Introduction

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Notes

Introduction

1. William Wordsworth, The Letters of William and Dorothy Wordsworth, ed. E. De Selincourt, second revised edition, ed. Mary Moorman and Alan G. Hill, 7 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967–88), VII, p. 838. 2. Recollections of the Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers, ed. Bishop Morchard (London: Richards, 1952), p. 282. 3. During Cary’s lifetime there were four editions of The Vision: 1814, 1819, 1831 and 1844. Cary’s biographer, W.J. King, counted as many as twenty editions of The Vision between the poet’s death and the 1920s. The Translator of Dante (London: Secker, 1925), p. 285. 4. Gilbert F. Cunningham, The Divine Comedy in English: a Critical Bibliography 1782–1900, 2 vols (Edinburgh and London: Oliver and Boyd, 1965–66), pp. 6–8. 5. Henry Cary, Memoir, II, pp. 18–19. The meeting took place in the autumn of 1817. 6. See especially Jerome McGann, ‘Rethinking Romanticism: the Challenge of Periodisation’, English Literary History, 59 (1992), pp. 735–54. 7. See for instance, Marshall Brown’s introduction to the Cambridge History of Literary Criticism: Romanticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). 8. For Lamb’s iconoclasm, see Luisa Calè, ‘“The Vantage-Ground of Abstraction”: Charles Lamb on Reading and Viewing’, in Image and Word; Reﬂections of Art and Literature from the Middle Ages to the Present, ed. A. Braida and Giuliana Pieri (Oxford: Legenda, 2003), pp. 135–50. For Blake’s attitude towards ‘Republican Arts’, see John Barrell and Morris Eaves, The Counter-Arts Conspiracy: Art and Industry in the Age of Blake (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1992); John Barrell, The Political Theory of Painting from Reynolds to Hazlitt: ‘The Body of the Public’ (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986). 9. Julia Kristeva, Séméiotiké: Recherches pour une sémanalyse (Paris: Le Seuil, 1969); Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Inﬂuence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973). 10. Graham Allen, Intertextuality, the New Critical Idiom (London and New York: Routledge, 2000), pp. 140–1. 11. According to Graham Allen, David Duff argues that ‘attention to literary genre evaporates as we move from the work of Bakhtin to Kristeva’s and other poststructuralists’ work’. Cited in Allen, Intertextuality, p. 57. 12. Thomas De Quincey, Confessions of an English Opium Eater and Other Writings, ed. Grevel Lindop (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 141. 13. Lucy Newlyn, Reading, Writing and Romanticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 300.

179 180 Notes

14. ‘Theories of Genre’, in Brown, Romanticism, p. 230. 15. Lucy Newlyn, Coleridge, Wordsworth and the Language of Allusion (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. viii–ix. 16. Gérard Genette, Palimpsestes; La littérature au second degré (Paris: Seuil, 1982), p. 13, translated by Allen, Intertextuality, p. 108. 17. Allen, Intertextuality, p. 108. 18. In a letter to John Murray of 20 March 1820, Byron compares his translation of Francesca da Rimini with previous ones. George Gordon, Lord Byron, Byron’s Letters and Journals, ed. Leslie A. Marchand, 12 vols (London: Murray, 1973–82), VII, 58. Byron’s journals contain numerous references to Dante. See, Byron’s Letters and Journals, III, p. 221, IV, p. 11, VI, p. 121.

1. The eighteenth-century reception: Dante and visual culture

1. The Yale Edition of Horace Walpole’s Correspondence, ed. W.S. Lewis (1895–1983), 48 vols (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), XXXI, Horace Walpole’s Correspondence with Hannah More (1961), p. 296. Hannah More refers to Thomas Burgess’s Considerations on the Abolition of Slavery and the Slave Trade, upon Grounds of Natural, Religious, and Political Duty, Oxford, 1789. The quotation is at page 74. 2. Crisafulli (2003) devotes some attention to the eighteenth-century reception, but focuses mostly on the reception of The Vision since its publication. Pite (1994) devotes his study to the nineteenth-century assimilation of Dante into English literature. Nick Havely’s collection deals with Thomas Gray’s study of Dante, acknowledging that ‘the process of rehabilitation … was well under way by 1800’, but the collection focuses on the post- Romantic reception: Havely, Dante’s Modern Afterlife (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan 1998), p. 2. Earlier studies have taken a broader chronological approach: Tinkler-Villani (1989) analy- ses eighteenth-century translations of Dante as well as Cary’s, and Peter Brand’s more ambitious study searched for the origins of the reception of Dante in Britain. Charles Peter Brand, Italy and the English Romantics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957). 3. For the emergence of a varied and successful commercial visual media before the invention of photography, see especially Gillien D’Arcy Wood, The Shock of the Real: Romanticism and Visual Culture (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001) and William H. Gilperin, The Return of the Visible in British Romanti- cism (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993). 4. Brand, Italy and the English Romantics, pp. 49–72. 5. Milbank ﬁnds evidence of this political interest in the Florence Miscellany (1785), an anthology meant to encourage the association between the two countries in the common cause for liberty earlier embraced by the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Compare Alison Milbank, Dante and the Victorians (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), p. 9. 6. According to James Sambrook, Colen Campbell’s Mereworth in Kent is the best example of the imitative Palladian villa. The model is Palladio’s Villa Rotonda, near Vicenza. Sambrook, The Eighteenth-Century: the Intellectual Notes 181

and Cultural Context of English Literature 1700–1789 (London and New York: Longman, 1986, 2nd edition, 1993), p. 160. 7. David Rogers, ‘Richardson, Jonathan’, Grove Dictionary of Art (1996), 26, pp. 345–6. 8. Carol Gibson-Wood, ‘Jonathan Richardson and the Rationalisation of Connoisseurship’, Art History, 7 (1984), pp. 38–56, at 54. 9. Jonathan Richardson, Two Discourses (London: printed for W. Churchill at the Black Swan in Paternoster Row, 1719). The two discourses are respec- tively entitled: I. ‘An Essay on the Whole Art of Critism as it Relates to Painting…’; II. ‘An Argument in behalf of the Science of a Connoisseur …’ 10. This was known through Thomas Hoby’s translation, The Courtier of Count Baldessar Castilio (London: imprinted by Henry Denham, 1561) or through Henry Peacham’s later adaptation entitled Compleat Gentleman (London: F. Constable, 1622). 11. Aglionby’s treatise has a similar inspiration to Richardson’s. As he states in the preface, his aim is to encourage history painting in England: ‘we never had, as yet, any [painter] of Note, that was an english Man, that pretended to History-Painting. I cannot attribute this to any thing but the little Incouragement it meets with this Nation’. See Choice Observations Upon the Art of Painting, Together with Vasari’s Lives of the Most Eminent Painters from Cimabue to the Time of Raphael and Michelangelo (London: King, 1719), ‘The Preface’ (unpaginated). 12. Richardson, Two Discourses, I, pp. 204, 208. 13. Richardson, Two Discourses, II, p. 33. 14. Carol Gibson-Wood, ‘Jonathan Richardson and the Rationalisation of Connoisseurship’, p. 50. 15. See Gibson-Wood, ‘Jonathan Richardson and the Rationalisation of Connoisseurship’, p. 51; Morris R. Brownell, Alexander Pope and the Arts of Georgian England (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1978). 16. The ﬁrst artist to undertake the task was Botticelli. His parchment illustrations were soon dispersed, although some of his designs were engraved in the ﬁrst Florentine edition of the poem (1481). See Paget Toynbee, ‘The Earliest English Illustrators of Dante’, in Dante Studies, 2nd edition (Oxford: Clarendon, 1921), pp. 133–55. See also Jonathan Nelson, ‘Luca Martini, dantista e Pierino da Vinci’s relief of Count Ugolino della Gherardesca and his sons’, in Pierino da Vinci, ed. Marco Cianchi (Conference Proceedings, 1990) (Florence: Becocci, 1995), pp. 24–32. 17. Now in the Casa Gherardesca at Florence. The bas-relief is by Pierino da Vinci, as acknowledged already by Vasari. The wax design is now in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, which also possesses a terracotta version. It was eventually donated to the university by Philip Bury Duncan (1826–55), keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, from the collection of the portrait painter William Hoare (1706–92). See Nicholas Penny, Catalogue of European Sculpture in the Ashmolean Museum 1540 to the Present Day (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992),Vol I, Italian, pp. 95–100. 18. Two Discourses, p. 32; Joseph Warton, Essay on the Genius and Writings of Pope (1756) (London,1806 edn) p. 253. 19. Two Discourses, II, pp. 32–5. 20. Tinkler-Villani, Visions of Dante, p. 64. 182 Notes

21. One of the most influential treatises was Roger De Piles’s L’Idée du peintre parfait pour servir de règle aux jugements que l’on doit porter sur les ouvrages des peintres, first published in 1699. The English editions appeared in 1706 and 1744. 22. Horace Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting in England … collected by the late George Virtue, 5 vols (London: Henry Bohn, 1786), IV, p. 34. 23. In 1735 Desmaizeaux published an edition of Bayle’s Dictionnaire Historique et Critique in which he stated his intention of providing translations of ‘quotations from Eminent Writers in various languages’. See Toynbee, Dante Studies, I, p. 283. The section devoted to Dante includes about twelve passages from the Divina Commedia translated freely into heroic couplets. His example can confidently be described as Dryden’s ‘Paraphrase’. 24. A similar loss is recorded for Dr Charles Burney’s complete prose translation of the Inferno as acknowledged by his daughter. He also published a brief translation from Purgatorio II in his History of Music. See Fanny Burney, Memoirs of Dr Burney; Arranged from his own Manuscripts … by his Daughter, Madame d’Arblay, 3 vols (London: Moxon, 1832), I, pp. 150–1. 25. A dissertation upon the Italian poetry, in which are interspersed some remarks on Mr. Voltaire’s Essay on the epic poets (London: Printed for Dodsley, at Tully’s Head in Pall-Mall, 1753). For Baretti’s involvement in the debate, see Chapter 2. 26. Lacy Collison-Morley, Giuseppe Baretti: With an account of his Literary Friendhips and Feuds in Italy and in England in the Days of Dr Johnson (London: Murray, 1909), p. 92. 27. William Hogarth to William Huggins (23 November 1758) cited in Ronald Paulson, Hogarth: His Life, Art, and Times, 2 vols (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1965, 1971), II, p. 264. 28. Paulson, Hogarth, II, p. 285. See also Ronald Paulson, Hogarth, 3 vols (Cambridge: the Lutterworth Press, 1991–93), III, pp. 291–3. 29. The British Magazine, 1 (April 1760), p. 266. 30. See A. Braida, ‘William Huggins’, New Dictionary of National Biography, forthcoming. 31. Both Toynbee and Dorothy Sayers praise Huggins’s short translation. Toynbee, Dante Studies, p. 288; Dorothy Sayers, ‘The Art of Translating Dante’, Nottingham Medieval Studies 9 (1965), pp. 15–31 (p. 18). 32. William Hayley, An Essay on Epic Poetry (London: Dodsley, 1782) pp. 166–98. 33. See here below, pp. 21–3. 34. See Tinkler-Villani, Visions of Dante, p. 77. 35. The Triumphs of Temper: a Poem in Six Cantos (1781) (London: Chichester, 1809), ‘Preface’, p. x. 36. Tinkler-Villani, Visions of Dante, p. 105. 37. Leigh Hunt, The Feast of the Poets (1815), facsimile (Oxford: Woodstock Books, 1989), p. 51. Hunt discusses the translations in his notes to the poem. 38. Toynbee, Dante Studies, p. 294. 39. Charles Rogers, The Inferno of Dante Translated (London, 1778), pp. 19–20. See Tinkler-Villani, Visions of Dante, pp. 108–110. 40. Tinkler-Villani, Visions of Dante, p. 119. Notes 183

41. Annual Register, 7 (1764), p. 272. 42. See Toynbee, ‘The Earliest Illustrators of Dante’, p. 137; Corrado Gizzi, ‘Michelangelo e Dante’, in Michelangelo e Dante (Milan: Electa, 1995), pp. 221–32. 43. Toynbee, ‘The Earliest Illustrators of Dante’, p. 136. 44. See Corrado Gizzi, Federico Zuccari e Dante (Milan: Electa, 1993); and Giovanni Stradano e Dante (Milan: Electa, 1994). 45. Gert Schiff, ‘Füssli in Italia’, in Füssli e Dante (Milan: Mazzotta, 1985), pp. 51–5. 46. This is shown by one of his illustrations of Inferno XXXIII, in which Fuseli introduces the giants described in Canto XXXI with a design similar to Botticelli’s. 47. 31 July 1773, The Collected English Letters of Henry Fuseli, ed. David H. Weinglass (New York: Kraus International Publications, 1982), p. 14. 48. Frederick Antal, Fuseli Studies (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1956). 49. Schiff, ‘Füssli in Italia’, p. 53. 50. John Knowles, The Life and Writings of Henry Fuseli, Esq. M.A.R.A., 3 vols (London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley, 1831), III, p. 90. 51. Fortunato Bellonzi, ‘Füssli, la formazione, l’estetica del sublime, la lettura di Dante’, in Gizzi, Füssli e Dante, pp. 27–36 (p. 32). 52. Theodore E.B. Wood, The Word Sublime and its Context, 1650–1760 (The Hague: Mouton, 1972), p. 16. 53. Longinus on the Sublime, The Greek Text edited after the Paris Manuscript, with Introduction, Translation, Facsimiles and Appendices, translated and edited by Rhys Roberts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1899), pp. 57–8. 54. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beatiful (1757), The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke, general ed. Paul Langford, 9 vols (Oxford: Clarendon, 1981–2000), vol I (1997), ed. T.O. McLoughlin and James T. Boulton, p. 216. 55. See Fortunato Bellonzi, ‘Füssli, la formazione, l’estetica del sublime, la lettura di Dante’, p. 32. 56. Schiff, ‘Füssli in Italia’, p. 54. 57. The three paintings that Fuseli exhibited are: Paolo Malatesta and Francesca da Polenta with Gianciotto, Ugolino and his sons in the Tower of Famine and As he descends into Hell, Dante discovers the shades of Paolo and Francesca in a whirlwind. The last two paintings are lost. Of the second one a preliminary drawing and an engraving survive. Gert Schiff, Johann Heinrich Füssli, 1741–1825 (Zürich: Schweizerisches Institut für Kunstwissenschaft, 1973), Plates 720, 1200, 1799a, and I, 653. See also Corrado Gizzi, Füssli e Dante (Milano: Nuove edizioni Gabriele Mazzotta, 1985); Peter Tomory, The Life and Art of Henry Fuseli (London: Thames and Hudson, 1972), and Henry Fuseli, 1741–1825 (London: Tate Gallery 1975). 58. Cited in Toynbee, Dante Studies, p. 298. Toynbee dismisses it as the worst eighteenth-century example. 59. Ugolino and His Children in the Dungeon. See David Mannings Sir Joshua Reynolds: a Complete Catalogue of His Paintings, 2 vols (New Haven and London: Published for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art, 2000), cat. No. 2172. The painting is at Knole. See also Martin Postle, Sir Joshua Reynolds: the Subject Pictures (Cambridge: Cambridge University 184 Notes

Press, 1995). Reynolds, ed. Nicholas Penny (London: Royal Academy of Arts, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1986), plate 82, pp. 251–3. 60. James Northcote, The Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds, 2 vols (London: 1818), vol. I, 278–83. See also Richard Cumberland’s similar account. He attributes Reynolds’ inspiration to Goldsmith. The Memoirs of Richard Cumberland, ed. Richard J. Dircks (New York: AMS Press, 2002), p. 198 and note. 61. According to Postle, George White soon became one of the most popular artists’ models in London, see Sir Joshua Reynolds: the Subject Pictures, p. 127. 62. The entries ‘Beggar Hugolino’ and ‘Hugolino’ appear for 12 and 15 June and reoccur till August. See Mannings, vol. II, p. 569. 63. 30 April 1773. 64. To Lady Ossory (6 September 1793) he wrote about a portrait of Dante she had mentioned ‘at the other painting it is impossible I should guess; and if it exhibits any of Dante’s extravagances, I wish not to see it’. Horace Walpole’s Correspondence, XXXIV (1965), p. 189. 65. ‘Advertisement’ (1780) to the Anecdotes of Painting in England, I, xvii. 66. See Manning, vol. II, p. 568–9. 67. Paul Johannides finds evidence of the influence of the print in a sketch by Gros of about 1793–95; Postle suggests the debt of Pierre Narcisse Guerin’s The Return of Marcus Sextus (1797–99, Louvre), and Philippe Bordes finds a connection between Reynolds’s paintings and David’s Lictors Returning to Brutus the Bodies of his Sons, shown in 1789 at the Paris Salon. See Paul Johannides, ‘Some English Themes in the Early Work of Gros’, Burlington Magazine, 117 (December 1975), pp. 774–85; Postle, p. 147; Philippe Bordes ‘Jacques-Louis David’s Anglophilia on the Eve of the French Revolution’, Burlington Magazine, 134 (August 1992), pp. 482–90. 68. According to Postle, the facial expression is modelled closely on the repre- sentation of ‘horreur’ in Le Brun’s Expression des Passions. Postle, Sir Joshua Reynolds: the Subject Pictures, p. 143. 69. A negative review was published in Bell’s Weekly Messenger of 25 May 1806. Blake defended Fuseli’s treatment in a letter to the editor of the Monthly Magazine: ‘Fuseli’s Count Ugolino is a man of wonder and admiration, of resentment against man and devil, and of humiliation before God; prayer and parental affection fill the picture from head to foot.’ The Letters of William Blake, ed. Geoffrey Keynes (London: Rupert Hart-Davies, 1968), p. 123. 70. See Hazlitt’s article in the Edinburgh Review, 25 (June 1815), pp. 31–63. Lamb criticised Reynolds’s Ugolino in his essay ‘On the Genius and Character of Hogarth’, first published in The Reflector, II (January–March, 1811), now in The Works of Charles and Mary Lamb, ed. Edward V. Lucas, 7 vols (London: Methuen, 1903–5), I. 71. Toynbee, ‘The Earliest English Illustrators of Dante’, p. 150. 72. The reader adds a moralising approach to Dante: ‘Perhaps, too, the horrors of hell, depicted by him after Dante, would render a more important service to morality than all the thunders of the pulpit.’ Letter to the Editor, signed ‘W.’, The Monthly Magazine (August 1803), 16, p. 8. 73. For the reprints of Flaxman’s designs, see G.E. Bentley, The Early Engravings of Flaxman’s Classical Designs (New York: The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations, 1964). Notes 185

74. Pite, The Circle of our Vision, p. 55. 75. See for example from the Inferno, plate 2 ‘Beatrice in Limbo’, plate 8 ‘Pluto’, plate 10 ‘Farinata’; from the Purgatorio, plate 5 ‘Casella’. But the use of hand gestures to signify speech occurs almost systematically throughout the illustrations. 76. Toynbee, ‘The Earliest English Illustrators of Dante’, p. 152; Renato Barilli, ‘Flaxman: una via all’astrazione’, in Corrado Gizzi, ed., Flaxman e Dante (Milano: Mazzotta, 1986), pp. 21–25 (p. 23). Taaffe compares the illustrator to the translator: ‘Mr Flaxman has translated Dante best, for he has translated him into the language of nature’. John Taaffe, A Comment on the Divine Comedy (London: Murray, 1822), p. xxxi. 77. Barilli, ‘Flaxman: una via all’astrazione’, pp. 21–5. 78. See the analogies of these plates with Purgatorio, plate 11, 34 and Paradiso, plates 1, 6, 22.

