The Effort to Combat the Traffic in Women in Austria Before the First World War SIAK-Journal − Journal for Police Science and Practice (Vol

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Nautz, Jürgen (2012): The Effort to Combat the Traffic in Women in Austria before the First World War SIAK-Journal − Journal for Police Science and Practice (Vol. 2), 82-95.

doi: 10.7396/IE_2012_H

Please cite this articel as follows:

Nautz, Jürgen (2012). The Effort to Combat the Traffic in Women in Austria before the First World War, SIAK-Journal − Journal for Police Science and Practice (Vol. 2), 82-95, Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.7396/IE_2012_H.

Note: A hard copy of the article is available through the printed version of the SIAK-Journal published by NWV (http://nwv.at). published online: 3/2013 .SIAK-INTERNATIONAL EDITION 2012

The Effort to Combat the Traff ic in Women in Austria before the First World War1

The f irst wave of globalisation and migration, a product of industrialisation from the second half of the 19th century onwards, brought with it the phenomenon of the “white slave trade”. The traff ickers preyed in particular on women and girls in the poorest areas of the Habsburg Monarchy, which, within the Austrian part of the realm (Cisleithania), meant Galicia f irst and foremost. The primary destination until 1914 was Buenos Aires. The issue was soon high on the daily political agenda, chiefly thanks to the efforts of civil society initiatives. The strategies adopted against the traff ic in women involved forward looking governance structures, which enjoyed successes in Austria and elsewhere. This article illustrates cooperation in Austria between the state and civil sectors through the example of the “Austrian League for the Protection of Young Women and Children”.

JÜRGEN NAUTZ , Professor of economic history at the Department of Economics, Vienna University.

There is not a life that this social evil issue had gained great prominence in does not menace. There is not a daughter, Europe, America and the European colo or a sister, who may not be in danger” nies. “Mädchenhandel” (the traff ic in girls), (Roe 1911, 9). as it was referred to in German, or the “The modern traff ic in women and girls “white slave trade” in English, occupied a crosses our world in a thousand ways (…) signif icant position in public discourse Austria-Hungary has not only the liveliest and politics. The topic also found wide export trade in human wares, but also does reception in literature and the emerging a brisk domestic trade. As a bridge between medium of f ilm (Sabelus 2009; Jazbinsek East and West, it is of great signif icance as 1995; Nautz 2011). a transit country” (Baer 1908, 5; Baer Traff ic in women went hand in hand 1908, 55) with industrialisation and globalisation from the 19th century onwards. Colonial INTRODUCTION expansion, industrialisation and globalisa- From the late 19th century onwards, a phe- tion increased economic ties and migra nomenon came increasingly into the focus tion flows to a more or less global extent of public interest that in the past years has (Held et al. 2003). Ronald Hyam views the again become a subject of public debate growth of traff ic in women in the context and political activity on a national and in- of a new workforce mobility based on the ternational level: the traff ic in women and technological innovations of the 19th century girls. By the eve of the First World War, the (Hyam 1992, 142–149). It soon emerged

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that women were very willing to migrate. Galicia, Bukovina and the border area of Ernst Georg Ravenstein observed in his Romania were the main source of victims groundbreaking studies on migration: from Cisleithania. Within the Hungarian “Woman is a greater migrant than man. part of the Monarchy (Transleithania), This may surprise those who associate Székely Land was the traff ickers’ prime women with domestic life, but the figures recruiting ground. The primary destinations of the census clearly prove it. Nor do before 1914 were Argentina, Brazil and the women migrate merely from the rural dis USA on the American continent, and Singa tricts into the towns in search of domestic pore, Shanghai, Hong Kong and various service, for they migrate quite as frequently parts of Indochina in the colonial Far East. into certain manufacturing districts, and Egypt (mainly via Alexandria) was the most the workshop is a formidable rival of the popular destination in the Middle East, kitchen and scullery” (Ravenstein 1885, while European women were also taken to 196). Four years later, based on empirical East Africa (Limoncelli 2010; Schrank data from over 20 countries, he observed: 1904; Nautz 2008a; Nautz 2008b). Within “Females appear to predominate among Cisleithania, the greatest number of vic short-journey migrants. On the other hand tims came from Galicia. A comparison of long-journey migrants appear to predomi the economic and social situation of Gali nate among females born in large towns, cia with that of the other Crown lands including London; all the great Scotch sheds light on one of the main causes of towns, Paris, Vienna, and many others” traffic in women: the weak economy. Des (Ravenstein 1889, 288). titution and lack of prospects in the region The then unparalleled level of migration of origin acted as push factors, while the of (lower-class) women from the country possibility, imagined at least, of an im side and small towns to developing cities provement in economic situation and life and industrial regions/hubs, from the chances in the destination countries served home countries to the colonies, and from as a pull factor. Figure 1 (see page 84) Europe and Asia to America has been shows the great difference in income identif ied as the chief cause of the emer between Lower Austria and Galicia, as well gence of traff ic in women (Bristow 1977; as Galicia’s lack of involvement in the Hyam 1990, 142–145). In addition, the general economic growth. institutionalisation of prostitution by the Such differences between wage levels in state is considered by researchers to have developed or booming regions and those had a strong influence on the increase in areas, such as Galicia, that saw nothing of the traffic in women (Limoncelli 2010, 19 the economic upswing, were one of the ff; Doezma 2004, 66). This association main reasons for the rise in criminality. The between prostitution and traffic in women sex trade was one of the sectors of the eco also finds expression in definitions by such nomy that thrived the most. The traffickers writers as Mexin (Mexin 1904) and Schrank played on the victims’ hopes that they (Schrank 1904, 1; Schrank 1904, 9). could improve their wretched living condi The majority of the victims from main tions elsewhere for their own good and land Europe came from Italy, Russia that of their family, if they had one. It is (Russia-Poland) and Austria-Hungary, and striking how relevant an analysis of the to a lesser extent from Germany and France. current-day situation such as the following A relatively large number of traff icked by the Organisation for Security and women came from Austria-Hungary. Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) is to the

