Canadian Hydrographic Service

Home , Charlton Island, Depth sounding, Hydrographic survey, Liddon Gulf, Radio acoustic ranging, Richard Mayne (explorer)

CANADIAN SPECIAL PUBLICATION OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES 67 Proceedings Centennial Conference Canadian Hydrographic Service

FI 1983

DFO - Library MPO - Bibliothéque 1 1 11 1 11 11101,18 ,110 11111

OTTAWA APRIL 5-8 AVRIL. 1983

Comptes rendus Conférence du Centenaire Service hydrographique du Canada 1983

PUBLICATION SPECIALE CANADIENNE DES SCIENCES HALIEUTIQUES ET AQUATIQUES 67 a " CANADIAN SPECIAL PUBLICATION OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES 67

Centennial Conference of the Canadian Hydrographic Service "FROM LEADLINE TO LASER"

April 5-8, 1983

Government Conference Centre

LIBRARY Ottawa, Canada FISHERIES AND OCEANS 1 Q1U Sponsors 13IIILIOT ET OCÉANS, Canadian Hydrographic Service pîoiES Canadian Hydrographers Association

Conférence du Centenaire du Service hydrographique du Canada "DE LA LIGNE DE SONDE AU LASER"

5-8 avril, 1983

Centre de Conférences du Gouvernement

Ottawa, Canada

Responsables Service hydrographique du Canada Association des hydrographes canadiens

PUBLICATION SPÉCIALE CANADIENNE DES SCIENCES HALIEUTIQUES ET AQUATIQUES 67 Minister of Supply and 'Services >Canada 1983 © Ministre des Approvisionnements et Services Canada 1983 Availàble En vente par la poste: Canadian Government Publishing Centre Centre d'édition du gouvernement du Canada . Supply and Service's Canada Approvisionnements et Services Canada 'Ottàwà, Ont. K I A 059 Ottawa (Ontario) Canada KIA 0S9 or through your bookselier ou chez votre libraire or from ou au Hydrographie Chart Distribution Office Department of Fisheries and Oceans Bureau de distribution des cartes marines P.O. Box 8080, 1675 Russell Rd. Ministère des Pêches et des Océans Ottawa, Ont. C.P. 8080, 1675, chemin Russell Canada K I G 31-16 Ottawa (Ontario) Canada K1G 3H6 Catalogue No. Fs 41-31/67 ISBN 0-660-52374-4 N° de catalogue Fs 41-31/67 ISSN 0706-6481 ISBN 0-660-52374-4 Ottawa, 1983 ISSN 0706-6481 Ottawa, 1983 Canada: $12.00 Other countries: $14.40 Canada : 12 $ Autres pays : 14.40$ Price subject to change without notice. Prix sujet à changement sans avis préalable.

Correct citation for this publication: On devra référer comme suit à cette publication :

Anon. 1983. From Leadline to Laser. Centennial Conference of the Anonyme. 1983. De la ligne de sonde au laser. Conférence du centenaire Canadian Hydrographie Service. Canadian Hydrographie du Service hydrographique du Canada/Association des hydro- Service/Canadian Hydrographie Association. Ottawa, Canada. graphes canadiens. Ottawa, Canada. 223 p. 223 p.

Published by Publié par

q Government of Canada Gouvernement du Canada Fisheries and Oceans Pêches et Océans

Scientific information Direction de l'information and Publications Branch et des publications scientifiques