2. The Romantic translation of the Divine Comedy: Henry Francis Cary’s The Vision

1. ‘Neoclassicism and Enlightement’, in The Oxford Guide to Literature in English Translation, ed. Peter France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 55–64 (p. 64). 2. Brown, ‘Introduction’, Cambridge History of Literary Criticism: Romanticism, p. 2. 3. I am aware that by now descriptive translation studies is a broad umbrella- term that encompasses a variety of approaches and practices to the study of translations. For a clear review of the most signiﬁcant contemporary positions, see Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, pp. 13–96. See the essential essays: Itamar Even-Zohar, ‘The Position of Translated Literature within the Literary Polysystem’, in Translation across Cultures, ed. Gideon Toury (New Dehli: Bahri Publications, 1987), and Gideon Toury, ‘A Rationale for Descriptive Translation Studies’, in The Manipulation of Literature, ed. Theo Hermans (London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985). 4. John Dryden, ‘Preface’, The Works of John Dryden, 20 vols (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1956–89), I: Ovid’s Epistles, ed. E. Nives Hooher and H.T. Swedenberg Jr, pp. 109–19 (p. 118). 5. The standard reference is Horace’s Ars Poetica, pp. 128–35: ‘nor should you try to render your original word for word [verbum verbo reddere] like a slavish translator [ﬁdus interpres]’. Q. Horati Flacci opera, ed. Edward C. Wickham and H.W. Garrod (Oxford, Clarendon, 1901), Ars Poetica, vv. 131–4, in Ancient Literary Criticism, ed. D.A. Russel and M. Winterbottom (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1972). 6. Dryden, ‘Preface’, p. 118. 7. ‘Preface’, The Poems of Alexander Pope, 11 vols (London: Methuen, 1967–69), VII: The Iliad of Homer, ed. Maynard Mack, pp. 1–25 (p. 17). 8. Lawrence Venuti, ‘Neoclassicism and Enlightenment’, p. 57. 9. A.F. Tytler, Essay on the Principles of Translation (London: Cadell, 1791). 10. Tytler, Essay on the Principles of Translation, p. 57. 11. Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, p. 136. 186 Notes

12. Tytler, Essay on the Principles of Translation, pp. 16, 130. 13. Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, p. 136. 14. Tytler, Essay on the Principles of Translation, p. 147. 15. On the subject see especially H.A. Mason, To Homer through Pope (London: Chatto and Windus, 1972). 16. Joseph Weston’s translation of John Morfitt’s poem Philotoxi Ardenae opened the debate: he translated the poem in blank verse and heroic couplets and added a preface claiming the superiority of Dryden’s versification over Pope. Anna Seward was Weston’s most vehement adversary, claiming the superiority of Pope and the ‘moderns’. See Gretchen M. Foster, Pope Versus Dryden: a Controversy in Letters to the Gentleman’s Magazine: 1789–1792, English Literary Studies 44 (Victoria: University of Victoria Press, 1989). 17. Marcellus, Gentleman’s Magazine, 59 (1789), pt. II, pp. 682–3. 18. Dante Alighieri: the Divina Commedia, translated into English verse, with preliminary essays, notes, and illustrations, trans. Henry Boyd, 3 vols (London: Cadell and Davies, 1802). He had completed the Inferno in 1785. A Trans- lation of the Inferno of Dante Alighieri in English Verse with Historical Notes, and the Life of Dante, to Which is Added, A Specimen of a New Translation of the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto (Dublin: Byrne, 1785). 19. Toynbee, Dante Studies, p. 295. 20. Toynbee, Dante Studies, p. 295. 21. Critical Review 37, (1803), pp. 241–9 (p. 245). 22. Tinkler-Villani, Visions of Dante, p. 126. 23. See especially Constantine Jennings’s translation. For an analysis of Gothic translations of Dante, see Cosetta Gaudenzi, ‘Gothic Translations of Dante’s Ugolino Episode in Eighteenth-Century and Early Nineteenth- Century Great Britain’, Romance Languages Annual (1999), pp. 196–201. 24. Tinkler-Villani, Visions of Dante, p. 130. 25. Boyd, Divine Comedy, III, 3. 26. Boyd, Divine Comedy, I, 7. 27. Boyd, Divine Comedy, I, 25. 28. Boyd, Divine Comedy, II, 4. 29. A short biography of Cary was first published in the Gentleman’s Magazine in 1847. The same year Henry Cary published the Memoir. R.W. King began his publication of Cary’s unpublished documents in two articles of 1923. He then published Cary’s biography in 1925. Crisafulli’s bibliography has also been consulted. All these accounts have been taken into consideration in this summary of his life. See, Gentleman’s Magazine, 27 (1847), 339–60; Richard Garnett, ‘Henry Francis Cary’, Dictionary of National Biography (1887), pp. 242–4; R.W. King, ‘Charles Lamb, Cary and ‘The London Magazine’, The Nineteenth Century and After, 559 (1923), pp. 363–9; 560 (1923), pp. 520–30; Charles Branchini, ‘Poet Father and Painter Son: the Rev. Henry Francis Cary (1772–1844) and his son Francis Stephen Cary, Charles Lamb Bulletin, new series 60 (1987), pp. 122–130; R.W. King, The Translator of Dante (London: Secker, 1925). 30. Gentleman’s Magazine, 57 (1787), pt. I, p. 529; pt. II, pp. 625, 916. 31. Cary, An Irregular Ode to General Eliott (Birmingham: Piercy, 1788). For the review, see Gentleman’s Magazine, 58 (1788), pt. II, p. 633. Notes 187

32. ‘Miss Seward. – The writings of this lady are so universally known and admired, that to make particular mention of them here, would be imperti- nent.’ Cary, An Irregular Ode to General Eliott, p. 6. 33. King, The Translator of Dante, p. 22; Cary, Sonnets and Odes by Henry Francis Cary (London: Robson and Clarke, 1788), p. 1. Cary’s poems were first published in the Gentleman’s Magazine between the years 1787 and 1789 under the nom de plume Marcellus. 34. Cary, Memoir, I, 28. 35. Alethes, Gentleman’s Magazine, 55 (1785), pt. II, pp. 610–13 (611, 613). 36. New Review, 9 (1786), pp. 164–8. 37. I consulted a later edition of Vergani’s introductory essay: Angelo Vergani, Le bellezze della poesia italiana … accompagnate d’un trattato della poesia italiana (Paris: Barrois, 1819), pp. 181–8; 210–66, 297–301. 38. Marcellus, ‘Translation of an Italian Sonnet written by the Abbé Cassiani’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 59 (1789), pt. I, p. 257. 39. Cary, Memoir, I, p. 38. 40. Marcellus, ‘Remarks on the Provençal Poetry’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 63 (1793), pt. I, pp. 520–2; Marcellus, ‘Remarks on the Writing of some Provençal Poets’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 63 (1793) pt. II, pp. 912–13. 41. Marcellus, Gentleman’s Magazine, 61 (1791), pt. I, pp. 125–6 (p. 126). 42. Cited in King, The Translator of Dante, p. 56. 43. Cary, Memoir, I, p. 43. 44. Cary, Memoir, I, p. 43. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid. 47. Cary, Memoir, I, p. 103. 48. ‘The Mountain Seat’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 64 (1794), pt. I, pp. 161–2. 49. Cary, Memoir, II, p. 125. 50. The episode of Cary’s application for the post and his and Panizzi’s position in the British Museum is illustrated by Edward Edwards, Lives of the Founders of the British Museum, 2 vols (London: Trübner, 1870), II, pp. 532, 543–55. 51. Cary, Early French Poets (London: H.G. Bohn, 1846); Lives of English Poets. 52. Cary, The Birds of Aristophanes (London: Taylor and Hessey, 1824), p. vi. 53. Cary, Memoir, I, p. 92. 54. Cary’s literary journal contains entries on the Purgatorio from 16 January to 18 March: Memoir, I, pp. 103–8, 114–15, 128. In a note first included in The Vision 1819 Cary acknowledges that he used the 8.vo Venice edition of the Divine Comedy of 1793 (The Vision 1819, p. 12n.). 55. Cited in King, The Translator of Dante, p. 78 n. 56. King, The Translator of Dante, p. 78. 57. Cary, Memoir, I, p. 165. 58. See Cary, Memoir, I, p. 165. 59. Henry Cary writes: ‘As his journal has informed us, he began translating that portion of the Divina Commedia on the 23rd of May, 1800, and in the autumn of 1804 his work was sufficiently advanced to warrant his offering it for publication.’ Cary, Memoir, I, pp. 217–18. 60. The entry is as follows: ‘May 8. Finished my translation of Dante’s Commedia – began the 16th of June, 1797.’ Cary, Memoir, I, p. 269. 61. See Cary, Memoir, I, pp. 278–9. 188 Notes

62. Cary, Memoir, I, pp. 281–2. 63. Cary, Memoir, I, p. 283. 64. Toynbee, Dante Studies, p. 300. 65. William J. De Sua, Dante into English (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1964), p. 30. 66. Cunningham, The Divine Comedy in English, p. 20. 67. Tinkler-Villani, Visions of Dante, p. 183. 68. Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, p. 237. 69. Cary expressed his reservations on Rogers’s translation in a letter to Thomas Price of 20 February 1814. Cary, Memoir, I, pp. 296–7. 70. Cowper’s Odyssey was published on 1 July 1791. As a letter to Miss Seward documents, Cary knew of Cowper’s ongoing translation as early as 1789. 71. Marcellus, ‘A Remark on Winkelmann on Imagination Controverted’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 62 (1792), pt. II, p. 605. Cary was reading Longinus again in 1800. See Cary, Memoir, I, pp. 156, 267. 72. These are especially Inferno, XVIII–XXII. 73. As Zygmunt Baranski points out, Dante’s experimentation stems from his dissatisfaction with the contemporary approach to literary genres, or ‘genera dicendi’. Often associated with particular groups of texts, especially tragedy and comedy, these required a strict correspondence between subject matter and style. According to Baranski, ‘it was against [their] per- ceived constraints that Dante directed so much of his energy when he composed the Commedia’. ‘“Tres enim sunt manerie dicendi …”. Some observations on medieval literature, “genre”, and Dante’, The Italianist,15 (1995), supplement, ed. Zygmunt G Baranski, pp. 9–60 (p. 23). 74. Pite, The Circle of our Vision, pp. 14–16. 75. Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, p. 230. 76. ‘For a playful sonnet which Dante addressed to him, and a spirited translation of it, see Hayley’s Essay on Epic Poetry, Notes to Epistle III’ (The Inferno, I, 166n). 77. Cary discussed their use of terza rima in his later essay ‘On the Early French Poets: Hugues Salel and Oliver de Magni’, London Magazine, 5 (1822), pp. 157–60 (p. 158). 78. Cary, Memoir, II, pp. 341–2. 79. Tytler, Essay on the Principles of Translation, p. 112. 80. William Cowper, ‘Preface to the ﬁrst edition (1791) of the Translation of Homer’, The Letters and Prose Writings of William Cowper, ed. James King and Charles Ry Skamp, 5 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979–86), V, pp. 61–9 (p. 65). 81. The Iliad and Odyssey of Homer translated into English verse by William Cowper (London: Printed for J. Johnson, 1791), XI, pp. 39–49. 82. The Gentleman’s Magazine complained that his ‘commendable desire of retaining the strength of his original has made him less attentive to that sweetness and melody which the Greek language possesses beyond all others, but of which our own is sufﬁciently capable’, the Critical Review was even more scathing. Gentleman’s Magazine, 61 (1791), pt. II, pp. 845–6 (p. 845); Critical Review, 2nd series, 4 (1792), pp. 560–9 (p. 569). 83. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Collected Letters of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ed. Earl Leslie Griggs, 6 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959–71), IV, p. 781. Notes 189

Cary was well acquainted with contemporary examples of the use of blank verse; as his literary journals show, Cary had read Southey’s Joan of Arc by February 1797 and Wordsworth’s Lyrical Ballads by August 1800. See Cary, Memoir, I, pp. 107, 203. 84. Coleridge, Letters, IV, pp. 780–1. 85. Cooksey, Dante’s England, p. 362. 86. King, The Translator of Dante, pp. 302–5. 87. Crisafulli’s articles first alerted my awareness of translators’ lexical com- pensatory strategies. For a definition of compensation, see especially ‘Dante’s Puns in English and the Question of Compensation’, The Translator, 2 (1996), pp. 259–76. 88. Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, p. 203. 89. Giuseppe Lisio, L’arte del periodo nelle opere volgari di Dante Alighieri e del secolo XII (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1902), pp. 114–16. 90. Lisio, L’arte del periodo, p. 114n. 91. According to Ferrante the number of cantos of the Paradiso in which speech prevails is more than double that of the Inferno. ‘A Poetics of Chaos and Harmony’, The Cambridge Companion to Dante, ed. Rachel Jacoff (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 156–7. 92. ‘Le sentenze della Commedia’, in Antologia della critica dantesca, ed. Mario Fubini and E. Bonazza (Torino: Petrini, 1967), p. 319. 93. Ferrante, ‘A Poetics of Chaos and Harmony’, p. 154. 94. Ferrante, ‘A Poetics of Chaos and Harmony’, p. 157. 95. Ferrante, ‘A Poetics of Chaos and Harmony’, p. 59. 96. Lisio, L’arte del periodo, pp. 114–15. 97. According to Ferrante the average number for the Inferno is 15. See Ferrante, ‘A Poetics of Chaos and Harmony’, p. 159. 98. King, The Translator of Dante, pp. 338–45; Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, p. 189. 99. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), IV, p. 1007, X, p. 915. 100. ‘I know nothing in the whole circle of diablerie more terrible than the transformations in canto xxiv and xxv. The two nauseous passages you have remarked, with something more of the same sort, I should have been heartily glad not to have met with: but I did not think myself justified in doing more than endeavouring to make them somewhat less offensive than they are in the original.’ Cary, Memoir, I, p. 228. 101. Dante’s line is ‘ma solo un punto fu quel che ci vinse’ (Inferno, V, 132). 102. For an analysis of Cary’s translation of Canto V, see Valeria Cenami, La Divina Commedia nelle traduzioni di H.W. Longfellow e di H.F. Cary (Lucca: Tipografia editrice Giusti, 1933), p. 23. 103. The process begins as early as Purgatorio, II, where the musician Casella sings Dante’s poem, ‘Amor che nella mente mi ragiona’. As Teodolinda Barolini points out, at this early stage in the poem love poetry is the occasion for Cato’s reproach; by the time one reaches Purgatorio, XXIV Dante’s perspective has changed: poetry is one of the instruments of salvations provided it admits its dependence on theology. Teodolinda Barolini, ‘Autocitation and Autobiography’, in Dante, ed. Harold Bloom, Modern Critical Views (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986), pp. 167–78. 190 Notes

104. Thus ‘soavemente’ [gently] (II: 85) is translated as ‘with voice of sweetness’ (Purgatorio, II, 80–1) and Casella sings ‘in such soft accents’ (II: 108), ‘sì dolcemente’ [so sweetly] (II, 113); ‘gentle’ or ‘courteous’ most commonly corresponds to Dante’s ‘gentile’ or ‘benigno’, Dante’s most common reference to nobility of heart. See The Vision, VII, 105; VIII, 53; IX, 84; XXVI, 91; XXXIII, 128. In XXVI, 105 and XXVIII, 59, Cary uses ‘dulcet’ for ‘dolce’ [sweet]. 105. The Poetical Works of John Milton, ed. John Carey and Alastair Fowler (London: Longman, 1968). 106. Shelley was to make extensive use of both the adjective and noun ‘serene’. It is interesting that Byron used the form as early as 1812, before the publication of The Vision; I would ascribe, nevertheless, Shelley’s use to the influence of Cary’s Purgatory and Paradise, the two parts of the Divine Comedy the poet appreciated most. Here, in fact, he could find such an extensive use of the form as to justify a direct influence. 107. See, for instance, The Vision, VI: 74, VIII: 94, XXI: 14, XXVI: 108, XXIX: 13.