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Source: Good 1993 The American continent was the main 2500 destination for emigrants from the Habs burg Empire. In South America, Buenos 2000 Aires was one of the most popular ports of 1500 arrival for immigrants. At the same time, Buenos Aires (together with Montevideo) 1000 also acted as a South American hub for the trade in women before the First World 500 War. The victims were brought from Galicia to Buenos Aires via migration networks. 0 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Typically, the victims and the criminals 2 Monarchy Empire of Austria Kingdom of Lower Austria Galicia came from the same migration area. In (Cisleithania) Hungary (Transleithania) Buenos Aires and Montevideo, the women were mostly kept in brothels that belonged Figure 1: Per capita income in Galicia in comparison to Lo to emigrants of the same culture. A list of wer Austria, the Monarchy and the Austrian and Hungari an parts of the Monarchy in international dollars (1980) the brothels in Buenos Aires made by the Austro-Hungarian consulate in Buenos Aires dating to 1898 contains a record of historical state of affairs: “The steady sup 111 brothel owners whose names over ply of persons trying to improve their whelmingly suggest an Austro-Hungarian lives, or those of their children, is created background.3 Similar conclusions can also by a climate of (relative) poverty and politi be drawn from reports by organisations cal and/or social exclusion; lack of educa tackling the traff ic in women (Deutsches tional or employment opportunities; dis Nationalkomitee 1903; Schrank 1904). crimination and violence against women, Like today there are no reliable macro children or ethnic minorities; government data for the 19th and 20th centuries. How corruption; natural disasters and war” ever, various publications and off icial (OSCE 2010, 23). correspondence of the time offer some f igures (see Table 1) based on the victims Sources: Austro-Hungarian Consul General in Buenos Aires; German Embassy in Vienna 1889; ABPD4 discovered. Period/date Number Origin Destination annually > 400 Hungary Buenos Aires TRAFFIC IN WOMEN AS A TOPIC (Székely Land, OF DEBATE Transylvania) The issue of traff ic in women was a pro ? “several Hungarian Romania, thousand” border counties Serbia minent topic of public discourse and state annually > 400 Hungary Montevideo and civil society counter initiatives at the th annually > 400 Hungary Rio de Janeiro turn of the 20 century. The focus on the annually > 400 Hungary Pernambuco problem was only interrupted by the war monthly (1896) 117 Buenos Aires years. A chief inspector at the German 1898 1,500 Russia Buenos Aires Reich Criminal Investigation Department annually ; circa 1900 8,000–10,000 Russia-Poland South America in Berlin observed at the end of the 1930s annually “several Austria (Galicia) that nothing else is “tackled as extensively thousand” and Russia India (…) as the traff ic in women and girls”. annually <_ 1,000 Galicia – (Hauke 1939, 102–106).

Table 1: Statements about the number of victims The political sphere’s intensive efforts to before 1914 tackle traffic in women and girls from the

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late 19th century were due to a clever and held by the police in Hanau (near Frankfurt intelligent organisational structure that am Main), can be found from as early as today we would describe as a transnational 1837.7 network of NGOs. Following on from the An international office was set up in Lon abolition movement and moral reform ini don to coordinate the work of the national tiatives in England5, organisations that committees (cf. Bristow 1997, 112; Baer took up the cause of combating traff ic in 1908, 95; Dietrich 1989, 60 f). The aim, in women and (forced) prostitution also be which the organisations succeeded to a sig came established there.6 From those move nif icant extent, was to lobby the European ments arose the two leading umbrella or governments systematically to take up the ganisations, which supported very different fight against the traffic in women. The be views of women and political goals: the ginning of the 20th century saw the signing International Abolitionist Federation of the f irst international agreements. (IAF) and the International Bureau for the Suppression of the White Slave Traff ic, THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL later called the International Bureau for AGREEMENTS FOR THE the Suppression of the Traff ic in Women SUPPRESSION OF THE TRAFFIC and Children” (IB). According to Limon IN WOMEN celli, the members of the IAF tended to In the second half of the 1880s, a series of wards a feminist stance and championed bilateral treaties on the treatment of foreign individual women’s rights within the frame prostitutes were signed. Such agreements, work of an international humanitarian whose content was the same, were conclud network. The network of the IB, which be ed in 1866 between Belgium and the longed to the moral reform camp, con Netherlands, in 1888 between Belgium sisted of dedicated women who did not and Austria-Hungary, in 1889 between the subscribe to feminist views, and men who Netherlands and the German Reich and in were concerned with the issue in an official 1890 between the German Reich and function (as doctors, lawyers, police off i Belgium. It was agreed that prostitutes cials, scientists etc.) (Limoncelli 2010, who were citizens of one of the signatory 44 ff). With considerable propaganda ef states and plied their trade in another forts, the “National Vigilance Association”, signatory state should be questioned by which was founded against that back the authorities as to who had caused them ground, anchored the idea of working in to migrate. Women engaging in prostitu an organised way to suppress the traff ic in tion against their will and minors, even if women and girls on the European conti plying their trade voluntarily, were to be nent as well (Coote 1910) and initiated the returned to their country of origin (Nautz establishment of national committees de 2008a). The agreements are considered dicated to the issue in several continental not to have been particularly effective European countries. The British initiative (Hauke 1939, 104). fed into existing German and Austrian However, the issue became an increasing debates on such topics as gender roles, se focus of interest. The topic was discussed xuality and morality (Nautz 2011). It was during the deliberations on emigration by no means the case that awareness of the laws in Germany and in Austria-Hungary. issue on the continent was f irst raised by While such a law with corresponding the work of the English organisations. For sanctions was adopted in the German example, case f iles on traff ic in women Reich in 1897 (Reich Act on Emigration8;