Ottawa KlA 0E6

TABLE OF CONTENTS /TABLE DE MATIÈRES

CENTENNIAL CONFERENCE ORGANIZING COMMITTEE /CONFÉRENCE DU CENTENAIRE COMITÉ ORGANISATEUR IV

FOREWORD /AVANT - PROPOS V

OPENING CEREMONIES/ CÉRÉMONIES D'OUVERTURE VI

INTERNATIONAL VISITORS/ VISITEURS DE L'ÉTRANGER VIII

DIRECTOR GENERAL'S ADDRESS / ALLOCUTION DU DIRECTEUR GÉNÉRAL 1

MINISTER OF FISHERIES AND OCEANS ADDRESS /ALLOCUTION DU MINISTRE DES PÊCHES ET DES OCÉANS 7

THE GOVERNOR GENERAL'S ADDRESS / ALLOCUTION DU GOUVERNEUR GÉNÉRAL 11

TROIS SIÈCLES D'HYDROGRAPHIE FRANÇAISE AU CANADA Bourgoin, France 14 THE BRITISH CONTRIBUTION TO THE HYDROGRAPHY OF CANADA Haslam, U.K. 20 VIGNETTES FROM HYDROGRAPHY'S PAST Sandilands, Canada 36 IMPROVED TECHNIQUES OF SHORT PERIOD TIDAL ANALYSIS Franco, Brazil 42 THE LEGAL LIABILITY OF THE CHARTMAKER Troop, Canada 46 A HISTORICAL REVIEW OF TIDAL, CURRENT AND WATER LEVEL SURVEYING IN THE CANADIAN HYDROGRAPHIC SERVICE Tait, Canada 51 CHART LATTICING - PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE Gray, Canada 62 THE IMPACT OF THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM ON HYDROGRAPHY Lachapelle /Wells, Canada 69 EXPLORING ARCTIC SEAS — TODAY AND YESTERDAY Anderson/ Kerr, Canada 78 SIDE SCAN SONAR — AN ALTERNATIVE TO WIRE DRAG FOR ITEM INVESTIGATIONS Peterson, U.S.A. 85 U.S. NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHIC OFFICE HYDROGRAPH1C SURVEY OPERATIONS 1972-1982 van Norden, U.S.A. 91 AIRBORNE HYDROGRAPHY TECHNIQUES — AN EVALUATION BY THE AERIAL HYDROGRAPHY PROJECT TEAM CANADIAN HYDROGRAPHIC SERVICE OTTAWA, Monahan, Canada 107 BEGINNING OF THE SECOND HUNDRED YEARS — THE LASER SOUNDER Casey, Canada 111 BATHYMETRY AND ITS UTILIZATION TO DEFINE SHORT- TERM EVENTS ON THE UPPER AMAZON Fitzpatrick, Canada 118 RÉPORT ON DMA'S PROTOTYPE GRAPHICS FROM ENHANCED LANDSAT IMAGERY FOR APPLICATION TO HYDROGRAPHIC CHARTING Naylor, , U.S.A. 138 MULTIPARAMETER SURVEYS IN THE OFFSHORE: BROADENING THE DIMENSIONS OF HYDROGRAPHY Macnab, Canada 149 AUTOMATION TODAY SCRATCHING THE 'TWENTY-ONE YEAR ITCH Macdonald, Canada 157 DR. DORSEY'S ELECTRONIC LEAD LINE — THE U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY'S HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY ECHO SOUNDER DEVELOPMENT 1924-1939 Hayes, U.S.A. 163

UNE APPROCHE MÉTHODOLOGIQUE AUX RECHERCHES SUR LA CONCEPTION GRAPHIQUE DES CARTES MARINES Perrotte, Canada 167 TIDE MEASUREMENT BY ACOUSTIC TELEMETRY PART I: THE BOTTOM UNIT Morgera, Canada PART II: THE DECK UNIT Morgera, Canada 173 COMMON DATUM CHARTS OF THE MALACCA AND SINGAPORE STRAITS Yashima, Japan 182 THE ELECTRONIC CHART Eaton , Canada 188 THE USE OF LORAN - C IN THE CANADIAN FISHING FLEET Kolls, Canada 196 AUTOMATION OF THE DMA LIST OF LIGHTS AND RADIO NAVIGATIONAL AIDS PUBLICATIONS Glenn, U.S.A. 204

CONFERENCE PHOTOGRAPHY/ PHOTOGRAPHIES DE LA CONFÉRENCE 212

REGISTRANTS/ INSCRIPTIONS 220 Centennial Conference Conférence du Centenaire Organizing Committee Comité organisateur

Co -Chairmen P.D. Richards Co-présidents J. Bruce

Secretary S. Acheson Secrétaire

Finance T. Jolicoeur Finances

Technical Program J. O'Shea Programme technique

Registration C.W. Fulford Inscription

Publicity and Publications J.S. Warren Publicité et publications

Graphics R.W. Cashen Graphisme

Displays J.P. Séguin Expositions

Hospitality G. Yeaton Accueil

Ladies Program J. Yeaton Programme des conjoints A. Woelflé

Media Relations J. Drewry Relations avec les médias

Transportation M. Lajeunesse Transports

Events Événements Icebreaker T. Tremblay Partie d'accueil Beer Seminar R. Gervais À la bonne vôtre ! Dinner Dance W.E. Woelflé Dîner dansant Centennial Luncheon B.J. Tait Déjeuner du Centenaire

Liaison Liaison Canadian Hydrographers Association H. Comeau Association canadienne des hydrographes Retired Staff L. Murdock Personnel à la retraite Conference Secretariat T. Widyaratne Secrétariat de la conférence