3. Dante and high culture: the Romantic search for the epic

1. Horace Walpole’s Correspondence with William Mason, ed. W.S. Lewis, Grover Cronin Jr and Charles H. Bennett (1955), 2 vols, vol. II, in The Yale Edition of Horace Walpole’s Correspondence, XXIX, p. 255. 2. Walpole objects to William Hayley’s advice in book V of his Epistle to abandon satire for the epic. Horace Walpole’s Correspondence with William Mason, II, 255. 3. Toynbee, Dante in English Literature, p. 401. 4. Voltaire’s essay was published in March 1728, at the time of his attempt to enlist subscriptions for his Henriade, his ﬁrst attempt at a French epic. The ‘Advertisement’ to the reader that prefaces the essay presents it as ‘a kind of Preface or Introduction to the Henriade’. It was reprinted in January 1728, but in France it became a bibliographical rarity because it was not reissued in any of the collective editions of Voltaire’s works. An Essay on epic poetry / Essai sur la poésie épique, ed. David Williams, in The English Essays of 1727, The Complete Works of Voltaire 3B (Oxford: Printed by the Alden Press for the Voltaire Foundation, 1996), p. 156 and ff.. See also Florence Donnel White, Voltaire’s Essay on Epic Poetry (New York: Phaeton Press, 1970). 5. For Italian responses to Voltaire’s essay, see Antonio Zardo, ‘La censura e la difesa di Dante nel sec. xviiii’, Giornale Dantesco, 24 (1906), pp. 145–67. 6. See George E. Dorris, Paolo Rolli and the Italian Circle in London 1715–1744 (The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1967). 7. (London: Printed for R. Dodsley, at Tully’s Head in Pall-Mall, 1753). 8. Paolo Rolli and the Italian Circle in London 1715–1744, p. 35. 9. See David Williams, ‘Voltaire: Literary Critic’, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 48 (1966), pp. 314–41 and Paolo Rolli and the Italian Circle in London 1715–1744, p. 203. Notes 191

10. He replied in 1776 with his Lettres chinoises, xii ‘Sur le Dante et sur un pauvre homme nommé Martinelli’, Lettres chinoises, Indiennes, et Tartares, Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, ed. Louis Moland (Paris: Garnier Frères, 1878), 29, pp. 495–8. 11. Lettere Familiari e Critiche di Vincenzio Martinelli (London: Presso Luigi Nourse, Libraio dello Strand, 1758). The two letters attacking Voltaire are addressed to the Count of Oxford, in the edition consulted at pp. 216–37. Martinelli’s attack is the strongest among the three in accusing Voltaire of ignorance and misunderstanding. 12. The English Essays of 1727, p. 245. 13. Voltaire had earlier expressed his opinion on the Divine Comedy in the Essai sur les mœuers et l’esprit des nations: ‘Déjà le Dante, Florentin, avait illustré la langue toscane par son poème bizarre, mais brillant de beautés naturelles, intitulé Comédie; ouvrage dans lequel l’auteur s’éleva dans les détails au-dessus du mauvais goût de son siècle et de son sujet, et rempli de morceaux écrits aussi purement que s’ils étaient du temps de l’Arioste et du Tasse.’ Chap. 82, Essai sur les mœurs et l’esprit des nations, ed. René Pomeau (Paris: éditions Garnier Frères, 1963), 2 vols, I, p. 763. 14. Voltaire to Saverio Bettinelli, 18 December 1759, in Correspondance XXI, The Complete Works of Voltaire, ed. Theodore Besterman, The Voltaire Foundation (Banbury: Cheney and Sons, 1973), 105, pp. 48–9. 15. ‘(Le) Dante’, in Suites de Mélanges, quatrième partie (1765), Dictionnaire Philosophique, in Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, ed. Louis Moland (Paris: Garnier Frères, 1878),18, II, pp. 342–5. 16. A second translation of the Philosophical Dictionary with the entry on Dante was published in Britain in 1786. Toynbee, Dante in English Literature, I, 423. 17. Henry John Todd, The Poetical Works of John Milton (London, 1801). It was reviewed in Quarterly Review, 36 (June 1827), pp. 29–61. 18. Baretti, A Dissertation upon the Italian Poetry, pp. 67–68. 19. See John O. Hayden, The Romantic Reviewers 1802–1824 (London: Routledge, 1969), p. 1. See also Marilyn Butler, ‘Culture’s Medium: the Role of the Review’, in The Cambridge Companion to Romanticism, ed. Stuart Curran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 120–47. 20. See also Frances A. Yates, ‘Transformations of Dante’s Ugolino’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 10 (1951), pp. 27–82. 21. See especially chapter 5, ‘Cary, Ideology and The Vision’, in The Vision of Dante, pp. 265–325. 22. Dante and the Victorians, p. 9. 23. De l’Esprit de lois, book xiv: ‘des lois, dans le rapport qu’elles ont avec la nature du climat’, ed. Victor Goldschmidt (Paris: Garnier-Flammarion, 1979). 24. The Edinburgh Review, 25 (1815), pp. 31–63. Sismondi’s Histoire des républiques italiennes du moyen âge had already been reviewed by the Quarterly Review in 1812 , vol. 7 (1812), pp. 357–71; it was then translated by Sismondi himself as a one volume History of the Italian Republics in 1832 for Lardner’s Encyclopaedia. 25. The Edinburgh Review 25, pp. 31–63 (pp. 46, 48). Also in the Collected Works of William Hazlitt, 16, pp. 41–2. 192 Notes

26. Quarterly Review, 9 (1813), pp. 444–66. 27. Joseph Berington’s A Literary History of the Middle Ages was a further source of acknowledgment of Dante’s importance in medieval Europe. Sharon Turner’s History of England (1815) acknowledged the influence of Dante on Chaucer. The most influential historical work on the topic was Henry Hallam’s View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages (1818). Travel literature, in great demand now that the tour on the continent was again a possibility, soon followed the trend: the anonymous Remarks on Antiquities, and Letters, During an Excursion in Italy (1802–1803),devoted four pages to Dante, and the influential A Tour Through Italy (1813) by Eustace, three. 28. Dunlop, for instance, relates Sacchetti’s story about Dante’s meeting with a blacksmith reciting his poety. Dunlop, The History of Fiction, II, pp. 358–9. See also Toynbee, Dante in English Literature, I, p. 586; II, pp. 138, 188–190. 29. Tilottama Rajan, ‘Theories of Genre’, in The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism, V: Romanticism, ed. Marshall Brown (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 229. 30. Thomas Campbell, Lectures on Poetry (London, 1821) 31. (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme, 1807). 32. The Quarterly Review, 31 (December 1824 and March 1825), pp. 263–311 (p. 283). The attribution is in The Wellesley Index of Victorian Periodicals 1824–1900, ed. Walter E. Houghton, 2 vols (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966–89), II, p. 703. 33. The Quarterly Review, 31, p. 284. 34. The Vision of Dante, p. 143. 35. See The Vision of Dante, pp. 145–52. 36. Lawrence Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility (London and New York: Routledge, 1995). 37. Boyd’s Inferno was first reviewed in 1785 by the Gentleman’s Magazine, the Critical Review and the Monthly Review. Gentleman’s Magazine, 55 (1785), pt. I, 378–81; Critical Review, 59 (1785), pp. 401–10; Monthly Review, 1st series, 73 (1785), pp. 425–7. 38. Gentleman’s Magazine 55, pt. I, p. 381. 39. The Annual Review and History of Literature blames the ‘diffuseness’ of Boyd’s translation, but once again finds greater fault in ‘the nature of the poem itself, which at this time of day, must rather be reckoned among the curiosities of literature’. Annual Review and History of Literature, 1 (1802), 672–80 (p. 680). In the Monthly Review, Lockhart Muirhead belatedly reviewed the translation in 1805, only to praise the way in which ‘he has executed an entire English version of the Commedia with a degree of success which has surpassed our expectations.’ Monthly Review, 2nd series, 46, pp. 272–82 (p. 273). 40. Edinburgh Review,1 (1803), pp. 307–13. 41. The Literary Journal, 5, p. 1090. 42. The article included the infortunate misprint ‘obscene’ for ‘obscure’. Gentleman’s Magazine, 75 (1805), pt. I, pp. 551–2 (p. 551). 43. The Literary Journal, or Universal Review of Literature Domestic and Foreign, 5 (October 1805), pp. 1088–90 (p. 1088). Notes 193

44. The Critical Review, 3rd series, 6 (1805), pp. 113–126 (p. 123). 45. The Critical Review, 3rd series, 6, p. 123. 46. Monthly Review, 55 (1808), p. 438. 47. Cary, Memoir, II, p. 40. 48. The Critical Review, 4th series, 5 (1814), p. 647. 49. The Monthly Review, 76 (1815), pp. 322–4 (p. 323). 50. The British Critic, 12 (1819), xii, pp. 584–97. The Eclectic Review praises Cary’s translation in comparison with Boyd’s freer version: ‘On comparing the present with the version of the Inferno published by Mr. Boyd in 1785, the superior value of a close yet not literal translation, over a free version, will be sufﬁciently evident’. The Eclectic Review, new series, 11 (1819), pp. 556–72 (p. 556). 51. Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, p. 153. 52. Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, pp. 148–53. 53. ‘The Lovers of sentiment and Italian literature generally turn, most unjustly, their exclusive attention to Petrarch; and seem to regard Dante as a sublime but repulsive genius, untouched by those tender passions, of which his rival unceasingly complained … How much deeper his passion was than that of Petrarch, may be judged not only from the poetry, but the character of both; from the bold, indignant spirit of Dante, that throws into shade the feeble plaintiveness of his successor.’ ‘On Dante and his Times’, Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, 13 (1823), pp. 141–57 (p. 141). The identiﬁcation of the contributor is in Alan Lang Strout, A Bibliography of Articles in Blackwood’s Magazine; Volumes I through XVIII 1817–1825 (Lubbock, Texas: Library, Texas Technological College, 1959), p. 104. 54. The Quarterly Review, 34 (1826), pp. 1–19 (p. 5). 55. See Benjamin Christie Nangle, The Monthly Review, Second Series 1790–1815; Index of Contributors and Articles (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955), pp. 47–8. 56. Foscolo wrote four articles on Dante and the Divine Comedy. Two were published in the Edinburgh Review and two by the New Monthly Magazine. The latter devoted a series to the Italian poets, to which Foscolo contributed two articles that quote extensively from The Vision. Ugo Foscolo, ‘Frederick the Second and Pietro delle Vigne’; ‘Guido Cavalcanti’, Saggi e Discorsi Critici, Edizione Nazionale X, ed. Cesare Foligno (1953), pp. 399–411; pp. 423–35. 57. ‘On Dante and his Times’, p. 154. 58. Thomas L. Cooksey, ‘Dante’s England: the Contribution of Cary, Coleridge and Foscolo to the British Reception of Dante’, Papers on Language and Literature, 20 (1984), pp. 355–6. 59. The Letters of Charles and Mary Ann Lamb, ed. Edwin W. Marrs Jr, 3 vols (Ithaca and London, Cornell University Press, 1975–78), vol. I, p. 16. 60. Leigh Hunt, Stories from the Italian Poets, 2 vols (London: Chapman and Hall, 1846), I, p. 42. 61. Hunt, Stories from the Italian Poets, I, p. 65. 62. Friederich Schlegel’s Geschichte der alten und neuen Litteratur (1815) was translated into English in 1818 under the title Lectures on the History of Literature, Ancient and Modern, 2 vols (Edinburgh: Blackwood and Baldwin, 1818). 194 Notes

63. William Hazlitt, The Complete Works of William Hazlitt in Twenty-One Volumes, ed. P.P. Howe, 21 vols (London: Dent, 1930–34), V, p. 17. 64. Hazlitt, Works, V, p. 17. 65. ‘Milton, more perhaps than any other poet, elevated his subject, by com- bining image with image in lofty gradation. Dante’s great power is in com- bining internal feelings with familiar objects.’ Hazlitt, Works, XVI, p. 42. 66. Hazlitt, Works, V, p. 65. 67. Hazlitt, Works, V, p. 66. 68. Hazlitt, Works, XVI, pp. 24–57. 69. Judy Little, Keats as a Narrative Poet: a Test of Invention (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), p. 127. In The Round Table Hazlitt explicitly links Milton’s art to the nakedness and simplicity of Greek sculpture: ‘the persons of Adam and Eve, of Satan, etc. are always accompanied, in our imagination, with the grandeur of the naked figure; they convey to us the ideas of sculpture … The figures introduced here have all the elegance and precision of a Greek statue.’ Hazlitt, ‘On Milton’s Versification’, Works, IV, pp. 38–9. 70. See Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, p. 113. 71. Hazlitt, Works, V, p. 17. 72. Francis Jeffrey to Ugo Foscolo of 8 May 1818, Ugo Foscolo, Epistolario, ed. Mario Scotti, Edizione Nazionale della Opere di Ugo Foscolo, 9 vols (Firenze: Le Monnier, 1949–94), VII, pp. 317–18. 73. Caesar, The Critical Heritage, pp. 351–2. ‘Appunto come per le stesse pre- correnti ragioni noi nella Scienza nuova dimostrammo Omero, come egli è il primo certo autor greco che ci è pervenuto, così è senza contrasto il principe e padre di tutti i poeti che fiorirono appresso ne’ tempi addottri- nati di Grecia, che li lega dietro, ma per assai lungo spazio lontani.’ Giambattista Vico, L’Autobiografia, Opere, ed. Roberto Parenti (Naples: Fulvio Rossi, 1972), 2 vols, I, p. 446. 74. See, for example, Coleridge’s letter to Lord Holland of 14 February 1818. Coleridge, Letters, IV, p. 838. 75. Rogers first met Wordsworth and Coleridge in August 1789. See P.W. Clayden, Rogers and His Contemporaries, 2 vols (London: Smith, 1889) I, pp. 9–10. For Coleridge’s relationship with Rogers see especially his letter of 25 May 1815 in which he asks Rogers to forward his proposal for translations to Cadell. Coleridge, Letters, IV, pp. 569–70. 76. Mary Russell Mitford mentioned Rogers’s presence at the lecture of 2 December. See Coleridge, Letters, III, p. 353n. 77. See Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, ed. R.A. Foakes, Bollingen Series, 2 vols (1987) II, p. 33. See also Recollections of the Table Talk of Samuel Rogers, pp. 284–5. 78. Allen writes of Rogers: ‘in your present distress of body and mind the cer- tainty of having such a friend near you, even though you should see him but seldom, must be a great consolation’. Foscolo, Epistolario, VII, p. 229. 79. British Library, Holland House Papers, adds MSS 52181, fols 106r – 107v. 80. The confused and different descriptions on the origin of the article have been investigated by G. da Pozzo in his introduction to Studi su Dante, Edizione nazionale delle opere di Ugo Foscolo. See Corrigan, ‘Foscolo’s Articles on Dante in the Edinburgh Review: a Study in Collaboration’, in Notes 195

