Laboratory Manual Communications Laboratory Ee 321
LABORATORY MANUAL COMMUNICATIONS LABORATORY EE 321
© Khosrow Rad Revised 2011
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENGINEERING CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, LOS ANGELES Lab-Volt Systems, Inc
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BRIEF CONTENTS
Experiment 1 Introduction to Analog Communications 4 Exercise 1-2 (Familiarization with the AM Equipment) 11 Exercise 1-3 (Frequency Conversion of Baseband Signals) 15
Experiment 2 The Generations of AM Signals 22 Exercise 2-1 (An AM Signal) 29 Exercise 2-2 (Percentage Modulation) 35 Exercise 2-3 (Carrier and Sideband Power) 45
Experiment 3 Reception of AM Signals 55 Exercise 3-1 (The RF Stage Frequency Response) 61 Exercise 3-2 (the Mixer and Image Frequency Rejection) 65
Experiment 4 Reception of AM Signals 69 Exercise 4-1 (The IF Stage Frequency Response) 73 Exercise 4-2 (The Envelope Detector) 77
Experiment 5 Single Sideband Modulation –SSB 84 Exercise 5-1 (Generating SSB signals by the Filter Method) 91
Experiment 6: Fundamentals of Frequency Modulation 96 Exercise 6-1 (FM Modulation Index) 102 Exercise 6-2 (POWER DISTRIBUTION) 107
Experiment 7 Generation of FM Signals 117 Exercise 7 Direct Method of Generating FM Signals 121
Experiment 8 Exercise 8 (Indirect Method of Generating FM Signals) 126
MATLAB 132
These laboratory note are reproduced in part from the Lab-Volt 2
EE321 Dr. Rad
Experiment 1
Part 1: Exercise 1-2 (Familiarization with the AM Equipment) Part 2: Exercise 1-3 (Frequency Conversion of Baseband Signals)
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INTRODUCTION TO ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS
OBJECTIVE At the completion of this unit, you will be able to describe the basic principles of analog radio communications, the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board, and the balanced modulator.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
A block diagram of a communication system is shown.
Communication is the transfer of information from one place to another.
A bidirectional communication system operates in opposite directions. The receiver can respond to the sender.
Radio communication uses electrical energy to transmit information. Because electrical energy travels almost as fast as light, radio communication is essentially instantaneous.
A radio transmitter converts audio (sound) signals to electrical signals that are sent over wires or through space.
A radio receiver converts the electromagnetic waves back to sound waves so that the information can be understood.
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The transmitted information is the intelligence signal or message signal
In this course, the term message signal refers to the transmitted information. Message signals are in the Audio Frequency (AF) range of low frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
The Radio Frequency (RF) is the carrier signal. Carrier signals have high frequencies that range from 10 kHz up to about 1000 GHz.
A radio transmitter sends the low frequency message signal at the higher carrier signal frequency by combining the message signal with the carrier signal.
Modulation is the process of changing a characteristic of the carrier signal with the message signal. In the transmitter, the message signal modulates the carrier signal.
The modulated carrier signal is sent to the receiver where demodulation of the carrier occurs to recover the message signal.
The three principal forms of modulation are the following:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM) 2. Frequency Modulation (FM) 3. Phase Modulation (PM)
FM and PM are types of angle modulation.
In modulation, the message signal changes the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the carrier signal.
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To prevent interference, every radio communication transmits at its own frequency.
The designations for carrier frequency ranges are shown.
The ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board contains the following circuit blocks:
• VCO-LO • AM/SSB TRANSMITTER • PHASE MODULATOR • QUADRATURE DETECTOR • VCO-HI • AM/SSB RECEIVER • PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
These circuit blocks permit you to configure transmission and reception circuits for amplitude, frequency, and phase-modulated signals.