IV Foreword Avant-propos

The publication of the Proceed- La publication du compte rendu ings of the Centennial Conference of the de la Conférence du centenaire du Service Canadian Hydrographic Service is the hydrographique du Canada constitue la final stage in the most successful con- dernière étape de la conférence de ce ference of its kind yet held in Canada. type la plus réussie qui ait jamais été Four hundred people met in Ottawa for tenue au Canada. Quatre cents personnes three days of plenary sessions, discuss- se sont réunies à Ottawa pour trois jours ions with exhibitors and social events. de séances plénières, de discussions avec The papers presented were of a high stan- les exposants et d'événements sociaux. dard. As befits a Centennial Conference Les documents présentés étaient d'un très many reviewed various aspects of the his- haut niveau. Comme il convient pour une tory of hydrography in Canada but the Conférence du centenaire, nombre de con- rest covered a wide range of topics and férenciers ont passé en revue divers were literally drawn from around the aspects de l'histoire de l'hydrographie world. Our international visitors repre- au Canada, mais plusieurs, qui venaient sented 16 different countries and two in- pratiquement de toutes les parties du ternational organizations. They partici- monde, ont traité une large gamme de pated fully in the proceedings and en- sujets. Nos visiteurs étrangers repré- riched both the formal and informal dis- sentaient 16 pays et deux organisations cussions. The exhibitors provided an internationales. Ils ont participé essential part of the conference by show- pleinement aux débats et ont enrichi les ing the latest developments that are discussions tant officielles que non available. officielles. Les exposants ont été un élément essentiel de la conférence en présentant les plus récents progrès de la The Organizing Committee can technique. take pride in its work but nothing would have been achieved without the whole- hearted participation of all who attend- Le Comité organisateur peut ed. We hope that these proceedings will être fier de sa réussite mais rien serve as a permanent record of the dis- n'aurait pu être mené à bien sans la cussions and remind all of the enjoyable participation active de toutes les social events at which many new friend- personnes présentes. Nous espérons que ships were made. ce compte rendu restera dans les annales et qu'il rappellera à tous les événements sociaux agréables où de nombreux liens d'amitié ont été noués.

A.D. O'Connor A.D. O'Connor Presi dent Président Canadian Hydrographers Association Association canadienne des hydrographes

P. Richards P. Richards J. Bruce J. Bruce Conference Co-Chairmen Co-présidents de la conférence

V OPENING CEREMONIES

CÉRÉMONIES D'OUVERTURE

FROM LEADLINE TO LASER

S.B. MacPhee Director General / Directeur général Canadian Hydrographic Service Service hydrographique du Canada

FROM LEADLINE TO P.D. Richards LASER" Conference Chairman / Président de la conférence Hon./ L'Hon. Pierre De Bané Minister of Fisheries and Oceans Ministre des Pêches et des Océans

FROM LEADLINE TO LASER

VI G.N. Evving Assistant Deputy Minister (Ocean Science and Surveys) Sous-ministre adjoint (Sciences et levés océaniques) Fisheries and Oceans / Pêches et Océans FROM LEADLINE TC LASER

G.N. Ewing and/et J.P. Séguin Attempt to open exhibits Tentative d'ouverture des expositions

G. Macdonald Past President / Ancien président Canadian Hydrographers Association Association canadienne des hydrographes

f.i0tV1 LEADLINE TO LASER

VII Front Row, left to right — Rear Admiral H.R. Lippold Jr., U.S.A. Lt. I. Ahmed. Pakistan S.B. MacPhee, Canada Ing. Gén. Jean Bourgoin, France Adm. A.S. Franco, Brasil Capt. J.E. Ayres, U.S.A. Back Row, left to right — Mue-Sou Kim, Republic of Korea Capt. W.C. Palmer, U.S.A. Rear Admiral 0.W. Haslam, U.K. Rear Admiral G.S. Ritchie, U.K. Cdr GA. Whiting, U.S.A. Admiral H.H. Van Weelde, Netherlands 0.L.C. G. LeJeune, Belgium Admiral LH. Van Opstal, Netherlands Capt. G. Romero Ocando, Venezuela K. Yashima, Japan

lng. Gén. Jean Bourgoin, France

Capt. W.C. Palmer, USN / DMA - S.B. MacPhee " FROM LEADLIN LASER"