Collected Essays on Italian Language and Literature Presented to Kathleen Speight, ed. Giovanni Aquilecchia et al. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1971), pp. 212–26; C.P. Brand, ‘Ugo Foscolo and the Edinburgh Review: Unpublished Letters to Francis Jeffrey’, The Modern Language Review, 70 (1975), pp. 306–23. 81. Recollections of the Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers, pp. 229–30. 82. British Literary Magazines, ed. Alvin Sullivan, 2 vols (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983) II, p. 140; see also Walter Graham, English Literary Periodicals (New York: Thomas Nelson, 1930), p. 236. 83. Cary, Memoir, II, pp. 18–19. Recollections of the Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers, p. 231n. 84. See Coleridge, Letters, IV, pp. 778–83. 85. King, The Translator of Dante, p. 116. 86. See George Crabbe’s Journal in The Life and Poetical Works of George Crabbe by His Son (London: Murray, 1901), p. 68. Wordsworth, too, knew of Rogers’s interest in Dante by May 1817. See, Wordsworth, Letters, III, pt. II, p. 382. 87. Cary, Memoir, II, p. 19. 88. ‘I would, that my literary Inﬂuence were enough to secure the knowledge of the work for the true Lovers of Poetry in general – But how came it that you had it published in so too unostentatious a form.’ Coleridge, Letters, IV, p. 779. 89. Coleridge writes: ‘By the bye, there is no Publisher’s name mentioned in the Title-page. Should I put any number of Copies for you at Gate and Curtis’s, or at Murray’s?’ Coleridge, Letters, IV, p. 781. 90. See Cary’s acknowledgement in the preface to The Vision 1819: ‘Amongst the few into whose hands [this translation] fell, about two years ago, Mr. Coleridge became one; and I have both a pride and pleasure in acknowledging that it has been chieﬂy owing to the prompt and strenu- ous exertions of that gentleman in recommending the book to public notice, that the opportunity has been afforded me of sending it forth in its present form.’ (The Vision 1819, pp. iii–iv). 91. Coleridge, The Friend, ed. Barbara E. Rook (1969), I, p. 429. 92. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Notebooks of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ed. Kathleen Coburn, 6 vols (New York: Princeton, 1957–89), III, p. 4498. 93. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Literary Remains of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ed. Henry Nelson Coleridge, 4 vols (London: Pickering, 1836–39), I, 150–66; Coleridge, Notebooks, III, p. 4498. 94. See Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, p. 184. Coleridge’s reference to Hallam is the annotation: ‘pay a proper compliment to Mr Hallam’. 95. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, p. 184. 96. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, p. 184. 97. Henry Crabb Robinson, On Books and their Writers, ed. Edith J. Morley, 3 vols (London: Dent, 1938), I, p. 220. 98. Coleridge, Notebooks, I, p. 170. 99. Coleridge, The Watchman (25 March 1796), ed. Lewis Patton (1970), p. 133; Coleridge, Notebooks, I, p. 1373. 100. Edoardo Zuccato, Coleridge in Italy (Cork: Cork University Press, 1996). 101. Coleridge, Letters, II, p. 1059. 196 Notes

102. See Coleridge, Marginalia, II, p. 132. 103. Opere di Dante Alighieri col comento del M.R.P. Pompeo Venturi della Compagnia di Gesù, 5 vols (Venice: Gatti, 1793). See Coleridge, Notebooks, II, pp. 3011–14, 3017–19, 3201, 3219 and 3014n. We do not know, however, which edition of the Convivio he possessed. 104. Coleridge, Notebooks, II, p. 3203. 105. See Coleridge, Notebooks, II, p. 3203. 106. Coleridge, Notebooks, III, p. 3611. 107. Coleridge, Notebooks, III, p. 4388. 108. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, ed. James Engell and W. Jackson Bate, 2 vols (Bollingen Series, 1983) II, p. 151. 109. Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, II, p. 21. 110. Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, I, p. 209. 111. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, p. 398. 112. Friedrich Schlegel, Lectures on the History of Literature, Ancient and Modern, 2 vols. R.A. Foakes demonstrates that Coleridge was using the German text. See Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, pp. 32 and 32n. 113. ‘If we are willing to study the poetry of the middle ages without being biased in favour of any particular theory … we shall ﬁnd that it naturally divides itself into three species, the chivalric, the amatory and the allegor- ical.’ Schlegel, Lectures, II, pp. 4–5. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, I, pp. lxii–lxiv; II, p. 397. 114. Coleridge, Notebooks, II, p. 3203. 115. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819, II, p. 399. 116. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819, II, p. 400. 117. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819, II, p. 401. 118. Schlegel, Lectures, II, p. 15. 119. Schlegel, Lectures, II, p. 15. 120. Schlegel, Lectures, II, p. 12. 121. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819, II, p. 398. 122. Despite his preference of symbol over allegory in the Statesman’s Manual, Coleridge always revealed a fascination with the genre. See John Gatta, ‘Coleridge and Allegory’, Modern Language Quarterly, 38 (1977), pp. 62–121. 123. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, p. 400. 124. Henry Hallam, View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages, 2 vols (London: Murray, 1818), II, p. 596. 125. Hallam, View of the State of Europe, II, pp. 596–7. 126. Hallam, View of the State of Europe, I, p. 246. 127. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, p. 397. Foakes identiﬁes Hallam as Coleridge’s source. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, p. 397n. 128. Foscolo, Studi Su Dante, p. 74. 129. Coleridge, Letters, V, p. 15. 130. Thomas McFarland, Coleridge and the Pantheist Tradition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), p. 202. 131. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, p. 400. 132. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, p. 401. 133. Coleridge praises in Wordsworth ‘the perfect truth of nature in his images and descriptions as taken immediately from nature, and proving a long and Notes 197

genial intimacy with the very spirit which gives the physiognomic expression to all the works of nature.’ Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, II, p. 148. 134. Both Thomas Babington Macaulay and Thomas Carlyle focus their analysis of the epic poem on Dante’s conciseness. Macaulay, Criticism on the Principal Italian Writers, The Miscellaneous Writings of Lord Macaulay, The Complete Works, I, p. 71; Thomas Carlyle, Lectures on Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History, The Works of Thomas Carlyle, 30 vols (London: Chapman, 1896–99), V, pp. 78–114 (p. 92). 135. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819 on Literature, II, p. 402. 136. ‘And I frankly confess that the vague sublimity of Milton affects me less than these reviled details of Dante. We read Milton, and we know that we are reading a great poet; when we read Dante, the poet vanishes.’ Macaulay, Works, I, p. 63. 137. Coleridge, Lectures 1808–1819, II, p. 402. The notes for the lecture show that Coleridge referred to Cary’s The Vision when making the quotations from Dante. For his criticism, he singles out the simile from Inferno, II, pp. 127–32, the description of Charon (Hell, III, 95–126), the two episodes of Francesca and Ugolino, and Dante’s description of his feelings at the sight Satan (Hell, XXIX, 1–3). 138. Coleridge, Letters, IV, pp. 827–8. 139. British Library, The Vision 1819 with Coleridge’s marginalia. 140. Coleridge, Marginalia, Bollingen Series, 12, ed. G. Whalley (1980), II, 135. 141. Coleridge, Marginalia, II, 136. 142. Pite, The Circle of our Vision, p. 68 and following. 143. Charles T. Davis, ‘Dante and Italian Nationalism’, in A Dante Symposium, ed. William De Sua and Gino Rizzo (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1965), pp. 199–213. On this subject see especially Crisafulli’s discussion ‘Cary, Ideology and The Vision’, in The Vision of Dante, pp. 265–332 and Michael Caesar’s Introduction to Dante: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge, 1989), pp. 1–88. 144. In May 1865 the actors Ernesto Rossi, Tommaso Salvini and Adelaide Ristori were invited to the Teatro Pagliano in order to conclude the three- day celebrations with readings from the Divine Comedy. 145. Crisafulli, The Vision of Dante, pp. 169–75. 146. E.R. Vincent, Byron, Hobhouse and Foscolo (Cambridge: University Press, 1949); Ugo Foscolo: an Italian in Regency England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953); C.P. Brand, ‘Ugo Foscolo e i periodici inglesi. I rapporti con Francis Jeffrey’, in Atti dei Convegni Foscoliani (1978–1979), 3 vols (Roma: Istituto Poligraﬁco e Zecca dello Stato, Libreria dello Stato, 1988) III, pp. 169–80; Vincent, ‘Fortuna di Dante in Inghilterra’, Enciclopedia Dantesca, 6 vols (1970), III, pp. 445–8. 147. ‘Ho dato due articoli chiestimi pel Quarterly Review, e per la Review d’Edinburgo su la Letteratura Italiana: ma vanno tradotti in Inglese; Dio voglia che non diventino cadaveri! Lo stile non si traduce.’ [I have given in two articles requested by the Quarterly Review, and for the Review in Edinburgh on Italian Literature: but they have to be translated in English: let them not become corpses! Style cannot be translated.] Foscolo, Epistolario, VII, p. 167. 198 Notes

148. The articles will be occasioned by the new edition of some Italian Historian, Speaker or Poet from Dante to Alfieri. I will take the classical author with which the articles deal as the occasion for my considerations; and I will combine it with political, moral and literary anecdotes concern- ing their century. Cited in Brand, ‘Foscolo and the Edinburgh Review’, p. 307. 149. Foscolo, Epistolario, VII, p. 325. 150. Foscolo, Epistolario, V, ed. Plinio Carli (1956), p. 158. 151. Foscolo, Epistolario, VI, ed. Giovanni Gambarin and Francesco Tropeano (1966), p. 144. 152. Foscolo, Epistolario, VI, p. 184. 153. Foscolo, ‘Primo articolo della Edinburgh Review’, Edizione nationale, IX, pp. 58–145, p. 78. 154. In August 1817, he sent Miss Pigout a short extract of the article in the course of composition, promising her some more to come. On 3 April 1818, Foscolo wrote to John Allen that he had sent to Mackintosh ‘le man- uscrit refait, et il a eu la bonté de s’en charger et de promettre qu’il songera à la traduction’. Foscolo, Epistolario, VII, pp. 221–2, 310–311. 155. Foscolo, Epistolario, VII, pp. 314, 314n, 317. 156. See Jeffrey’s letter to Foscolo of 23 May 1818 and Foscolo’s letter to the editor of July 1818; Foscolo, Epistolario, VII, pp. 324–5; Brand, ‘Foscolo and the Edinburgh Review’, p. 312. 157. Holland House Papers, adds MSS 52181, fol. 106r. 158. Corrigan, ‘Foscolo’s Articles on Dante’, p. 217. 159. Foscolo’s first article, number IX in the issue for February 1818 of the Edinburgh Review, n. 30, pp. 453–73. 160. Foscolo, Epistolario, VI, pp. 73–5. 161. Foscolo, ‘Primo articolo’, 1. Foscolo wrote more explicitly about the commentary in a letter of 1827. Cited in A. Vallone, Storia della critica dantesca dal XIV al XX secolo, Storia letteraria d’Italia, 2 vols (Padova: La Nuova Libreria, 1981), II, pp. 770, 807n. 162. ‘Crediamo che nel Biagioli ci sia una tacita polemica all’eruditismo piatto e massiccio del Settecento. I riferimenti storici e letterari non esorbitano la piana chiosa e comunque si inseriscono in una necessità interpretativa. Questi aspetti ed altri … lo portano invece al romanticismo’. Vallone, Storia della critica dantesca, II, p. 771. 163. Foscolo, Discorso sul testo e su le opinioni diverse prevalenti intorno alla storia e alla emendazione critica della Commedia di Dante, Edizione nazionale, IX, 149–573. 164. Foscolo, Primo articolo, pp. 16, 18. ‘Then remember me. / I once was Pia. Siena gave me life; / Maremma took it from me. That he knows / Who me with jewelled ring had first espoused’. (The Vision, Purgatory, V, 128–33). 165. Foscolo, Primo articolo, p. 40. 166. Ibid. 167. ‘La favola degli antichi tra l’origine dalle cose fisiche e civili … poesia primitiva che sgorga ‘spontanea da quelle epoche singolari’. Foscolo, La Chioma di Berenice, Edizione Nazionale VI, ed. Giovanni Gambarin (1972), p. 302. 168. Foscolo, Primo articolo, p. 4. Notes 199

169. In the same poem, Dante is similarly characterised according to his political beliefs as ‘il ghibellin fuggiasco’ [the fugitive Ghibelline] (Dei Sepolcri, 173–4). Ugo Foscolo, Poesie e Carmi, Edizione nazionale, I: ed. Francesco Pagliai et al. (1985), 125–34. 170. Foscolo, Primo articolo, p. 14. 171. Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, I, p. 209. 172. Foscolo, Primo articolo, p. 42. 173. Foscolo, Primo articolo, pp. 42, 44. 174. The ﬁrst passage relates to the expulsion of the serpent from the terrestrial paradise, recorded in Canto VIII of the Purgatorio, imitated by Gray in his Elegy. Foscolo, Primo articolo, p. 44. 175. Foscolo, Primo articolo, p. 54. 176. Rogers’s acquaintance with The Vision resulted in his rediscovery of Dante’s homeland in the poem Italy. He did not publish other criticism on Dante. Samuel Rogers, The Poetical Works of Samuel Rogers (London: George Bell, 1875), pp. 188–361. 177. See Allen’s letter to Foscolo of April 1818 and Jeffrey’s letter of 8 May 1818, Foscolo, Epistolario, VII, pp. 314, 317–18. 178. Foscolo, Epistolario, VII, p. 253. 179. ‘The limits of a late Number precluded us from entering, as fully as we would have wished, into the subject of Dante. We resume it the more will- ingly, from our having just received a work, published two or three years ago in Italy, but almost unknown in England, having for its object to ascertain, whether this great poet was an inventor, or an imitator only.’ Foscolo, ‘Secondo articolo della Edinburgh Review’, Edizione nazionale, IX, p. 58. 180. Foscolo, Secondo articolo, p. 98. Foscolo must have later developed some friendship with August Wilhelm Schlegel since in October 1823 he wrote a letter of introduction for him. See, Mario Fubini, ‘Foscolo e i fratelli Schlegel’, in Saggi, studi e note, Strumenti (Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1978), pp. 605–8. 181. Foscolo’s references to the English literary background have provoked scepticism: Corrigan suggests the intervention of the translator for some of them. In the second article, however, the references to Ginguené, Schlegel and Hallam are certainly a central part of the argument since they are included in one of the manuscripts of the article that have been preserved. Corrigan, ‘Foscolo’s Articles on Dante’, pp. 216–17. Foscolo, Secondo articolo, pp. 638–40. 182. Foscolo, Viaggio Sentimentale di Yorick Lungo la Francia e l’Italia, in Prose Varie d’arte, ed. Mario Fubini, Edizione nazionale (1951), V, pp. xxxvi–lviii, 35–186. Foscolo was introduced to Gray by his tutor Angelo Dalmistro who had translated the poet in 1792. See Camillo Antona Traversi and Angelo Ottolini, Ugo Foscolo, 4 vols (Milano: Edizioni Corbaccio, 1927–28), I, pp. 73–7. Gray, Ossian, Thompson, Milton and Shakespeare were mentioned in Foscolo’s ‘Piano di studi’ of 1796. Foscolo, Scritti Letterari e Politici, ed. Giovanni Gambarin, Edizione nazionale (1972), VI, pp. 4–5. 183. Foscolo, Epistolario, VII, p. 199. 184. Foscolo, Epistolario, VII, pp. 255, 273. 185. Foscolo, Secondo articolo, p. 102. 200 Notes

186. Foscolo, Secondo articolo, p. 110. 187. Foscolo, Secondo articolo, p. 118. 188. For Foscolo’s statement on the possibility for the Italian language to acquire the cadence of the Greek, in Epoche della lingua italiana, see Saggi di Letteratura Italiana, ed. Cesare Foligno, Edizione nazionale (1958), XI, p. 214. For his translations see Foscolo, Esperimenti di traduzione dell’Iliade, Edizione nazionale, III, ed. Gennaro Barbarisi, 3 vols (1967). 189. Foscolo, ‘Sulla traduzione dell’Odissea’, Esperimenti di traduzione dell’ lliade, I, p. 205. 190. Foscolo, Essays on Petrarch, Edizione nazionale, X, ed. Cesare Foligno (Firenze: Le Monnier, 1953), pp. 109–38. 191. Foscolo, Essays on Petrarch, p. 114. 192. Foscolo, ‘Guido Cavalcanti’, Edizione nazionale, X, p. 425. 193. Henry Francis Cary, The London Magazine 7 (1823), pp. 562–564 (pp. 563–4). 194. Mario Fubini, Romanticismo italiano, 2nd edition (Bari: Laterza, 1973), p. 17. 195. Conciliatore, 70 (1819), reprinted and ed. Vittore Branca, 3 vols (Florence: Le Monnier, 1948, 1953–54), vol. II, p. 519. 196. John Taaffe, A Comment on the Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri (London: Murray, 1822); London Magazine, 7 (1823), pp. 317–24, 396–404. 197. See Taaffe’s letter of 25 February 1825, C.L. Cline, Byron, Shelley and their Pisan Circle (London: Murray, 1952), pp. 219–20; Antologia, 7 (1822), pp. 103–4. 198. Monthly Review, 102 (1823), pp. 225–42. A note of praise accompanied by an informative footnote on Taaffe’s Comment appeared also in Liberal, 1 (1822), p. 111. 199. Compared to similar other Italian ventures the journal stands out for its moderate character: it is not rare to ﬁnd articles of literary opponents of Romanticism such as Mario Pieri and Urbano Lampredi. 200. Antologia 7, p. 103. 201. ‘l’opera inglese ci è sembrata giudiziosa’. Antologia 7, p. 104. 202. A. Benci, Discorso intorno alla Cantica di Dante; Elogio di Giulio Perticari, Antologia, 7 (1822), pp. 105–29, 130–46. 203. Byron, The Complete Poetical Works, IV, p. 214. 204. Byron, The Complete Poetical Works, IV, pp. 226–7; II. 136–9, 142–5. 205. Like Ugo Foscolo, Gabriele Rossetti and Antonio Panizzi, many Italian refugees succeeded in earning their living as authors. Among the second wave of Italian exiles of particular interest are the brothers Agostino and Giovanni Rufﬁni, who had accompanied Giuseppe Mazzini into his exile in Switzerland and in England. They contributed to an increase in English interest in the Italian revolutions. See Harry W. Rudman, Italian Nationalism and English Letters (London: Allen and Unwin, 1940). 206. John Taaffe Jr, A Comment on the Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri (London, Murray: 1822), pp. xix–xx. 207. Taaffe, A Comment, p. xxi. 208. London Magazine, 7, p. 319. 209. ‘I cannot but object to the very title, Vision, instead of that chosen by the author.’ A Comment, p. xxvi. Cary stubbornly defends his choice quoting the different titles given to Dante’s poem, such as ‘Capitola’, ‘Terze Rime’, Notes 201