On the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board, a versatile Integrated Circuit (IC) called a balanced modulator performs the following functions:
• amplitude modulation • Double-Sideband (DSB)modulation • mixer • product detector • phase detector
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NEW TERMS AND WORDS audio - signals that a person can hear. electromagnetic waves - the radiant energy produced by oscillation of an electric charge. intelligence signal - any signal that contains information; it is also called the message signal. message signal - any signal that contains information; it is also called the intelligence signal. Audio Frequency (AF) - frequencies that a person can hear. AF signals range from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Radio Frequency (RF) - the transmission frequency of electromagnetic (radio) signals. RF frequencies are from about 300 kHz to the 1,000,000 kHz range. carrier signal - a single, high-frequency signal that can be modulated by a message signal and transmitted. Modulation - the process of combining the message signal with the carrier signal that causes the message signal to vary a characteristic of the carrier signal. demodulation - the process of recovering or detecting the message signal from the modulated carrier frequency. Amplitude Modulation (AM) - the process of combining the message signal with the carrier signal and the two sidebands: the lower sideband and the upper sideband. Frequency Modulation (FM) - the process of combining the message signal with the carrier signal that causes the message signal to vary the frequency of the carrier signal. Phase Modulation (PM) - the process of combining the message signal with the carrier signal that causes the message signal to vary the phase of the carrier signal. angle modulation - the process of combining the message signal with the carrier signal that causes the message signal to vary the frequency and/or phase of the carrier signal. balanced modulator - an amplitude modulator that can be adjusted to control the amount of modulation. Double-Sideband (DSB) - an amplitude modulated signal in which the carrier is suppressed, leaving only the two sidebands: the lower sideband and the upper sideband. mixer - an electronic circuit that combines two frequencies. product detector - a detector whose audio frequency output is equal to the product of the Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) and the RF signal inputs. phase detector - an electronic circuit whose output varies with the phase differential of the two input signals. envelopes - the waveform of the amplitude variations of an amplitude modulated signal. sidebands - the frequency bands on each side of the carrier frequency that are formed during modulation; the sideband frequencies contain the intelligence of the message signal. AM - an amplitude modulated signal that contains the carrier signal and the two sidebands: the lower sideband and the upper sideband.
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bandwidth - the frequency range, in hertz (Hz), between the upper and lower frequency limits. harmonics - signals with frequencies that are an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) - an oscillator whose output frequency is approximately equal to the transmitter's carrier frequency and is input to a product detector EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the AM / DSB / SSB Generator and the AM / DSB Receiver, as well as terminology used in amplitude modulation.
Discussion Modulation is the process of adding information, also called intelligence, to a high frequency radio wave for communication over long distances. This process depends on the type of modulation used, but in general, the amplitude of the information signal is used to vary the amplitude, phase, or frequency of the radio wave. In this manual, the information signal will be referred to as the message, which is usually a low frequency audio signal in the 20 Hz to 2O kHz range. The radio frequency (RF) signal is known as the carrier, and the frequencies of the message and the RF carrier are symbolized by f m and f S respectively. In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave is made to vary in accordance with the message signal. The waveform of a typical AM signal is shown in Figure 1-1. lt represents a high frequency carrier modulated by a sine wave. Notice the dashed curve drawn through the peaks and valleys of the AM waveform. This is called the envelope and tl is identical to the waveform of the message signal.
Figure 1-1. A typical AM signal.
Familiarization with the AM Equipment When the RF carrier wave is amplitude modulated, sidebands (or sideband fre- quencies) are produced. For a 2-kHz tone that modulates a 1000 kHz (1 MHz) carrier, the sideband frequencies are .f c + fm = 1 002 000 Hz, and fc – fm = 998 000 Hz. Figure 1-2 shows the frequency components of the AM signal.
Figure 1-6. Frequency components of an AM signal.
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1. A system for AM transmission and reception is built from components shown in figure 1.7.
Fig 1.7 Lab-Volt modular communications lab components.
Equipment Required
RF NOISE FREQUENCY GENERATOR COUNTER
AM/DSB/SSB AM/DSB GENERATOR RECEIVER
Function DUAL AUDIO Generator A AMPLIFIER OSCILLOSCOPE
Function POWER SPECTRUM Generator B SUPPLY ANALYZER
Brief description of the equipment: 1) Function generator A and B: These two function generator is used to generator message signals.
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2) AM/DSB/SSB GENERATOR: It is used to for amplitude modulation and generator either double side band or single side band waveforms for transmission. 3) RF Noise Generator: This can be used to generate RF noise. 4) Power Supply: It is used to supply power to equipment 5) Dual Audio Amplifier: Use for amplifier signals from the receiver to a proper listening level. 6) AM/DSB Receiver: This equipment receives the amplitude modulated signals and demodulate it before sending it to audio amplifiers 7) Frequency Counter: This equipment can be used for monitoring frequency of signals. 8) Spectrum Analyzer: This equipment is used for displaying signals in frequency base for analysis. 9) Oscilloscope: Use to display waveforms in time domain. .
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Part 1: Exercise 1-2 (Familiarization with the AM Equipment) Purpose: The purpose of this part of the experiment is to get familiar with the AM/DS/SSB Generator and the AM/DSB Receiver. It is also the purpose to get familiar with some terminology used in AM modulation.