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de Werth 1928, 10)9, the discussions in the greater care was to be taken of young Habsburg Empire came to nothing (Zippel women and girls immigrating and emigrat 2003). Symposia on a national, European ing, with closer supervision exercised over and international level, such as the 5th the job agency trade, which stood under International Prison Congress in 1895 and suspicion. The provisions of the the Conference of the International So aforementioned treaties from the 1880s ciety for Criminology in Budapest in 1899, were incorporated into the agreement. To addressed the issue of the traffic in women. increase the effectiveness of the f ight In the meantime, the network of national against the traff ic in women and girls, the committees joined forces with other or national authorities were authorised to ganisations to push for further-reaching correspond with one another directly. In national and international legislation. At other words, they did not need to use the their international congress in London in usual diplomatic channels to communicate. 1899, they explicitly called for govern However, the text of the agreement lacked ments to cooperate on an off icial level to a commitment to punish the traff ic in tackle the traff ic in women and girls. women and girls (Wijers/Lap-Chew Three years later, the French foreign minis 1997, 20; Bullough/Bullough 1987, 320; ter invited interested governments to a Frostell 2002). conference in Paris. Delegations from 15 In subsequent years, state bureaucracies, European states and from Brazil drew up politicians and interested NGOs worked three recommendations for legislative and on a further-reaching version of that f irst administrative measures. These included a agreement. The “International Convention call for the discrepancies between the laws for the Suppression of the White Slave of the countries to be eliminated and for Traff ic” was signed in Paris on 4 May identical national sanctions to be intro 1910, committing the signatory states to duced in order to combat the traff ic in the coordinated prosecution and punish women and girls effectively (Brewster ment of the “white slave traff ic”.11 How Lewis 1992). ever, the procurement, enticement and Based on such groundwork, the Interna leading away of women of full age was pu tional Agreement for the Suppression of nishable only if committed by fraud, by the White Slave Traffic10 was signed on 18 means of violence, threats, abuse of autho May 1904 in Paris by Belgium, Denmark, rity or any other method of compulsion. the German Reich, France, Great Britain, Procuring, enticing or leading away wom Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, en or girls under age for “immoral purpo Russia, Sweden, Spain and Switzerland, ses” was made punishable, even if consent and some time later by Austria-Hungary, was given. the USA and Brazil. The agreement com A final protocol to the convention estab mitted the signatory states to establishing lished that women or girls aged below 20 national authorities for the surveillance were considered as under age. The conven and suppression of the traff ic in women tion of 1910 was intended to suppress the and girls. Those authorities were charged traff ic solely in white European girls and with coordinating all information concern women. It was not until the International ing the traff ic in women and girls. The Convention for the Suppression of the agreement also provided for the stepping Traff ic in Women and Children of 1921, up of police controls at critical points concluded and adopted under the auspices (railway stations, port cities). In addition of the League of Nations, that no distinc

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tion was made with regard to the origin of Off ice for the Suppression of the Interna the victims.12 tional Traffic in Young Women was estab During both the drafting and implemen lished in Vienna in 1904. From 1903, there tation of the legislation for the suppression was an equivalent body in Berlin, namely of traffic in women, there was cooperation the Central Police Off ice (Central Reich among a network of state and political bo Off ice) for the Suppression of the Interna dies, civil society organisations and media. tional Traffic in Young Women. They shared the same goal of combating The Vienna Central Off ice lists f igures the traffic in women, although their views for the years 1910 to 1913 concerning in on the roles of women and men differed vestigations opened on suspicion of traffic greatly in some cases. The suppression of in women (see Table 3, page 88). Accor traff ic in women was among the f irst ding to those f igures, around 320 investi criminal offences to be tackled through in gations were opened in 1910 and 1911. In ternational cooperation between criminal 1912, the number was signif icantly higher prosecution authorities (Jäger 2006). Even at 360. In the f irst half of the last year of more interesting is the fact that a form of peace, 181 investigations were opened. cooperation took shape involving state, The Central Off ice attributed this increased political and civil society bodies and the activity not to an increase in the traff ic in media that even then had all the features of women and girls, but to the effect of the structure that today we would term awareness campaigns that resulted in “the “governance” (de Vries 2004, 22; Limon celli 2004, 1; Nautz 2007; Nautz 2008a; Source: Nautz15 Nautz 2008b). The outbreak of the First 1866 Belgian-Dutch Agreement for the Protection of Female Persons World War interrupted this international 1888 Agreement for the Protection of Female Persons between Belgium and cooperation, but did not end it. Women’s Austria-Hungary*) organisations were consulted ahead of the 1889 German-Dutch Agreement for the Protection of Procured Female Persons, entered into force in 1891 peace negotiations and raised the issue of 1890 German-Belgian Agreement for the Protection of Procured Female the traffic in women. As a result, all treaties Persons, entered into force in 1891 with the defeated nations contained com 1904 International Agreement for the Suppression of White Slave Trade mitments to tackling the problem. How 1910 International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave ever, it was the newly created League of Traffic, League of Nations, Treaty Series, vol. VIII, p. 278 (Modifikation Nations above all that was charged with Vertrag 1904) coordinating the international effort against 1919 Peace Treaty of Versailles, Article 282, No. 17 the traff ic in women.13 NGOs dedicated to 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Article 234, No. 14 the issue were involved in the relevant 1919 Covenant of the League of Nations committees and activities of the League of 1919 Peace Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, Article 167 Nations from the start.14 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Article 217 1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children AUSTRIAN EFFORTS TO COMBAT 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Article 100 THE TRAFFIC IN WOMEN 1933 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women The activity of the Austrian criminal pro of Full Age secution authorities matched the keen 1949 UN Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of public awareness of the issue in Austria the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others from the late 19th century onwards. As a *) identical in content to the agreement of 1866 result of the agreement of 1904 and the civil Table 2: Historical bilateral and international agree anti-traff icking campaigns, the Central ments for the suppression of the traffic in women