‘Rime’, ‘Lo Inferno, Purgatorio and Paradiso’, ‘Commedia, or Comedia’, ‘Visione’. London Magazine 7, p. 320. 210. In his notes on Inferno II, he writes: ‘Mr Cary calls the “three maids” Divine Mercy, Lucia, and Beatrice; an odd jumble of fact and allegory’. A Comment, pp. xxix–xxx. 211. A Comment, p. xxvii. 212. Dante: the Divine Comedy: the Vision of Dante, trans. Henry F. Cary, ed. Ralph Pite, Everyman (London: Dent, 1994), p. xxiii. 213. London Magazine, 7, p. 317. 214. Taaffe’s chief merit is stated to consist ‘chieﬂy in this light, as a general comment on the more obscure portions of the Divina Commedia’. The reviewer welcomes two of Taaffe’s most original views: the identiﬁcation of the three beasts of Inferno, I with Florence, the King of France and Boniface VIII, and his interpretation of Dante’s nonsensical line ‘Pape Satàn, pape Satàn aleppe!’ (Inferno, VII, 1) as a Hebrew quotation. Monthly Review, 102, pp. 227, 229. 215. See Cline, Byron, Shelley and their Pisan Circle. 216. In fact Rossetti and Taaffe shared the same sources, such as Paolo Costa’s commentary of the Divine Comedy. See La Divina Commedia di Dante Alighieri con Comento Analitico di Gabriele Rossetti, 2 vols (London, Murray, 1826); La Divina Commedia di Dante Alighieri con le note di Paolo Costa e gli argomenti dell’ Ab. G. Borghi, 3 vols (Bologna, 1826). See also Edoardo Crisafulli, ‘Anticlericalismo ed esoterismo dantesco: la fortuna di Rossetti in Inghilterrae alcune osservazioni sull’ermeneutica di Umberto Eco’, in Sotto il Velame, 2 (Special issue: Temi e Interpretazioni dell’esoterismo dantesco), pp. 47–87. 217. He thus states his intention to understand Dante ‘as a man of science, a politician, and a theologian’, and explains Dante’s orthodoxy: ‘The dogmas of Dante’s Church did not prescribe any order for the placing of his personages either in Paradise, or in Hell; but equally prohibited his representing them in either.’ A Comment, xii, pp. 227–8.

4. ‘L’ amor che move il sole e l’altre stelle’: Shelley on Dante and love

1. See Charles S. Singleton, ‘Journey to Beatrice’, Dante Studies, 2 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958), pp. 5, 9. As Singleton points out, the phrase can also be ‘Itinerarium mentis in deum’ on the basis of St Bonaventura’s treatise bearing this title. See St. Bonaventurae, s. r. e. , episc. card., Itinerarium mentis in Deum, in Opera Omina, ed. PP. collegii a S. Bonaventura, 10 vols (Quaracchi, Florence: Typographia Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1882–1902), V, pp. 293–316. 2. St Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Latin text, English translation, introduction and notes, ed. David Brooke and Arthur Littledale, 61 vols (London and New York: Blackfriars in conjunction with McGraw-Hill, 1964–80), XXIX, 1a2ae.101, a. 2 resp. 3. Singleton, Journey to Beatrice, p. 10. 4. References to the Defence of Poetry are to the second Norton edition: Shelley’s Poetry and Prose, second edition, selected and edited by Donald H. 202 Notes

Reiman and Neil Fraistat (New York and London: Norton, 2002), henceforth abbreviated as Norton Shelley. Here, Norton Shelley, p. 525. The facsimile edition edited by Michael O’ Neill has also been consulted: The Defence of Poetry Fair Copies: a Facsimile of Bodleian MSS. Shelley e. 6 and adds. d. 8, edited by Michael O’ Neill, the Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts, XX (New York and London, 1994). References to the earlier poems of Shelley are to the Longman edition, The Poems of Shelley, ed. Kelvin Everest and Geoffrey Matthews (London: Longman, 1989, 2000), vol. 2. The Complete Poetry of Percy Bysshe Shelley, ed. Donald H. Reiman and Neil Fraistat (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000) has been consulted as well. For Shelley’s prose works the two following editions have also been consulted: The Prose Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, ed. E.B. Murray (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), vol. I; Percy Bysshe Shelley, The Complete Works, ed. Roger Ingpen and Walter E. Peck, 10 vols (London: Ernest Benn, 1926–30). References to other editions will be speciﬁed in the notes. 5. Angela Leighton, Shelley and the Sublime (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Tilottama Rajan, Dark Interpreter: the Discourse of Romanticism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980) and The Supplement of Reading (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Karen A. Weisman, Imageless Truths: Shelley’s Poetic Fictions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994). 6. See, for instance, Timothy Clark, Embodying Revolution: the Figure of the Poet in Shelley (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989); David Duff, Romance and Revolution: Shelley and the Politics of a Genre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), Michael O’ Neill, The Human Mind’s Imaginings: Conﬂict and Achievement in Shelley’s Poetry (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989). 7. Shelley’s Poetry: the Divided Self (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), p. 92. 8. Norton Shelley, p. 512. 9. Norton Shelley, p. 513. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid. 12. Norton Shelley, p. 526. 13. Ibid. 14. Norton Shelley, p. 525. 15. Norton Shelley, p. 527. 16. Corrado Zacchetti, Shelley e Dante (Milano: Sandron, 1922), p. 158. 17. Thomas Medwin, Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley, 2 vols (1847), ed. Harry Buxton Forman (London: Oxford University Press, 1913), pp. 178–9. 18. Norton Shelley, p. 514. 19. Norton Shelley, pp. 517–18. 20. Shelley, The Letters of Percy Bysshe Shelley, ed. F.L. Jones, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon, 1964), II, p. 8. Henceforth abbreviated as Letters. 21. Shelley, Letters, II, p. 114. 22. Bodleian Shelley MS adds e. 8; see Shelley’s Pisan Winter Notebook: a Facsimile of Bodleian MS Shelley adds e. 8, ed. Carlene A. Adamson, The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts, VI (1992), 167r, 168r; Shelley’s ‘Devils’ Notebook Bodleian MS. Shelley adds. e. 9, ed. P.M.S. Dawson and Timothy Webb, The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts, XIV (1993), pp. 337–41. Notes 203

23. Mary Shelley requested that Mrs Gisborne buy an edition of the Bible with the Apocrypha. The edition was received in February and Shelley read from it Tobit, the Wisdom of Solomon and the Ecclesiasticus. See Mary Shelley, The Letters of Mary Shelley, ed. Betty T. Bennet, 3 vols (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980–88), II, pp. 128–9. All subsequent references are to this edition. 24. Robert A. Hartley, ‘Shelley’s Copy of Dante’, Keats-Shelley Journal, 39 (1990), pp. 22–9. 25. Shelley, Letters, I, p. 575. 26. Shelley, Letters, I, p. 586. 27. The notebook of spring 1817, Bodleian Shelley MS adds e. 14. Drafts for Laon and Cythna, ed. Tatsuo Tokoo, The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts XIII (1992), 38r. 28. Medwin, The Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley, ed. H. Buxton Forman (London: Oxford University Press, 1913), p. 244. 29. Donald H. Reiman ed., Shelley and his Circle, 8 vols (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961–86), V, p. 344. 30. Reiman, Shelley and his Circle, V, p. 397. 31. La Divina Commedia di Dante Alighieri, Tratta da quella che pubblicarono gli Accademici della Crusca l’Anno 1595 col comento del M.R.P. Pompeo Venturi, 3 vols (Venezia: Giambattista Pasquali, 1793). 32. Reiman, Shelley and his Circle, V, p. 344 n. 33. Purgatorio, xx, 43–5, 49–54, 94–6; Bodleian Shelley MS adds e. 9; Shelley’s ‘Devils’ Notebook, p. 259 [transcription of pp. 364 and 365]. For the dating of the manuscript see the introduction, especially p. xxii. According to the editors the lines may have been written while he was working on ‘On the Devil, and Devils’. 34. Pite, Circle of our Vision, p. 168n. 35. Mary Shelley, Letters, III, p. 160; Shelley, Letters, II, p. 112. 36. Drafts for Laon and Cythna, The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts, XIII, 38r. 37. Baker, Shelley’s Major Poetry, p. 64. 38. Brian Wilkie, Romantic Poets and the Epic Tradition (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965), p. 112. 39. Shelley, Letters, I, p. 563. 40. The Poems of Shelley, II, p. 258. All further references to the poem are from this edition. 41. Here Cary is close to Dante’s text, but prefers to insert the noun ‘air’ and use serene as an adjective: ‘Vapori accesi non vid’io sì tosto / di prima notte mai fender sereno, / né, sol calando, nuvole d’agosto / che color non tornasser suso in meno;’ (Purgatorio, V, 37–40) 42. Neville Rogers, Shelley at Work (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), pp. 109–13. 43. Ancient Mariner, iii, 139–200, Coleridge, Poems, ed. John Beer (London: Dent, 1993); Ahrimanes, I, iii, The Works of Thomas Love Peacock, ed. F.B. Brettsmith and C.E. Jones, 10 vols (London: Constable, 1924–36). 44. The Poems of Shelley, II, p. 69 n 262. 45. I have discussed this aspect of Dante’s approach to language in a forthcoming article, ‘Dante and Translation: Untranslatability as Metaphor in Dante’s Works’, in Language and Style in Dante, ed. C.O. Cuilleain and M. Zaccarello, to be published by Four Courts Press, Dublin. 204 Notes

46. Laon and Cythna, LIV and LV and Paradiso, XXX–XXXI. As in Dante’s Paradiso, the narrator calls the pilgrim’s attention to one of the thrones that is empty. 47. ‘The first, two glittering lights were seen to glide / In circles on the amethystine floor, / Small serpent eyes tralling from side to side, / Like meteors on a river’s grassy shore, / They round each other rolled, dilating more / and more’. Laon and Cythna, LVI. Examples of Dante’s use of the same device recur in most cantos of Paradiso. 48. See Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound, translated by James Scully and C.J. Herington (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 144–9. 49. Fred L. Milne studied Shelley’s later use of ice imagery in The Cenci and its connection with Dante’s frozen lake of Cocitus in the last two cantos of the Inferno. Fred L. Milne, ‘Shelley’s The Cenci: the Ice Motif and the Ninth Circle of Dante’s Hell’, Tennessee Studies in Literature, 22 (1977), pp. 117–32. 50. Steve Ellis, Dante and English Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 3. 51. Oscar Kuhns, Dante and the English Poets (London: Bell, 1904), p. 188. 52. Stuart Peterfreund, Shelley among Others: the Play of the Intertextual and the Idea of Language (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), pp. 225–7. 53. Stuart Peterfreund, Shelley among Others, p. 229. 54. Shelley, Letters, II, pp. 262–3. 55. Shelley, Letters, II, p. 363. 56. Shelley writes: ‘The “Epipsychidion” I cannot look at; the person whom it celebrates was a cloud instead of a Juno; and poor Ixion starts from the centaur that was the offspring of his own embrace. If you are anxious, however, to hear what I am and have been, it will tell you something thereof.’ Shelley, Letters, II, p. 434. 57. Bodleian Shelley MS adds e. 12 Tatsuo Tokoo, ‘The Composition of Epipsychidion: Some Manuscript Evidence’, Keats-Shelley Journal, 42 (1993), pp. 97–103. 58. Tokoo, ‘The Composition of Epipsychidion’, p. 103. Tokoo supports the findings of Carlene A. Adamson, who believes that the MS adds e. 8 was, in fact, the main one in use by Shelley in alternation with MS adds e.12. The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts, VI, p. 16. 59. In Bodleian Shelley MS adds e. 8. Shelley most probably wrote the introduction when the work was almost complete. The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts, VI, p. 16. 60. The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts, VI, p. 16. 61. See Kuhns, Dante and the English Poets, p. 186. 62. Bodleian Shelley MS adds e. 8. This happens, for instance, in Inferno, XX, 19; XXXIV, 21; Purgatorio, VIII, 19; IX, 70; XVII 1; Paradiso, XXI, 106. 63. Mary Shelley, The Journals of Mary Shelley, ed. Paula Friedman and Diana Scott-Kilvert, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon, 1958), I, pp. 351–3. 64. The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts, VI, 167rev; 168rev. 65. Shelley copied part of Dante’s song Voi che ‘ntendendo il terzo ciel movete, as well as part of the following commentary, adding brief notes of his own. He further copied a brief passage from Convivio, Book III in which Dante Notes 205

defines love as ‘nothing other than a spiritual union between the soul and the thing loved’. Dante, The Banquet, trans. by Christopher Ryan (Saratoga, Ca.: ANMA libri, 1989), p. 81. The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts, VI, 167rev–68rev. 66. The Norton Shelley, p. 392. 67. See Edward Dowden, The Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley, 2 vols (London: Kegan Paul, 1886), II, pp. 373–7; The Manuscripts of the Younger Shelley, II, ed. D. Reiman (New York: Garland, 1985), p. 11. Cited in Francesco Rognoni, Shelley; Opere (Turin: Einaudi-Gallimard, 1995), p. 1610. That the metaphor was created by Pacchiani is reported by Dowden, The Life of Shelley, II, p. 369. 68. Dante mentions the Seraphim in Paradiso, XXVIII and he similarly associ- ates them with the ‘first circles’ [cerchi primi] (Paradiso, XXVIII, 98). 69. See also Inferno, V, 100, which Cary’s translates as: ‘Love, that in gentle heart is quickly learnt’ (The Vision, Hell, V: 99). 70. See The Vision, Paradise, IV, 40–3: ‘Thus needs, that ye may apprehend, we speak: / Since from things sensible alone ye learn / That, which, digested rightly, after turns / To intellectual.’ 71. Vita Nuova, ed. Michele Barbi, edizione nazionale delle opere di Dante Alighieri (Firenze: Bemporad, 1932); the translation is from Vita Nuova, translated with an introduction by Mark Musa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992). 72. The Authorized Version of the English Bible 1611, ed. William Aldis, 3 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1909), III, viii: 1–2. 73. Richard E., Brown, ‘The Role of Dante in Epipsychidion’, Comparative Literature, 30 (1978), p. 227. 74. See Paradiso, XXVIII, 124–5. 75. See Paradiso, XXV, 106. Cary translates it as ‘effulgence’. 76. Earl Schulze, ‘The Dantean Quest of Epipsychidion’, Studies in Romanticism, 21 (1982), pp. 191–216 (p. 199). 77. See Joseph Raben, ‘Milton’s Influence on Shelley’s Translation of Dante’s “Matilda Gathering Flowers”’, Review of English Studies, n. s. 14 (1963), pp. 142–56 (p. 156); Bradley, A.C., ‘Notes on Shelley’s “Triumph of Life”’, Modern Language Review, 9 (1914), pp. 441–56 (pp. 442–3). 78. In Canto VII Virgil tells Dante that he lost the sight of ‘l’alto Sol che tu disiri’ (26) [the high sun which you aspire to], and in Canto XIII he addresses the sun to ask for guidance (Purgatorio, XII, 16–21). 79. See Donald H. Reiman, Shelley’s ‘The Triumph of Life’: a Critical Study (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1965), p. 15. 80. Peterfreund, Shelley and the Others, p. 59. 81. Reiman, Shelley’s ‘The Triumph of Life’: a Critical Study. All references to the poem are to this edition. 82. The verb occurs in the same musical context at line 276. For Shelley’s increasing fondness for the verb, see Bradley, ‘Notes on Shelley’s “Triumph of Life”’, p. 451. Shelley undertook the translation in early 1822. The text, edited both by de Palacio in 1962 and by Webb in 1976, has recently been fully transcribed by Carlene E. Adamson. Jean de Palacio, ‘Shelley traducteur de Dante. Le Chant XXVIII du Purgatoire’, Revue de littérature comparée, 36 (1962), pp. 571–8; Webb, The Violet in the 206 Notes