Step 1: This step is to set up the equipment as follow:
FUNCTION FREQUENCY GENERATOR A COUNTER
Function AM / DSB Generator B RECEIVER
AM/DSB/SSB GENERATOR OSCILLOSCOPE
DUAL AUDIO POWER SUPPLY AMPLIFIER
Set up the equipment in a manner where it will be easy to counter the appropriate modules together. We need to make sure all the level and gain control is set to the minimum to avoid any incidents.
Step2: Observe the variation as the result of the RF tuning from the AM/DSB/SSB generator. This can be accomplished by looking at the output of the generator at the oscilloscope as the RF tuning frequency is varied. The test is done with the gain and level control at the maximum level.
Step 3: Find out the upper and lower limits in terms of frequency of the RF Tuning control of the AM/DSB/SSB generator. This can be accomplished by turning the control knob fully counterclockwise to get the lower limit, and fully clockwise to obtain the upper limit. Result: flower= fupper=
Step 4: Set the carrier frequency to 1000kHz and observe the results of the output due to changes from the FR Gain control and the Carrier Level control. The frequency can be set by connecting the output of the AM/DSB/SSB generator to the frequency counter.
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The effects the controls have on the waveform can be observe by the display of the oscilloscope.
Step 5: Set a message signal of 2kHz with amplitude of 400mVp-p. It can be accomplished by connecting the output of the signal generator to the oscilloscope, adjust the amplitude and the frequency, use the oscilloscope to verify the settings.
Step 6: Inject the message signal from step 5 into the Audio Input of the AM/DSB/SSB generator and observe the result of the carrier modulated by the message signal from the oscilloscope.
AM waveform
Step 7: Vary the RF Gain and observe the result of the waveform displayed on the oscilloscope. .
Step 8: What happens when the carrier level is varied. It can be accomplished by varying the Carrier Level control between min and max position.
Step 9: Observe the change of the modulated waveform as we vary the frequency of the message signal. .
Step 10: Adjust the message signal back to 2kHz and set the RF Gain to a one-quarter turn clockwise.
Step 11: Connect the output of the AM/DSBRF OUTPUT of the Am generator to the RF INPUT OF THE AM/DSB Receiver. Connect the Audio Output of the receiver to the Audio Amplifier. Set the listening level to a comfortable level using headphone. The connections were done by using BNC cables linking the generators to receivers, receivers to amplifiers.
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Step 12: Determine the frequency of the Local Oscillator of the receiver. This can be done by varying the RF tuning control until the signal is the loudest on the headphone. Result Step 13:
Determine the flo for a carrier frequency of 1510kHz. From the relationship flo = fc + fIF, fIF from Step 12 is determined to be 457kHz from fIF = flo-fc. .
Step 14: Adjust fc to 1100kHz. This step can be done by connecting the output of the AM generator and temporary disconnect the Audio Input. Adjust the RF Tuning control to obtain 1100kHz display on the frequency counter.
Step 15: Reconnect the message signal to the AM generator, readjust he RF gain to the one-quarter counter-clock wise. Retune the receiver to pick up the new broadcast and obtain the Local Oscillator frequency.
Step 16: Calculate flo – fc for steps 12 and 15. Result: Step 12: Step 15: .
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Review Questions: 1) What is amplitude modulation:
2) Sketch an AM waveform, as well as its representation in the frequency domain, label clearly the carrier, envelope, USB and LSB.
3) What are the USB and LSB frequencies for a 960-kHz carrier modulated by a 4- kHz wave? fUSB = fLSB = 4) What are the two equations showing the relationships between fLO, fc, and fIF? 1. fLO = 2. fLO = 5) Which is more useful for the analysis of communications signals, time domain observations or frequency domain observations? Explain. .
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Part 2: Exercise 1-3 (Frequency Conversion of Baseband Signals) Purpose: The purpose of this part of the experiment is to use the AM communications modules and the Spectrum Analyzer to demonstrate frequency conversion (translation) of baseband signals.
DISCUSSION lf you have already seen telecommunication installations, you will have noticed that there are many kinds of antenna structures. They vary in size from small to very large and yet, they are all used to perform the same function - communication using radio frequency signals. To be effective, the size of an antenna should be at least one-half the wavelength of the radio frequency. This means that a 1000 Hz signal having a wavelength of 300 km, would require an antenna 1b0 km long - not a very practical size. One way of avoiding this problem is to move (translate) the frequency contents of the message to a higher place in the frequency spectrum. Thus, a 1000-Hz signal that is converted to 1000 kHz before transmission only requires an antenna 150 meters long. As a general rule, the higher the radio frequency, the smaller the antenna.
