Practical Ethics Second Edition PETER SINGER Centre for Human Bioethics Monash University If..:., .... CAMBRIDGE ::: UNIVERSITY PRESS Peter Singer's remarkably clear and comprehensive Practical Eth­ ics has become a classic introduction to applied ethics since its publication in 1979 and has been translated into many lan­ guages. For this second edition the author has revised all the existing chapters, added two new ones, and updated the bib­ liography. He has also added an appendix describing some of the deep misunderstanding of, and consequent violent reaction to, the book in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland where the book has tested the limits of freedom of speech. The focus of the book is the application of ethics to difficult and controversial social questions: equality and discrimination by race, sex, ability, or species; abortion, euthanasia, and embryo experimentation; the Moral Status of animals; political violence and civil disobedience; overseas aid and the obligation to assist others; responsibility for the environment; the treatment of ref­ ugees. Singer explains and assesses relevant arguments in a perspicuous, nondoctrinaire way. He structures the book to show how contemporary controversies often have deep philo­ sophical roots; and he presents an ethical theory of his own that can be applied consistently and convincingly to all the practical cases. The book's primary readership remains teachers and students of ethics whether in philosophy or some other branch of the humanities or social sciences. However, such is the clarity of the book's style and structure that it should interest any thinking person concerned with the most difficult social problems facing us as we approach the twenty-first century. "Singer's book is packed with admirably marshaled and detailed PRACTICAL ETHICS - SECOND EDITION information, social, medical, and economic, and has a splendid appendix of notes and references to further reading. The utility of this utilitarian's book to students of its subject can hardly be exaggerated. " - H.L.A. Hart, New York Review of Books "Peter Singer has provided us with a good example of the fruits of a major and by now established extension of philosophical interest. He succeeds in being straightforward, clear, and forceful without oversimplifying the technical aspects of the problems he discusses or trivializing the underlying philosophical issues." - The Times Higher Education Supplement "This book is concentrated fare. The masterly and lively writing, rich with brief and telling examples, is devoted to close reason­ ing on some basic issues confronting the human community." - The Humanist "Excellent and highly provocative' - Choice PUBliSHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom CONTENTS CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA http://www.cup.org 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia (0 Cambridge University Press 1993 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and Preface to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, page vii no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. 1 About Ethics 1 2 Equality and Its Implications First published 1993 16 Reprinted 1993 (twice), 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 (twice), 1998, 3 Equality for Animals? 55 1999 4 What's Wrong with Killing? 83 5 Taking Life: Animals Printed in the United States of America 110 6 Taking Life: The Embryo and the Fetus 135 Typeset in Meridien 7 Taking Life: Humans 175 8 Rich and Poor A catal09ue record for this book is available from the British Library 218 9 Insiders and Outsiders 247 Library of Conaress Catal09uin9-in-Publication Data is available 10 The Environment 264 11 Ends and Means 289 ISBN 0-521-43363-0 hardback 12 Why Act Morally? ISBN 0-521-43971-X paperback 314 Appendix: On Being Silenced in Germany 337 Notes, References, and Further Reading 360 Index 381 v PREFACE Practical ethics covers a wide area. We can find ethical rami­ fications in most of our choices, if we look hard enough. This book does not attempt to cover this whole area. The problems it deals with have been selected on two grounds: their relevance, and the extent to which philosophical reasoning can contribute to a discussion of them. I regard an ethical issue as relevant if it is one that any think­ ing person must face. Some of the issues discussed in this book confront us daily: what are our personal responsibilities towards the poor? Are we justified in treating animals as nothing more than machines- producing flesh for us to eat? Should we be using paper that is not recycled? And why should we bother about acting in accordance with moral principles anyway? Other problems, like abortion and euthanasia, fortunately are not everyday decisions for most of us; but they are issues that can arise at some time in our lives. They are also issues of current concern about which any active participant in our society's de­ cision-making process needs to reflect. The extent to which an issue can usefully be discussed phil­ osophically depends on the kind of issue it is. Some issues are controversial largely because there are facts in dispute. For ex­ ample, whether the release of new organisms created by the use of recombinant DNA ought to be permitted seems to hang largely on whether the organisms pose a serious risk to the environment. Although philosophers may lack the expertise to tackle this question, they may still be able to say something useful about whether it is acceptable to run a given risk of vii Preface Preface environmental damage. In other cases, however, the facts are discuss the question of euthanasia, nor the issue of whether a clear and accepted by both sides; it is conflicting ethical views human life may be so full of misery as not to be wortl. living. that give rise to disagreement over what to do. Then the kind More fundamental still, and not limited to Germany, is the taboo of reasoning and analysis that philosophers practise really can on comparing the value of human and nonhuman lives. In the make a difference. The issues discussed in this book are ones commotion that followed the cancellation of a conference in in which ethical, rather than factual, disagreement determines Germany at which I had been invited to speak, the German the positions people take. The potential contribution of philos­ sponsoring organisation, to disassociate itself from my views, ophers to discussions of these issues is therefore considerable. passed a series of motions, one of which read: 'The uniqueness of human life forbids any comparison - or more specifically, This book has played a central role in events that must give equation - of human existence with other living beings, with pause to anyone who thinks that freedom of thought and their forms of life or interests.' Comparing, and in some cases expression can be taken for granted in liberal democracies today. equating, the lives of humans and animals is exactly what this Since its first publication in 1979, it has been widely read and book is about; in fact it could be said that if there is any single used in many courses at universities and colleges. It has been aspect of this book that distinguishes it from other approaches tr-anslated into German, Italian, Japanese, Spanish, and Swed­ to such issues as human equality, abortion, euthanasia, and the ish. The response has generally been positive. There are, of environment, it is the fact that these topics are approached with course, many who disagree with the arguments presented in a conscious disavowal of any assumption that all members of the book, but the disagreement has almost always been at the our own species have, merely because they are members of our level of reasoned debate. The only exception has been the re­ species, any distinctive worth or inherent value that puts them action in German-speaking countries. In Germany, Austria, and above members of other species. The belief in human superiority Switzerland opposition to the views contained in this book is a very fundamental one, and it underlies our thinking in many reached such a peak that conferences or lectures at which I was sensitive areas. To challenge it is no trivial matter, and that such invited to speak have been cancelled, and courses at German a challenge should provoke a strong reaction ought not to su­ universitiej in which the book was to be used have been sub­ prise us. Nevertheless, once we have understood that the jected to such repeated disruption that they could not continue. breaching of this taboo on comparing humans and animals is For readers interested in further details of this sorry story a fuller partly responsible for the protests, it becomes clear that there is account is reprinted as an appendix. no going back. For reasons that are developed in subsequent Naturally, the German opposition to this book has made me chapters, to prohibit any cross-species comparisons would be reflect on whether the views I have expressed really are, as at philosophically indefensible. It would also make it impossible least some Germans appear to believe, so erroneous or so dan­ to overcome the wrongs we are now doing to nonhuman an­ gerous that they must not be uttered. Although much of the imals, and would reinforce attitudes that have done immense German opposition is simply misinformed about what I am irreparable damage to the environment of this planet that we saying, there is an underlying truth to the claim that the book share with members of other species.