Crucible, pp. 313–14; The Witch of Atlas Notebook: a Facsimile of Bodleian MS. Shelley adds. e.6, edited by Carlene A. Adamson, The Bodleian Shelley Manuscripts V (New York: Garland, 1997). For the influence of Cary on Shelley’s translation see also Antonella Braida, ‘Henry Francis Cary’s The Vision; its Literary Context and its Influence’ (Oxford: unpublished D Phil, 1997), pp. 165–70. All editors underscore the divergence of the version included in Shelley MS adds e. 6 from the version published by Medwin in The Angler in Wales in 1834 and in The Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley and from the version published by Garnett in Relics of Shelley. See Thomas Medwin, The Angler in Wales; or Days and Nights of Sportsmen, 2 vols (London: Bentley, 1834), II, pp. 219–20; Garnett ed., Relics of Shelley, pp. 56–8. 83. Pite, Circle of our Vision, pp. 168–9. 84. Peter Vassallo, ‘From Petrarch to Dante: the Discourse of Disenchantment in Shelley’s The Triumph of Life’, Journal of Anglo-Italian Studies, 1 (1991), pp. 102–110 (pp. 105–6). 85. Shelley, Letters, II, p. 339. 86. Pite, Circle of our Vision, p. 182. 87. See Bradley, ‘Notes on Shelley’s “Triumph of Life”’, pp. 442–3; Folliot, Shelley’s Italian Sunset, pp. 91v9; Alan M. Weinberg, Shelley’s Italian Experience (London: Macmillan, 1991), pp. 234. 88. See Bradley, ‘Notes on Shelley’s “Triumph of Life”’, p. 443; Folliot, Shelley’s Italian Sunset, p. 92; Weinberg, Shelley’s Italian Experience, p. 235; Harold Bloom, Shelley’s Mythmaking, pp. 265–75; P.H. Butter, ‘Sun and Shape in Shelley’s The Triumph of Life’, Review of English Studies, 14 (1963), pp. 40–50; Reiman, Shelley’s ‘The Triumph of Life’, pp. 62–6; Steve Ellis, Dante and English Poetry, p. 31. 89. The Poems of Shelley, II, p. 172. 90. M.H. Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism (New York: Norton, 1971), pp. 441–2. 91. Harold Bloom, Shelley’s Mythmaking (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1959), p. 223. 92. Schulze, ‘The Dantean Quest of Epipsychidion’, pp. 199–204. 93. Pite, Circle of our Vision, p. 165n. 94. Peterfreund, Shelley and the Others, p. 26. 95. Rajan defines Romantic poetry as ‘a literature involved in the restless process of self-examination, and in search of a model of discourse which accommodates rather than simplifies its ambivalence towards the inher- ited equation of art with idealization’. Tilottama Rajan, Dark Interpreter: the Discourse of Romanticism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980), p. 25. 96. See n. 82. 97. Timothy Webb, The Violet in the Crucible (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), p. 310. 98. According to Medwin, Shelley used to say ‘that reading Dante produced in him despair’. Medwin, Life, p. 249. 99. Thomas Jefferson Hogg writes extensively on his and Shelley’s progress in the study of Italian. After Tasso, they read Ariosto, whom Shelley found ‘a novelty, altogether new in matter and manner, in substance and in language’. Shelley then resumed his Italian studies at Bracknell, in the company of Mrs Cornelia Turner. Thomas Jefferson Hogg, The Life of Percy Notes 207

Bysshe Shelley, 4 vols (London: Moxon, 1858), II, pp. 376, 380–1; Shelley, Letters, I, pp. 383–4. See also Newman Ivey White, Shelley, 2 vols (London: Secker and Warburg, 1947), II, p. 327. Shelley translated Dante’s Sonnet IX and Cavalcanti’s reply S’io fossi quello che d’amor fu degno. The first poem was published by Shelley in the Alastor volume, while the second was first published by Forman in his edition of Shelley’s works. See The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, ed. Harry B. Forman, 4 vols (London: Reeves and Turner, 1876–77), I, pp. 57–8. 100. See J.L. Bradley, A Shelley Chronology (London: Macmillan, 1993), p. 56. 101. Further evidence for more precise dating may be found in each work’s relationship to Epipsychidion; the complex compositional history of the poem, the drafts for which can be found in six different notebooks, accounts for the difficulty of establishing a more accurate dating. For a discussion of Shelley’s knowledge of Italian see Antonella Braida, ‘Henry Francis Cary’s The Vision: its Literary Context and its Influence’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Oxford, 1997, pp. 148–61. 102. As he stated in the fragment ‘On Love’, ‘What is Love? Ask him who lives what is life; ask him who adores what is God’. Norton Shelley, p. 503. 103. ‘A Defence of Poetry’, Norton Shelley, p. 525.

5. John Keats and Dante: speaking the gods’ language

1. Giorgio Padoan, Il pio Enea, l’empio Ulisse: Tradizione classica e intendimento medievale in Dante (Ravenna: Longo, 1977), p. 7 [My translation]. 2. Padoan, Il pio Enea, p. 19. 3. Keats’s interpretation of Dante’s classical references has recently been discussed by Nick Havely in ‘“A Wreck of Paradise”: Epipsychidion and Dante’s Ulysses’, in Shelley e l’Italia, ed. L.M. Crisafulli and A. Goldoni (Naples: Liguori, 1997). As Havely points out, Leigh Hunt’s article on Dante’s Homer proves that by 1819 Keats knew that Dante could not read Greek. See Leigh Hunt, ‘More News of Ulysses’, The Indicator, 1 (8 December 1819), pp. 65–6. 4. The Letters of John Keats, ed. Hyder Edward Rollins, 2 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), I, p. 294. 5. Bloom, The Anxiety of Inﬂuence; Walter Jackson Bate, The Burden of the Past and the English Poet (London: Chatto and Windus, 1971), pp. 95–134. 6. Keats and History, ed. Nicholas Roe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). 7. Medwin, The Life of Shelley (1913), pp. 178–9. 8. The Letters of John Keats, I, p. 194. According to Hyder Edward Rollins, Keats probably heard about Shelley’s difﬁculties from Godwin, whom he met on 25 December. 9. Keats writes: ‘I have not yet read Shelly’s poem – I don’t suppose you have it at the Teignmouth Libraries’. The Letters of John Keats, p. 237. 10. Edward W. Said, Orientalism, 1995 edn (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978). 11. The Poems of John Keats, ed. Jack Stillinger (London: Heinemann, 1978), p. 55. All subsequent references to Keats’s poems are to this edition, unless otherwise stated. 208 Notes

12. See especially The Novel’s Seductions: Staël’s Corinne in Critical Inquiry, ed. Karyna Szmurlo (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1999). See also Unfolding the South: Nineteenth-Century British Women Writers and Artists in Italy, ed. Alison Chapman and Jane Stabler (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003). 13. A sonnet dedicated to Cowden Clarke dated September 1816 in 1817, indi- cates that Keats had discussed, if not read, Tasso’s poetry with him. Keats pays homage to Charles Cowden Clarke’s knowledge of Tasso: ‘small good it were / To take him to a desert rude, and bare, / Who had on Baiæ’ shore reclin’d at ease, / While Tasso’s page was floating in a breeze / That gave soft music from Armida’s bowers, / Mingled with fragrance from her rarest flowers’ (27–32). Keats, Poems, pp. 60–1. See also Keats’s letter to B.R. Haydon of 8 April 1818, to John Taylor of 5 September 1819 and Keats to George and Georgiana Keats of 21 September 1819. Keats, Letters, I, p. 265, II, pp. 157, 212. 14. Keats, Letters, I, p. 155. 15. He must have read the poem soon after its publication in February 1816 since his poem ‘Specimen of an Induction to a Poem’ is clearly influenced by it. Keats, Poems, pp. 47–49, 549n; The Poems of John Keats, ed. De Selincourt (London: Methuen, 1905), p. 391n. 16. The Story of Rimini, III, 606; Leigh Hunt, The Poetical Works of Leigh Hunt, ed. H.S. Milford (London: Oxford University Press, 1923), pp. 1–33. 17. See Byron, Letters and Journals, VI, p. 45. 18. Proof of Keats’s reading of Cary’s The Inferno is an article he wrote for The Champion on 21 December 1817; here he quotes from The Inferno and compares Edmund Kean to Dante’s Saladin: ‘And sole apart retir’d, the Soldan fierce’. Forman published Keats’s notes for the article. ‘On Edmund Kean as a Shakespearian Actor’, Keats, Works, ed. Forman, III, pp. 3–6 (p. 5). A copy of Cary’s 1805 The Inferno was found in Keats’s ‘Chest of Books’ after his death, as mentioned by Charles Armitage Brown. This copy, now lost, may have been the source of Keats’s quotation. John Saly quotes Lord Houghton’s statement in his Life and Letters of Keats that ‘the family of George Keats in America possess a Dante covered with his brother’s mar- ginal notes and observations’. John Saly, ‘Keats’s Answer to Dante: The Fall of Hyperion’, Keats-Shelley Journal, 14 (1965), pp. 65–78 (p. 65n). Hyder E. Rollins, ed., The Keats Circle, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), I, pp. 253–60. 19. He acquired his copy in June 1818. See Robert Gittings, The Mask of Keats (London: Heinemann, 1956), p. 7. He then expresses to Bailey his intention of bringing ‘those minute volumes of carey[sic]’ on the Scottish tour’. Keats, Letters, I, p. 294. 20. Keats, Letters, I, p. 294. 21. Keats, Letters, I, p. 296. 22. Keats, Letters, I, p. 343. 23. The sonnet was composed in April 1819. 24. Newlyn, Reading, Writing and Romanticism, pp. 304–5. 25. See Gittings, The Mask of Keats, pp. 5–44. 26. Saly, ‘Keats’s Answer to Dante’, p. 66. 27. Keats, Letters, I, p. 361. Notes 209

28. R.S. White, for instance, uses Keats’s statement when assessing his annota- tions of Shakespeare. R.S. White, Keats as a Reader of Shakespeare (London: the Athlone Press, 1987). Ralph Pite finds a similarity between Keats’s anno- tations to Paradise Lost and those to The Vision. See Pite, Circle of our Vision, pp. 119–60. 29. Keats, Letters, II, p. 167. 30. Gittings, Appendix A. Keats’s copy of The Vision is in a private collection. 31. Joseph Anthony Wittreich, The Romantics on Milton: Formal Essays and Critical Asides (Cleveland and London: The Press of Case Western Reserve University, 1970), p. 553. See also Gittings, The Mask of Keats, p. 10. Gittings dates it to approximately August 1819. 32. See, The Vision, Hell, XIV, 89–8. ‘“In midst of ocean,” forthwith he began, / “A desolate country lies, which Crete is named; / Under whose monarch, in old times, the world / Lived pure and chaste. A mountain rises there, / Call’d Ida joyous once with leaves and streams, / Deserted now like a for- bidden thing. / It was the spot which Rhea, Saturn’s spouse, / Chose for the secret cradle of her son; / And better to conceal him, drown’d in shouts / His infant cries”.’ 33. Fra Pomey, The Pantheon, Representing the Fabulous Histories of the Heathen Gods and Most Illustrious Heroes in a Short, Plain and Familiar Method, by Way of Dialogue, revised trans. by Andrew Tooke (London: Charles Harper, 1713); J. Lemprière, Bibliotheca Classica, or a Classical Dictionary (London: Cadell, 1792). 34. Saly, ‘Keats’s Answer to Dante’, pp. 65–78; Robert Bridges, John Keats: a Critical Essay (privately printed, 1895), pp. 40–1; J. Livingston Lowes, ‘Hyperion and the Purgatorio’, Times Literary Supplement (11 January 1936), p. 35; Dorothy Hewlett, Adonais: a Life of John Keats (London: Hurst and Blackett, 1937), p. 310. 35. Keats, Letters, II, p. 157. 36. Keats, Letters, II, p. 212. 37. ‘The Eve of St. Agnes’, Leigh Hunt’s London Journal (21 January 1835) (London: Charles Knight), II, p. 17. 38. Leigh Hunt, Imagination and Fancy: or Sections from the English Poets, Illustrative of those first Requisite of Their Art (London: Smith, 1894), pp. 331–2. 39. See Greg Kucich’s interpretation in ‘Keats’s Literary Tradition and the Politics of Historiographical Invention’, in Keats and History, ed. Nicholas Roe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). 40. Cary uses ‘serene’ in Hell, IV, 156 and Heaven, XIX, 60–1. An equally influential precedent is offered by Coleridge’s Hymn before Sun-Rise, in the Vale of Chamouni, 72. John Livingston Lowes opted for the latter echo on the basis of Keats’s interest in Coleridge revealed by the 1817 letters. However, as discussed above, Keats knew Cary’s The Inferno, or even possessed a copy of it, by the end of 1817. Both Cary’s and Coleridge’s usage therefore are possible sources for Keats. 41. Lowes, ‘Hyperion and the Purgatorio’, p. 35. 42. Kenneth Muir, ‘The Meaning of “Hyperion”’, in John Keats: a Reassessment (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1958), p. 111; Stuart M. Sperry, ‘Keats, Milton and The Fall of Hyperion’, PMLA, 77 (1982), pp. 77–84. 210 Notes

43. Harold Bloom, The Visionary Company (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1961), p. 424. 44. Lowes, ‘Hyperion and the Purgatorio’. 45. Gittings, The Mask of Keats. 46. Saly, ‘Keats’s Answer to Dante: The Fall of Hyperion’, p. 69. 47. Pite, Circle of our Vision, p. 129. 48. Keats, Poems, p. 638. 49. Keats, Letters, I, p. 207. 50. Endymion (1818): a Facsimile of Woodhouse Annotated Copy in the Berg Collection, ed. Jack Stillinger, The Manuscripts of the Younger Romantics (New York and London: Garland, 1985), pp. 399, 441n. 51. Keats, Poems, p. 103. 52. For an in-depth discussion of the topic, see M.L. West, Theogony (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966); also, The Iliad: a Commentary, ed. G.S. Kirk, 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), note to 1, 403 ff, p. 94 ff.; vol. 5: ed. Mark W. Edwards (1991), note to 20, 73 ff, p. 297. 53. Dante offered two contradictory solutions to the question of pre-Babelic speech: in the De Vulgari Eloquentia he states that Adam and his descen- dants spoke Hebrew, while in Paradiso, XXVI Adam himself reveals to Dante that the language he spoke had disappeared before the construction of the Tower of Babel. 54. Cary reproduces Dante’s nonsensical line. 55. Wittreich, The Romantics on Milton, p. 554. 56. See Gittings, The Mask of Keats, pp. 20–1. See also The Poems of John Keats, ed. Miriam Allott (New York: Norton, 1970), p. 397n. 57. See Gittings, The Mask of Keats, pp. 25–6. 58. For the inﬂuence of Egyptian statuary on Hyperion, see Helen Darbishire, ‘Keats and Egypt’, The Review of English Studies, 3 (1927), pp. 1–11. 59. Wittreich, The Romantics on Milton, p. 559. 60. Hazlitt, ‘On Milton’s Versiﬁcation’, Works, IV, pp. 38–9. 61. Walter Jackson Bate, John Keats (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963), pp. 259–60. As far as we know Keats missed one lecture: ‘On Chaucer and Spenser’, delivered on 20 January. 62. Hazlitt, Works, V, p. 17. 63. Hazlitt, Works, V, p. 66. 64. Wittreich, The Romantics on Milton, p. 556. 65. Wittreich, The Romantics on Milton, p. 559. 66. The Poems of William Wordsworth, ed. John O. Hayden, 2 vols (Harmonds- worth: Penguin, 1977), I, pp. 639–41; Coleridge, Poems, p. 199. 67. Bloom, The Visionary Company, p. 391. 68. Keats, Letters, II, p. 212. 69. Keats, Letters, I, pp. 278–9. 70. Keats, Letters, I, p. 282. 71. Keats, Letters, I, p. 387. 72. Ibid. 73. Keats, Letters, II, p. 102. 74. Keats, Letters, II, p. 116. 75. ‘in sogno mi parea veder sospesa’ (Purgatorio, IX: 19) [in dream I thought I was seeing poised]. Notes 211

76. Cary typically adapts the Italian form ‘cornice’. The Vision, Purgatorio, X, 24; XI, 23; XVII, 129. He uses, instead, ‘circuit’ in XIII, 3. 77. Lowes, ‘“Hyperion” and “The Purgatorio”’, p. 35.