A mixer (multiplier) (Figure 1-3 (a)) can be used to perform the process of frequency translation. Figure 1-3 (b) shows the effect of combining two signals through a mixer. The frequency contents of the message signal (f-) are displaced in the frequency spectrum to a position centered around the RF carrier frequency (fs). The sidebands are a result of the frequency conversion process, which causes duplication of the frequency contents of the message on each side of the carrier frequency. Mathematically, this corresponds to multiplying the message signal by the carrier signal. Note that in Figure 1-3 (b) the carrier is shown as a dotted line. This is because the theoretical output of a balanced mixer does not contain a carrier component.
Figure 1-3. Frequency translation of a message signal.
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Step 1: Set up the equipment as follow:
RF NOISE FREQUENCY GENERATOR COUNTER
AM/DSB/SSB AM/DSB GENERATOR RECEIVER
Function DUAL AUDIO Generator A AMPLIFIER OSCILLOSCOPE
Function POWER SPECTRUM Generator B SUPPLY ANALYZER
Step 3: Set the function generator A to frequency of 2kHz, peak-peak amplitude of 200mV, signal generator B to frequency of 3kHz and peak-peak amplitude of 300mV. This can be accomplished by connecting the output of each function generator to the oscilloscope. Set the desire frequencies and amplitude. Verify the setting from the oscilloscope.
Step 4: Set the AM/DSB/SSB Generator output frequency to 1100kHz. This frequency will be the carrier frequency. This step can be accomplished by the following setting. Carrier Level and RF Gain controls are set to the maximum level. The carrier Level knob is pushed into the Linear Overmodulation position. Use the frequency counter to verify the frequency of the output.
Step 5:
Determine the expected fLSB(lower sideband frequency) and fUSB(upper sideband frequency).
Step 6: Step is to verify the lower sideband frequency and the upper side band frequency using the spectrum analyzer.
fLSB =
fUSB =
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Step 7: Observe a combine 2kHz message with a of 3kHz message in the spectrum analyzer. The signal can be combined through a T-connector and send them into the Audio Input of the AM generator. The output of the AM generator is then connected to the spectrum analyzer. .
Step 8: Show the spectrum response of the frequency spectrum of the two different messages.
Spectrum Analyzer view of 2 KHz & 1.1 MHz 1. clearly the carrier, envelope, USB, and LSB.
CARRIER
LSB USB
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Spectrum Analyzer view of the 1.1 MHz unmodulated signal
Step 9: Remove all the connection of the AM/DSB/SSB Generator, the cable on the spectrum analyzer, and the cables for the function generator B which produced the 3kHz message.
Step 10: Set up a 3kHz Noise Source using a carrier of 1100kHz. The noise source can be created by connecting the 3kHz since wave from step 9 to the AMPLITUDE MODULATION INPUT of the RF/Noise Generator module. The RF carrier frequency is setup by adjusting the FREQUENCY ADJUST knob.
Step 11: Install the telescope antennal at the AM/DSI RF OUTPUT of the AM generator module. Step 12: Display the signals from the AM generator and the RF/Noise Generator. To accomplish this, the receiving antenna must be install first at the input of the spectrum analyzer. A wire antenna is then wrap around the receiving antenna.
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Step 13: Set up the wireless transmission and receiving between the AM generator module and the AM/DSB Receiver module. This can be accomplished by the following steps: 1) Establish the wireless receiving by installing a telescope antenna on the RF Input of the AM/DSB Receiver module. 2) Send the audio signal to the audio amplifier by connecting the Audio Output of the receiver to one of the inputs of the Dual Audio Amplifier. 3) Connect the headphones to one of the jacks on this module.
Step 14: Fine tune the local oscillator frequency to 1555kHz. This is the frequency of broadcast for the 2kHz message signal. This can be accomplished by connect the Frequency Counter to the local OSCILLATOR OUTPUT on the receiver, and turn the RF TUNING knob to obtain a reading of 1555kHz on the Frequency Counter.
Step 15: Find the shadow frequency to the right of the message signal. This can be accomplished by turn the RF TUNING knob on the receiver slightly to the right until a tone is heard. .
Step 16: Adjust one signal toward another signal to observe what happens what they start to interfere with other signals. This can be accomplished by adjust the Frequency Adjust knob on the RF/Noise Generator module to move the 1100kHz signals toward the 1110kHz signal to observe interference.
Step 17: Determine the minimum distance between carriers before interference occurs. To accomplish this, turn the FREQEUNCY ADJUST control knob slightly until the next tone can be heard, turn the FREQUENCY ADJUST control knob slightly back so the tone is not heard. The distance between this point and the first tone is the minimum distance between carrier frequencies before interference.