Rear Admiral G.S. Ritchie, Hydrographic Society

INTERNATIONAL VISITORS

VISITEURS DE L'ÉTRANGER

Mun-Sou Kim, Republic of Korea - S.B. MacPhee VIII Address to the The ships and launches are now well out- Centennial Conference fitted with computer assisted data collection of the Canadian Hydrographic Service systems, and automatic plotters for data Ottawa, 6 April, 1983 plotting. Yet there are many areas of Canadas waters that have still not been surveyed, coastal S.B. MacPhee and many other areas that must be resurveyed to Director General modern standards. One such gap in our survey data base was eliminated last year when Graeme Richard- Mr. Chairman, Honourable Minister, dis- son led a survey party to Seymour and Belize tinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen: Inlets on the Pacific Coast. By coincidence, his survey base was the barge "Pender" named after On behalf of the staff of the Canadian the master of the Royal Navy Vessel that in 1886 Hydrographic Service, it is indeed a pleasure to sailed into these majestic fiords extending 50km welcome you to our Centennial Conference. I wish into the coastal range. Prior to the 1982 survey, to begin my address by thanking our Minister, the the only hydrographic data that was available for Honourable Pierre De Bané for coming here today the area was Pender's single sounding line of "No to officially open the conference. We are all Bottom at 40 Fathoms". aware Mr. Minister of the tremendous demands placed upon your time and we thank you for being In 1982, Jim Vosburgh from the Pacific with us. I also welcome the international dele- Region continued the Beaufort Sea corridor survey gates, the delegates from other government depart- in another relatively unsurveyed area. With 90 ments and those from the private sector and the per cent of the east-west corridor across the academic community, and I wish to extend a Pullen and Kugmallit pingo fields now complete, special welcome to the exhibitors who do so much two pingos with minimum depths of less than 20 to make these conferences a success. I am pleased metres have been discovered. A further eleven to see strong CHS contingents from the four pingos with minimum depths in the twenty to regions as well as from headquarters because in twenty-five metre range have also been found. our decentralized service, these conferences These discoveries are quite significant as the offer one of the best opportunities to get tankers that will transit these Arctic shipping together during an extended period to freely corridors could well draw in excess of twenty exchange opinions and ideas. They also provide an metres. excellent opportunity for testing our concepts in an international forum and for broadening our One of our largest surveys in the Atlantic attitudes on technical matters. It is gratifying Region was a survey under the leadership of Vic to see a large number of retired CHS staff here Gaudet to obtain up-to-date hydrography around today. Your continuing interest in hydrography Sable Island - the "graveyard of the Atlantic". and the CHS is admired and appreciated. This was a fully automated survey where the most modern techniques were employed and where the I will not this morning be reviewing the inshore bathymetry was obtained through air photo work of the Service for the past 100 years but interpretation with only ground-truthing being note that it was in August, 1883 that Staff provided through classical methods. Commander Boulton arrived in Ottawa on secondment from the Admiralty. After a few days discussion The Polar Continental Shelf Project (PCSP) with senior staff in the Department of Marine and of the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources Fisheries, he left for Georgian Bay and almost is now well advanced on the Canadian Expedition single handedly started a survey of the steamer to the Alpha Ridge or the CESAR program. Dick routes from Owen Sound to Sault Ste. Marie. McDougall and his hydrographic party from Central Commander Boulton started his survey in 1883 with Region are a vital part of this a chartered vessel and his survey equipment multi-disciplinary project. The hydrographers are consisted of sextants, theodolites, steel tapes, attempting to obtain reconnaissance bathymetry on a chronometer, leadlines and a supply of pens and the continental shelf north-west of Ellesmere and paper. Slowly the situation changed with the Axel Heiberg Islands, an area in which we have no construction of fine ships in the early 1900s information. An integral part of our Arctic but with no fundamental change in instruments program is an accelerated tidal propagation until the echo sounder was introduced on the research project including systematic tidal and Acadia in 1930 and electronic positioning was current surveys along potential routes and the introduced in the 1950's. The first computer was development of methods to install tide gauges and installed on a Canadian Hydrographic vessel in current meters below the ice with telemetry links 1962. Indeed there are hydrographers here today, to get the data to surface vessels or shore Norm Gray for example who joined in 1930 and stations. retired as Dominion Hydrographer in 1967 who remember very well the transition from leadline There are other surveys I could mention but to echo sounder and from astronomic fixing to as time is limited, I will now move on to the Decca. I think on this historic occasion that we Chart Production Program. should reflect on the changes in technology that have occurred during our own careers and specu- The Canadian Hydrographic Service conducted late on the future. A quick visit through the surveys for twenty years before the Service commercial exhibits will demonstrate that we are produced its first chart. Up until 1903, all living in an era of rapid technological change. charts were published by the British Admiralty.