6. William Blake: the Romantic illustrator of Dante

1. Despite Blake’s religious eclecticism an interesting similarity can also be found between the later Trinitarianism of Jerusalem and the Everlasting Gospel and Dante’s Catholicism. According to Gilchrist, in his later years Blake expressed some form of admiration for the Catholic religion: ‘He had a sentimental liking for the Romish Church’. G.E. Bentley, Blake Records (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), p. 42. 2. Albert S. Roe, Blake’s Illustrations to the Divine Comedy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953), pp. 32–3; Tinkler-Villani, Visions of Dante, p. 257. All references to Dante plates for the Divine Comedy are from Milton Klonsky’s edition with commentary Blake’s Dante: the Complete Illustrations to the Divine Comedy (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1980). 3. For Dante’s political views, see Dante and Governance, ed. John Woodhouse (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997); Joan Ferrante, The Political Vision of the Divine Comedy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984); Cecil, Grayson, The World of Dante and his Times (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980); Rachel, Jacoff, The Cambridge Companion to Dante (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). 4. Irene Tayler, Blake’s Illustrations to the Poems of Gray (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), p. 7. 5. Blake’s friendship with Flaxman dates from about 1778, while he befriended Fuseli recently returned from Italy, in 1780. 6. Public Address, p. 51 in The Complete Poetry and Prose of William Blake, rev. edn, ed. David V. Erdman, commentary by Harold Bloom (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982), p. 572. All subsequent references to Blake’s poetry will be to this edition unless otherwise stated. Hereafter cited as Blake’s Poetry and Prose. 7. See David Bindman, The Complete Graphic Works of William Blake (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978), Plate 128. 8. See Martin Butlin, The Paintings and Drawings of William Blake, 2 vols (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1981), II, plates 207r; 208 and 207v. 9. See Blake’s illustrations to Blair’s Grave of 1808. Robert N. Essick and Morton D. Paley, Robert Blair’s ‘The Grave’ Illustrated by William Blake: a Study with a Facsimile (London: Scolar Pess, 1982). When he was illustrating the Divine Comedy Blake reworked the composition, inserting two angels hovering above Ugolino in a triangular composition. Ugolino with His Sons and Grandsons in Prison (1827) is at the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. 10. ‘Have now another plain fact: Any man of mechanical talents may from the writings of Paracelsus or Jacob Behmen, produce ten thousand volumes of equal value with Swedenborg’s. And from those of Dante or Shakespear, an inﬁnite number. But when he has done this, let him not 212 Notes

say that he knows better than his master, for he only holds a candle in sunshine.’ (The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, plate 21) 11. Tinkler-Villani finds an analogy between Dante’s method and Blake’s: ‘The “infernal” method which Blake uses for his engravings he also uses to compose his poetry: his acid, apocalyptic words seem destructive, but finally bring revelation … Dante’s technique is indeed similar to Blake’s. Dante’s reader is made to react to the protagonist, following the guiding voice of the poet.’ Visions of Dante, pp. 249–50. The statuary posture of the group makes Ugolino and his children a symbol of the oppression quite divorced from Dante’s text. 12. William Blake’s ‘Heads of the Poets’ for Turret House, the Residence of William Hayley, Felpham (Manchester: William Morris Press, 1969). 13. Blake’s Poetry and Prose, pp. 633. 14. Tinkler-Villani, Visions of Dante, p. 252. 15. Blake’s Poetry and Prose, p. 633. 16. Ibid. 17. Blake’s Poetry and Prose, p. 634. 18. Ibid. 19. Cited in Blake Records, 42. 20. Poesie e Carmi, ed. Francesco Pagliai et al., Edizione nationale, I (1985), lines 173–4. 21. Dante’s republicanism has been approached by Hollander and Rossi and by Peter Armour. Their articles refer extensively to Charles T. Davis’s contribution to the subject in Dante’s Italy and Other Essays (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984) and in Dante and the Idea of Rome (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957). Peter Armour, ‘Dante and Popular Sovereignty’; in Woodhouse, ed., Dante and Governance, pp. 27–45; Robert Hollander and Albert Rossi, ‘Il repubblicanesimo di Dante’, in Cecyl Grayson, ed., The World of Dante, pp. 297–322. 22. Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, 13 (1823), pp. 141–57 (p. 154). 23. A third reference to the illustrations records the meeting between Blake and the German painter Götzenberger on 2 February 1827. Robinson, On Books and their Writers, I, pp. 344–5. 24. Klonsky, Blake’s Dante, plate 7, p. 138. 25. ‘But in Milton; the Father is Destiny, the Son, a Ratio of the five senses. & the Holy-ghost, Vacuum!’ Marriage of Heaven and Hell, Plate 5, in Blake’s Poetry and Prose, pp. 34–5. See also Damon, A Blake Dictionary, pp. 186–7. 26. In On Virgil (c. 1821) Blake had condemned Roman and Greek poetry for their appraisal of war; ‘Homer Virgil & Ovid confirm this opinion and make us reverence The Word of God, the only light of antiquity that remains unperverted by War. Virgil in the Eneid Book VI. line 848, says Let others study Art: Rome has somewhat better to do, namely War & Dominion.’ Blake’s Poetry and Prose, p. 270. 27. The passage occurs after Robinson’s entry for 10 December 1825. Robinson, On Books and their Writers, I, p. 326. 28. Robinson, On Books and their Writers, I, p. 326. 29. In A Vision of the Last Judgment, for instance, Blake includes ‘those who were not in the Line of the Church and yet were Saved from among the Notes 213

Antediluvians who Perished’. Blake’s Poetry and Prose, p. 560. He similarly rejects the notion of a Last Judgement as such; in the notebook entry just quoted he further states that ‘Whenever any Individual Rejects Error and Embraces Truth a Last Judgment passes upon that Individual’. Ibid. For Blake’s evolving theology, see also Thomas J. Altizer, The New Apocaplypse (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, 1967). 30. Robinson, On Books and their Writers, I, p. 327. 31. Robinson, On Books and their Writers, I, p. 329. 32. Robinson, Reminiscences, cited in Blake’s Records, ed. G.E. Bentley (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), pp. 544. In On Books and their Writers Robinson writes the following account: ‘as he spoke of Milton’s appearing to him I asked whether he resembled the prints of him. He answered: “All!” “Of what age did he appear to be?” “Various ages; sometimes a very old man”.’ Robinson, I, p. 330. 33. Pamela Dunbar, William Blake’s Illustrations to the Poetry of Milton (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), Plate 78 and p. 161. 34. Robinson, On Books and their Writers, I, p. 330. 35. Robinson, On Books and their Writers, I, p. 327. 36. Robinson, On Books and their Writers, I, p. 329. 37. ‘There, not inactive, though sixty-seven years old, but hard-working on a bed covered with books sat he up like one of the Antique patriarchs, or a dying Michael Angelo. Thus and there was he making in the leaves of a great book (folio) the sublimest designs from his (not superior) Dante!’ The Life and Letters of Samuel Palmer Painter and Etcher, ed. A.H. Palmer (London: Eric and Joan Stephens, 1892; facsimile reprint 1972), pp. 9–10. Klonsky correlates Linnell’s gift of a folio of Dutch watercolour paper with the ‘great book (folio)’ mentioned by Palmer. He further suggests that Blake might have begun the illustrations even before the agreement with Linnell. Klonsky, Blake’s Dante, 7n. 38. Edwin Wolf Jr, ‘The Blake-Linnell Accounts in the Library of Yale University’, Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America, 37 (1943), pp. 1–22; Geoffrey Keynes, Blake Studies (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 212. 39. Alfred T. Story, The Life of John Linnell, 2 vols (London: Bentley, 1892), I, pp. 230–1. 40. Edwin J. Ellis, The Real Blake (London: Chatto and Windus, 1907), p. 410. John Linnell Jr. gives ‘the latter end of 1825’ as the beginning of the payments to Blake. Roe, however, suggests that payments did not start until the engravings were begun. Roe, Blake’s Illustrations, 5n. According to John Linnell Jr, Blake received £103.5s. 6d. See Ellis, The Real Blake, p. 410. On the controversy between Mrs Blake and John Linnell over the payment, see Geoffrey Keynes, A Bibliography of William Blake (New York: The Grolier Club, 1921), pp. 182–5; 221–9, and Linnell’s Journal for 27 January 1829, cited in G.E. Bentley Jr, Blake Records Supplement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), p. 110. 41. Keynes, A Bibliography of William Blake, p. 182. The frontispiece repro- duced by Keynes further says: ‘Seven Plates, designed and engraved by W. Blake, Author of “Illustrations of the Book of Job” andc., andc. Price £2.2s. India Paper’. The seven quotations from Cary each consist of two lines from the translation. 214 Notes

42. Blake, The Letters of William Blake, ed. Geoffrey Keynes, 3rd edn (Oxford: Clarendon, 1980), p. 149. 43. Blake, Letters, pp. 160–1, 166, 170. 44. Ibid. 45. William Blake; The Illustrator of the Grave, andc., The London Literary Gazette and Journal of Belles Lettres, Arts, sciences, andc., 552 (August 12, 1827), pp. 540–1. 46. These were issued in 1551, 1554, 1564, 1571, 1578 and 1596. See Bentley, Blake Records, p. 349. 47. Baine, ‘Blake’s Dante’, p. 135n. 48. The Letters of William Blake. Together with a Life by Frederick Tatham, ed. Archibald G.B. Russell (London: Methuen, 1906), pp. 32–3. 49. Bentley, Blake Records Supplement, pp. 124–5. 50. Bentley is of the same opinion. See Bentley, Blake Records, pp. 315n, 349n and Blake Records Supplement, p. 125. 51. Willian Jerdan, editor of the Literary Gazette till 1850, wrote that ‘William Carey was the chief contributor’ to the early numbers of the journal. The Autobiography of Willian Jerdan (London: Arthur Hall, 1852), II, p. 176. Bentley suggests that he was most probably in charge of the art sections of the journal. Blake Records, p. 350n. 52. Bentley, Blake Records, p. 350n. The articles are reprinted in Keynes, A Bibliography of William Blake, pp. 467–8. 53. Literary Gazette 552, p. 540. 54. Keynes, A Bibliography of William Blake, pp. 467–8. 55. The reviewer gives the previous Monday rather than Sunday as the day of Blake’s death; he further claims that Blake was 66 years old instead of 67. See Literary Gazette, 552, p. 541. The mistakes are pointed out by Bentley, Blake Records, p. 349n. 56. Alexander Gilchrist, Life of William Blake by Alexander Gilchrist, ed. A.G. Doyle, 2 vols (Wakeﬁeld, Yorkshire: EP Publishing, 1973), I, p. 367. 57. King, The Translator of Dante, pp. 170–1. 58. Blake, Letters, p. 122. 59. Roe, Blake’s Illustrations. Milton Klonsky’s edition with commentary uses the same approach and is heavily indebted to Roe’s study. 60. Rodney M. Baine, ‘Blake’s Dante in a Different Light’, Dante Studies, 105 (1987), pp. 113–36; David Fuller, ‘Blake and Dante’, Art History, 11 (1988), pp. 349–73. 61. Fuller, ‘Blake and Dante’, p. 349. 62. Michael J. Tolley, ‘Words Standing in Chariots: the Literalism of Blake’s Imagination’, in Imagining Romanticism: Essays on English and Australian Romanticism (West Cornwall, Conn.: Locust Hill Press, 1992), pp. 125–42 (p. 127). Stephen C. Behrendt has similarly revised the problem of the relationship between text and image in the illuminated books and con- cludes that ‘Blake’s illuminated poems generate what is essentially a “third text”, a meta-text that partakes of both the verbal and the visual texts, but that is neither the sum of, nor identical with, either of those texts.’ Stephen C. Behrendt, ‘Irritants in Blake’s Illuminated Texts’, in Blake in the Nineties, ed. Steve Clark and David Worrall (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1999), pp. 78–95 (p. 81). Notes 215

63. Fuller, ‘Blake and Dante’, p. 353. 64. See Inferno, XVIII, 10–18; XXX, 25–7; XXVIII, 118–22. 65. Blake’s illustrations will be referred to according to Klonsky’s catalogue. Further reference to the plates that I have consulted will be found in the bibliography. 66. Klonsky, Blake’s Dante, plate 28; Blake’s Poetry and Prose, p. 68. 67. See Edoardo Crisafulli, ‘Dante’s Puns in English and the Question of Compensation’, The Translator, 2 (1996), pp. 259–76. 68. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edn (1989), p. 376. 69. In Milton, Blake defines his concept of the ‘vortex’: ‘The nature of infinity is this: That every thing has its / Own Vortex; and when once a traveller thro Eternity / Has passd that Vortex, he perceives it roll backward behind / His path, into a globe itself infolding; like a sun: / Or like a moon, or like a universe of starry majesty … / Thus is the heaven a vortex passd already, and the earth / A vortex not yet pass’d by the traveller thro’ Eternity.’ Milton, Plate 15 [17], 21–25, 34–35, Blake’s Poetry and Prose, p. 40. 70. Roe, Blake’s Illustrations, p. 74. 71. Klonsky, Blake’s Dante, p. 141. 72. ‘E già venìa su per le torbide onde / un fracasso d’un suon, pien di spavento, / per cui tremavano ambedue le sponde, / non altrimenti fatto che d’un vento / impetüoso per li avversi ardori, / che fier la selva senz’alcun rattento / li rami schianta, abbatte e porta fori; / dinanzi polveroso va superbo, / e fa fuggir le fiere e li pastori.’ (Inferno, IX, 64–72). 73. My definition of Dante’s simile is based on Richard H. Lansing, From Image to Idea: a Study of the Simile in Dante’s Commedia (Ravenna: Longo Editore, 1977). 74. In Cary’s translation: ‘More than a thousand spirits / Destroyed, so saw I fleeing before one / Who passed with unwet feet the Stygian sound’ (The Vision, Hell, IX, 79–80) 75. Butlin, The Paintings and Drawings of Blake, plates 542 and 577. 76. Butlin, The Paintings and Drawings of Blake, plates 868 and 870. In his long letter to Ozias Humphry on the composition of The Vision of the Last Judgment, Blake explains the symbolism of the eyes: ‘The Four Living Creatures filled with Eyes attended by the Seven Angels with the Seven Vials of the Wrath of God and above these there are Seven Angels with the Seven Trumpets.’ Butlin, The Paintings and Drawings of Blake, pp. 467–8. 77. Dunbar, Blake’s Milton, plate 77. 78. Ezekiel, I, 16. 79. Ezekiel, I, 20. 80. W.J.T. Mitchell, Blake’s Composite Art (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), pp. 137–8. 81. For Blake’s debt to the theatre, see especially Janet A. Warner, Blake and the Language of Art (Kingston and Montreal: McGill, Queen’s University Press, 1984). 82. For a fuller discussion of the identification, see A. Braida, ‘The Literalism of Blake’s Illustrations to the Divine Comedy’, pp. 96–7. 83. Andrew Wright, Blake’s Job: a Commentary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), plate 11; Blake’s Milton, ed. Dunbar. Plate 87, the Satan of ‘Christ’s 216 Notes

Troubled Dream’ similarly holds snakes hanging from his right arm, while lightning is unleashed from the left. 84. As for the four women enclosed in the cloud, which separates the upper and lower part of the picture, in order to identify them one needs to dis- entangle the narrative structure of canto II. Dante has Virgil himself relat- ing his mission to Dante by reporting Beatrice’s words: ‘In high heaven a blessed dame / Resides, who mourns with such effectual grief / That hin- drance, which I send thee to remove, / That God’s stern judgment to her will inclines. / To Lucia calling, her she thus bespake: / ‘Now doth thy faithful servant need thy aid, / ‘And I commend him to thee’. At her word / Sped Lucia, of all cruelty the foe, / And coming to the place, where I abode / Seated with Rachel, her of ancient days’ (The Vision, Hell, II, 93–102). Blake’s flying females clearly illustrate the encounters related by Virgil. The narrative describes the exchange between the Virgin and St Lucy and St Lucy and Beatrice, while Rachel is described as sitting. I would be inclined to identify the two flying females with St Lucy at the right and the Virgin at the left, since the latter is shown descending from the higher realm of the false God thus illustrating the Virgin’s power to plead for mankind. Rachel is shown sitting at the loom under a vine and Beatrice is shown in the forefront in a posture that Blake consistently repeats in the illustrations to the Purgatorio and the Paradiso. 85. Roe, Blake’s Illustrations, p. 53. 86. Klonsky, Blake’s Dante, plate 3 and p. 137. 87. ‘The Immortal stood frozen amidst / The vast rock of eternity; times; / And times; a night of vast durance: / Impatient, stifled, stiffend, hardned.’ The Book of Los, Chapter II, 1, Blake’s Poetry and Prose, p. 92. 88. See Four Zoas, Plate 56, 19–20. ‘And first he found the Limit of Opacity and namd it Satan / in Albions bosom for in every human bosom these limits stand’. Blake’s Poetry and Prose, p. 337. 89. Klonsky, Blake’s Dante, plate 22, p. 142. 90. Dante descends on Dis’s ‘vellute coste’ [felty ribs]; Inferno, XXXIV, 73. 91. The Vision, Purgatory, IX: 40–1. 92. Roe, Blake’s Illustrations, p. 140. 93. Roe, Blake’s Illustrations, p. 145n. 94. Butlin, The Paintings and Drawings of Blake, plates 494, 894. 95. See Baine, Blake’s Dante, p. 120. Blake uses the same figure to represent the Christian Church in The Vision of the Last Judgment. Butlin, The Paintings and Drawings of Blake, plate 642. 96. See Purgatorio, XXIX, 121–9. 97. Roe, Blake’s Illustrations, p. 168; Klonsky, Blake’s Dante, p. 159; Tinkler- Villani, Visions of Dante, p. 279. 98. Fuller, ‘Blake and Dante’, p. 356; Baine, ‘Blake’s Dante’, p. 118. 99. See Purgatorio, XXXI, 106–45. Blake writes ‘Pg Canto 29 and 30’, but his illustration refers to the following two cantos as well. 100. Blake, Milton: a Poem, ed. Robert N. Essick and Joseph Viscomi, The Illuminated Books (1991). 101. See, for instance Paradiso, II: ‘Beatrice upward gazed, and I on her; / And in such space as on the notch a dart / Is placed, then loosened flies, I saw Notes 217