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Review Questions
1. What happens when messages signal is combine with a carrier signal through a mixer? . 2. What are two reasons for frequency translation? . 3. What is meant by the term baseband?
4. A 1600_kHz carrier is modulated by a baseband signal containing frequencies between 400 Hz and 4kHz. What are the frequency limits for the USB and the LSB?
5. Different AM baseband signals can be broadcast at the same time. What essential condition must be respected to allow an ordinary AM receiver to select each baseband signal individually.
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Experiment 2 (The Generations of AM Signals)
Part 1: Exercise 2-1 (An AM Signal) Part 2: Exercise 2-2 (Percentage Modulation) Part 3: Exerise 2-3 (Carrier and Sideband Power)
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The Generation of AM Signals
EXPERMENT OBJECTIVE when you have completed this unit, you will be able to use an oscilloscope and a spectrum analyzer to analyze AM signals in the time and frequency domains.
DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS Communication by means of radio waves over long distances requires that we perform certain operations or alterations on the electrical signal which carries the information, before it is transmitted. Upon reception, the reverse operations are applied in order to recover the information. In this unit, the generation of amplitude modulated signals will be studied. ln AM, the amplitude variations of the message signal cause corresponding amplitude variations in the radio wave carrier. This produces a modulation envelope such as you have seen in Experiment 1 (Figure 1-1). when the message signal is a sinusoidal tone, the frequency spectrum of the modulated carrier consists of three components- the carrier frequency (fc), the USB frequency (fc + fm), and the LSB frequency (fc - fm).This is shown in Figure 1-3 of Experiment 1. when the message signal is a more complex waveform, such as voice, the frequency spectrum is correspondingly more complex and contains many more frequency components: This means that a wider frequency space (bandwidth) is necessary to transmit the information. Since the frequency spectrum is limited and there are many users, limitations on bandwidth, carrier frequency spacing, and power output have been developed. These limitations are designed to allow diverse groups and individuals to communicate using radio waves without causing interference to each other. Government and regulatory agencies allocate frequencies and ensure adherence to regulations for a variety of civilian and military communications systems. commercial AM broadcasting, which is usually in the frequency band from 540 kHz to 1600 kHz, is permitted a 10-kHz bandwidth between stations. AM baseband signals, which include voice and music, are limited from about 'loo Hz to 5 kHz. Power limitations vary, depending on the time of day, the season and the distance between stations. ln fact, most commercial AM stations are required to lower their power output or modify their radiation pattern after sunset. This is because nighttime favors AM communications - the radio waves travel much further.
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An AM Signal
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to use the AM / DSB / SSB Generator to demonstrate and explain an AM signal in both the time and frequency domains.
DISCUSSION There are many ways to produce an AM signal, but all of them must allow the amplitude variations of the message signal to be impressed onto the carrier. Figure 2-1 shows a simple modulator that we can use to understand the concept of AM a little better.
Figure 2-1. A simple modulator.
The input to the potentiometer is a fixed-amplitude high frequency sine wave (the carrier). The amplitude of Vout depends on the position of the wiper. lf we move the wiper up and down sinusoidally, we obtain the AM waveform shown in the figure. The sinusoidal movement of the wiper (the message) has been impressed onto the carrier.
The block diagram of Figure 2-2 shows how an AM signal is produced by the AM / DSB / SSB Generator. A dc level (for the carrier level) is added to the message signal. The resulting signal is mixed with the RF carrier to frequency translate the message signal, and is then amplified with the RF amplifier. Figure2-3 shows the waveforms and frequency spectra for an 1100-kHz carrier modulated by a 1O-kHz sine-wave.
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Figure 2-2. Block diagram tor generating an AM signal.
a) Time domain waveforms b) Frequency domain spectra
Figure 2-3. Waveforms and spectra tor the AM signal of Figure 2-2.
Notice that the information (message) has been impressed onto the carrier and that the envelope of the AM signal is an exact copy of the message signal. Also, the envelope varies at the same frequency as the message signal. The effect on the AM signal produced by different message signal amplitudes and frequencies is shown in Figure 2-4.
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a) AM modulation index = 0.40 b) AM modulation index = 0.80 c) AM modulation index = 0.20
Figure 2-4. AM waveforms for different message signal conditions. Amplitude modulation (AM) produces a modulation envelope that has the same waveform as the message signal.
If the message signal were a square wave, the modulation envelope of the AM signal would be a square wave.
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When the message signal is a sine wave, the frequency spectrum of the modulated carrier signal (AM signal) consists of three frequency components.