabsolved of the most scandalous satires rites and sacraments, which we in 1499) after living for sixteen 292 years under the ban of the and expansive, and shared in the individual by the curse which Church. All this time the city lay national gift of oratorical skill. clings to wrong-doing. The under an interdict on his account, The North produced an 'Imitation grieving of Christ and the Saints so that no mass was celebrated of Christ,' which worked silently, has its consequences in this life. and no Christian burial took at first only within the walls of the And only thus could men, sunk in place. monastery, but worked for the passion and guilt, be brought to ages; the South produced men repentance and amendment— A splendid contrast to all this is who made on their fellows an which was the chief object of offered by the power exercised immediate and mighty but these sermons. over the nation by its great passing impression. Preachers of Repentance. Other Among these preachers were countries of Europe were from This impression consisted chiefly Bernardino da Siena, Alberto da time to time moved by the words in the awakening of the , Jacopo della Marca, of saintly monks, but only conscience. The sermons were Giovanni Capistrano, Roberto da superficially, in comparison with moral exhortations free from Lecce and others, and finally, the periodical upheaval of the abstract notions and full of Girolamo Savonarola. No Italian conscience. The only practical application, rendered prejudice of the day was stronger man, in fact, who produced a more impressive by the saintly than that against the mendicant similar effect in Germany during and ascetic character of the friar, and this they overcame. the fifteenth century, was an preacher, and by the miracles They were criticized and ridiculed Italian, born in the Abruzzi, which, even against his will, the by a scornful humanism; but named Giovanni Capistrano. inflamed imagination of the when they raised their voices, no Those natures which bear within people attributed to him. The one gave heed to the humanists. them this religious vocation and most powerful argument used The thing was no novelty, and this commanding earnestness, was not the threat of Hell and the scoffing Florentines had wore then in Northern countries Purgatory, but rather the living already in the fourteenth century an intuitive and mystical aspect. results of the maledizione, the learned to caricature it whenever In the South they were practical temporal ruin wrought on the it appeared in the pulpit. But no 293 sooner did Savonarola come a city, or some alarming outbreak he himself can hardly move forward than he carried the of violence, immorality, or without risking his life. The people so triumphantly with him, disease. When once the sermon is commonly followed by that soon all their beloved art and reputation of a preacher was a great procession; but the first culture melted away ill the made, the cities were all anxious magistrates of the city, who take furnace which he lighted. Even to hear him even without any him in their midst, can hardly the grossest profanation done to special occasion. He went save him from the multitude of the cause by hypocritical monks, wherever his superiors sent him. women who throng to kiss his who got up an effect in the A special form of this work was hands and feet, and cut off audience by means of the preaching of a Crusade fragments from his cowl. confederates, could not bring the against the Turks; but here we thing itself into discredit. Men have to speak more particularly The most immediate kept on laughing at the ordinary of the exhortations to consequences which follow from monkish sermons, with their repentance. the preacher's denunciations of spurious miracles and usury, luxury, and scandalous manufactured relics; but did not The order of these, when they fashions, are the opening of the cease to honour the great and were treated methodically, gaols—which meant no more genuine preachers. These are a seems to have followed the than the discharge of the poorest true speciality of the fifteenth customary list of the deadly sins. debtors—and the burning of century. The more pressing, however, the various instruments of luxury and occasion is, the more directly amusement, whether innocent or The Order—generally that of St. does the preacher make for his not. Among these are dice, Francis, and more particularly the main point. He begins perhaps cards, games of all kinds, written so-called Observantines—sent in one of the great churches of incantations, masks, musical them out according as they were the Order, or in the cathedral. instruments, song-books, false wanted. This was commonly the Soon the largest piazza is too hair, and so forth. All these case when there was some small for the crowds which throng would then be gracefully important public or private feud in from every side to hear him, and arranged on a scaffold (talamo), 294 a figure of the devil fastened to proceeded to violence against previous bloodshed on both the top, and then the whole set those whom the preacher had sides could not hinder. Banished on fire. denounced. A sermon which men were recalled to the city to Bernardino once preached in take part in these sacred Then came the turn of the more Rome (1424) had another transactions. It appears that hardened consciences. Men consequence besides a bonfire these Paci were on the whole who had long never been near of vanities on the Capitol: ‘After faithfully observed, even after the the confessional, now this,' we read, 'the witch Finicella mood which prompted them was acknowledged their sins. Ill- was burnt, because by her over; and then the memory of the gotten gains were restored, and diabolical arts she had killed monk was blessed from insults which might have borne many children and bewitched generation to generation. But fruit in blood retracted. Orators many other persons; and all there were sometimes terrible like Bernardino of Siena entered Rome went to see the sight.' crises like those in the families diligently into all the details of the Della Valle and Croce in Rome daily life of men, and the moral But the most important aim of the (1482) where even the great laws which are involved in it. preacher was, as has been Roberto da Lecce raised his Few theologians nowadays already said, to reconcile voice in vain. Shortly before Holy would feel tempted to give a enemies and persuade them to Week he had preached to morning sermon 'on contracts, give up thoughts of vengeance. immense crowds in the square restitutions, the public debt Probably this end was seldom before the Minerva. But on the (monte), and the portioning of attained until towards the close of night before Maundy Thursday a daughters,' like that which he a course of sermons, when the terrible combat took place in front once delivered in the Cathedral tide of penitence flooded the city, of the Palazzo della Valle, near at Florence. Imprudent speakers and when the air resounded with the Ghetto. In the morning Pope easily fell into the mistake of the cry of the whole people: Sixtus gave orders for its attacking particular classes, Misericordia! Then followed destruction, and then performed professions, or offices, with such those solemn embracings and the customary ceremonies of the energy that the enraged hearers treaties of peace, which even day. On Good Friday Roberto 295 preached again with a crucifix in made it important, both for the them. A case of this kind his hand; but he and his hearers clergy and for the government, at occurred at Milan in 1516 after could do nothing but weep. least not to have them as the second French conquest, opponents; one means to this certainly at a time when public Violent natures, which had fallen end was to permit only monks or order was much disturbed. A into contradictions with priests who had received at all Tuscan hermit, Hieronymus of themselves, often resolved to events the lesser consecration, Siena, possibly an adherent of enter a convent, under the to enter the pulpit, so that the Savonarola, maintained his place impression made by these men. Order or Corporation to which for months together in the pulpit Among such were not only they belonged was, to some of the Cathedral, denounced the brigands and criminals of every extent, responsible for them. But hierarchy with great violence, sort, but soldiers without it was not easy to make the rule caused a new chandelier and a employment. This resolve was absolute, since the Church and new altar to be set up in the stimulated by their admiration of pulpit had long been used as a church, worked miracles, and the holy man, and by the desire means of publicity in many ways, only abandoned the field after a to copy at least his outward judicial, educational, and others, long and desperate struggle. position. and since even sermons were During the decades in which the sometimes delivered by fate of Italy was decided, the The concluding sermon is a humanists and other laymen. spirit of prophecy was unusually general benediction, summed up There existed, too, in Italy, a active, and nowhere where it in the words: la pace sia con voi! dubious class of persons who displayed itself was it confined to Throngs of hearers accompany were neither monks nor priests, any one particular class. We the preacher to the next city, and and who yet had renounced the know with what a tone of true there listen for a second time to world—that is to say, the prophetic defiance the hermits the whole course of sermons. numerous class of hermits who came forward before the sack of appeared from time to time in the Rome. In default of any The enormous influence pulpit on their own authority, and eloquence of their own, these exercised by these preachers often carried the people with men made use of messengers 296 with symbols of one kind or Augustinian—ventured in 1494 to the feet of the corpse that it had another, like the ascetic near exhort Lodovico il Moro from the to be secretly buried in the night. Siena (1496) who sent a 'little pulpit: ‘My lord, beware of But the newly awakened spirit of hermit,' that is a pupil, into the showing the French the way, else prophecy, which seized upon terrified city with a skull upon a you will repent it.’ There were even women and peasants, pole to which was attached a further prophetic monks who, could not be controlled without paper with a threatening text without exactly preaching political great difficulty. 'In order to from the Bible. sermons, drew such appalling restore to the people their pictures of the future that the cheerful humour, the Medici— Nor did the monks themselves hearers almost lost their senses. Giuliano, Leo's brother, and scruple to attack princes, After the election of Leo X, in the Lorenzo—gave on St. John's governments, the clergy, or even year 1513 a whole association of Day, 1514, those splendid their own order. A direct these men, twelve Franciscan festivals, tournaments, exhortation to overthrow a monks in all, journeyed through processions, and hunting-parties, despotic house, like that uttered the various districts of Italy, of which were attended by many by Jacopo Bussolaro at Pavia in which one or other was assigned distinguished persons from the fourteenth century, hardly to each preacher. The one who Rome, and among them, though occurs again in the following appeared in Florence, fra disguised, no less than six period: but there is no want of Francesco da Montepulcian, cardinals.' courageous reproofs, addressed struck terror into the whole even to the Pope in his own people. The alarm was not But the greatest of the prophets chapel, and of naive political diminished by the exaggerated and apostles had already been advice given in the presence of reports of his prophecies which burnt in Florence in the year rulers who by no means held reached those who were too far 1498—Fra Girolamo Savonarola themselves in need of it. In the off to hear him. After one of his of Ferrara. We must content Piazza del Castello at Milan, a sermons he suddenly died 'of ourselves with saying a few blind preacher from the pain in the chest’. The people words respecting him. Incoronata—consequently an thronged in such numbers to kiss 297 The instrument by means of next place below the angels. particular province was the first which he transformed and ruled step to a national Church, in the city of Florence (1494-8) was This man, whose nature seemed which, had the reformer himself his eloquence. Of this the made of fire, worked another and lived longer, it must infallibly meagre reports that are left to us, greater miracle than any of his have ended. Savonarola, which were taken down mostly oratorical triumphs. His own indeed, desired the regeneration on the spot, give us evidently a Dominican monastery of San of the whole Church) and near very imperfect notion. It was not Marco, and then all the the end of his career sent that he possessed any striking Dominican monasteries of pressing exhortations to the great outward advantages, for voice, Tuscany, became like-minded potentates urging them to call accent, and rhetorical skill with himself, and undertook together a Council. But in constituted precisely his weakest voluntarily the work of inward Tuscany his Order and party side; and those who required the reform. When we reflect what were the only organs of his preacher to be a stylist, went to the monasteries then were, and spirit—the salt of the earth— his rival Fra Mariano da what measureless difficulty while the neighbouring provinces Genazzano. The eloquence of attends the least change where remained in their old condition. Savonarola was the expression monks are concerned, we are Fancy and asceticism tended of a lofty and commanding doubly astonished at so complete more and more to produce in him personality, the like of which was a revolution. While the reform a state of mind to which Florence not seen again until the time of was still in progress large appeared as the scene of the Luther. He himself held his own numbers of Savonarola's kingdom of God upon earth. influence to be the result of a followers entered the Order, and divine illumination, and could thereby greatly facilitated his The prophecies, whose partial therefore, without presumption, plans. Sons of the first houses in fulfilment conferred on assign a very high place to the Florence entered San Marco as Savonarola a supernatural credit, office of the preacher, who, in the novices. were the means by which the great hierarchy of spirits, ever active Italian imagination occupies, according to him, the This reform of the Order in a seized control of the soundest 298 and most cautious natures. At notwithstanding an inner voice enable him to meet death like a first the Franciscans of the which came from God, would not Christian. His partisans held to Osservanza, trusting in the enter the Order, he had himself his doctrine and predictions for reputation which had been prayed to God to chasten him for thirty years longer. bequeathed to them by St. his disobedience. He certainly Bernardino of Siena, fancied that had not desired his death, and He only undertook the they could compete with the alms and prayers had obtained reorganization of the State for the great Dominican. They put one the favour that Pico's soul was reason that otherwise his of their own men into the safe in Purgatory. With regard to enemies would have got the Cathedral pulpit, and outbid the a comforting vision which Pico government into their own hands. Jeremiads of Savonarola by still had upon his sickbed, in which It is unfair to judge him by the more terrible warnings, until the Virgin appeared and semi-democratic constitution of Piero de' Medici, who then still promised him that he should not the beginning of the year 1495, ruled over Florence, forced them die, Savonarola confessed that which was neither better nor both to be silent. Soon after, he had long regarded it as a worse than other Florentine when Charles XII came to Italy deceit of the Devil, until it was constitutions. and the Medici were expelled, as revealed to him that the Savonarola had clearly foretold, Madonna meant the second and He was at bottom the most he alone was believed in. eternal death. If these things and unsuitable man who could be the like are proofs of found for such a work. His idea It must be frankly confessed that presumption, it must be admitted was a theocracy, in which all he never judged his own that this great soul at all events men were to bow in blessed premonitions and visions paid a bitter penalty for his fault. humility before the Unseen, and critically, as he did those of In his last days Savonarola all conflicts of passion wert not others. In the funeral oration on seems to have recognized the even to be able to arise. His Pico della Mirandola, he deals vanity of his visions and whole mind is written in that somewhat harshly with his dead prophecies. And yet enough inscription on the Palazzo della friend. Since Pico, inward peace was left to him to Signoria, the substance of which 299 was his maxim as early as 1495, naturali) and disputes, religion pious' are to rule over the States and which was solemnly grew more quickly than it has and empires, these rulers would renewed by his partisans in done since.’ He wished to limit also be monks. Whether he 1527: Jesus Christus Rex populi the classical instruction of the really foresaw this conclusion, we Florentini S.P.Q. decreto schools to Homer, Virgil and need not inquire. creatus. He stood in no more Cicero, and to supply the rest relation to mundane affairs and from Jerome and Augustine. Not A more childish method of their actual conditions than any only Ovid and Catullus, but reasoning cannot be imagined. other inhabitant of a monastery. Terence and Tibullus, were to be The simple reflection that the Man, according to him, has only banished. This may be no more newborn antiquity and the to attend to those things which than the expressions of a boundless enlargement of human make directly for his salvation. nervous morality, but elsewhere thought and knowledge which in a special work he admits that was due to it, might give splendid This temper comes out clearly in science as a whole is harmful. confirmation to a religion able to his opinions on ancient literature: He holds that only a few people adapt itself thereto, seems never ‘The only good thing which we should have to do with it, in order even to have occurred to the owe to Plato and Aristotle, is that that the tradition of human good man. He wanted to forbid they brought forward many knowledge may not perish, and what he could not deal with by arguments which we can use particularly that there may be no any other means. In fact, he was against the heretics. Yet they want of intellectual athletes to anything but liberal, and was and other philosophers are now confute the sophisms of the ready, for example, to send the in Hell. An old woman knows heretics. For all others, astrologers to the same stake at more about the Faith than Plato. grammar, morals, and religious which he afterwards himself died. It would be good for religion if teaching (litterae sacrae) suffice. many books that seem useful Culture and education would thus How mighty must have been the were destroyed. When there return wholly into the charge of soul which dwelt side by side were not so many books and not the monks, and as, in his opinion, with this narrow intellect! And so many arguments (ragioni the 'most learned and the most what a flame must have glowed 300 within him before he could permanent state of siege commonly burned. On the constrain the Florentines, necessarily proved impossible at lowest tier were arranged false possessed as they were by the Florence, and the attempt only beards, masks, and carnival passion for knowledge and served to drive the enemies of disguises; above came volumes culture, to surrender themselves Savonarola into a more of the Latin and Italian poets, to a man who could thus reason! implacable hostility. Among his among others Boccaccio, the most unpopular measures may Morgante of Pulci, and Petrarch, How much of their heart and their be mentioned those organized partly in the form of valuable worldliness they were ready to parties of boys, who forced their printed parchments and sacrifice for his sake is shown by way into the houses and laid illuminated manuscripts; then those famous bonfires by the violent hands on any objects women's ornaments and toilet side of which all the talami of which seemed suitable for the articles, scents, mirrors, veils and Bernardino da Siena and others bonfire. As it happened that they false hair; higher up, lutes, harps, were certainly of small account. were sometimes sent away with chessboards, playing-cards; and a beating, they were afterwards finally, on the two uppermost All this could not, however, be attended, in order to keep up the tiers, paintings only, especially of effected without the agency of a figment of a pious 'rising female beauties, partly fancy tyrannical police. He did not generation’, by a bodyguard of pictures, bearing the classical shrink from the most vexatious grown-up persons. names of Lucretia, Cleopatra, or interferences with the much- Faustina, partly portraits of the prized freedom of Italian private On the last day of the Carnival in beautiful Bencina, Lena Morella, life, using the espionage of the year 1497, and on the same Bina and Maria de' Lenzi. On the servants on their masters as a day the year after, the great Auto first occasion a Venetian means of carrying out his moral da Fe took place on the Piazza merchant who happened to be reforms. That transformation of della Signoria. In the center of it present offered the Signoria public and private life which the rose a high pyramid of several 22,000 gold florins for the objects Iron Calvin was but just able to tiers, like the rogus on which the on the pyramid; but the only effect at Geneva with the aid of a Roman Emperors were answer he received was that his 301 portrait, too, was painted, and figure of the great monk and great or small according to the burned along with the rest. prophet. Though his predictions light in which it is considered. When the pile was lighted, the may not have been confirmed in We have spoken already of the Signoria appeared on the detail, the great and general need felt for the Sacraments as balcony, and the air echoed with calamity which he foretold was something indispensable. Let us song, the sound of trumpets, and fulfilled with appalling truth. now glance for a moment at the the pealing of bells. The people position of faith and worship in then adjourned to the Piazza di Great, however, as the influence daily life. Both were determined San Marco, where they danced of all these preachers may have partly by the habits of the people round in three concentric circles. been, and brilliantly as and partly by the policy and The innermost was composed of Savonarola justified the claim of example of the rulers. monks of the monastery, the monks to this office, alternating with boys, dressed as nevertheless the order as a while All that has to do with penitence angels; then came young laymen could not escape the contempt and the attainment of salvation and ecclesiastics; and on the and condemnation of the people. by means of good works was in outside, old men, citizens, and Italy^ showed that she could give much the one stage of priests, the latter crowned with her enthusiasm only to development or corruption as in wreaths of olive. individuals. the North of Europe, both among the peasantry and among the All the ridicule of his victorious poorer inhabitants of the cities. enemies, who in truth bad no The instructed classes were lack of justification or of talent for Strength of the Old Faith sometimes influenced by the ridicule, was unable to discredit same motives. Those sides of the memory of Savonarola. The popular Catholicism which had more tragic the fortunes of Italy If, apart from all that concerns their origin in the old pagan ways became, the brighter grew the the priests and the monks, we of invoking, rewarding, and halo which in the recollection of attempt to measure the strength propitiating the gods have fixed the survivors surrounded the of the old faith, it will be found themselves ineradicably in the 302 consciousness of the people. that many local and popular influence of the clergy, the power The eighth eclogue of Battista usages, which are associated of custom and early impressions Mantovano, which has already with religious festivals, are on its side. The love for been quoted elsewhere, contains forgotten fragments of the old ecclesiastical pomp and display the prayer of a peasant to the pre-Christian faiths of Europe. In helped to confirm it, and now and Madonna, in which she is called Italy, on the contrary, we find then there came one of those upon as the special patroness of instances in which the affiliation epidemics of revivalism, which all rustic and agricultural of the new faith to the old seems few even among the scoffers and interests. And what conceptions consciously recognized. So, for the sceptics were able to they were which the people example, the custom of setting withstand. formed of their protectress in out food for the dead four days heaven. What was in the mind of before the feast of the Chair of But in questions of this kind it is the Florentine woman who gave St. Peter, that is to say, on perilous to grasp too hastily at ex voto a keg of wax to the February 18, the date of the absolute results. We might Annunziata, because her lover, a ancient Feralia. Many other fancy, for example, that the monk, had gradually emptied a practices of this kind may then feeling of educated men towards barrel of wine without her absent have prevailed and have since the relics of the saints would be a husband finding it out. Then, too, then been extirpated. Perhaps key by which some chambers of as still in our own days, different the paradox is only apparent if their religious consciousness departments of human life were we say that the popular faith in might be opened. And in fact, presided over by their respective Italy had a solid foundation just in some difference of degree may patrons. proportion as it was pagan. be demonstrable, though by no means as clearly as might be The attempt has often been The extent to which this form of wished. The Government of made to explain a number of the belief prevailed in the upper Venice in the fifteenth century commonest rites of the Catholic classes can to a certain point be seems to have fully shared in the Church as remnants of pagan shown in detail. It had, as we reverence felt throughout the rest ceremonies, and no one doubts have said in speaking of the of Europe for the remains of the 303 bodies of the saints. Even enough to expose six holy him of making Rome the strangers who lived in Venice corpses during certain alterations common refuge for all the found it well to adapt themselves of the high altar, which event was remains of the saints which had to this superstition. If we can followed by heavy floods of rain, been driven from their own judge of scholarly Padua from the people attributed the churches. Under Sixtus IV, the the testimony of its topographer visitation to this sacrilege, and population of the city was still Michele Savonarola, things must gave the monks a sound beating more zealous in this cause than have been much the same there. whenever they met them in the the Pope himself, and the With a mixture of pride and pious street. In other parts of Italy, and magistracy (1483) complained awe, Michele tells us how in even in the case of the Popes bitterly that Sixtus had sent to times of great danger the saints themselves, the sincerity of this Louis XI, the dying King of were heard to sigh at night along feeling is much more dubious, France, some specimens of the the streets of the city, how the though here, too, a positive Lateran relics. A courageous hair and nails on the corpse of a conclusion is hardly attainable. It voice was raised about thin time holy nun in Santa Chiara kept is well known amid what general at Bologna, advising the sale of continually growing, and how the enthusiasm Pius II solemnly the skull of St. Dominic to the same corpse. when any disaster deposited the head of the King of Spain, and the was impending, used to make a Apostle Andrew, which had been application of the money to some noise and lift up the arms. When brought from Greece, and then useful public object. But those he sets to work to describe the from San who had the least reverence of chapel of St. Anthony in the all for the relics were the Santo, the writer loses himself in Maura, in the Church of St. Florentines. Between the ejaculations and fantastic Peter (1462); but we gather from decision to honour their saint, St. dreams. In Milan the people at his own narrative that he only did Zanobi, with a new sarcophagus least showed a fanatical devotion it from a kind of shame, as so and the final execution of the to relics; and when once, in the many princes were competing for project by Ghiberti, ten years year 1517, the monks of San the relic. It was not until elapsed (1432-42) and then it Simpliciano were careless afterwards that the idea struck only happened by chance, 304 because the master had greater extent than elsewhere in no means as harmless as executed a smaller order of the Europe; and in this fact lies Battista Mantovano thinks; same kind with great skill (1428). indirect evidence of an early sometimes it suddenly acquired a development of the aesthetic magical virtue. The popular Perhaps through being tricked by sense. craving for the miraculous, a cunning Neapolitan abbess especially strong in women, may (1352), who sent them a spurious It may be questioned whether in have been fully satisfied by these arm of the patroness of the the North, where the vastest pictures, and for this reason the Cathedral, Santa Reparata, cathedrals are clearly all relics been less regarded. It made of wood and plaster, they dedicated to Our Lady, and cannot be said with certainty how began to get tired of relics. Or where an extensive branch of far the respect for genuine relics perhaps it would be truer to say Latin and indigenous poetry sang suffered from the ridicule which that their aesthetic sense turned the praises of the Mother of God, the novelist aimed at the them away in disgust from a greater devotion to her was spurious. The attitude of the dismembered corpses and impossible. In Italy, however, the educated classes in Italy towards mouldy clothes. Or perhaps their number of miraculous pictures of Mariolatry, or the worship of the feeling was rather due to that the Virgin was far greater, and Virgin, is more clearly sense of glory which thought the part they played in the daily recognizable than towards the Dante and Petrarch worthier of a life of the people much more worship of images. One cannot splendid grave than all the twelve important. Every town of any but be struck with the fact that in apostles put together. It is size contained a quantity of Italian literature Dante's Paradise probable that throughout Italy, them, from the ancient, or is the last poem in honour of the apart from Venice and from ostensibly ancient, paintings by Virgin, while among the people Rome, the condition of which St. Luke, down to the works of hymns in her praise have been latter city was exceptional, the contemporaries, who not seldom constantly produced down to our worship of relics had long been lived to see the miracles wrought own day. The names of giving way to the adoration of the by their own handiwork. The Sannazaro and Sabellico and Madonna, at all events to a work of art was in these cases by other writers of Latin poems 305 prove little on the other side, had certainly done their utmost to with which the priests in Rome since the object with which they glorify the Madonna. It may be said Mass. And at the same time wrote was chiefly literary. The added that the worship of the the feasts of the Church were poems written in Italian in the saints among the educated celebrated with a taste and fifteenth and at the beginning of classes often took an essentially magnificence of which Northern the sixteenth centuries, in which pagan form. countries had no conception. It we meet with genuine religious looks as if this most imaginative feeling, such as the hymns of We might thus critically examine of nations was easily tempted to Lorenzo the Magnificent, and the the various sides of Italian neglect everyday things, and as sonnets of Vittoria Colonna and Catholicism at this period, and so easily captivated by anything of Michelangelo might have been establish with a certain degree of extraordinary. just as well composed by probability the attitude of the Protestants. Besides the lyrical instructed classes towards It is to this excess of imagination expression of faith in God, we popular faith. Yet an absolute that we must attribute the chiefly notice in them the sense and positive result cannot be epidemic of religious revivals of sin, the consciousness of reached. We meet with contrasts upon which we shall again say a deliverance through the death of hard to explain. While architects, few words. They must be clearly Christ, the longing for a better painters, and sculptors were distinguished from the world. The intercessiOn of the working with restless activity in excitement called forth by the Mother of God is only mentioned and for the churches, we hear at great preachers. They were by the way. The same the beginning of the sixteenth rather due to general public phenomenon is repeated in the century the bitterest complaints calamities, or to the dread of classical literature of the French of the neglect of public worship such. at the time of Louis XIV. Not until and of these churches the time of the Counter- themselves. In the Middle Ages all Europe Reformation did Mariolatry was from time to time flooded by reappear in the higher Italian It is well known how Luther was these great tides, which carried poetry. Meanwhile the visual arts scandalized by the irreverence away whole peoples in their 306 waves. The Crusades and the But terrible crises had still at a the shoulders of four priests in Flagellant revival are instances. much later time the power to linen garments—an imitation of Italy took part in both of these reawaken the glow of mediaeval the Ark of the Covenant which movements. The first great penitence, and the conscience the children of Israel once carried companies of flagellants stricken people, often still further round the walls of Jericho. Thus appeared, immediately after the appalled by signs and wonders, did the afflicted people of Milan fall of Ezzelino and his house, in sought to move the pity of remind their ancient God of His the neighbourhood of the same Heaven by wailings and old covenant with man; and when Perugia which has been already scourgings. So it was at Bologna the procession again entered the spoken of as the headquarters of when the plague came in 1457, cathedral, and it seemed as if the the revivalist preachers. Then and so in 1496 at a time of vast building must fall in with the followed the flagellants of 1310 internal discord at Siena) to agonized cry of Misericordia!, and 1334, and then the great mention two only out of countless many who stood there may have pilgrimage without encouraging instances. No more moving believed that the Almighty would in the year 1349, which Corio has scene can be imagined than that indeed subvert the laws of nature recorded. It is not impossible which we read of at Milan in and of history, and send a that the Jubilees were founded 1529) when famine, plague, and miraculous deliverance. partly in order to regulate and war conspired with Spanish render harmless this sinister extortion to reduce the city to the There was one government in passion for vagabondage which lowest depths of despair. It Italy, that of Duke Ercole I of seized on the whole populations chanced that the monk who had Ferrara, which assumed the at times of religious excitement. the ear of the people, Fra direction of public feeling, and The great sanctuaries of Italy, Tomasso Nieto, was himself a compelled the popular revivals to such as Loreto and others, had Spaniard. The Host was borne move in regular channels. At the meantime become famous, and along in a novel fashion, amid time when Savonarola was no doubt diverted a certain part barefooted crowds of old and powerful in Florence, and the of this enthusiasm. young. It was placed on a movement which he began decorated bier, which rested on spread far and wide among the 307 population of Central Italy, the upon the breast. Contraveners had been paid precisely in order people of Ferrara voluntarily were threatened, not only with not to have to do with Zampante, entered on a general fast (at the the punishments already it is probable that his beginning of 1496). A Lazarist provided by law, but also 'with proclamation induced few people announced from the pulpit the such severer penalties as the to come forward. In the year approach of a season of war and Duke might think good to inflict’. 