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Source: Central Office for the Suppression of the International Traffic in Young Women 1914, 20 1910 320 tographs (of suspected offenders and vic 1911 321 tims) as well as the fingerprints of persons 1912 360 who had been in custody for involvement in such traff icking. The Central Off ice 1913 (January – May) 181 Table 3: Investigations opened16 was supported by other Austrian and Aus tro-Hungarian agencies such as legations public (…) having become more aware and consulates. The information compiled and more cautious, and therefore making was made available to foreign investigat more use of the authorities than in former ing authorities on request. Within Austria, times when making journeys abroad or the Vienna Central Office corresponded in taking up jobs or something like that”.17 particular with the police departments in The authority monitored not only the red Chernivtsi, Krakow and Lviv, because light district, but also other trades suspect most of the victims, as well as many inter ed of serving as covers for the traff ic in national traff ickers in women and girls, women and children. These were chiefly came from Galicia and Bukovina, and also agencies for perfor ming ar tists, job had close links to compatriots abroad. agencies and emigration off ices. However, the Central Off ice also cracked For the suppression of the traffic in wom down on traff ic in women taking place en and the forced prostitution of minors, within the frontiers of the Empire, where in Austria the prohibition on the entice some convictions for the offence of procur ment and leading away of minors pursuant ing were secured.20 to the Austrian Penal Act of 27 May 1852 Many private organisations took up the (Sections 25, 97) was applicable. If an cause, with the “railway missions” playing Austrian citizen committed such an offence an important role. From the last quarter of abroad, they could be penalised by the Aus the 19th century onwards, an increasingly trian judiciary (Sections 36, 235). extensive network of associations and For the prosecution of offences commit authorities dedicated to combating the ted by non-Austrian citizens in third coun traff ic in women was formed (Nautz tries, the authorities of the country of origin 2006a; Jäger 2002). It is noteworthy that of the accused were to be given adminis the cooperation extended beyond ideologi trative assistance in prosecuting the offence cal and religious lines, which was any (Sections 39, 40). A decree issued by the thing but a matter of course in those years Ministry of Commerce dated 7 May 190818 (Reports by the “Austrian League for the contained specif ic provisions applying to Suppression of the Traff ic in Young off ices and agencies providing jobs abroad. Women”; Nautz 2011; on Germany: It only allowed persons aged under 18 to Brinkmeier 2003, 338 f). The police of be engaged for jobs abroad with the proven fices and political bodies worked together agreement of the Guardianship Court, with civil society organisations, which fre after it was found that parents and guard quently have a religious background. This ians often gave their consent too lightly cooperation was not entirely without con because of material need.19 In the course flict, but can ultimately be described as of its work, the Police Headquarters in successful (Hauke 1939, 155). This can Vienna built up an extensive archive con also be seen by the fact that some indi taining information about persons suspect viduals held dual roles. For example, the ed of being traffickers in women and girls. Viennese police doctor Josef Schrank was There was an extensive collection of pho also president of the Austrian League for

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the Suppression of the Traff ic in Young (for example, the “Caritas socialis” organi Women, which was later renamed the sation and the Catholic Railway Mission, Austrian League for the Protection of both founded by Hildegard Burjan; on Young Women and Children. The League Burjan: Schödl 2008), but the Austrian was founded on 17 November 1902 in League and its member organisations were Vienna by a group of men and held its f irst the main points of contact for state bodies general assembly on 29 May 1903 after (see Table 4). obtaining permission from the Interior The number of female clients referred to Ministry (Austrian League for the Sup the League should not be seen as the pression of the Traff ic in Young Women/ number of victims. A large proportion of Austrian League for the Protection of the women were regarded as being at risk Young Women and Children 1913, 6). The for various reasons, while a smaller pro League, based in Vienna, acted as a central portion were classified as “fallen”. off ice for a number of branch off ices and The core conviction was that young cooperating associations: the “Società women should be protected from sliding d’assistenza e protezione femminile”, into a “loose way of living” and ultimately Trieste, the “League for the Protection of prostitution. Prostitution was regarded as Women and Children” in Lviv, the “Pro an incurable infectious disease, against tection of Women” chapter of the Associa which young women should be protected tion of Jewish Women in Krakow, the local and “immunised”. The city with its many committee in Chernivtsi, the conf idential “temptations” was believed to be the breed help off ice in Prague, a news bureau for ing ground for that contagion. Department Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Russia and the stores, confectioneries, dance halls, rail East, Budapest and Vienna, and a conf i ways, ports and even ice-cream parlours dential help off ice for Sarajevo. were regarded as venues where women Other organisations were also engaged could all too easily be infected. The narra in the suppression of the traff ic in women tives on this topic are almost identical