1 In 1903, a chart with some track soundings of the oceanographic surveys, will be a strong asset to southern part of Lake Winnipeg entitled "Red our program. She will work from Québec Region and River to Berens River" was published - this was carry out a much needed hydrographic survey in the beginning. the coastal waters of lles de la Madeleine this summer. I am also optimistic that approval will In 1982, the Chart Production staff probe obtained for a Richardson replacement and for duced 27 New Charts, 68 New Editions and 103 one or more additional new vessels over the next Reprints. Two of these charts - charts 2243 and few years. They are urgently needed if we are to 2244 - have particular significance as they can- fulfill our mandate effectively and efficiently. celled chart 2285, a chart produced from Com- In the ship support area, we are greatly indebted mander Boulton's 1886 survey. This cancelled to the Department of Transport since much of our chart also included a section "engraved in hair- arctic hydrography is done from Canadian Coast line" from an 1822 survey by Lt. Bayfield. Guard vessels assigned to CHS on a dedicated or opportunity basis. I mention these facts to illustrate that although we are increasing dramatically our tech- In training we can look back on the success- nology in chart production, we are 'still not ful completion of both the first francophone producing nearly enough new charts. With dur pre- Cartography I Course and the first Cartography II sent resources, we are lucky to produce twenty- Course for more senior staff. For the past few five New Charts a year. With a chart folio of years we have had officers from foreign hydro- 1,000 charts, this means that on the average we graphic offices attending our training programs would only be publishing New Charts of areas on a and this year we are hosts to three naval of- forty-year cycle. We must attempt to half this ficers from Pakistan, one on Cartography I and time-frame if we are to adequately meet the needs two on Hydrography I. This summer we will be of our clients. carrying out a major review of the objectives and content of all courses to ensure that they opti- We are making considerable advances in the mally meet our operational requirements and facil- area of computer assisted cartography but since itate the development of the personnel who will most of the source data are available only in carry out the hydrographic task during the early graphic form and must be digitized, the gains decades of the next one hundred years. through automation cannot be readily achieved. It must also be remembered that with the advent of Over the past few years, our research and bilingualism, the metric system, the new Inter- development effort has received considerable sup- national Association of Lighthouse Authorities port through the National Energy Program coor- (IALA) buoyage system and electronic positioning dinated by the Department of Energy, Mines and system latticing, chart production has become Resources and through the Transportation Research more complicated and time consuming. and Development sector of the Department of Trans- port. Some of the more successful development Advances are however being made and we now programs have been the adoption of the spike have 30 per cent of our charts in bilingual coupled transducer for over-ice surveys; the ex- format and 18 per cent in metric units. perimentation being carried out on the Global Positioning System (GPS) in cooperation with the In April 1982, the last sheet in the eigh- University of New Brunswick and Nortech; the de- teen chart series that forms the General Bathy- sign and construction of data acquisition and metric Chart of the Oceans - Fifth Edition storage systems and the development of GOMADS, an (GEBCO) was published and a nineteenth world interactive graphic system for processing hydro- sheet is now almost ready for printing. This was graphic and cartographic data. In the case of the an important task for CHS and the cartographers latter project, a license has recently been involved in this project are to be congratulated. granted for a private company to further develop While the GEBCO sheets were being drafted, the this system and to market it commercially. production of Natural Resource Maps suffered. We will now be concentrating on the production of In cooperation with the Canada Centre for the 1:1 million series of Geoscience maps. The Remote Sensing (CCRS) of the Department of year 1982 was also a strong one in the production Energy, Mines and Resources, we have continued of Sailing Directions and Small Craft Guides with with the Aerial Hydrography Project and recently thirteen publications being released - seven in a contract has been awarded for the design and English and six in French. construction of a scanning laser system. Work is currently underway on the ARCS project which is There are many support elements essential an Autonomous Remotely Controlled Submersible de- to the work of the hydrographers and carto- signed to operate through a hold in the ice and graphers. These include engineering and computer on the Dolphin project which involves the design science support and, most important to the hydro- and construction of a remotely controlled semi- graphers, ship support. In the past, we have had submersible launch. We are also in the process of a very difficult time in obtaining new ships with acquiring a multi-transducer electronic sweeping the last new science and survey ship, CSS Pari- system and in 1983 anticipate evaluating at least zeau commissioned in 1967. However, over the past one ocean mapping system. few years we have had a very successful launch replacement program and in January of this year, The final development project I will dis- funds were approved for a major hydrographic/- cuss is the Electronic Chart. The Electronic oceanographic vessel for the Pacific Region to Chart is envisaged as the data storage and dis- replace the WM.J. Stewart decommissioned in 1975. play terminal that will provide the mariner with In addition, the former fisheries patrol vessel, information on the ship's position, other shipp- The Cape Harrison, now renamed The Louis M. Lauz- ing, navigation aids, weather, ice, tides and ier and converted to carry out hydrographic/- currents as well as the course made good and

2 speed. This project is in its early stages of In conclusion, I wish to encourage your development and still requires considerable inter- full participation in the technical sessions of action with potential users in the marine com- this conference and hope that you will find your munity. stay in Ottawa enjoyable. Thank you for coming.

At the present time, approximately $3M/year is being expended on research and development with the majority of the work being contracted to Canadian industry.

The adoption and signing of a Convention on the Law of the Sea by the Third U.N. Conference on the Law of the Sea will result in an increase in our offshore effort as during the next few years we will be required to carry out surveys for the determination of the limits of the continental shelf in accordance with the Convention.

The final point I would like to comment on this morning is our involvement in international issues in hydrography. Conferences to achieve some state of uniformity in hydrography were held as early as 1899 when a meeting was held in Washington. It was not however until 1919 at the suggestion of the Hydrographers of Great Britain and France that the first International Hydro- graphic Conference was convened. This conference was held in London and was attended by hydrographers from 24 countries. The object of the conference was to consider the advisability of all maritime nations adopting similar methods in the preparation, construction and production of their charts and publications and to facilitate mutual exchange of hydrographic information between member countries.

Following this first conference, an Inter- national Hydrographic Bureau was founded with its Headquarters in Monaco. In 1982, at the XIIth Quinquennial Conference, the Charting Standards prepared by the Chart Specifications Committee for the production of medium and large scale charts were approved. There were many other areas of interest to Canada discussed at this conference including the training of hydrographers and cartographers, the exchange of data in digital form, aid to developing countries, the worldwide tidal data bank and the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) program.

In support of our work with IHO, and to deal specifically with boundary waters, cooperation with United States charting agencies has been a part of our activities for many years. In 1977, this was formalized with the establishment of the U.S./Canada Hydrographic Commission. The Commission has facilitated the adoption of common chart schemes, cooperative field surveys and chart production and an exchange of technical personnel. I consider it as one of my personal responsibilities to continue to foster this kind of international cooperation.