1500, after the fall of Lodovico il famine such as the world had After this, the Duke and the court Moro, when a similar outbreak of never seen; but the Madonna went several days in succession popular feeling took place, Ercole had assured some pious people to hear sermons in church, and ordered a series of nine that these evils might be avoided on the 10th of April all the Jews processions, in which there were by fasting. Upon this, the court in Ferrara were compelled to do 4,000 children dressed in white, itself had no choice but to fast, the same. On the 3rd of May, bearing the standard of Jesus. but it took the conduct of the the director of police, Zampante, He himself rode on horseback, public devotions into its own sent the crier to announce that as he could not walk without hands. On Easter Day, the 3rd whoever had given money to the difficulty. An edict was of April, a proclamation on police-officers in order not to be afterwards published of the same morals and religion was denounced as a blasphemer, kind as that of 1496. It is well published, forbidding blasphemy, might, if he came forward, have it known how many churches and prohibiting games, sodomy, back with a further monasteries were built by this concubinage, the letting of indemnification. These wicked ruler. He even sent for a live houses to prostitutes or panders, officers, he said, had extorted as saint, the Suor Colomba, shortly and the opening of all shops on much as two or three ducats from before he married his son feast days, excepting those of innocent persons by threatening Alfonso to Lucrezia Borgia the bakers and greengrocers. to lodge an information against (1502). A special messenger The Jews and Moors, who had them. They had then mutually fetched the saint with fifteen taken refuge from the Spaniards informed against one another, other nuns from Viterbo, and the at Ferrara, were now again and so had all found their way Duke himself conducted her on compelled to wear the yellow into prison. But as the money her arrival at Ferrara into a 308 convent prepared for her representatives of the culture of when classical antiquity with its reception. We shall probably do Italy, were born with the same men and institutions became an him no injustice if we attribute all religious instincts as other ideal of life, as well as the these measures very largely to mediaeval Europeans. But their greatest of historical memories, political calculation. To the powerful individuality made them ancient speculation and conception of government in religion, as in other matters, skepticism obtained in many formed by the House of Este, this altogether subjective, and the cases a complete mastery over employment of religion for the intense charm which the the minds of Italians. Since, ends of statecraft belongs by a discovery of the inner and outer again, the Italians were the first kind of logical necessity. universe exercised upon them modern people of Europe who rendered them markedly worldly. gave themselves boldly to In the rest of Europe religion speculations on freedom and remained, until a much later necessity, and since they did so Religion and the Spirit of period. something given from under violent and lawless political the Renaissance without, and in practical life circumstances, in which evil egotism and sensuality seemed often to win a splendid alternated with devotion and and lasting victory, their belief in But in order to reach a definite repentance. The latter had no God began to waver, and their conclusion with regard to the spiritual competitors as in Italy, or view of the government of the religious sense of the men of this only to a far smaller extent. world became fatalistic. And period, we must adopt a different when their passionate natures method. From their intellectual Further, the close and frequent refused to rest in the sense of attitude in general, we can infer relations of Italy with Byzantium uncertainty, they made a shift to their relation both to the divine and the Mohammedan peoples help themselves out with ancient, idea and to the existing religion had produced a dispassionate Oriental, or medieval of their age. tolerance which weakened the superstition. They took to ethnographical conception of a astrology and magic. These modern men, the privileged Christendom. And 309 Finally, these intellectual giants, more in accordance with truth on the sea of life without any these representatives of the than are vague declarations religious guidance whatever. All Renaissance, show, in respect to against modern paganism. And the more must we admire those religion, a quality which is closer investigation often reveals who attained and held fast to a common in youthful natures. to us that underneath this personal religion. They were not Distinguishing keenly between outward shell much genuine to blame for being unable to have good and evil, they yet are religion could still survive. any part or lot in the old Church, conscious of no sin. Every as she then was; nor would it be disturbance of their inward The fuller discussion of these reasonable to expect that they harmony they feel themselves points must be limited to a few of should all of them go through that able to make good out of the the more essential explanations. mighty spiritual labor which was plastic resources of their own appointed to the German nature, and therefore they feel no That religion should again reformers. The form and aim of repentance. The need of become an affair of the individual this personal faith, as it showed salvation thus becomes felt more and of his own personal feeling itself in the better minds, will bc and more dimly, while the was inevitable when the Church set forth at the close of our work. ambitions and the intellectual became corrupt in doctrine and activity of the present either shut tyrannous in practice, and is a The worldliness, through which out altogether every thought of a proof that the European mind the Renaissance seems to offer world to come, or else caused it was still alive. It is true that this so striking a contrast to the to assume a poetic instead of a showed itself in many different Middle Ages, owed its first origin dogmatic form. ways. While the mystical and to the flood of new thoughts, ascetical sects of the North lost purposes, and views, which When we look on all this as no time in creating new outward transformed the mediaeval pervaded and often perverted by forms for their new modes of conception of nature and man. the all-powerful Italian thought and feeling, each The spirit is not in itself more imagination, we obtain a picture individual in Italy went his own hostile to religion than that of that time which is certainly way, and thousands wandered 'culture' which now holds its 310 place, but which can give us only it is the name of Saladin. Even a feeble notion of the universal To the study of man, among the Osmanli Turks, whose ferment which the discovery of a many other causes, was due the destructive tendencies were no new world of greatness then tolerance and indifference with secret, gave the Italians only half called forth. This worldliness which the Mohammedan religion a fright, and a peaceable accord was not frivolous, but earnest, was regarded. The knowledge with them was looked upon as no and was ennobled by art and and admiration of the remarkable impossibility. poetry. It is a lofty necessity of civilization which Islam, the modern spirit that this particularly before the Mongol The truest and most attitude, once gained, can never inundation, had attained, was characteristic expression of this again be lost, that an irresistible peculiar to Italy from the time of religious indifference is the impulse forces us to the the Crusades. This sympathy famous story of the Three Rings, investigation of men and things, was fostered by the half- which Lessing has put into the and that we must hold this inquiry Mohammedan government of mouth of his Nathan, after it had to be our proper end and work. some Italian princes, by dislike been already told centuries How soon and by what paths this and even contempt for the earlier, though with some search will lead us back to God, existing Church, and by constant reserve, in the Hundred Old and in what ways the religious commercial intercourse with the Novels (nov. 12 or 73), and more temper of the individual will be harbors of the Eastern and boldly in Boccaccio affected by it, are questions Southern Mediterranean. It can (Decamerone, i, nov. 3). In what which cannot be met by any be shown that in the thirteenth language and in what corner of general answer. The Middle century the Italians recognized a the Mediterranean it was first told Ages, which spared themselves Mohammedan ideal of can never be known; most likely the trouble of induction and free nobleness, dignity, and pride, the original was much more inquiry, can have no right to which they loved to connect with plain-spoken than the two Italian impose upon us their dogmatical the person of a Sultan. A adaptations. The religious verdict in a matter of such vast Mameluke Sultan is commonly postulate on which it rests, importance. meant; if any name is mentioned, namely Deism, will be discussed 311 later on in its wider significance combatants was attended by the and Mohammedan; orthodox for this period. The same idea is baptism of the defeated believer or heretic. Pulci draws a repeated, though in a clumsy Islamites, and the Improvisatori, picture of the Giant Margutte caricature, in the famous proverb who preceded Pulci in the who, disregarding each and of the 'three who have deceived treatment of these subjects, must every religion, jovially confesses the world, that is, Moses, Christ, have made free use of this stock to every form of vice and and Mohammed’. If the incident. It was Pulci's object to sensuality, and only reserves to Emperor Frederick II, in whom parody his predecessors, himself the merit of having never this saying is said to have particularly the worst among broken faith. Perhaps the poet originated, really thought so, he them, and this he does by the intended to make something of probably expressed himself with invocations of God, Christ, and this—in his way—honest more wit. the Madonna, with which each monster, possibly to have led him canto begins; and still more into virtuous paths by Morgante, Ideas of the same kind were also clearly by the sudden but he soon got tired of his own current in Islam. At the height of conversions and baptisms, the creation, and in the next canto the Renaissance, towards the utter senselessness of which brought him to a comic end. close of the fifteenth century, must have struck every reader or Margutte has been brought Luigi Pulci offers us an example hearer. This ridicule leads him forward as a proof of Pulci's of the same mode of thought in further to the confession of his frivolity; but he is needed to the Morgante Maggiore. The faith in the relative goodness of complete the picture of the poetry imaginary world of which his all religions, which faith, of the fifteenth century. It was story treats is divided, as in all notwithstanding his profession of natural that it should somewhere heroic poems of romance, into a orthodoxy, rests on an essentially present in grotesque proportions Christian and a Mohammedan theistic basis. In another point, the figure of an untamed camp. In accordance with the too, he departs widely from egotism, insensible to all medieval temper, the victory of mediaeval conceptions. The established rule, and yet with a the Christian and the final alternatives in past centuries remnant of honorable feeling left. reconciliation among the were: Christian, or else Pagan In other poems sentiments are 312 put into the mouths of giants, Christian faith in a Divine been formed of his philosophy. fiends, infidels, and government of the world. And Nevertheless, that phase of Mohammedans which no there was one central question, Epicureanism which can be Christian knight would venture to which mediaeval theology had studied in Lucretius, and utter. striven in vain to solve, and especially in Cicero, is quite which now urgently demanded sufficient to make men familiar Antiquity exercised an influence an answer from the wisdom of with a godless universe. To what of another kind than that of Islam, the ancients, namely, the relation extent his teaching was actually and this not through its religion, of Providence to the freedom or understood, and whether the which was but too much like the necessity of the human will. To name of the problematic Greek Catholicism of this period, but write the history of this question sage was not rather a catchword through its philosophy. Ancient even superficially from the for the multitude, it is hard to say. literature, now respected as fourteenth century onwards, It is probable that the Dominican something incomparable, is full of would require a whole volume. A Inquisition used it against men the victory of philosophy over few hints must here suffice. who could not be reached by a religious tradition. An endless more definite accusation. In the number of systems and If we take Dante and his case of sceptics born before the fragments of systems were contemporaries as evidence, we time was ripe, whom it was yet suddenly presented to the Italian shall find that ancient philosophy hard to convict of positive mind, not as curiosities or even first came into contact with Italian heretical utterances, a moderate as heresies, but almost with the life in the form which offered the degree of luxurious living may authority of dogmas, which had most marked contrast to have sufficed to provoke the now to be reconciled rather than Christianity, that is to say, charge. The word is used in this discriminated. In nearly all these Epicureanism. The writings of conventional sense by Giovanni various opinions and doctrines a Epicurus were no longer Villani, when he explains the certain kind of belief in God was preserved, and even at the close Florentine fires of 1115 and 1117 implied; but taken altogether they of the classical age a more or as a Divine judgement on formed a marked contrast to the less one-sided conception had heresies, among others, 'on the 313 luxurious and gluttonous sect of the teachings of the government into the background Epicureans’. The same writer Manichaeans and Paterines, unless, indeed, it was his own says of Manfred, 'His life was since it took away all reason for reflection, the influence of Epicurean, since he believed her interference in the affairs of opinions then prevalent, or neither in God, nor in the Saints, men after death. That the means loathing for the injustice that but only in bodily pleasure.' which she used in her struggles seemed to rule this world, which were precisely what had driven made him give up the belief in a Dante speaks still more clearly in the most gifted natures to special Providence His God the ninth and tenth cantos of the unbelief and despair was what leaves all the details of the Inferno. That terrible fiery field she naturally would not herself world's government to a deputy, covered with half-opened tombs, admit. Fortune, whose sole work it is to from which issued cries of change and change again all hopeless agony, was peopled by Dante's loathing of Epicurus, or earthly things, and who can the two great classes of those of what he took to be his disregard the wailings of men in whom the Church had doctrine, was certainly sincere. unalterable beatitude. vanquished or expelled in the The poet of the life to come could Nevertheless, Dante does not for thirteenth century. The one were not but detest the denier of a moment fail to insist on the heretics who opposed the immortality; and a world neither moral responsibility of man; he Church by deliberately spreading made nor ruled by God, no less believes in free will. The belief in false doctrine; the other were than the vulgar objects of earthly the freedom of the will, in the Epicureans, and their sin against life which the system appeared to popular sense of the words, has the Church lay in their general countenance, could not but be always prevailed in Western disposition, which was summed intensely repugnant to a nature countries. At all times men have up in the belief that the soul dies like his. But if we look closer, we been held responsible for their with the body. The Church was find that certain doctrines of the actions, as though this freedom well aware that this one doctrine, ancients made even on him an were a matter of course. The if it gained ground, must be more impression which forced the case is otherwise with the ruinous to her authority than all biblical doctrine of the Divine religious and philosophical 314 doctrine, which labors under the an open and inevitable one. So difficulty of harmonizing the far as it was a question for the In the course of the fifteenth nature of the will with the laws of schools or the pursuit of isolated century the works of antiquity the universe at large. We have thinkers, its treatment belongs to were discovered and diffused here to do with a question of the historian of philosophy. But with extraordinary rapidity. All more or less, which every moral inasmuch as it entered into the the writings of the Greek estimate must take into account. consciousness of a wider public, philosophers which we ourselves Dante is not wholly free from it is necessary for us to say a few possess were now, at least in the those astrological superstitions words respecting it. form of Latin translations, in which illumined the horizon of his everybody's hands. It is a time with deceptive light, but they The fourteenth century was curious fact that some of the do not hinder him from rising to a chiefly stimulated by the writings most zealous apostles of this worthy conception of human of Cicero, who, though in fact an new culture were men of the nature. 