Source: Österreichische Liga zur Bekämpfung des Mädchenhandels 1909–1914 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Guardianship authorities 95 81 95 155 109 180 Imperial and Royal Police Headquarters in Vienna 270 343 183 198 273 264 a) Bureau for Moral Policing — — 160 180 231 209 b) Youth welfare — — 23 18 42 55 District police departments 57 41 165 194 201 228 Committee for Juvenile Court Assistance — — — 4 9 2 Vienna Rescue Association — — — 3 4 1 Viennese orphan boards and other associations 36 15 20 49 41 30 Parents, guardians 58 39 75 176 133 147 Private individuals 97 37 40 97 60 87 Of own volition 126 109 190 248 185 66 a) from Vienna — — 173 200 — — b) travelled from outside Vienna — — 17 48 — — Total 739 665 768 1,124 1,015 1,005

Table 4: Cooperation of state bodies with the Vienna Central Secretariat of the Austrian League for the Protection of Young Women and Children

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Source: Österreichische Liga zur Bekämpfung des Mädchenhandels 1909–1914 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Innocent with regard to their former life, but morally at risk to a varying degree 314 312 390 471 458 514 Suspected of a loose way of living 223 214 170 299 245 219 Vagrants 30 10 15 94 94 45 Fallen 172 129 198 260 260 227 Total 739 665 768 1,124 1,015 1,005

Table 5: Characterisation of female clients by the Austrian League for the Protection of Girls and Children in Vienna

throughout the transatlantic area and relate ance on helping women to gain additional back to older narrative strands (Nautz vocational training, properly paid jobs and 2011; Sabelus 2009). secure accommodation. They also saw it Many of the victims came from the as their goal to have women become part countryside and/or lower-class and peasant of stable family structures and take part in backgrounds. The activists worked on the joint leisure activities designed to keep assumption that these young women and women away from the temptations of the girls had not been able to build up suff i big city. The importance attributed to help cient defences against the disease of lust ing women find jobs can be seen in Tables and would therefore easily fall prey to vice 6 to 8. and crime. The lack of immunity was The question of accommodation was attributed primarily to shortcomings in the problematic for many women: Young wom parental home (inadequate upbringing, en who came from the countryside to the poor role models) in the case of women city were often promised accommodation with a lower-class or peasant background, by traff ickers and procurers, only to be lured while in the other cases a poor education, by them into prostitution. Other women low wages and precarious job situation found themselves in diff iculty when they were seen as reasons for having a low re lost their job and could no longer afford sistance. Therefore, anti-traff icking orga the rent payments. Leage member organ nisations in general, and not only the isations therefore set up shelters for Austrian League, placed particular import homeless women and those at risk in

Source: Österreichische Liga zur Bekämpfung des Mädchenhandels 1909–1914 Services 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Provided with a job — 552 496 608 967 746 789 Given money for journey home — 15 19 21 39 30 19 Helped to find a husband**) — 3 2 3 2 — — Adoption — — 1 — — — — Other forms of assistance*) — 63 15 17 18 21 “left to their fate as — 106 132 119 116 221 176 being beyond help” Total 356 739 665 768 1,124 1,015 1,005

*) Other forms of assistance include: financial support, advice, appointment of a guardian, 1909. Only financial support in 1910. **) 1910, 1911: married and provided with trousseau

Table 6: Help provided by the Vienna Committee

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Source: Liga-Bericht 1913, 17 Source: Liga-Berichte 1909–1914 Assistance Year Number of persons Nights Assistance in finding a job 660 1908 301 — Legal support 26 1909 358 1,293 Accommodation 170 1910 434 1,423 Railway mission 31 1911 516 1,485 Total 887 1912 409 1,506 Table 7: Committees in Chernivtsi, 1913 1913 601 1,520