We are honoured to have at this conference presentation from France and England, the found- ing nations of hydrography in Canada who provided early surveys, as well as our partners of today, the United States and the International Hydro- graphic Organization. astronomique au système Decca. Je pense qu'en cette occasion historique, nous devrions nous pencher sur les progrès techniques qui se sont produits pendant notre carrière et faire des spéculations pour l'avenir. Une rapide visite de Allocution de S.B. MacPhee l'exposition commerciale vous montrera que nous Directeur général, à la vivons à une époque de changements technologiques Conférence du centenaire du rapides. Service hydrographique du Canada Ottawa, le 6 avril 1983 Les navires et les vedettes sont maintenant équipés de systèmes de collecte des don- nées assistés par ordinateur et de traceurs M. le Président, honorable ministre, automatiques pour la restitution des données. invités éminents, Mesdames et Messieurs, Toutefois, un grand nombre de régions des eaux côtières du Canada n'ont pas encore fait l'objet Au nom du personnel du Service hydro- de levés et de nombreuses autres doivent faire graphique du Canada, j'ai le plaisir de vous l'objet de nouveaux levés conformes aux normes accueillir à notre Conférence du centenaire. Je modernes. L'an dernier, une lacune semblable de commencerai par remercier notre ministre, l'hono- notre base de données hydrographiques a été rable Pierre De Bané, d'avoir bien voulu venir comblée lorsque Graeme Richardson a dirigé une ouvrir officiellement la conférence. Nous savons expédition hydrographique dans les inlets Seymour tous, M. Le Ministre, combien votre emploi du et Belize sur la côte , du Pacifique. Assez temps est chargé et nous vous remercions d'être curieusement, sa base d'opération était le avec nous aujourd'hui. Je souhaite aussi la chaland "PENDER" qui porte le nom du capitaine du bienvenue aux délégués internationaux, aux repré- bateau de la Marine royale qui en 1886, a pénétré sentants d'autres ministères gouvernementaux, du dans ces fjords majestueux qui s'enfoncent de 50 secteur privé et de la communauté universitaire km dans les terres. Avant le levé de 1982, les et j'aimerais tout spécialement souhaiter la bien- seules données hydrographiques disponibles pour venue aux exposants qui contribuent beaucoup à la la région étaient l'unique ligne de sonde de réussite de ces conférences. Je suis heureux de Pender avec la désignation "pas de fond à 40 bras- voir qu'un grand nombre de membres du SHC sont ses". venus des quatre Régions ainsi que de l'administration centrale car, du fait de la décentralisa- En 1982, Jim Vosburgh de la Région du tion de nos services, ces conférences constituent Pacifique a poursuivi le levé du corridor de la une excellente occasion de nous réunir pendant mer de Beaufort dans une autre région relative- une période prolongée pour échanger librement les ment peu connue. En effectuant le levé du cor- opinions et les idées. Elles nous offrent égale- ridor Est-Ouest à travers les zones de pingo ment la possibilité unique de mettre nos concepts Pullen et Kugmallit, qui est maintenant terminé à à l'essai dans un cadre d'échange international 90 %, on a découvert trois pingos à moins de 20 m et d'enrichir nos connaissances techniques. Par de profondeur. Onze autres pingos situés entre 20 ailleurs, il est réconfortant de voir ici un et 25 m de profondeur ont été également loca- grand nombre d'anciens membres du SHC qui sont lisés. Ces découvertes sont très importantes car maintenant à la retraite. Nous vous remercions et les pétroliers qui passeront dans ces corridors vous félicitons pour votre intérêt soutenu vis-à- de navigation pourraient très bien avoir un vis de l'hydrographie et du SHC. tirant d'eau de plus de 20 mètres.