'The stars,' he makes his eclectic, yet, by his habit of strictest piety, or even ascetics. Marco Lambert say (Purgatorio, setting forth the opinions of Fra Ambrogio Camaldolese, as a xvi, 73), 'the stars give the first different schools, without coming spiritual dignitary chiefly impulse to your actions, but a to a decision between them, occupied with ecclesiastical light is given you to know good exercised the influence of a affairs, and as a literary man with and evil, and free will, which, if it skeptic. Next in importance the translation of the Greek endure the strain in its first came Seneca, and the few works Fathers of the Church, could not battlings with the heavens, at of Aristotle which had been repress the humanistic impulse, length gains the whole victory, if translated into Latin. The and at the request of Cosimo de' it be well nurtured.' immediate fruit of these studies Medici, undertook to translate was the capacity to reflect on Diogenes Laertius into Latin. His Others might seek the necessity great subjects, if not in direct contemporaries, Niccolo Niccoli, which annulled human freedom opposition to the authority of the Giannozzo Manetti, Donato in another power than the stars, Church, at all events Acciaiuoli, and Pope Nicholas V, but the question was henceforth independently of it. united to a many-sided 315 humanism profound biblical religion, which is sometimes and acted according to the scholarship and deep piety. In professed very definitely, natural law born within him, Vittorino da Feltre the same becomes a matter of indifference would go to heaven, whatever temper has been already noticed. to us. They easily got the name nation he belonged to. The same Maffeo Vegio, who of atheists, if they showed added a thirteenth book to the themselves indifferent to religion Let us take, by way of example, Aeneid, had an enthusiasm for and spoke freely against the the religious attitude of one of the the memory of St. Augustine and Church; but not one of them ever smaller men in the great army. his mother, Monica, which cannot professed, or dared to profess, a Codrus Urceus was first the tutor have been without a deeper formal, philosophical atheism. If of the last Ordelaffo, Prince of influence upon him. The result of they sought for any leading Forli, and afterwards for many all these tendencies was that the principle, it must have been a years professor at Bologna. Platonic Academy at Florence kind of superficial rationalism—a Against the Church and the deliberately chose for its object careless inference from the many monks his language is as the reconciliation of the spirit of and contradictory opinions of abusive as that of the rest. His antiquity with that of Christianity. antiquity with which they busied tone in general is reckless to the It was a remarkable oasis in the themselves, and from the last degree, and he constantly humanism of the period. discredit into which the Church introduces himself in all his local and her doctrines had fallen This history and gossip. But he This humanism was in fact was the sort of reasoning which knows how to speak to the pagan, and became more and was near bringing Galeotto edification of the true God-Man, more so as its sphere widened in Martio to the stake, had not his Jesus Christ, and to commend the fifteenth century. Its former pupil, Pope Sixtus IV, himself by letter to the prayers of representatives, whom we have perhaps at the request of a saintly priest. On one already described as the Lorenzo de' Medici, saved him occasion, after enumerating the advance guard of an unbridled from the hands of the Inquisition. follies of the pagan religions, he individualism, display as a rule Galeotto had ventured to write thus goes on: 'Our theologians, such a character that even their that the man who lived uprightly, too, quarrel about the guinea- 316 pig's tail, about the Immaculate became of a man, of his soul or criticism may here and there Conception, Antichrist, his spirit, after death, and the talk have been made. A saying of Sacraments, Predestination, and about another life was only fit to Pius II has been recorded, which other things, which were better frighten old women. But when he seems intended to prepare the let alone than talked of publicly.’ came to die, he commended in way for such criticism: 'Even if Once, when he was not at home, his will his soul or his spirit to Christianity were not confirmed his room and manuscripts were Almighty God, exhorted his by miracles, it ought still to be burnt. When he heard the news weeping pupils to fear the Lord, accepted on account of its he stood opposite a figure of the and especially to believe in morality.’ The legends of the Madonna in the street, and cried immortality and future retribution, Church, in so far as they to it: ‘Listen to what I tell you; I and received the Sacrament with contained arbitrary versions of am not mad, I am saying what I much fervor. We have no the biblical miracles, were freely mean. If I ever call upon you in guarantee that more famous men ridiculed, and this reacted on the the hour of my death, you need in the same calling, however religious sense of the people. not hear me or take me among significant their opinions may be, Where Judaizing heretics are your own, for I will go and spend were in practical life any more mentioned, we must understand eternity with the devil.’ After consistent. It is probable that chiefly those who denied the which speech he found it most of them wavered inwardly Divinity of Christ, which was desirable to spend six months in between incredulity and a probably the offence for which retirement at the home of a remnant of the faith in which they Giorgio da Novara was burnt at woodcutter. With all this, he was were brought up, and outwardly Bologna about the year 1500. so superstitious that prodigies held for prudential reasons to the But again at Bologna in the year and omens gave him incessant Church. 1497 the Dominican Inquisitor frights, leaving him no belief to was forced to let the physician spare for the immortality of the Through the connexion of Gabriele da Salo, who had soul. When his hearers rationalism with the newly born powerful patrons, escape with a questioned him on the matter, he science of historical investigation, simple expression of penitence, answered that no one knew what some timid attempts at biblical although he was in the habit of 317 maintaining that Jesus was not wheel of Fortune, and of the latter outweighed the former. God, but son of Joseph and instability of earthly, especially The fate of Italy and the Italians, Mary, and conceived in the usual political, things. Providence is so far as it could be told in the way; that by his cunning he had only brought in because the year 1510, has been described deceived the world to its ruin; writers would still be ashamed of with dignity and almost elegiac that he may have died on the undisguised fatalism, of the pathos by Tristan Caracciolo. cross on account of crimes which avowal of their ignorance, or of Applying this general tone of he had committed; that his useless complaints. Gioviano feeling to the humanists religion would soon come to an Pontano ingeniously illustrates themselves, Pierio Valeriano end; that his body was not really the nature of that mysterious afterwards composed his famous contained in the sacrament, and something which men call treatise. Some of these themes, that he performed his miracles, Fortune by a hundred incidents, such as the fortunes of Leo X, not through any divine power, but most of which belonged to his were most suggestive. All the through the influence of the own experience. The subject is good that can be said of him heavenly bodies. This latter treated more humorously by politically has been briefly and statement is most characteristic Aeneas Sylvius, in the form of a admirably summed up by of the time: Faith is gone, but vision seen in a dream. The aim Francesco Vettori; the picture of magic still holds its ground. of Poggio, on the other hand, in a Leo's pleasures is given by Paolo work written in his old age, is to Giovio and in the anonymous With respect to the moral represent the world as a vale of biography; and the shadows government of the world, the tears, and to fix the happiness of which attended his prosperity are humanists seldom get beyond a various classes as low as drawn with inexorable truth by cold and resigned consideration possible. This tone became in the same Pierio Valeriano. of the prevalent violence and future the prevalent one. misrule. In this mood the main Distinguished men drew up a We cannot, on the other hand, works On Fate, or whatever debit and credit of the happiness read without a kind of awe how name they bear, are written. and unhappiness of their lives, men sometimes boasted of their They tell of the turning of the and generally found that the fortune in public inscriptions. 318 Giovanni II Bentivoglio, ruler of philologians added many special that Paul might fairly have been Bologna, ventured to carve in follies of their own, by which they told that he and his like were in stone on the newly built tower by became the mark for general great part to blame if culture his palace that his merit and his attention. How far Paul II was made men hostile to religion. It fortune had given him richly of all justified in calling his cannot, nevertheless, be doubted that could be desired—and this a Abbreviators and their friends to that he felt a real anxiety about few years before his expulsion. account for their paganism, is the pagan tendencies which The ancients, when they spoke in certainly a matter of great doubt, surrounded him. And what, in this tone, had nevertheless a as his biographer and chief truth, may not the humanists sense of the envy of the gods. In victim, Platina, has shown a have allowed themselves at the Italy it was probably the masterly skill in explaining his court of the profligate pagan, Condottieri who first ventured to vindictiveness on other grounds, Sigismondo Malatesta, How far boast so loudly of their fortune. and especially in making him these men, destitute for the most But the way in which resuscitated play a ludicrous figure. The part of fixed principle, ventured to antiquity affected religion most charges of infidelity, paganism, go, depended assuredly on the powerfully, was not through any denial of immortality, and so sort of influences they were doctrines or philosophical forth, were not made against the exposed to. Nor could they treat system, but through a general accused until the charge of high of Christianity without paganizing tendency which it fostered. The treason had broken down. Paul, it. It is curious, for instance, to men, and in some respects the indeed, if we are correctly notice how far Gioviano Pontano institutions, of antiquity were informed about him, was by no carried this confusion. He preferred to those of the Middle means the man to judge of speaks of a saint not only as Ages, and in the eager attempt to intellectual things. It was he who divus, but as deus; the angels he imitate and reproduce them, exhorted the Romans to teach holds to be identical with the religion was left to take care of their children nothing beyond genii of antiquity; and his notion itself. All was absorbed in the reading and writing. His priestly of immortality reminds us of the admiration for historical narrowness of views reminds us old kingdom of the shades. This greatness. To this the of Savonarola, with the difference spirit occasionally appears in the 319 most extravagant shapes. In dogmatically, antiquity exercised upper hand, or sometimes the 1526, when Siena was attacked perilous influence. It imparted to latter came first and had the by the exiled party, the worthy the Renaissance its own forms of former as its consequence. Canon Tizio, who tells us the superstition. Some fragments of story himself, rose from his bed this had survived in Italy all The gap thus opened was in the on the 22nd of July, called to through the Middle Ages, and the first place filled by the astrology mind what is written in the third resuscitation of the whole was of antiquity, or even of the Arabs. book of Macrobius, celebrated thereby made so much the more From the relation of the planets Mass, and then pronounced easy. The part played by the among themselves and to the against the enemy the curse with imagination in the process need signs of the zodiac. future which his author had supplied not be dwelt upon. This only events and the course of whole him, only altering Tellus mater could have silenced the critical lives were inferred, and the most teque Jupiter obtestor into Tellus intellect of the Italians. weighty decisions were taken in teque Christe Deus obtestor. consequence. In many cases After he had done this for three The belief in a Divine the line of action thus adopted at days, the enemy retreated. On government of the world was in the suggestion of the stars may the one side, these things strike many minds destroyed by the not have been more immoral us as an affair of mere style and spectacle of so much injustice than that which would otherwise fashion; on the other, as a and misery. Others, like Dante, have been followed. But too symptom of religious decadence. surrendered at all events this life often the decision must have to the caprices of chance, and if been made at the cost of honour they nevertheless retained a and conscience. It is profoundly sturdy faith, it was because they instructive to observe how Influence of Ancient held that the higher destiny of powerless culture and Superstition man would be accomplished in enlightenment were against this the life to come. But when the delusion; since the latter had its belief in immortality began to support in the ardent imagination But in another way, and that waver, then Fatalism got the of the people, in the passionate 320 wish to penetrate and determine professors of this pseudo- whom we can detect the same the future. Antiquity, too, was on science were appointed, and desire to bring astrology to moral the side of astrology. lectured side by side with the account which meets us in the astronomers. The Popes late Roman Firmicus Maternus. At the beginning of the thirteenth commonly made no secret of His life was that of a saintly century this superstition suddenly their stargazing, though Pius II, ascetic. He ate almost nothing, appeared in the foreground of who also despised magic, despised all temporal goods, and Italian life. The Emperor omens, and the interpretation of only collected books. A skilled Frederick II always travelled with dreams, is an honorable physician, he only practiced his astrologer Theodorus; and exception. Even Leo X seems to among his friends, and made it a Ezzelino da Romano with a have thought the flourishing condition of his treatment that large, well-paid court of such condition of astrology a credit to they should confess their sins. people, among them the famous his pontificate, and Paul III never He frequented the small but Guido Bonatto and the long- held a Consistory until the famous circle which assembled bearded Saracen, Paul of stargazers had fixed the hour. in the Monastery of the Angeli Baghdad. In all important around Fra Ambrogio undertakings they fixed for him It may fairly be assumed that the Camaldolese. He also saw much the day and the hour, and the better natures did not allow their of Cosimo the Elder, especially in gigantic atrocities of which he actions to be determined by the his last years; for Cosimo was guilty may have been in part stars beyond a certain point, and accepted and used astrology, practical inferences from their that there was a limit where though probably only for objects prophecies. Soon all scruples conscience and religion made of lesser importance. As a rule, about consulting the stars them pause. In fact, not only did however, Pagolo only interpreted ceased. Not only princes, but pious and excellent people share the stars to his most confidential free cities, had their regular the delusion, but they actually friends. But even without this astrologers, and at the came forward to profess it severity of morals, the universities, from the fourteenth publicly. One of these was astrologers might be highly to the sixteenth century, Maestro Pagolo of Florence, in respected and show themselves 321 everywhere. There were also far future dethrones their powerful answer. A striking instance of more of them in Italy than in will and resolution! Now and the latter occurs in the life of the other European countries, where then, when the stars send them aforenamed Guido Bonatto, who they only appeared at the great too cruel a message, they by his personal activity and by courts, and there not always. All manage to brace themselves up, his great systematic work on the the great householders in Italy, act for themselves, and say subject deserves to be called the when the fashion was once boldly: Vir sapiens dominabitus restorer of astrology in the established, kept an astrologer, lustris, the wise man is master of thirteenth century. In order to put who, it must be added, was not the stars—and then again an end to the struggle of the always sure of his dinner. relapse into the old delusion. Guelphs and Ghibellines at Forli, Through the literature of this he persuaded the inhabitants to science, which was widely In all the better families the rebuild the city walls and to begin diffused even before the horoscope of the children was the works under a constellation invention of printing, a drawn as a matter of course, and indicated by himself. If then two dilettantism also grew up which it sometimes happened that for men, one from each party, at the as far as possible followed in the half a lifetime men were haunted same moment put a stone into steps of the masters. The worst by the idle expectation of events the foundation, there would class of astrologers were those which never occurred! The stars henceforth and for ever be no who used the stars either as an were questioned whenever a more party divisions in Forli. A aid or a cloak to magical arts. great man had to come to any Guelph and a Ghibelline were important decision, and even selected for this office; the Yet apart from the latter, consulted as to the hour at which solemn moment arrived, each astrology is a miserable feature any undertaking was to be held the stone in his hands, the in the life of that time. What a begun. The journeys of princes, workmen stood ready with their figure do all these highly gifted, the reception of foreign implements. Bonatto gave the many-sided, original characters ambassadors, the laying of the signal, and the Ghibelline threw play, when the blind passion for foundation-stones of public down his stone on to the knowing and determining the buildings, depended on the foundation. But the Guelph 322 hesitated, and at last refused to was no longer accompanied by Condottieri believed in it. Jacopo do anything at all, on the ground him he lost the courage to Caldora was cheerful in the most that Bonatto himself had the maintain his despotism, and serious illness, knowing that he reputation of a Ghibelline and entered a Minorite monastery, was fated to fall in battle, which might be devising some where he lived as a monk for in fact happened. Bartolommeo mysterious mischief against the many years until his death. In Alviano was convinced that his Guelphs. Upon which the the war with Pisa in 1362, the wounds in the head were as astrologer addressed him: 'God Florentines commissioned their much a gift of the stars as his damn thee and the Guelph party astrologer to fix the hour for the military command. Niccolo with your distrustful malice! This march, and almost came too late Orsini-Pitigliano asked the constellation will not appear through suddenly receiving physicist and astrologer above our city for 500 years to orders to take a circuitous route Alessandro Benedetto to fix a come.’ In fact God soon through the city. On former favourable hour for the afterwards did destroy the occasions they had marched out conclusion of his bargain with Guelphs of Forli, but now, writes by the Via di Borgo Santi Venice. When the Florentines on the chronicler about 1480, the Apostoli, and the campaign had June 1, 1498, solemnly invested two parties are thoroughly been unsuccessful. It was clear their new Condottiere Paolo reconciled, and their very names that there was some bad omen Vitelli with his office, the are heard no longer. connected with the exit through Marshal's staff which they this street against Pisa, and handed him was, at his own Nothing that depended upon the consequently the army was now wish, decorated with pictures of stars was more important than led out by the Porta Rossa. But the constellations. decisions in time of war. The as the tents stretched out there same Bonatto procured for the to dry had not been taken away, Sometimes it is not easy to make great Ghibelline leader Guido da the flags—another bad omen— out whether }n important political Montefeltro a series of victories, had to be lowered. The influence events the stars were questioned by telling him the propitious hour of astrology in war was confirmed beforehand, or whether the for marching. When Montefeltro by the fact that nearly all the astrologers were simply impelled 323 afterwards by curiosity to find out only we cannot say whether such of Jupiter with the Moon will one the constellation which decided prophecies were not ready for day bring forth the religion of the result. When Giangaleazzo each and every year. Antichrist. Cecco d'Ascoli had Visconti by a master-stroke of already blasphemously policy took prisoner his uncle This mode of thought was calculated the nativity of Christ, Bernabo, with the latter's family extended with thorough and deduced from it his death (1385), we are told by a consistency into regions where upon the Cross. For this he was contemporary that Jupiter, Saturn we should hardly expect to meet burnt at the stake in 1327, at and Mars stood in the house of with it. If the whole outward and Florence. Doctrines of this sort the Twins, but we cannot say if spiritual life of the individual is ended by simply darkening men's the deed was resolved on in determined by the facts of his whole perceptions of spiritual consequence. It is also probable birth, the same law also governs things. that the advice of the astrologers groups of individuals and was often determined by political historical products —that is to So much more worthy then of calculation not less than by the say, nations and religions; and as recognition is the warfare which course of the planets. the constellation of these things the clear Italian spirit waged changes, so do the things against this army of delusions. All Europe, through the latter part themselves. The idea that each Notwithstanding the great of the Middle Ages, had allowed religion has its day, first came monumental glorification of itself to be terrified by predictions into Italian culture in connection astrology, as in the frescoes in of plagues, wars, floods, and with these astrological beliefs. the Salone at Padua, and those earthquakes, and in this respect The conjunction of Jupiter with in Borso's summer palace Italy was by no means behind Saturn brought forth, we are told, (Schifanoia) at Ferrara, other countries. The unlucky the faith of Israel; that of Jupiter notwithstanding the shameless year 1494, which for ever opened and Mars, the Chaldean; with the praises of even such a man as the gates of Italy to the stranger, Sun, the Egyptian; with Venus, the elder Beroaldus, there was was undeniably ushered in by the Mohammedan; with Mercury, no want of thoughtful and many prophecies of misfortune— the Christian; and the conjunction independent minds to protest 324 against it. Here, too, the way ancestors, the Romans. The Giovanni, afterwards Leo X, that had been prepared by antiquity, question, however, did not he would one day be Pope. Pico but it was their own common remain one for mere literary della Mirandola, on the other sense and observation which discussion, but the parties for hand, made an epoch in the taught them what to say. and against disputed publicly. subject by his famous refutation. Petrarch's attitude towards the After the terrible floods of 1333, He detects in this belief the root astrologers, whom he knew by and again in 1345, astrologers of all impiety and immorality. If personal intercourse, is one of and theologians discussed with the astrologer, he maintains, bitter contempt; and no one saw great minuteness the influence of believes in anything at all, he through their system of lies more the stars, the will of God, and the must worship not God, but the clearly than he. The novels, from justice of his punishments. planets, from which all good and the time when they first began to These struggles never ceased evil are derived. All other appear from the time of the throughout the whole time of the superstitions find a ready Cento novelle antiche, are almost Renaissance, and we may instrument in astrology, which always hostile to the astrologers. conclude that the protestors were serves as handmaid to The Florentine chroniclers ill earnest, since it was easier for geomancy, chiromancy, and bravely keep themselves free them to recommend themselves magic of every kind. As to from the delusions which, as part to the great by defending, than morality, he maintains that of historical tradition, they are by opposing astrology. nothing can more foster evil than compelled to record. Giovanni the opinion that heaven itself is Villani says more than once, 'No In the circle of Lorenzo the the cause of it, in which case the constellation can subjugate either Magnificent, among his most faith in eternal happiness and the free will of man, or the distinguished Platonists, opinions punishment must also disappear. counsels of God’. Matteo Villani were divided on this question. Pico even took the trouble to declares astrology to be a vice Marsilio Ficino defended check off the astrologers which the Florentines had astrology, and drew the inductively, and found that in the inherited, along with other horoscope of the children of the course of a month three-fourths superstitions, from their pagan house, promising the little of their weather prophecies 325 turned out false. But his main not astrology, at least certain science. It is true that achievement was to set forth, in astrologers, and sounded the Guicciardini writes in the year the Fourth Book, a positive praises of free will, by which man 1529: ‘How happy are the Christian doctrine of the freedom is enabled to know God. astrologers, who are believed if of the will and the government of Astrology remained more or less they tell one truth to a hundred the universe, which seems to in fashion, but seems not to have lies, while other people lose all have made a greater impression governed human life in the way it credit if they tell one lie to a on the educated classes formerly had done. The art of hundred truths.’ But the throughout Italy than all the painting, which in the fifteenth contempt for astrology did not revivalist preachers put together. century had done its best to necessarily lead to a return to the The latter, in fact, often failed to foster the delusion now belief in Providence. It could as reach these classes. expressed the altered tone of easily lead to an indefinite thought. Raphael, in the cupola fatalism. The first result of his book was of the Capella Chigi, represents that the astrologers ceased to the gods of the different planets In this respect, as in others, Italy publish their doctrines, and those and the starry firmament, was unable to make its own way who had already printed them watched, however, and guided healthily through the ferment of were more or less ashamed of by beautiful angel-figures, and the Renaissance, because the what they had done. Gioviano receiving from above the foreign invasion and the Counter- Pontano, for example, in his book blessing of the eternal Father. Reformation came upon it in the on Fate, had recognized the There was also another cause middle. Without such interfering science, and in a great work of which now began to tell against causes its own strength would his had expounded the whole astrology in Italy. The Spaniards have enabled it thoroughly to get theory of it in the style of the old took no interest in it, not even the rid of these fantastic illusions. Firmicus, ascribing to the stars generals, and those who wished Those who hold that the the growth of every bodily and to gain their favour declared onslaught of the strangers and spiritual quality. He now in his open war against the half- the Catholic reactions were dialogue Aegidius surrendered, if heretical, half-Mohammedan necessities for which the Italian 326 people was itself solely innocent sort, was connected. come to be considered as living responsible, will look on the There was, however. no lack of symbols of the State. During the spiritual bankruptcy which they learned humanists who boldly siege of Florence, in 1597 an produced as a just retribution. ridiculed these delusions, and to eagle which had been shot at But it is a pity that the rest of whose attacks we partly owe the fled into the city, and the Signoria Europe had indirectly to pay so knowledge of them. Gioviano gave the bearer four ducats large a part of the penalty. Pontano, the author of the great because the omen was good. astrological work already Certain times and places were The belief in omens seems a mentioned above, enumerates favourable or unfavorable, or much more innocent matter than with pity in his Charon a long even decisive one way or the astrology. The Middle Ages had string of Neapolitan other, for certain actions. The everywhere inherited them in superstitions—the grief of the Florentines, so Varchi tells us, abundance from the various women when a fowl or goose held Saturday to be the fateful pagan religions; and Italy did not caught the pip; the deep anxiety day on which all important differ in this respect from other of the nobility if a hunting falcon events, good as well as bad, countries. What is characteristic did not come home, or if a horse commonly happened. Their of Italy is the support lent by sprained its foot; the magical prejudice against marching out to humanism to the popular formulae of the Apulian war through a particular street superstition. The pagan peasants, recited on three has been already mentioned. At inheritance was here backed up Saturday evenings, when mad Perugia one of the gates, the by a pagan literary development. dogs were at large. The animal Porta Eburnea, was thought kingdom, as in antiquity, was lucky, and the Baglioni always The popular superstition of the regarded as specially significant went out to fight through it. Italians rested largely on in this respect, and the behavior Meteors and the appearance of premonitions and inferences of the lions, leopards, and other the heavens were as significant drawn from ominous beasts kept by the State gave the in Italy as elsewhere in the occurrences. with which a good people all the more food for Middle Ages, and the popular deal of magic, mostly of an reflection, because they had imagination saw warring armies 327 in an unusual formation of conspiracy of 1478, In Florence, auguries, and instances of this clouds, and heard the clash of which is called after his family. have been already quoted. If their collision high in the air. The When he was put to death, he further evidence were needed, it superstition became a more devoted his soul to Satan with would be found in Poggio. The serious matter when it attached fearful words; here, too, rain same radical thinker who denied itself to sacred things, when followed and threatened to ruin the rights of noble birth and the figures of the Virgin wept or the harvest; here, too, a party of inequality of men, not only moved the eyes, or when public men, mostly peasants, dug up believed in all the mediaeval calamities were associated with the body in the church, and stories of ghosts and devils, but some alleged act of impiety, for immediately the clouds departed also in prodigies after the ancient which the people demanded and the sun shone—'so gracious pattern, like those said to have expiation. In 1478, when was fortune to the opinion of the occurred on the last visit of Pope Piacenza was visited with a people’, adds the great scholar. Eugenius IV to Florence. 'Near violent and prolonged rainfall, it The corpse was first cast into Como there were seen one was said that there would be no unhallowed ground, the next day evening four thousand dogs, who dry weather until a certain usurer, dug up, and after a horrible took the road to Germany; these who had been lately buried in procession through the city were followed by a great herd of San Francesco, had ceased to thrown into the Arno. cattle, and these by an army on rest in consecrated earth. As the foot and horseback, some with bishop was not obliging enough These facts and the like bear a no heads and some with almost to have the corpse dug up the popular character, and might invisible heads, and then a young fellows of the town took it have occurred in the tenth, just gigantic horseman with another by force, dragged it down the as well as in the sixteenth herd of cattle behind him.’ streets amid frightful confusion, century. But now comes the Poggio also believes in a battle and at last threw it into the Po. literary influence of antiquity. We of magpies and jackdaws. He Even Politian accepted this point know positively that the even relates, perhaps without of view in speaking of Giacomo humanists were peculiarly being aware of it, a well- Pazzi, one of the chiefs of the accessible to prodigies and preserved piece of ancient 328 mythology. On the Dalmatian The Platonic Academy at universally malicious. The dead, coast a Triton had appeared, Florence was not free from these says the priest in a novel of bearded and horned, a genuine and other neoplatonic delusions Bandello, kill the little children. It sea-satyr, ending in fins and a of the Roman decadence. A 'few seems as if a certain shade was tail; he carried away women and words must here be given to the here thought of as separate from children from the shore, until five belief in demons and to the the soul, since the latter suffers stout-hearted washerwomen magic which was connected with in Purgatory, and when it killed him with sticks and stones. this belief. appears, does nothing but wail A wooden model of the monster, and pray. At other times what which was exhibited at Ferrara, The popular faith in what is called appears is not the ghost of a makes the whole story credible to the spirit-world was nearly the man, but of an event of a past Poggio. Though there were no same in Italy as elsewhere in condition of things. So the more oracles, and it was no Europe. In Italy as elsewhere neighbors explained the longer possible to take counsel of there were ghosts, that is, diabolical appearances in the old the gods, yet it became again the reappearances of deceased palace of the Visconti near San fashion to open Virgil at hazard, persons; and if the view taken of Giovanni in Conca, at Milan, and take the passage hit upon as them differed in any respect from since here it was that Bernab an omen (Sorted Virgilianae). that which prevailed in the North, Visconti had caused countless Nor can the belief in daemons the difference betrayed itself only victims of his tyranny to be current in the later period of in the ancient name ombra. tortured and strangled, and no antiquity have been without Even nowadays if such a shade wonder if there were strange influence on the Renaissance. presents itself, a couple of things to be seen. One evening The work of Iamblichus or Masses are said for its repose. a swarm of poor people with Abarnmon on the Mysteries of That the spirits of bad men candles in their hands appeared the Egyptians, which may have appear in a dreadful shape, is a to a dishonest guardian of the contributed to this result, was matter of course, but along with poor at Perugia, and danced printed in a Latin translation at this we find the notion that the round about him; a great figure the end of the fifteenth century. ghosts of the departed are spoke in threatening tones on 329 their behalf, it was St. Alo, the influence, especially as shown in fiends and sent them and their patron saint of the poorhouse. natural events, easily assumed a vessel to the bottom of the These modes of belief were so character of poetical greatness. waters. much a matter of course that the In the night before the great poets could make use of them as inundation of the Val d'Arno in To this belief the illusion was now something which every reader 1333, a pious hermit above added that by means of magical would understand. The Vallombrosa heard a diabolical arts it was possible to enter into appearance of the slain Lodovico tumult in his cell, crossed relations with the evil ones, and Pico under the walls of the himself, stepped to the door, and use their help to further the besieged Mirandola is finely saw a crowd of black and terrible purposes of greed, ambition, and represented by Castiglione. It is knights gallop by in amour. sensuality. Many persons were true that poetry made the freest When conjured to stand, one of probably accused of doing so use of these conceptions when them said: 'We go to drown the before the time when it was the poet himself had outgrown city of Florence on account of its actually attempted by many; but them. sins, if God will let us.’ With this, when the so-called magicians the nearly contemporary vision at and witches began to be burned, Italy, too, shared the belief in Venice (1340) may be compared, the deliberate practice of the demons with the other nations of out of which a great master of the black art became more frequent. the Middle Ages. Men were Venetian school, probably With the smoke of the fires in convinced that God sometimes Giorgione, made the marvelous which the suspected victims were allowed bad spirits of every class picture of a galley full of sacrificed, were spread the to exercise a destructive daemons, which speeds with the narcotic fumes by which numbers influence on parts of the world swiftness of a bird over the of ruined characters were and of human life. The only stormy lagoon to destroy the drugged into magic; and with reservation made was that the sinful island-city, until the three them many calculating impostors man to whom the Evil One came saintS, who have stepped became associated. as tempter, could use his free will unobserved into a poor to resist. In Italy the demonic boatman's skiff, exorcised the The primitive and popular form in 330 which the superstition had knowledge of their effect. since the Gaetan women have probably lived on uninterruptedly plenty of faith, were it not that the from the time of the Romans, The more innocent form of the monks balk me of my gains by was the art of the witch (strege). superstition, in which the explaining dreams, appeasing The witch, so long as she limited mendicant friar could venture to the anger of the saints for herself to mere divination, might appear as the competitor of the money, promising husbands to be innocent enough. were it not witch, is shown in the case of the the girls, men-children to the that the transition from prophecy witch of Gaeta whom we read of pregnant women, offspring to the to active help could easily, in Pontano. His traveller barren, and besides all this though often imperceptibly, be a Suppatius reaches her dwelling visiting the women at night when fatal downward step. She was while she is giving audience to a their husbands are away fishing, credited in such a case not only girl and a servingmaid, who in accordance with the with the power of exciting love or come to her with a black hen, assignations made in daytime at hatred between man and woman, nine eggs laid on a Friday, a church.’ Suppatius warns her but also with purely destructive duck, and some white thread, for against the envy of the and malignant arts, and was it is the third day since the new monastery, but she has no fear, especially charged with the moon. They are then sent away, since the guardian of it is an old sickness of little children, even and bidden to come again at acquaintance of hers. when the malady obviously came twilight. It is to be hoped that from the neglect and stupidity of nothing worse than divination is But the superstition further gave the parents. It is still intended. The mistress of the rise to a worse sort of witches, questionable how far she was servant-maid is pregnant by a namely those who deprived men supposed to act by mere magical monk; the girl's lover has proved of their health and life. In these ceremonies and formula, or by a untrue and has gone into a cases the mischief, when not conscious alliance with the monastery. The witch complains: sufficiently accounted for by the fiends, apart from the poisons ‘Since my husband's death I evil eye and the like, was and drugs which she support myself in this way, and naturally attributed to the aid of administered with a full should make a good thing of it, powerful spirits. The 331 punishment, as we have seen in Carrara, on the rocky coast of position, but personally he was the case of Finicella, was the Liguria, where I spent three not only freer from superstition stake; and yet a compromise with nights on the way to Basle; I also than his contemporaries, but he fanaticism was sometimes found that there was a mountain also stood a test on the subject practicable. According to the called Eryx, in Sicily, which was which not every educated man of laws of Perugia, for example, a dedicated to Venus, but I did not our own day could endure. At witch could settle the affair by know whether magic was taught the time of the Council of Basle, paying down 400 pounds. The here. But it came into my mind when he lay sick of the fever for matter was not then treated with while talking, that in Umbria, in seventy-five days at Milan, he the seriousness and consistency the old Duchy ()? near could never be persuaded to of later times. In the territories of the town of Nursia, there is a listen to the magic doctors, the Church? at Norcia (Nursia), cave beneath a steep rock, in though a man was brought to his the home of St. Benedict in the which water flows. There, as I bedside who a short time before upper Apennines, there was a remember to have heard, are had marvelously cured 2,000 perfect nest of witches and witches (strege), demons, and soldiers of fever in the camp of sorcerers, and no secret was nightly shades, and he that has Piccinino. While still an invalid, made of it. It is spoken of in one the courage can see and speak Aeneas rode over the mountains of the most remarkable letters of to ghosts (spiritus), and learn to Basle, and got well on the Aeneas Sylvius, belonging to his magical arts. I have not seen it, journey. earlier period. He writes to his nor taken any trouble about it, for brother: ‘The bearer of this came that which is learned with sin is We learn something more about to me to ask if I knew of a Mount better not learned at all.’ He the neighborhood of Norcia of Venus in Italy, for in such a nevertheless names his through the necromancer who place magical arts were taught, informant, and begs his brother tried to get Benvenuto Cellini into and his master, a Saxon and a to take the bearer of the letter to his power. A new book of magic great astronomer, was anxious to him, should he be still alive. was to be consecrated, and the learn them. I told him that I knew Aeneas goes far enough here in best place for the ceremony was of a Porto Venere not far from his politeness to a man of among the mountains in that 332 district. The master of the After the notorious Bull of root in a few unlucky Alpine magician had once, it is true, Innocent VIII (1484), witchcraft valleys, especially in the Val done the same thing near the and the persecution of witches Camonica; the system of abbey of Farfa, but had there grew into a great and revolting persecution had succeeded in found difficulties which did not system. The chief permanently infecting with the present themselves at Norcia; representatives of this system of delusion those populations which further, the peasants in the latter persecution were German were in any way predisposed for neighborhood were trustworthy Dominicans; and Germany and, it. This essentially German form people who had had practice in curiously enough, those parts of of witchcraft is what we should the matter, and who could afford Italy nearest Germany were the think of when reading the stories considerable help in case of countries most afflicted by this and novels of Milan or Bologna. need. The expedition did not plague. The bulls and injunctions That it did not make further take place, else Benvenuto of the Popes themselves refer, progress in Italy is probably due would probably have been able for example, to the Dominican to the fact that here a highly to tell us something of the Province of Lombardy, to developed stregheria was impostor's assistants. The whole Cremona, to the dioceses of already in existence, resting on a neighborhood was then Brescia and Bergamo. We learn different set of ideas. The Italian proverbial. Aretino says from Sprenger's famous witch practiced a trade, and somewhere of an enchanted theoretico-practical guide, the needed for it money and, above well, 'there dwell the sisters of Malleus Maleficarum, that forty- all, sense. We find nothing about the sibyl of Norcia and the aunt one witches were burnt at Como her of the hysterical dreams of of the Fata Gloriana’. And about in the first year after the the Northern witch, of marvelous the same time Trissino could still publication of the bull; crowds of journeys through the air, of celebrate the place in his great Italian women took refuge in the Incubus and Succubus; the epic with all the resources of territory of the Archduke business of the strega was to poetry and allegory as the home Sigismund, where they believed provide for other people's of authentic prophecy. themselves to be still safe. pleasures. If she was credited Witchcraft ended by taking firm with the power of assuming 333 different shapes, or of occasional practitioners arose of their charms was to make a transporting herself suddenly to who secretly learned from them heart of glowing ashes, and then distant places, she was so far some one or other of their arts, to pierce it while singing: Prima content to accept this reputation, and then used this knowledge on che'l fuoco spenghi, Fa ch'a mia as her influence was thereby their own account. The Roman porta venghi; Tal ti punga mio increased; on the other hand, it prostitutes, for example, tried to amore Quale io fo questo cuore. was perilous for her when the enhance their personal fear of her malice and attractions by charms of another There were other charms vengeance, and especially of her description in the style of the practiced by moonshine, with power for enchanting children, Horatian Canidia. Aretino may drawings on the ground, and cattle, and crops, became not only have known, but have figures of wax or bronze, which general. Inquisitors and also told the truth about them in doubtless represented the lover, magistrates were then most this particular. He gives a list of and were treated according to thoroughly in accord with popular the loathsome messes which circumstances. wishes if they burnt her. were to be found in their boxes— hair, skulls, ribs, teeth, dead These things were so customary By far the most important field for men's eyes, human skin, the that a woman who, without youth the activity of the strega lay, as navels of little children, the soles and beauty, nevertheless has been said, in love-affairs, of shoes and pieces of clothing exercised a powerful charm on and included the stirring up of from tombs. They even went men, naturally became love and of hatred, the producing themselves to the graveyard and suspected of witchcraft. The of abortion, the pretended fetched bits of rotten flesh, which mother of Sanga, secretary to murder of the unfaithful man or they slyly gave their lovers to Clement VII, poisoned her son's woman by magical arts, and eat—with more that is still worse. mistress, who was a woman of even the manufacture of poisons. Pieces of the hair and nails of the this kind. Unfortunately the son Owing to the unwillingness of lover were boiled in oil stolen died too, as well as a party of many persons to have to do with from the ever-burning lamps in friends who had eaten of the these women, class of the church. The most innocuous poisoned salad. 334 indirect proof of this lies in the At San Silvestro, on Soracte, he Next comes, not as helper, but fact that the most pious men had been receiving instruction as competitor to the witch, the believed that by prayer they from a pious hermit on the magician or enchanter— could obtain visions of good nothingness of earthly things and incantatore—who was still more spirits. Savonarola's mind was the worthlessness of human life; familiar with the most perilous filled with these things; the and when the night drew near he business of the craft. Sometimes Florentine Platonists speak of a set out on his way back to home. he was as much or more of an mystic union with God; and On the road, in the full light of the astrologer than of a magician; he Marcellus Palingenius gives us to moon, he was joined by three probably often gave himself out understand clearly enough that men, one of whom called him by as an astrologer in order not to he had to do with consecrated name, and asked him whence he be prosecuted as a magician, spirits. The same writer is came. Palingenius made and a certain astrology was convinced of the existence of a answer: 'From the wise man on essential in order to find out the whole hierarchy of bad demons, the mountain’. 'O fool,' replied favourable hour for a magical who have their seat from the the stranger, 'dost thou in truth process. But since many spirits moon downwards, and are ever believe that anyone on earth is are good or indifferent, the on the watch to do some mischief wise? Only higher beings (Divi) magician could sometimes to nature and human life. He have wisdom, and such are we maintain a very tolerable even tells of his own personal three, although we wear the reputation, and Sixtus IV, in the acquaintance with some of them, shapes of men. I am named year 1474, had to proceed and as the scope of the present Saracil, and these two Sathiel expressly against some work does not allow of a and Jana. Our kingdom lies near Bolognese Carmelites, who systematic exposition of the then the moon, where dwell that asserted in the pulpit that there prevalent belief in spirits, the multitude of intermediate beings was no harm in seeking narrative of Palingenius may be who have sway over earth and information from the demons. given as one instance out of sea.’ Palingenius then asked, Very many people believed in the many. not without an inward tremor, possibility of the thing itself; an what they were going to do at 335 Rome. The answer was: ‘One of doctrines, not with arguments, case of equivocal persons like our comrades, Ammon, is kept in but by the Spanish sword. This Agrippa, or of the knaves and servitude by the magic arts of a is wholly in the interest of the fools into whom the majority of youth from Narni, one of the demons, whom the impending the rest may be divided, there is attendants of Cardinal Orsini; for bloodshed would enable to carry little that is interesting in the mark it, O men, there is proof of away the souls of thousands into system they profess, with its your own immortality therein, that hell. At the close of this formula, fumigations, ointments, you can control one of us: I conversation, in which Rome with and the rest of it. But this system myself shut up in crystal, was all its guilt is represented as was filled with quotations from once forced to serve a German, wholly given over to the Evil One, the superstitions of antiquity, the until a bearded monk set me the apparitions vanish, and leave influence of which on the life and free. This is the service which the poet sorrowfully to pursue his the passions of Italians is at we wish to render at Rome to our way alone. times most remarkable and friend, and he shall also take the fruitful. We might think that a opportunity of sending one or two Those who would form a great mind must be thoroughly distinguished Romans to the conception of the extent of the ruined, before it surrendered nether world.’ At these words a belief in those relations to the itself to such influences; but the light breeze arose, and Sathiel demons which could be openly violence of hope and desire led said: 'Listen, our messenger is avowed in spite of the penalties even vigorous and original men coming back from Rome, and attaching to witchcraft, may be of all classes to have recourse to this wind announces him.’ And referred to the much-read work of the magician, and the belief that then another being appeared, Agrippa of Nettesheim On secret the thing was feasible at all whom they greeted joyfully and Philosophy. He seems originally weakened to some extent the then asked about Rome. His to have written it before he was faith, even of those who kept at a utterances are strongly anti- in Italy, but in the dedication to distance, in the moral order of papal: Clement VII was again Trithemius he mentions Italian the world. At the cost of a little allied with the Spaniards and authorities among others, if only money and danger it seemed hoped to root out Luther's by way of disparagement. In the possible to defy with impunity the 336 universal reason and morality of centuries the priest naturally the first two of which seemed to mankind, and to spare oneself became transformed into the determine the whole fortune of the intermediate steps which magician, since the religious side the city. Medieval Rome also otherwise lie between a man and of his function was no longer preserved confused recollections his lawful or unlawful ends. understood. In some of the of the same kind. At the church Virgilian miracles at Naples, the of Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, there Let us here glance for a moment ancient remembrance of one of was an ancient marble Hercules; at an older and now decaying these Telestae is clearly so long, it was said, as this stood form of superstition. From the preserved, his name being in in its place, so long would the darkest period of the Middle course of time supplanted by that Empire last. That of the Ages, or even from the days of of Virgil. The enclosing of the Germans is probably meant, as antiquity, many cities of Italy had mysterious picture of the city in a the coronation of their emperors kept the remembrance of the vessel is neither more nor less at Milan took place in this church. connection of their fate with than a genuine ancient Telesma; The Florentines were convinced certain buildings, statues, or and Virgil, as founder of Naples, that the temple of Mars, other material objects. The is but the officiating priest who afterwards transformed into the ancients had left records of took part in the ceremony, Baptistery, would stand to the consecrating priests or Telestae, presented in another dress. The end of time, according to the who were present at the solemn popular imagination went on constellation under which it had foundation of cities, and working at these themes, until been built; they had, as magically guaranteed their Virgil became also responsible Christians, removed from it the prosperity by erecting certain for the brazen horse, for the marble equestrian statue; but monuments or by burying certain heads at the Nolan gate, for the since the destruction of the latter objects (Telesmata). Traditions brazen fly over another gate, and would have brought some great of this sort were more likely than even for the Grotto of Posilippo— calamity on the city—also anything else to live on in the all of them things which in one according to a constellation— form of popular, unwritten respect or other served to put a they set it upon a tower by the legend; but in the course of magical constraint upon fate, and Arno. When Totila conquered 337 Florence, the statue fell into the Albornoz was governor of biographer were in any way river, and was not fished out Romagna some sixty years later, conscious of the mediaeval again until Charlemagne the statue was accidentally dug religious significance of such an refounded the city. It was then up and then shown to the people, offering. placed on a pillar at the entrance probably by the order of the to the Ponte Vecchio, and on this Cardinal, that it might be known But this official magic, which in spot Buondelmonti was slain in by what means the cruel many cases only rests on 1215. The origin of the great Montefeltro had defended himself hearsay, was comparatively feud between Guelph and against the Roman Church. And unimportant by the side of the Ghibelline was thus associated again, half a century later, when secret arts practiced for personal with the dreaded idol. During the an attempt to surprise Forli had ends. inundation of 1333 the statue failed, men began to talk afresh vanished for ever. of the virtue of the statue, which The form which these most often had perhaps been saved and took in daily life is shown by But the same Telesma reappears reburied. It was the last time that Ariosto in his comedy of the elsewhere. Guido Bonatto, they could do so; for a year later necromancers. His hero is one already mentioned, was not Forli was really taken. The of the many Jewish exiles from satisfied, at the refounding of the foundation of buildings all Spain, although he also gives walls of Forli, with requiring through the fifteenth century was himself out for a Greek, an certain symbolic acts of associated not only with Egyptian, and an African, and is reconciliation from the two astrology but also with magic. constantly changing his name parties. By burying a bronze or The large number of gold and and costume. He pretends that stone equestrian statue, which silver medals which Paul II buried his incantations can darken the he had produced by astrological in the foundation of his buildings day and lighten the darkness, or magical arts, he believed that was noticed, and Platina was by that he can move the earth, he had defended the city from no means displeased to make himself invisible, and ruin, and even from capture and recognize an old pagan Telesma change men into beasts; but plunder. When Cardinal in the fact. Neither Paul nor his these vaunts are only an 338 advertisement. His true object is his will, to find out the secret of find him a useful coadjutor in the to make his account out of princes, and to transport himself future, paid him the compliment unhappy and troubled marriages, in the twinkling of an eye from as they went home of saying that and the traces which he leaves Milan to Rome. The more often he had never met a man of so behind him in his course are like he is deceived, the more sturdy a courage. Every reader the slime of a snail, or often like steadfastly he believes.... Do will make his own reflections on the ruin wrought by a hailstorm. you remember the time, Signor the proceedings themselves. To attain his ends he can Carlo, when a friend of ours, in The narcotic fumes and the fact persuade people that the box in order to win a favour of his that the imaginations of the which a lover is hidden is full of beloved, filled his room with spectators were predisposed for ghosts, or that he can make a skulls and bones like a all possible terrors, are the chief corpse talk. It is at all events a churchyard?' The most points to be noticed, and explain good sign that poets and loathsome tasks were why the lad who formed one of novelists could reckon on popular prescribed—to draw three teeth the party, and on whom they applause in holding up this class from a corpse or a nail from its made most impression, saw of men to ridicule. Bandello not finger, and the like; and while the much more than the others. but only treats this sorcery of a hocus-pocus of the incantation it may be inferred that Benvenuto Lombard monk as a miserable, was going on, the unhappy himself was the one whom it was and in its consequences terrible, participants sometimes died of wished to impress, since the piece of knavery, but he also terror. dangerous beginning of the describes with unaffected incantation can have had no indignation the disasters which Benvenuto Cellini did not die other aim than to arouse never cease to pursue the during the well-known incantation curiosity. For Benvenuto had to credulous fool. 