Source: Liga-Bericht 1913, 15 Table 9: Accommodation at the Vienna Refuge Identity papers obtained 95 Centre 1909–1914 Medical help 17 Judicial assistance 19 Suppression of the Traff ic in Young Women/ Clothing 36 Austrian League for the Protection of Accommodation 40 Young Women and Children 1918–1913). Journey home 10 CONCLUSION Advice 450 The modern traffic in women developed in Information 199 parallel with industrialisation and modern Intervention with authorities or in private cases 142 isation processes from the second half of th Assistance in finding a job 1,012 the 19 century onwards. The traff ickers, Total 2,020 who often worked in networks within the Habsburg Empire, had business connec Table 8: Assistance provided by the Società tions all over the world. The region of Bue d’assistenza e protezione femminile (Trieste 1913) nos Aires/Montevideo, where there were close links to the prostitution trade, was other ways. In Vienna, the League’s one of the primary destinations until 1914. “Refuge Centre” was opened on 3 De With only a short time delay, a coalition cember 1907 in District V at Grüngasse 15 of civil society organisations and state (Austrian League for the Suppression of bodies that was just taking shape became the Traff ic in Young Women/Austrian engaged in numerous activities to tackle League for the Protection of Young Women the traff ic in women and girls. Judicial and Children 1908, 14). The refuge centre authorities and politicians valued the col was well received and the frequency with laboration with civil society organisations, which it was used increased steadily (see as exemplified by the cooperation with the Table 8). The refuge service also develop Quelle: Liga-Berichte 1909-1914 ed in a similar way at other locations (Austrian League for the Suppression of the Traff ic in Young Women/Austrian League for the Protection of Young Women and Children 1909–1914). The recognition accorded to the work of the Austrian League is also demonstrated by the fact that it received annual grants from the city of Vienna and the ministries, as well as donations from private persons Figure 2: Accommodation at the Vienna Refuge Centre and enterprises (Austrian League for the 1909–1914

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Austrian League. That specif ic form of ance, undoubtedly achieved successes. combined effort and interlinking between This historical collaboration is certainly political institutions, state bodies and civil comparable in nature to modern forms of society, which today we would term govern- cooperation.

1 The data are based in part on the work of of the two movements, see the literature prisonment with labour, the wrongdoer the author as part of the W.E.S.T. (Women summary in Limoncelli 2010 (42 ff) with shall also forfeit their civil privileges and East Smuggling and Traff icking) project further references. a f ine from one hundred and f ifty to six and the Gendered Migration, Sex Work 6 This movement gained considerable im thousand marks may be imposed. The and Exploitation: Traff icking in Women petus thanks to a series of articles written sentence may further permit police super and Prostitution networking project. by the London-based journalist William vision. The same punishments shall apply Sources from Austrian archives were used Thomas Stead entitled “The maiden trib to whosoever wilfully assists the emigrati primarily. The author owes particular ute of modern Babylon”, which were pub on of the female person, with knowledge thanks to the Archive of the Federal Police lished in the London Pall Mal Gazette in of the purpose pursued by the wrongdoer. Headquarters in Vienna for assisting him 1885. The series attracted considerable at If extenuating circumstances exist, a sen in his research. tention and served as a model for the tence of not less than three months in a 2 On the network structure of the traffic in emerging field of investigative journalism prison shall be granted, in addition to women in detail: see Nautz 2007. in continental Europe. Stead’s articles can which a fine of one hundred and f ifty to 3 Report No. 116.039 ex 1898, 12 January be read online at: http://www.atta cking six thousand marks may be inflicted. 1899, Federal Police Headquarters in thedevil.co.uk/pmg/tribute/index.php Section 22: The agent may only give Vienna (BPD Wien), Prostitution – Traf (02.03.2011). transport to emigrants if a previously con fic in Young Women 1897–1899. 7 File “On the activities of the so-called cluded written agreement exists. Emigrants 4 Vienna Carton 1887–1890/2 (Prostitu fly-whisk traders, 1834–1837, 1847”, in: may not be obliged after their arrival at tion – Traffic in Young Women); Schrank Central State Archive of Marburg 180 the point of destination to pay, refund or 1904, 45, 74, 77. Hanau, No. 854. work in exchange for the price of their 5 The term “abolitionism” underwent a 8 German Reich Law Gazette (RGBl.) transport, any part of that price or any ad- similar development to that of “white slav 1897, 404. vances made to them. Nor may they be ery”. Originally, the abolition movement 9 “Section 48: Whoever entices a female restricted in the choice of their place of stood for the f ight to eliminate slavery; person to emigrate in order to lead her in living or their employment in the country the reference to the campaigns against to immorality as a trade, with fraudulent of destination” (Act on Emigration of 9 June slavery was intentional and was designed concealment of that purpose, shall be 1897, German Reich Law Gazette to trigger such associations (McPherson punished by a sentence of up to five years (RGBl.), 463). 1964). On the organisational development in a hard-labour prison. In addition to im 10 Austrian Law Gazette (Österreichisches