Ce matin, je ne passerai pas en revue les L'un de nos plus grands levés dans la activités du Service pendant les cent dernières Région de l'Atlantique a été mené sous la direc- années, mais je soulignerai que c'est en août tion de Vic Gaudet. Il a consisté à mettre à jour 1883 que le Staff Commander Boulton était dépêché les données relatives aux environs de l'île de à Ottawa par l'Amirauté britannique. Après Sable, "le cimetière de l'Atlantique", à l'aide quelques jours de discussion avec les cadres de méthodes entièrement automatisées et des tech- supérieurs du ministère de la Marine et des niques les plus modernes. La bathymétrie côtière Pêcheries, il est parti pour la baie géorgienne a été obtenue par l'interprétation de photos et a entrepris presque seul un levé des routes aériennes, seule la vérification au sol étant des vapeurs d'Owen Sound à Sault Ste-Marie. Le assurée par les méthodes classiques. Commander Boulton a commencé son levé en 1883 à bord d'un navire affrété et il disposait d'un L'Etude du plateau continental polaire équipement composé de sextants, de théodolites, (EPCP) du ministère de l'Energie, des Mines et de rubans d'acier, d'un chronomètre, de lignes de des Ressources est maintenant bien avancée du sonde, de crayons et de papier. La situation a point de vue de l'expédition canadienne sur la évolué lentement avec la construction de navires dorsale Alpha, que l'on a appelée le programme plus modernes au début des années 1900, mais sans CESAR. Dick McDougall et son équipe hydrogra- que des changements fondamentaux interviennent phique de la Région du Centre participent sur le plan des instruments, jusqu'à ce que activement à ce projet multidisciplinaire. Les l'Acadia soit équipé d'un écho-sondeur en 1930 et hydrographes s'efforcent d'obtenir des données que le positionnement électronique apparaisse bathymetriques de reconnaissance sur le plateau dans les années 1950. C'est en 1962 que le pre- continental au nord-ouest des îles Ellesmere et mier ordinateur a été installé sur un navire Axel Heiberg, une région sur laquelle nous hydrographique canadien. En fait, il y a ici des n'avons aucune information. Dans le cadre de hydrographes, notamment Norm Gray, entré au Ser- notre programme sur l'Arctique, nous menons un vice en 1930 et parti en retraite en 1967 au projet de recherche intensive sur la propagation poste d'hydrographe fédéral, qui se souviennent des marées, qui comprend l'étude méthodique des très bien de la transition de la ligne de sonde à marées et des courants le long des routes l'écho-sondeur et de l'établissement du point potentielles et l'élaboration de méthodes pour 4 l'installation de marégraphes et de couranto- pour les Instructions nautiques et les Guides du mètres sous la glace avec liaisons télémétriques plaisancier avec la sortie de 13 publications: 7 pour la transmission des données aux navires de en anglais et 6 en français. surface ou aux stations à terre. Il existe de nombreux éléments de soutien Je pourrais mentionner d'autres levés, qui sont essentiels au travail des hydrographes mais faute de temps, je vais maintenant passer au et des cartographes. Il s'agit du soutien procuré Programme de production des cartes. par le génie et l'informatique, et, le plus important pour les hydrographes, par les navires. Le Service hydrographique du Canada a Par le passé, nous avons eu beaucoup de dif- effectué des levés hydrographiques pendant 20 ans ficulté à obtenir de nouveaux navires, le dernier avant de produire sa première carte. Jusqu'en navire hydrographique et scientifique moderne, le 1903, toutes les cartes étaient publiées par Parizeau, ayant été mis en service en 1967. Toute- l'Amirauté britannique. En 1903, le Service a fois, ces dernières années, un programme de publié sa première carte: une carte de la partie remplacement des vedettes a été mené à bien et en sud du lac Winnipeg, intitulée "Red River to janvier de cette année, des fonds ont été Berens River", qui avait été dressée à l'aide de approuvées pour la construction d'un grand navire sondages en route. hydrographique/océanographique pour la Région du Pacifique, qui remplacera le Wm. J. Stewart, re- En 1982, le personnel de la Production tiré du service en 1975. En outre, l'ancien des cartes a réalisé 27 cartes nouvelles, 68 patrouilleur des pêches, le Cape Harrison, re- nouvelles éditions et 103 réimpressions. Deux de baptisé le Louis M. Laurier et transformé pour ces cartes, les cartes 2243 et 2244, ont une les levés hydrographiques/océanographiques, nous importance particulière car elles annulent la sera très utile pour notre programme. Il mènera carte 2285 qui avait été dressée à partir du levé ses activités à partir de la Région du Québec et du Commander Boulton en 1886. Cette carte annulée effectuera notamment cet été un levé hydrogra- comprenait aussi une section "gravée finement" à phique essentiel dans les eaux côtière des îles partir d'un levé effectué en 1882 par le de la Madeleine. J'ai aussi bon espoir que nous lieutenant Bayfield. obtiendrons l'approbation relative pour le remplacement du Richardson et pour l'acquisition Cette anecdote illustre bien le fait d'un ou plusieurs bateaux supplémentaires au qu'en dépit des progrès de la technique, nous ne cours des prochaines années. Nous devons disposer produisons toujours pas suffisamment de nouvelles de ces bateaux de toute urgence si nous voulons cartes. Avec nos ressources actuelles, nous par- remplir notre mandat de façon efficace et effi- venons à peine à produire 25 cartes nouvelles par ciente. Dans le domaine du soutien en navires, an. Avec une série totale de 1 000 cartes, cela nous sommes largement redevables au ministère des signifie qu'en moyenne, nous ne oulierons de Transports, étant donné que la plupart de nos cartes nouvelles d'une région qu'une fois tous études hydrographiques dans l'Arctique sont les 40 ans. Nous devons nous efforcer de réduire menées à partir de bateaux de la Garde côtière du ce délai de la moitié si nous voulons répondre de Canada affectés au SHC à titre occassionel ou façon appropriée aux besoins de nos clients. spécial.