'A man hopes (1532) in the Colosseum at think before the fair Angelica with Solomon's Key and other Rome, although both he and his occurred to him; and the magical books to find the companions witnessed no magician told him afterwards that treasures hidden in the bosom of ordinary horrors; the Sicilian love-making was folly compared the earth, to force his lady to do priest, who probably expected to with the finding of treasures. 339 Further, it must not be forgotten time the incessant observation commander of the besieged that it flattered his vanity to be and representation of the human town, Niccolo Vitelli in Citta di able to say, 'The demons have form made the artist familiar with Castello had the good sense to kept their word, and Angelica a magic of a wholly different sort. dismiss the sorcerers as godless came into my hands, as they persons. In the sixteenth century promised, just a month later’ (I, In general, notwithstanding the no more instances of this official cap. 68). Even on the instances which have been kind appear, although in private supposition that Benvenuto quoted, magic seems to have life the magicians were still gradually lied himself into been markedly on the decline at active. To this time belongs the believing the whole story, it the beginning of the sixteenth classic figure of German sorcery, would still be permanently century—that is to say, at a time Dr. Johann Faust; the Italian valuable as evidence of the when it first began to flourish ideal, on the other hand, Guido mode of thought then prevalent. vigorously out of Italy; and thus Bonatto, dates back to the the tours of Italian sorcerers and thirteenth century. As a rule, however, the Italian astrologers in the North seem not artists, even 'the odd, capricious, to have begun until their credit at It must nevertheless be added and eccentric' among them, had home was thoroughly impaired. that the decrease of the belief in little to do with magic. One of In the fourteenth century it was magic was not necessarily them, in his anatomical studies, thought necessary carefully to accompanied by an increase of may have cut himself a jacket out watch the lake on Mount Pilatus, the belief in a moral order, but of the skin of a corpse, but at the near Scariotto, to hinder the that in many cases, like the advice of his confessor he put it magicians from there decaying faith in astrology, the again into the grave. Indeed the consecrating their books. In the delusion left behind it nothing but frequent study of anatomy fifteenth century we find, for a stupid fatalism. probably did more than anything example, that the offer was made else to destroy the belief in the to produce a storm of rain, in One or two minor forms of this magical influence of various parts order to frighten away a besieged superstition, pyromancy, of the body, while at the same army; and even then the chiromancy and others, which 340 obtained some credit as the romana—is of opinion that the Pandolfo Malatesta of Rimini, to belief in sorcery and astrology predictions contained therein had whom he had prophesied the was declining, may be here only too much truth in them We worst that a tyrant can imagine, passed over, and even the learn from the same source how namely, death in exile and in the pseudo-science of physiognomy the people aimed at in these and most grievous poverty. Tiberto has by no means the interest similar prophecies took was a man of intelligence, who which the name might lead us to vengeance on a seer. Giovanni was supposed to give his expect. For it did not appear as Bentivoglio caused Lucas answers less according to any the sister and ally of art and Gauricus to be five times swung methodical chiromancy than by psychology, but as a new form of to and fro against the wall, on a means of his shrewd knowledge fatalistic superstition, and, what it rope hanging from a lofty, of mankind; and his high culture may have been among the winding staircase, because won for him the respect of those Arabs, as the rival of astrology. Lucas had foretold to him the scholars who thought little of his The author of a physiognomical loss of his authority. Ermes divination. treatise, Bartolommeo Cocle, Bentivoglio sent an assassin who styled himself a after Cocle, because the unlucky Alchemy, in conclusion, which is metoposcopist, and whose metopOscopist had unwillingly not mentioned in antiquity until science, according to Giovio, prophesied to him that he would quite late under Diocletian, seemed like one of the most die an exile in battle. The played only a very subordinate respectable of the free arts, was murderer seems to have derided part at the best period of the not content with the prophecies the dying man in his last Renaissance. Italy went through which he made to the many moments, saying that Cocle the disease earlier, when people who daily consulted him, himself had foretold him he Petrarch in the fourteenth century but wrote also a most serious would shortly commit an confessed, in his polemic against 'catalogue of such whom great infamous murder. The reviver of it, that gold-making was a dangers to life were awaiting’. chiromancy, Antioco Tiberto of general practice. Since then that Giovio, although grown old in the Cesena, came by an equally particular kind of faith, devotion, free thought of Rome in hac luce miserable end at the hands of and isolation which the practice 341 of alchemy required became generally, the decline in the belief possible to live as an open and more and more rare in Italy, just of immortality stands in the notorious unbeliever, if a man when Italian and other adepts closest connection. This only refrained from direct acts of began to make their full profit out questiOn has the widest and hostility against the Church. The of the great lords in the North. deepest relations with the whole confessor, for instance, who was Under Leo X the few Italians who development of the modern spirit. sent to prepare a political busied themselves with it were offender for death, began by called ingenia curiosa, and One great source of doubt in inquiring whether the prisoner Aurelio Augurelli, who dedicated immortality was the inward wish was a believer, 'for there was a to Leo X, the great despiser of to be under no obligations to the false report that he had no belief gold, his didactic poem on the hated Church. We have seen at all.' making of the metal, is said to that the Church branded those have received in return a who thus felt as Epicureans. In The unhappy transgressor here beautiful but empty purse. The the hour of death many doubtless referred to—the same Pierpaolo mystic science which besides called for the sacraments, but Boscoli who has been already gold sought for the omnipotent multitudes during their whole mentioned—who in 1513 took philosopher's stone, is a late lives, and especially during their part in an attempt against the northern growth, which had its most vigorous years, lived and newly restored family of the rise in the theories of Paracelsus acted on the negative Medici, is a faithful mirror of the and others. supposition. That unbelief on religious confusion then this particular point must often prevalent. Beginning as a have led to a general skepticism, partisan of Savonarola, he is evident of itself, and is attested became afterwards possessed General Spirit of Doubt by abundant historical proof. with an enthusiasm for the These are the men of whom ancient ideals of liberty, and for Ariosto says: 'Their faith goes no paganism in general; but when With these superstitions, as with higher than the roof.’ In Italy, he was in prison his early friends ancient modes of thought and especially in Florence, it was regained the control of his mind, 342 and secured for him what they man has learned in life does he answer: 'Father, waste no time considered a pious ending. The possess in death. Luca then on this; the philosophers have tender witness and narrator of his reads and explains to him the taught it me already; help me to last hours is one of the artistic story of the Passion according to bear death out of love to Christ.’ family of the Della Robbia, the the Gospel of St. John; the poor What follows, the communion, learned philologist Luca. 'Ah,' listener, strange to say, can the leave-taking and the sighs Boscoli, 'get Brutus out of perceive clearly the Godhead of execution—is very touchingly my head for me, that I may go Christ, but is perplexed at His described; one point deserves my way as a Christian’. 'If you manhood; he wishes to get as special mention. When Boscoli will,' answers Luca, 'the thing is firm a hold of it 'as if Christ came laid his head on the block, he not difficult; for you know that to meet him out of a wood’. His begged the executioner to delay these deeds of the Romans are friend thereupon exhorts him to the stroke for a moment: ‘During not handed down to us as they be humble, since this was only a the whole time since the were, but idealized (con arte doubt sent him by the Devil. announcement of the sentence accresciute)’. The penitent now Soon after it occurs to the he had been striving after a close forces his understanding to penitent that he has not fulfilled a union with God, without attaining believe, and bewails his inability vow made in his youth to go on it as he wished, and now in this to believe voluntarily. If he could pilgrimage to the Impruneta; his supreme moment he thought that only live for a month with pious friend promises to do it in his by a strong effort he could give monks he would truly become stead. Meantime the himself wholly to God.’ It is spiritually minded. It comes out confessor—a monk, as was clearly some half-understood that these partisans of desired, from Savonarola's expression of Savonarola which Savonarola knew their Bible very monastery—arrives, and after was troubling him. imperfectly; Boscoli can only say giving him the explanation the Paternoster and Ave Maria, quoted above of the opinion of If we had more confessions of and earnestly begs Luca to St. Thomas Aquinas on this character the spiritual picture exhort his friends to study the tyrannicide, exhorts him to bear of the time would be richer by sacred writings, for only what a death manfully. Boscoli makes many important features which 343 no poem or treatise has spiritual faculties. We have of antiquity, and worked in a preserved for us. We should see already spoken of the inevitable twofold fashion on the argument. more clearly how strong the worldliness of the Renaissance. In the first place men set inborn religious instinct was, how But this investigation and this art themselves to master the subjective and how variable the were necessarily accompanied psychology of the ancients, and relation of the individual to by a general spirit of doubt and tortured the letter of Aristotle for religion, and what powerful inquiry. If this spirit shows itself a decisive answer. In one of the enemies and competitors religion but little in literature, if we find, Lucianic dialogues of the time, had. That men whose inward for example, only isolated Charon tells Mercury how he condition is of this nature, are not instances of the beginnings of questioned Aristotle on his belief the men to found a new church, biblical criticism, we are not in immortality, when the is evident; but the history of the therefore to infer that it had no philosopher crossed in the Western spirit would be imperfect existence. The sound of it was Stygian boat; but the prudent without a view of that fermenting only overpowered by the need of sage, although dead in the body period among the Italians, while representation and creation in all and nevertheless living on, other nations, who have had no departments— that is, by the declined to compromise himself share in the evolution of thought, artistic instinct; and it was further by a definite answer—and may be passed over without loss. checked, whenever it tried to centuries later how was it likely to But we must return to the express itself theoretically, by the fare with the interpretation of his question of immortality. If already existing despotism of the writings? All the more eagerly unbelief in this respect made Church. This spirit of doubt did men dispute about his such progress among the more must, for reasons too obvious to opinion and that of others on the highly cultivated natures, the need discussion, have inevitably true nature of the soul, its origin, reason lay partly in the fact that and chiefly busied itself with the its pre-existence, its unity in all the great earthly task of question of the state of man after men, its absolute eternitY, even discovering the world and death. its transformations; and there representing it in word and form, were men who treated of these absorbed most of the higher And here came in the influence things in the pulpit. The dispute 344 was warmly carried on even in century the stumbling-block the fifteenth century; some which it put in the way of the There was a second way in proved that Aristotle taught the Church was so serious that Leo which the influence of antiquity doctrine of an immortal soul; X set forth a Constitution at the made itself felt, chiefly by means others complained of the Lateran Council in 1513, in of that remarkable fragment of hardness of men's hearts, who defence of the immortality and the sixth book of Cicero's would not believe that there was individuality of the soul, the latter Republic, known by the name of a soul at all, until they saw it against those who asserted that Scipio's Dream. Without the sitting down on a chair before there was but one soul in all commentary of Macrobius it them; Filelfo, in his funeral men. A few years later appeared would probably have perished oration on Francesco Sforza, the work of Pomponazzo, in like the rest of the second part of brings forward a long list of which the impossibility of a the work; it was now diffused in opinions of ancient and even of philosophical proof of immortality countless manuscript copies, Arab philosophers in favour of is maintained; and the contest and, after the discovery of immortality, and closes the was now waged incessantly with typography, in a printed form and mixture, which covers a folio replies and 'apologies’, until it edited afresh by various page and a half of print, with the was silenced by the Catholic commentators. It is the words, 'Besides all this we have reaction. The pre-existence of description of a transfigured the Old and New Testaments, the soul in God, conceived more hereafter for great men, which are above all truth’. Then or less in accordance with Plato's pervaded by the harmony of the came the Florentine Platonists theory of ideas, long remained a spheres. This pagan heaven, for with their master's doctrine of the common belief, and proved of which many other testimonies soul, supplemented at times, as service even to the poets. The were gradually extracted from the in the case of Pico, by Christian consequences which followed writings of the ancients, came teaching. But the opposite from it as to the mode of the step by step to supplant the opinion prevailed in the soul's continued existence after Christian heaven in proportion as instructed world. At the death were not more closely the ideal of fame and historical beginning of the sixteenth considered. greatness threw into the shade 345 the ideal of the Christian life, entrance to Hell, the poetry of a he had often discoursed on the without, nevertheless, the public later time accepted joyfully the immortality of the soul, and feeling being thereby offended as new liberal ideas of a future life. whom he now asked whether it it was by the doctrine of personal Cosimo the Elder, according to was true that the pains of Hell annihilation after death. Even Bernardo Pulci's poem on his were really dreadful and eternal. Petrarch founds his hope chiefly death, was received in heaven by The shadow gave an answer like on this Dream of Scipio, on the Cicero, who had also been called that of Achilles when Odysseus declarations found in other the 'father of his country’, by the questioned him. 'So much I tell Ciceronian works, and on Plato's Fabii, by Curius, Fabricius and and aver to thee, that we who are Phaedo, without making any many others; with them he would parted from earthly life have the mention of the Bible. 