myself / Arrived, where wondrous things engaged my sight’ (The Vision, Paradise, II, 23–6) 102. Botticelli did, in fact, draw his designs for the Paradiso in the same way, by focusing on the two lovers’ ﬁnal reunion. See Venturi Adolfo, Il Botticelli interprete di Dante (Florence: Le Monnier, 1922); Donati Lamberti, Il Botticelli e le prime illustrazioni della Divina Commedia (Florence: Olschki, 1962); and Jeremy Harding, Sandro Botticelli: the Drawings for Dante (London: Royal Academy, 2001). 103. In canto XXV the spirits of St Peter and St James are compared to the wheels of the mechanism of a clock; see Paradiso, XXV, 103–8. 104. Milton, Nativity Ode, 110–11, Poems, II, 113; Dunbar, Blake’s Milton, plates 55 and 56. 105. Dunbar, Blake’s Milton, plates 72 and 75. 106. Among other possible sources for Blake’s spheres are the woodcuts from the Sessa brothers’ edition of the Divine Comedy found in his possession at his death. The artist similarly enclosed the three saints in a halo of light. These, however, are grouped together, and the halo that surrounds them is not continuous. Dante con l’espositione di Cristoforo Landino, et di Alessandro Vellutello, … (Venice: Giovambattista, Marchiò Sessa, and fratelli, 1564), pp. 361, 364, 389. 107. As Baine points out, the mystic Jacob Boehme wrote in his treatise on the Incarnation that Mary acts as ‘a Looking-Glass of the Holy Trinity’. Baine suggests as a source also Cary’s argument to Paradiso III: ‘Beatrice beholds, in the mirror of divine truth, some doubts which had entered the mind of Dante’ (III, 258). Baine, ‘Blake’s Dante’, p. 131. 108. See Paradiso, XXXI, 70–90. 109. Dunbar, Blake’s Milton, plates 25 and 26. 110. See Dunbar, Blake’s Milton, plates 26, 33, 36, 37, 38, 42, 43, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91; Butlin, The Paintings and Drawings of Blake, pp. 316–72. 111. Jerusalem, IV, plate 96, 23–8; Blake’s Poetry and Prose, p. 256. Works Cited and Additional Bibliography

Manuscripts

British Library, Holland House Papers, adds MSS 52181, folios 106r–107v. Bodleian Library, Bodleian Shelley MS adds e. 6, folios 39–42. Bodleian Shelley MS adds c. 4, folder 11, folios 84–88. Bodleian Shelley MS adds c. 4, folder 28, folios 248–80.

Marginalia British Library, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Vision 1819.

Blake’s Dante plates British Museum, cat. Roe 21, 48, 50, 82, 87, 96, 72, 101, 38, 45, 68, 91, LB4311brv (Klonsky: 21, 22, 27, 40, 47, 51, 53, 71, 75, 85, 90, 93, 99). Ashmolean Museum: Klonsky 89, 96, 100. Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery: Klonsky 3, 10, 44, 68, 84, 95. The Tate Gallery, London: Klonsky 2, 4, 8, 12, 14, 25, 36, 42, 46, 48, 50, 56, 61, 63, 73, 76, 81, 83, 91, 101.

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Abrahams, M.H., 125 Bridges, Robert, 135 Adamson, Carlene A., 111 Brown, Charles Armitage, 135 Aeschylus, 97, 107, 110 Brown, Marshall, 27 Aglionby, William, 10 Brown, Richard E., 116 Alighieri, Dante, 1–6, 9–21, 23–8, Bunyan, John, 56 31–41, 43–54, 56–89, 91, 95–112, Burgess, Thomas, 9 114–41, 143–78 Burke, Edmund, 20, 21, 43 Allen, Graham, 4, 5 Burton, Robert, 53 Allen, John, 68, 78, 79, 80 Butlin, Martin, 154 Ariosto, Ludovico, 13–16, 27, 56, 72, Byron, George Gordon, Lord, 5, 6, 87, 144 88, 90, 152 Aristophanes, 39 Aristotle, 175 Calbo, Andrea, 79 Armstrong, John, 47 Campbell, Thomas, 60 Augustine, St, 95 Cancellieri, 83 Carey, William, 161 Bailey, Benjamin, 131 Cary, Henry, 1, 38, 40, 70, 151, 152 Baine, Rodney M., 162, 172 Cary, Henry Francis, 1–4, 6, 9, 17, Baker, Carlos, 102 23–4, 26–8, 30–1, 33–55, 58, Bakhtin, Mikhail, 4 60–5, 67, 69–70, 76–7, 82–90, Banks, Thomas, 18 100–1, 103, 105, 108–9, 113–19, Baretti, Giuseppe Marc’Antonio, 13, 122–3, 125, 128–9, 132–6, 139, 57, 58 146–7, 149, 158, 160–1, 164, 171, Barilli, Renato, 25 178 Bartolini, Francesco, 20 Cassiani, Giuliano, 36 Bate, Walter Jackson, 129 Casti, Gian Battista, 64 Bellay, Joachim du, 72 Castiglione, Baldassare, 10 Benci, Antonio, 87, 88 Catullus, 81 Bettinelli, Saverio, 58 Chalmers, Alexander, 60 Biagioli, Giosafatte, 58, 80 Chapman, George, 27, 128, 137 Birch, Walter, 35 Chateaubriand, François-René de, Blair, Robert, 161 87 Blake, Mrs, Catherine Boucher, 159 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 37, 72, 73, 82, 84 Blake, William, 5, 6, 21, 28, 66, 122, Clare, John, 39, 165 151–78 Clark, Charles Cowden, 130 Bloom, Harold, 4, 126, 129, 143 Coburn, Kathleen, 70 Bodmer, Johann Jacob, 18, 20 Coleridge, Henry Nelson, 69 Boileau Despreaux, Nicolas, 19 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 1, 2, 17, 38, Borsieri, Pietro, 87 41, 46, 54, 63, 65–77, 80, 84, 91, Boyd, Henry, 3, 6, 24, 27, 31–5, 42, 103, 142 59, 61, 62, 71, 89, 91, 154 Cooksey, Thomas L., 47, 65, 67, 77 Boydell, John, 23 Corrigan, Beatrice, 80 Brand, Charles Peter, 10, 78 Coutts, Thomas, 18

237 238 Index

Cowper, William, 26, 36, 38, 43, 45, Gittings, Robert, 132, 133, 136 46, 47, 53, 83, 84 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 121 Crabbe, George, 68, 84 Gough, Richard, 168 Crowe, Eyre Evans, 64, 156 Gravina, Gian Vincenzo, 57 Crisafulli, Edoardo, 4, 28, 30, 42, 49, Gray, Thomas, 84, 153, 165 51, 61, 77, 78, 79, 91 Gringore, Pierre, 39 Cunningham, Alan, 39 Gros, Antoine-Jean, 23 Cunningham, Gilbert F., 1, 42 Guerin, Pierre Narcisse, 23 Guittone D’Arezzo, 113 Darwin, Erasmus, 39 David, Charles T., 77 Hallam, Henry, 70, 74, 75 David, Jacques-Louis, 23 Harington, John, Sir, 27 Dayman, John, 64 Hartley, Robert A., 100 De Piles, Roger, 182 n 21 Haydon, Benjamin Robert, 129 De Quincey, Thomas, 4, 5, 136 Hayley, William, 13, 15, 16, 17, 31, De Sua, William J., 42 39, 60, 154, 156 Delille, Jacques, 81 Hazlitt, William, 4, 23, 39, 59, 65, 66, Desmaizeaux, Pierre, 13 67, 84, 91, 141 Dixon, John, 23 Heines, Simon, 97 Donne, John, 76 Henry VII of Luxembourg, 152 Dorris, George E., 57 Hesiod, 137 Dryden, John, 27, 29, 30, 75 Hobhouse, John Cam, 90 Dunbar, Pamela, 158 Hogarth, William, 13, 14 Dunlop, John Colin, 60, 27 Holland, Henry Richard Vassal Fox, Dyce, Alexander, 69 Lord, 78 Homer, 19, 25–7, 29, 30, 35–6, 43, 45, Eliot, Thomas Stearns, 126 66, 68, 81, 82–3, 98–9, 127, 137, Ellis, Steve, 108 153, 154–156, 175 Euripides, 99 Hope, Thomas, 24, 153 Huggins, William, 13, 14, 15, 17, 31 Ferrante, Joan, 50 Humberston, John, 35 Fidanza, Paolo, 26, 154 Hume, Joseph, 64 Flaxman, John, 15, 18, 21, 24–6, 153, Hunt, Leigh, 17, 65, 101, 130, 131, 154, 162 135 Foscolo, Ugo, 3, 4, 17, 54, 63–5, 67, Hyginus, 137 69, 75, 77–87, 89–91, 152, 155 Frere, John Hookham, 68 Jeffrey, Francis, 67, 68, 79, 80, 83, 84 Fubini, Mario, 49, 87 Jeffrey, Sarah, 145 Fuller, David, 162 Jennings, Henry Constantine, 21 Fuseli, Henry, 3, 18–24, 26, 151, 153, 161, 165 Kant, Immanuel, 74, 75 Keats, Fanny, 130 Genette, Gérard, 5 Keats, George, 129, 135 Gibson-Wood, Carol, 10, 11 Keats, Georgiana, 135 Gilchrist, Alexander, 155, 161 Keats, John, 4, 5, 28, 39, 96, 98, 106, Gilpin, William, 66 127, 128–50, 176 Ginguené, Pierre Louis, 83 Keats, Tom, 129 Gioberti, Vincenzo, 78 Keynes, Geoffrey, 159, Gisborne, John, 110, 111 King, W.J., 35, 40, 47, 51, 69, 78 Index 239

Klonsky, Milton, 163, 165, 170, 171 Morehead, Robert, 62 Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb, 74 Muir, Kenneth, 136 Kristeva, Julia, 4 Muirhead, Lockhart, 63, 64 Kuhns, Oscar, 108 Murray, John, 87

Lackington, James, 100 Newlyn, Lucy, 4, 5, 132 Lamb, Charles, 3, 23, 30, 65 Nollekens, Joseph, 18 Landino, Cristoforo, 45, 160 Northcote, James, 21 Landor, Walter Savage, 35, 47 Le Brun, Charles, 167 Oliviero, Mr, 36 Leighton, Angela, 96 Ollier, Charles, 100, 110, 129 Lemprière, John, 135, 137 Ovid, 29, 18 Linnel, John, 159 Lisio, Giuseppe, 49–50 Pacchiani, Francesco, 112 Lister, Thomas, 35 Padoan, Giorgio, 128 Little, Judy, 66 Palmer, Samuel, 159, 160 Lombardi, Baldassare, 45 Panizzi, Antonio, 38 Longinus, 19, 20, 43 Parsons, William, 45 Lovejoy, Arthur O., 2 Paulson, Ronald, 14 Lowes, John Livingston, 135, 136, Peacock, Thomas Love, 98, 99, 105 147 Percy, Thomas, 60 Lucan, 99 Peterfreund, Stuart, 110, 120 Petrarch, Francesco, 86, 96, 121, 127 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 76 Pierino da Vinci, 181 n 17 Mackintosh, James, Sir, 79 Pindar, 73, 82 Macpherson, James, 56, 68 Piroli, Tommaso, 24 Magiotti, Quirina Mocenni, 79 Pite, Ralph, 24, 44, 77, 90, 101, 121, Marlowe, Christopher, 53 124, 126, 136, 163 Marot, Clément, 39 Placidi, G.B., 71 Martinelli, Vincenzio, 57 Plato, 75, 105, 138 Mason, William, 39, 56 Pope, Alexander, 11, 16, 27, 29, 30, McFarland, Thomas, 75 36, 43, 83 Medwin, Thomas, 98, 126, 129 Postle, Martin, 23 Melbourne, Lord, 39 Price, Thomas, 40, 41, 62, 63 Mengs, Anton Raphael, 18 Prior, Matthew, 11 Metastasio, Pietro, 36, 57 Michelangelo Buonarroti, 11, 12, 17, Rajan, Tilottama, 5, 60, 126 18, 20, 23, 75, 165 Raphael, 26, 75, 154, 173 Milbank, Alison, 10, 59, 91 Reyman, Donald, 100 Milton, John, 5, 11, 19, 24, 37, 43, Reynolds, John Hamilton, 144 44–7, 51, 53, 56, 58–60, 62, 65–8, Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 3, 15, 21, 23, 26, 72–6, 82, 84, 91, 98, 123, 129, 133, 151, 153 133–4, 136–7, 141–5, 155, 158, Richardson, Jonathan, 10, 11, 12, 15, 166–7 153 Mitchell, W.J.T., 166 Robinson, Henry Crabb, 71, 156–9, Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, 161 Baron de, 59 Roe, Albert S., 152, 170, 171, 173 Moore, Thomas, 68, 69 Roe, Nicholas, 129, 162, 163 More, Hannah, 9 Rogers, Charles, 17, 31, 42 240 Index

Rogers, Neville, 104 Todd, Henry John, 58 Rogers, Samuel, 39, 68, 69, 77, 79, 82, Tolley, Michael J., 163 83 Tooke, Andrew, 135, 137 Rolli, Paolo, 57 Toury, Gideon, 185 n 3 Rose, William Stuart, 64, 68 Toynbee, Paget, 17, 18, 23, 31 Rossetti, Gabriele, 90, Turner, Sharon, 192 n 27 Tytler, Alexander, Lord Said, Edward, 129 Woodhouselee, 29, 30, 45 Saly, John, 132, 135, 136 Schelling, Friedrich, 68, Vallone, Aldo, 80 Schiff, Gert, 18, 20 Vasari, Giorgio, 20, 181 n 17 Schiller, Friedrich, 87 Vassallo, Peter, 123 Schlegel, August von, 68 Vellutello, Alessandro, 45, 160, 217 n Schlegel, Friedrich von, 66, 68, 73–5, 106 83–4, 91, 141 Venturi, Pompeo P., 40, 45, 71, 72, Schulze, Earl, 117, 126 101 Scott, Walter, 87, 90 Venuti, Lawrence, 27, 29, 61 Sessa, Fratelli, 160 Vergani, Angelo, 36 Seward, Anna, 30, 35–7, 39, 56, 57 Verner, Jacob, 57 Sgricci, Tommaso, 127 Vico, Giambattista, 68, 81 Shakespeare, William, 19, 24, 44, 51, Vieusseux, G.P., 87 53, 68, 72, 75–6, 81, 83–4, 154 Villani, Giovanni, 60 Shelley, Mary, 99, 101, 111, 118, 123 Virgil, 25, 27, 56, 62, 128, 138, 164 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 4, 5, 28, 66, Viviani, Teresa, 111, 112, 117, 127 95–127, 136, 149, 150, 176 Volney, Constantin-François Shelley, William, 100, 148 Chassebœuf, comte de, 105 Sismondi, Simonde de, 59, 66, 91 Voltaire, Francois-Marie Arouet, de, Smollet, Tobias, 14 57, 58, 59 Southey, Robert, 47, 60, 165 Spenser, Edmund, 32, 37, 72 Wainewright, Thomas, 161 Sperry, Stuart, M., 136 Wallace, William, 79 Spurgeon, Dicki A., 69 Walpole, Horace, 9, 12, 23, 54, 99 Staël, Madame de, 130 Warner, Janet A., 163 Statius, 128 Warton, Joseph, 11, 39, 60 Stendhal, (Henri Beyle), 87 Warton, Thomas, 39 Sterne, Lawrence, 84 Watkins, Jon, 60 Stradano, Giovanni, 18 Webb, Timothy, 126 Swedenborg, Emanuel, 157 Weisman, Karen A., 96 Sydney, Philip, Sir, 45 Weston, Joseph, 30 White, George, 21 Taaffe, John, 40, 87, 88, 89, 90 Wiffen, J.H., 64 Tasso, Bernardo, 36 Wilbraham, Roger, 83 Tasso, Torquato, 56, 60, 64, 74, 99 Wilkie, Brian, 37 Tatsuo Tokoo, 111 Williams, David, 58 Tayler, Irene, 153 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 18 Taylor, John, 135 Wood, Theodore, E.B., 19 Thornhill, James, Sir, 13 Woodhouse, Richard, 137 Tinkler-Villani, Valeria, 12, 16, 17, 31, Wordsworth, William, 3, 47, 69, 120, 32, 54, 163, 173, 180 n 2, 212 n 11 142, 144 Index 241

Wright, Ichabod Charles, 64 Zacchetti, Corrado, 98 Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 45 Zappa, Giovanni Battista Felice, 13 Zuccari, Federico, 18 Young, Edward, 16 Zuccato, Edoardo, 71