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RGBl.) 1905, 695. the League of Nations: http://www.versailler-ver 11 Austrian Law Gazette (Österreichisches trag.de/vv1.htm; International Agreement for the RGBl.) 1913, 31. Suppression of White Slave Trade 1904: League of Section 1: “Whoever in order to gratify the pas Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1, 83; 1910 Interna sions of another person has procured, enticed or tional Convention for the Suppression of the led away even with her consent, a woman or girl White Slave Traff ic: League of Nations, Treaty under age, for immoral pur poses, shall be pun Series, vol. VIII, 278, http://www.oas.org/juridico/ ished, notwithstanding that the various acts cons MLA/en/traites/en_traites-inter-wst.pdf; Inter tituting the offence may have been committed in national Convention for the Suppression of the different countries.” Traff ic in Women and Children 1910: LNTS8a Section 2: “Whoever, in order to g ratify the (treaties.un.org/pages/LONOnline.aspx); Inter passions of another person, has, by fraud, or by national Convention for the Suppression of the means of violence, threats, abuse of authority, or Traffic in Women and Children 1921: http://treaties. any other method of compulsion, procured, enticed, un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volu or led away a woman or girl over age, for immoral me%201009/ volume-1009- C-269-English.pdf; purposes, shall also be punished, notwithstanding International Convention for the Suppression of that the various acts constituting the offence may the Traff ic in Women of Full Age, Oct. 11, 1933, have been committed in different countries.“ 150 L.N.T.S.: http://www1.umn. edu/humanrts/in 12 International Convention for the Suppression stree/women-traff ic.html. of the Traff ic in Women and Children, Austrian 16 Central Off ice for the Suppression of the Inter Law Gazette (Österreichisches RGBl.) 1924, 80. national Traff ic in Young Women on suspicion of 13 http://www.versailler-vertrag.de/vv1.htm. the traffic in women and girls. 14 Federal Chancellery, Instruction, No. 50.091– 17 Central Off ice for the Suppression of the Inter 16/1925), in: Archive of the Republic (AdR), national Traffic in Young Women 1914. Federal Chancellery (BKA), Federal Interior 18 Austrian Law Gazette (RGBl.) No. 97. Ministry (BMI) 4768; Fischer 2006). 19 Central Off ice for the Suppression of the Inter 15 References to texts of treaties and laws: Belgian- national Traff ic in Young Women 1914, 21; Fede Dutch Agreement for the Protection of Female ral Chancellery, Circular to all national govern Persons and Agreement for the Protection of ment off ices and to the federal police authorities, Female Persons between Belgian and Austria- No. 83034 – 9. Dubious recruitment for positions Hungary: Hauke 1939, 104. Agreement between abroad, in: Archive of the Republic (AdR), 14/HP the German Reich and the Netherlands for the 844; on cases in Germany: I HA Rep. 77. Ministry Protection of Procured Female Persons: (German) of the Interior, Title 423, No. 31. File on police Reich Law Gazette Volume 1891, No. 23, 356– measures and punishments for the abduction and 358; Agreement between the German Reich and theft of children and young girls. Belgium for the Protection of Procured Female 20 Central Off ice for the Suppression of the Inter Persons: German Reich Law Gazette Volume national Traffic in Young Women 1914. 1891, No. 25, 375–377; Trianon: http://www.versailler-ver trag.de/trianon/in Sources of information dex.htm; Versailles: http://www. Baer, M. [Pseudonym für Karl Baer] (1908). Der dhm.de/lemo/html/dokumente/versailles/index.html internationale Mädchenhandel, Großstadt-Doku ; St. Germain: http://www.versailler mente (37). vertrag.de/svsg/ svsg-i.htm; Neuilly: Brewster Lewis, B. (1992). Women Crossing http://www.versailler-vertrag. Boundaries: A Field Report on the Paris Confer de/neuilly/index.htm; Lausanne: http://wwi.lib.byu. ence “African Americans and Europe”, African edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne; Covenant of American Review (26, 3), 515-519.

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Bristow, E. J. (1977). Vice and Vigilance. Purity chenhandel, Kriminalistik (13). Movements in Britain since 1700, Dublin. Held, D./McGrewe, A. et al. (2003). Global Trans Brinkmeier, P. (2003). Weibliche Jugendpflege formations. Politics, Economics and Culture, zwischen Geselligkeit und Sittlichkeit. Zur Ge Cambridge/Oxford. schichte des Verbandes der evangelischen Jung Hyam, R. (1990). Empire and Sexuality. The frauenvereine Deutschlands (1890–1918), thesis, British Experience, Manchester. Potsdam. Hyam, R. (1992). Empire and Sexuality. The Bullough, V./Bullough, B. (1987). Women and British Experience, Manchester. Prostitution: A Social History, New York. Jäger, J. (2002). International Police Cooperation Coote, W. A. (1910). A Vision and Its Fulf ilment, and the Associations for the Fight against White London. Slavery, Paedagogica Historica, (28, 2–3), 565– de Werth, A. (1928). Die neuesten Forschungs 579. ergebnisse über den internationalen Mädchen Jäger, J. (2006). Verfolgung durch Verwaltung. handel und die Prostitution, Mönchengladbach. Internationales Verbrechen und internationale de Vries, P. (2004). An Image of Sexual Danger: Polizeikooperation 1880–1938, Konstanz. Prostitution, the White Slave and the Political Jazbinsek, D. (1995). Der internationale Mäd Campaign Against Woman Traff icking in Histori chenhandel. Biographie eines sozialen Problems, cal Perspective, in: Zavratnik Zimic, S. (ed.) Wo Berlin. men and Trafficking, Ljubljana. Limoncelli, S. A. (2004). The International Traf- Deutsches Nationalkomitee zur internationalen f ic in Women for Prostitution: Historical Trends Bekämpfung des Mädchenhandels (1903). Der and the Politics of Humanitarian Efforts to Com Mädchenhandel und seine Bekämpfung. Memo bat Sexual Exploitation of Women, Los Angeles. randum, Berlin. Limoncelli, S. A. (2010). The Politics of Dietrich, A. (1989). Das Deutsche Nationalkomi Trafficking. The First International Movement to tee zur Bekämpfung des internationalen Mäd Combat the Sexual Exploitation of Women, Stan chenhandels, in: Tübinger Projektgruppe Frauen ford. handel, Frauenhandel in Deutschland, Bonn. McPherson, J. (1964). The Struggle for Equality: Doezema, J. (2004). Sex slaves and discourse Abolitionists and the Negro in the Civil War and masters – The historical construction of traffick Reconstruction, Princeton. ing in women. Thesis ISD. www.myweb.dal. Mexin, S. (1904). Der Mädchenhandel. Sozial ca/.../Sex%20slaves%20and%20discourse%20 und kriminalpolitische Studie. Thesis, Freiburg masters%20-%20The%20historical%20construc i. Ue./Basel. tion20of%20traff icking%20in%20woman.html. Nautz, J. (2006a). New Forms of Governance: Fischer, T. (2006). Frauenhandel und Prostitution – Fighting International Crime and the role of Civil zur Institutionalisierung eines transnationalen Society. Paper prepared for the Third Mokrzycki Diskurses im Völkerbund, Zeitschrift für Symposium “New Europe and its Growth to Li Geschichtswissenschaft (54, 10) 876–887. mits”, Warsaw. Frostell, K. (2002). Globalisation and the human Nautz, J. (2007). Netzwerkstrukturen im Frauen rights of women, Turku/Åbo: Åbo Akademi Uni handel im 20. Jahrhundert, in: Berghoff, H./ versity, Institute for Human Rights. Sydow, J. (eds.) Unternehmerische Netzwerke Good, D. (1993).The Economic Lag of Central Eine historische Organisationsform mit Zu and Eastern Europe: Evidence from the Late Nine kunft?, München, 271–290. teenth-Century Habsburg Empire. Centre for Nautz, J. (2008a). Frauenhandel und Gegenstra Austrian Studies Working Paper 93–7, Minneapo tegien in Österreich, in: Natuz, J./Sauer, B. (eds.) lis. Frauenhandel. Diskurse und Praktiken, Göttin Hauke, D. (1939). Der Kampf gegen den Mäd gen, 21–47.