'Why’, he adorn the choir where only strongest desire to return to it asks elsewhere, 'should not I as blameless spirits sing. again.’ He then saluted his friend a Catholic share a hope which and disappeared. was demonstrably cherished by But in the old writers there was the heathen?' Soon afterwards another and less pleasing picture It cannot but be recognized that Coluccio Salutati wrote his of the world to come—the such views of the state of man Labors of Hercules (still existing shadowy realms of Homer and of after death partly presuppose in manuscript), in which it is those poets who had not and partly promote the proved at the end that the sweetened and humanized the dissolution of the most essential valorous man, who has well conception. This made an dogmas of Christianity. The endured the great labors of impression on certain notion of sin and of salvation earthly life, is justly entitled to a temperaments. Gioviano must have almost entirely dwelling among the stars. If Pontano somewhere attributes to evaporated. We must not be Dante still firmly maintained that Sannazaro the story of a vision misled by the effects of the great the great pagans, whom he which he beheld one morning preachers of repentance or by would have gladly welcomed in early while half awake. He the epidemic revivals which have Paradise, nevertheless must not seemed to see a departed friend, been described above. For even come beyond the Limbo at the Ferrandus Januarius, with whom granting that the individually 346 developed classes had shared in both sides of human nature. The This mode of faith does not them like the rest, the cause of passive and contemplative form exclude Christianity, and can their participation was rather the of Christianity, with its constant either ally itself with the Christian need of emotional excitement, reference to a higher world doctrines of sin, redemption, and the rebound of passionate beyond the grave, could no immortality, or else exist and natures, the horror felt at great longer control these men. flourish without them. national calamities, the cry to Machiavelli ventured still further, heaven for help. The awakening and maintained that it could not Sometimes this belief presents of the conscience had by no be serviceable to the State and itself with childish naivete and means necessarily the sense of to the maintenance of public even with a half-pagan air, God sin and the felt need of salvation freedom. appearing as the almighty fulfiller as its consequence and even a of human wishes. Agnolo very severe outward penance did The form assumed by the strong Pandolfini tells us how, after his not perforce involve any religious instinct which, wedding, he shut himself in with repentance in the Christian notwithstanding all, survived in his wife, and knelt down before meaning of the word. When the many natures, was Theism or the family altar with the picture of powerful natures of the Deism, as we may please to call the Madonna, and prayed, not to Renaissance tell us that their it. The latter name may be her, but to God, that He would principle is to repent of nothing, applied to that mode of thought vouchsafe to them the right use they may have in their minds only which simply wiped away the of their property, a long life in joy matters that are morally Christian element out of religion, and unity with one another, and indifferent, faults of unreason or without either seeking or finding many male descendants: 'For imprudence; but in the nature of any other substitute for the myself I prayed for wealth, the case this contempt for feelings to rest upon. Theism honour, and friends for her repentance must extend to the may be considered that definite blamelessness, honesty, and that sphere of morals, because its heightened devotion to the one she might be a good origin, namely the consciousness Supreme Being which the Middle housekeeper.’ When the of individual force, is common to Ages were not acquainted with. language used has a strong 347 antique flavor, it is not always In these utterances and the like, and especially in Lorenzo il easy to keep apart the pagan it would be vain to look for a Magnifico himself. The style and the theistic belief. conscious and consistent theoretical works and even the Theism; the speakers partly letters of these men show us only This temper sometimes believed themselves to be still half their nature. It is true that manifests itself in times of Christians, and for various other Lorenzo, from his youth until he misfortune with a striking reasons respected the existing died, expressed himself sincerity. Some addresses to doctrines of the Church. But at dogmatically as a Christian, and God are left us from the latter the time of the Reformation, that Pico was drawn by period of Firenzuola, when for when men were driven to come Savonarola's influence to accept years he lay ill of fever, in which, to a distinct conclusion on such the point of view of a monkish though he expressly declares points, this mode of thought was ascetic. But in the hymns of himself a believing Christian, he accepted with a fuller Lorenzo, which we are tempted shows that his religious consciousness; a number of the to regard as the highest product consciousness is essentially Italian Protestants came forward of the spirit of this school, an theistic. His sufferings seem to as Anti-Trinitarians and unreserved Theism is set forth a him neither as the punishment of Socinians, and even as exiles in Theism which strives to treat the sin, nor as preparation for a distant countries made the world as a great moral and higher world; they are an affair memorable attempt to found a physical Cosmos. between him and God only, who church on these principles. From has put the strong love of life the foregoing exposition it will be While the men of the Middle between man and his despair. 'I clear that, apart from humanistic Ages look on the world as a vale curse, but only curse Nature, rationalism, other spirits were at of tears, which Pope and since Thy greatness forbids me work in this field. Emperor are set to guard against to utter Thy name.... Give me the coming of Antichrist; while death, Lord, I beseech Thee, One chief centre of theistic the fatalists of the Renaissance give it me now!' modes of thought lay in the oscillate between seasons of Platonic Academy at Florence, overflowing energy and seasons 348 of superstition or of stupid resignation, here, in this circle of chosen spirits, the doctrine is upheld that the visible world was created by God in love, that it is the copy of a pattern pre-existing in Him, and that He will ever remain its eternal mover and restorer. The soul of man can by recognizing God draw Him into its narrow boundaries, but also by love of Him expand itself into the Infinite—and this is blessedness on earth.

Echoes of medieval mysticism here flow into one current with Platonic doctrines and with a characteristically modern spirit. One of the most precious fruits of the knowledge of the world and of man here comes to maturity, on whose account alone the Italian Renaissance must be called the leader of modern ages.

THE END

349 medieval society to the modern About the Author and spirit occurring in Italy in the 14th The Author – A and 15th cent. The strife between this Book Summary empire and papacy had created a political and moral vacuum, leading to the birth of the modern Jacob Burckhardt self-conscious state and the liberation of the creative Born 1818, died 1897, Swiss individual. Burckhardt saw historian, one of the founders of as the the cultural interpretation of revival of classical antiquity, and history. He studied under Ranke the era as one of man’s joyous at the Univ. of Berlin and taught new discovery of himself and the (1844–53, 1858–93) art history world about him. He profoundly and history at the Univ. of Basel. influenced his friend Nietzche, His best-known work is Die and the work of J. A. Symonds is Kultur der Renaissance in Italien based largely on Burckhardt’s (1860, The Civilization of the synthesis. In The Age of Renaissance in Italy, available in Constantine the Great (1852, tr. many English editions). It 1949), Burckhardt analyzed the remains the classic on the transition from classical times to subject, although its primarily the Middle Ages. Among his political and cultural other works on history and art is interpretation of the Renaissance Cicerone (1855), a guide to is controversial among historians. Italian art. Selections from his Believing in a pattern of culture posthumously published lecture peculiar to each age, Burckhardt notes on ancient Greece have found the shift from corporate appeared in translation as The 350 Greeks and Greek Civilization individuality. The early signs of the same time asserted with (1998). Burckhardt feared that "the modern European Spirit" corresponding emphasis; man spiritual and aesthetic human were according to Burckhardt became a spiritual individual and values were doomed to seen in Florence. Since the recognized himself as such." submersion by the rise of publication of his book, Florence (from The Civilization of the industrial democracy. has been regarded as the city Renaissance in Italy) where Petrarch's dream of revival From The Columbia took deepest root. Jacob Christoph Burckhard was Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. born in Basel as the son of a Copyright © 2002 Columbia "In the Middle Ages both sides of pastor. His family was one of the University Press human consciousness - that most distinguished in the city - which was turned within as that eleven ancestors had served its which was turned without - lay Bürgermeister. Also the family of The Author – A Longer dreaming or half-awake beneath Burckhardt's mother, Susanne Essay a common veil. The veil was Maria (née Schorendorf), had woven of faith, illusion and lived in Basel for generations. childish prepossessions, through Following the wishes of his Jacob Burckhardt which the world and history were father, in 1836 Burckhardt started seen clad in strange hues. Man to study theology the University Swiss historian and art historian, was conscious of himself only as of Basel. After becoming under best known for his works on the a member of a race, people, the influence of the German Italian Renaissance and on party, family or corporation - only theologian and biblical critic, Greek civilization. Burckhardt's through some general category. W.M.L. de Wette, Burckhardt famous thesis in DIE KULTUR In Italy this veil first melted into abandoned his theological DER RENAISSANCE IN air; an objective treatment and studies, and entered University of ITALIEN (1860) was that consideration of the state and all Berlin in the early 1840s. He Renaissance first gave the things of this world became studied history and the history of highest development to possible. The subjective side at art under Leopold von Ranke 351 (1795-1886), whose methods of in Zurich. From 1858 to 1893 he whose thought deeply influenced historical study he adopted. held chair of history and art Wölfflin, Baroque meant Before publishing his first major history at the University of Basel. degeneration and disruption of work, DIE ZEIT CONSTANTINS Between 1846 and 1856 he the classical Renaissance style. DES GROSSEN (1853), made several long trips to Italy, The Greek Civilization fascinated Burckhardt revised and edited partly to escape his feeling of Burckhardt as much as the the Handbuch der Geschichte oppression and loneliness. Renaissance. In GRIECHISCHE der Malerei (1847) and the Florence was for Burckhardt the KULTURGESCHICHTE (1898- Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte "most important workshop of the 1902) he argued that myth is the by his teacher Franz Kugler Italian, and indeed of the modern underlying gived factor in Greek (1848). European spirit." Burckhardt was existence. "It illuminated the a life-long bachelor, but it seems whole of the present for the In 1844 Burckhardt edited Basel that he had an unsuccesfull Greeks, everywhere and until a Zeitung, complaining increasingly courtship in the late 1840s. This very late date, as though it that the city was extremely experience perhaps was behind belonged to a quite recent past; boring, and eventually he his two short volumes of poetry, and essentially it presented a resigned from his post. At that FERIEN. EINE HERBSTGABE sublime reaction of the time Basel was still a small, (1849) and E. HÄMPFELI perceptions and the life of the provincial centre, ruled by LIEDER (1853). nation itself." centuries-old oligarchy. Friedrich Engels described it as a "barren One of Burckhardt's students in Except the time he spent in town, full of frock-coats, cocked Basel was Heinrich Wolfflin Zurich and his trips to Italy, hats, philistines and patricians (1864-1945), who become an Burckhardt lived in his native and Methodists". Bonn and Berlin editor of Burckhardt's work. In town, although it was not until the inspired Burckhardt more. In Renaissance und Barock (1888), 1870s, that he felt there really at 1848 Burckhardt taught at the Wölfflin made a clear historical home. From Burckhardt's Pädagogium in Basel and in distinction between these two apartment, a few rooms above a 1855 at the Polytechnic Institute styles. For Jacob Burckhardt, bakery, was a short walk to the 352 university. In Basel, he was Basel intellectually stimulative, Just before he become insane, considered "liberal" and "rather one of his reasons to stay there he sent a letter to Burckhardt. too much of a freethinker". As he was his deep rooted local Nietzsche wrote that he would analyzed the worldliness of patriotism - he felt that as a rather have been a Swiss Renaissance, Burckhardt wrote Basler at the university he was professor than God. Always in The Civilization of the "bound by sense of honor and reserved, Burckhardt gave the Renaissance in Italy: "To the duty." letter to Franz Overbeck, another study of man, among many other friend of Nietzsche. Burckhardt causes, was due the tolerance Burckhardt was Nietzsche's elder died in Basle on August 8, 1897. and indifference with which the colleague at Basel and the Mohammedan religion was philosopher attended some of On his deathbed, he gave regarded". Carl Jung and other Burckhardt's lectures. They had permission to print his historical- young students regarded also some long conversations. philosophical lecture notes. Burckhardt as a part of the As personalities, they were Werner Kägi, Burckhardt's atmosphere of the city and his opposites - Burckhardt was successor in the chair of history, anti-modernism was not a outwardly more calm and edited his letters. Among serious issue - everybody read reserved than Nietzsche, but Burckhardt's friends was the him. they both were free from religious writer Paul von Heyse; their prejudices of the time. Some of correspondence was published in Burckhardt lectured on both their ideas, such as the 1974. Heyse received the Nobel history and art history, and later interpretation of classical Greek Prize for Literature in 1910, the he even abandoned the purely culture, had similarities. first German to be so honored. historical discipline. He also gave Nietzsche first admired greatly a number of public lectures. In Wagner but then turned his back According to Burckhardt, the 1871, when he was offered to to him. Burckhardt always political organization was based succeed von Ranke as chair of disliked the composer. In his last in Italy on the city-state rather history, he rejected. Although works, Nietzsche paid his than , and "in the Burckhardt did not consider respects to the old professor. character of these States, 353 whether republics or despotisms, "spiritual individual and unscrupulous brutes. According lies, not the only, but the chief recognized himself as such." This to Burckhardt, condottieres were reason for the early development was also one of Burckhardt's "full of contempt for all sacred of the Italian." There in the city- starting points in his criticism of things, cruel and treacher", but at states the modern political spirit the decline of modern culture and the same time "the genius and of Europe emerged first, its values. Another was the capacity of many among them "surrendered freely to its own French Revolution. In 1868 he attained the highest conceivable instincts. Often displaying the opened a lecture, saying: "In the development". Burckhardt's worst features of an unbridled two months since our course portrayal anticipated Nietzsche's egotism, outraging every right, began, militarism has so 'overman' (superman), who and killing every germ of a increased, the economic struggle realizes his own unique healthier culture. But, wherever entered into such a terrible crisis, individuality. "Are you the this vicious tendency is that we have the right once again victorious one, the self- overcome or in any way to look back at where the shaking conqueror, the commander of compensated, a new fact began. We may thus once again your senses?" Nietzsche asked appears in history - the State as examine the course of the in Thus Spoke Zarathustra the outcome of reflection and French Revolution." Burckhardt's (1883). calculation, the State as a work thoughts of the loss of of art." This was a precondition to individualism influenced among Burckhardt emphasized the what Burckhardt and others the Spanish philosopher individual person as the starting Michelangelo called the "the José Ortega y Gasset (1883- point of historical study. "It is not discovery both of the world and 1955), who called him a master hard for firmly united, clever, and of man". Pre-Renaissance times of extra-philosophical view of courageous men to do great biographies did not have a real history. things in the world," he wrote in sense for individuality, inward Judgements on History and and outward characteristics of The Condottiere, the leader of a Historians (1929). "Ten such men the person they described. band of mercenaries, was the affect 100,000." Great Renaissance man was a early embodiment of the era of personalities can give a direction 354 to whole epochs, and determine the course of history. At the Copyright © 2003 Books and same time he saw pessimistically Writers that like the organic nature, cultures spring into being, mature, and decline. Burckhardt's distrust of historical progress was not in tune with the generally optimistic cultural-historical writing of the time. Later Oswald Spengler gave to the cyclic view of cultural epochs its most visionary expression in his famous work, The Decline of the West (1918-1922). Spengler did not see any divine plan behind history. Burckhard accepted the concept of a universal spirit expressed in culture. He believed that the process of growth and decay follow laws, which are basically beyond human understanding. Burckhardt rejected G.W.F. Hegel's (1770- 1831) theory, in which history expresses the realization of Absolute Spirit, its coming to self- consciousness about itself. 355