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Nautz, J. (2008b). Frauenhandel Ost-West. Märkte sichtigung von Dr. Viktor Mataja und Dr. Eugen und Netzwerke, in: Sauer, B./Strasser, S. (eds.) von Pilippovich, 1850–1918. Thesis, Wien. Zwangsfreiheiten. Multikulturalität und Feminis mus, Wien, 204–220. Further Literature and Links Nautz, J. (2011). Gender Roles and Moral Stand Bericht über die Tätigkeit der k. k. Polizeidirek ards of the Anti-Traff icking Alliances Around tion Wien als Zentralstelle zur Bekämpfung des 1900 in Germany and Austria. Paper presented to internationalen Mädchenhandels 1910–1913, in: the conference “Popular Sex: Media and Sexu Österreichische Liga zur Bekämpfung des Mäd ality in Germany in the Early 20th Century”, chenhandels/Österreichische Mädchen- und Kin Calgary. derschutzliga (1909–1914). Berichte des Verei Österreichische Liga zur Bekämpfung des Mäd nes über die Vereinsjahre 1908–1913, Wien, chenhandels/Österreichische Mädchen- und Kin 20–26. derschutzliga (1909–1914). Berichte des Verei Friedensvertrag von Versailles: ww.dhm.de/ nes über die Vereinsjahre 1908–1913, Wien. lemo/html/dokumente/versailles/index.html. OSCE/Office of the Special Representative and Hölbing, L. (1996). Der österreichisch-ungarische Co-ordinator for Combating Traff icking in Hu Mädchenhandel in den Akten des Bundespolizei man Beings (2010). Analysing the Business Mo archivs Wien, Master thesis, Wien. del of Traff icking in Human Beings to Better Nautz, J. (2006b). Frauenhandel in Österreich. Prevent the Crime, Wien. Project report 2006, Wien. http://www.kakanien. Ravenstein, E. G. (1885). The Laws of Migrati ac.at/beitr/materialien/JNautz1.pdf. on, Journal of the Statistical Society (48/2), 167– Staatsvertrag von Saint-Germain-en-Laye: www. 227. versailler-vertrag.de/svsg.htm. Ravenstein, E. G. (1889). The laws of migration, Völkerbundsatzung, http://www.versailler-vertrag. Journal of the Statistical Society (52), 241–301. de/vv1.htm. Roe, C. G. (ed.) (1911). The Prodigal Daughter. The White Slave Evil and the Remedy, Chicago. Archive references Sabelus, E. (2009). Die weiße Sklavin. Mediale Archive of the Republic (AdR), Vienna: Inszenierung von Sexualität und Großstadt um I/7 MdI 2121 Mädchenhandel (Traff ic in Young 1900, Berlin. Women and Girls) 1900–1918. Schödl, I. (2008). Hildegard Burjan. Frau zwi I/7 MdI 2122 Mädchenhandel (Traff ic in Young schen Politik und Kirche, Wien. Women and Girls) 1907; 1908–1918; 1900–1918. Schrank, J. (1904). Der Mädchenhandel und seine Archive of the Police Headquarters in Vienna Bekämpfung, Wien. (BPD Archive). Wijers, M./Lap-Chew, L. (1997). Traff icking in Prostitution & Mädchenhandel (Prostitution and Women, Forced Labour and Slavery-like Practi Traffic in Women and Girls) section. ces in Marriage, Domestic Labour and Prosti The section of the archive is arranged in boxes by tution, Utrecht. year, beginning with the year 1884 and ending Zippel, C. (2003). Die österreichische Bevölke with 1936. The given year is indicated in the rungspolitik auf der Grundlage der Statistik und reference. der sozialen Strukturen, mit besonderer Berück Secret Prussian State Archive in Berlin: I HA Rep. 77 Ministry of the Interior.