Nous avons beaucoup progressé dans le Sur le plan de la formation, nous pouvons domaine de la cartographie assistée par ordina- nous féliciter de la réussite du premier cours teur, mais comme la plupart des données de base Cartographie I en français et du premier cours sont seulement disponibles sous forme graphique Cartographie II pour le personnel principal. Ces et qu'elles doivent être numérisées, nous ne dernières années, des membres de bureaux hydrogra- pouvons tirer pleinement parti des avantages phiques étrangers sont venus suivre nos pro- offerts par l'automatisation. Il ne faut pas non grammes de formation et cette année, nous plus oublier qu'avec l'iostauration du bilin- accueillons trois officiers de la marine du Paki- guisme, du système métrique, du nouveau système stan, un en cartographie I et deux en hydro- de signalisation de l'Association internationale graphie I. Cet été, nous effectuerons une grande de signalisatiln maritime (AISM) et des réseaux révision des objectifs et du contenu de tous les des systèmes de positionnement électroniques, la cours pour nous assurer qu'ils répondent de façon production des cartes est beaucoup plus com- optimale à nos besoins opérationnels et qu'ils pliquée et demande plus de temps. facilitent le perfectionnement du personnel qui sera chargé des tâches hydrographiques pendant Toutefois, nous progressons sans cesse et les premières décennies des cent prochaines à l'heure actuelle, 30 % de nos cartes sont années. bilingues et 18 % sont en unités métriques. Ces dernières années, notre effort de En avril 1982, la dernière feuille de la recherche et de développement a reçu un appui série de 18 cartes qui forme la Carte générale considérable du Programme énergétique national bathymétrique des océeans (cinquième édition - coordonné par le ministère de l'Energie, des GEBCO) a été publiée et une dix-neuvième feuille Mines et des Ressources et du secteur de la va être imprimée sous peu. Il s'agissait d'une Recherche et du Développement du ministère des tâche importante pour le SHC et nous devons Transports. Au nombre des plus belles réussites féliciter les cartographes qui ont participé à ce des projets de développement figurent l'adoption projet. Cependant, cette participation s'est du transducteur couplé à pointe pour les levés faite aux dépens de la production de la série de au-dessus de la glace; les expériences menées sur cartes sur les ressources naturelles. Nous allons le Système de positionnement mondial (SPM) en maintenant nous concentrer sur la production de coopération avec l'université du Nouveau-Bruns- la série de cartes géoscientifiques à l'échelle wick et la société Nortech; la conception et la 1:1 million. L'année 1982 a été aussi excellente construction de systèmes d'acquisition et de

5 stockage des données et la mise au point du dont le siège se trouve à Monaco. En 1982, au GOMADS, système graphique interactif pour le cours de la XIIe conférence quinquennale, les traitement des données hydrographiques et carto- participants ont approuvé les normes cartogra- graphiques. Dans le cas du dernier projet, un phiques préparées par le Comité des spécifica- permis a été récemment octroyé à une société tions des cartes pour la production des cartes à privée qui va perfectionner et commercialiser le moyenne et grande échelle. Nombre d'autres ques- système. tions intéressant le Canada ont été examinées au cours de cette conférence, notamment la formation En coopération avec le Centre canadien de des hydrographes et des cartographes, l'échange télédétection (CCT) du ministère de l'Energie, des données sous forme numérique, l'aide aux pays des Mines et des Ressources, nous avons poursuivi en développement, la banque mondiale de données le projet d'hydrographie aérienne et un marché a sur les marées et les programmes de la Carte été passé récemment pour la conception et la générale bathymétrique des océans (GEBCO). construction d'un système de laser à balayage. Les travaux se poursuivent actuellement sur la Parallèlement à nos activités avec l'OHI, mise au point de l'ARCS, submersible autonome nous collaborons depuis de nombreuses années avec commandé à distance, conçu pour naviguer par un les organismes cartographiques des Etats-Unis, trou pratiqué dans la glace, et sur le projet plus spécialement pour les eaux frontalières. En Dolphin qui porte sur la conception et la con- 1977, cette collaboration a été officialisée par struction d'un semi-submersible commandé à la création d'une Commission hydrographique distance. Nous sommes aussi sur le point E.-U./Canada. La commission a facilité l'adoption d'acquérir un système de balayage électronique de schémas de cartes communs, la collaboration à mulitransducteur, et en 1983, nous prévoyons des levés sur le terrain et à la production de évaluer au moins un système de cartographie cartes et l'échange de personnel technique. Je océanique. considère qu'il m'incombe en particulier de con- tinuer à favoriser ce type de coopération inter- Le dernier projet de développement dont nationale. je vais parler est la carte électronique. Il s'agit d'un système de stockage des données et Nous avons l'honneur de compter parmi d'affichage sur écran cathodique qui fournira aux nous des représentants des deux pays fondateurs navigateurs des renseignements sur la position du de l'hydrographie au Canada, la France et le navire, d'autres bateaux, les aides à la navi- Royaume-Uni, qui ont assuré les premiers levés, gation, le temps, les glaces, les marées et les ainsi que de nos partenaires d'aujourd'hui, les courants ainsi que la route moyenne vraie et la Etats-Unis et l'Organisation hydrographique vitesse. Nous n'en sommes qu'aux premiers stades internationale. de ce projet qui nécessite encore beaucoup d'échanges avec les utilisateurs potentiels de la Et conclusion, j'aimerais vous envourager communauté marine. à participer activement aux séances techniques de cette conférence et j'espère que vous passerez un A l'heure actuelle, nous consacrons excellent séjour à Ottawa. Je vous remercie vive- environ $3M par an aux activités de recherche et ment d'être avec nous aujourd'hui. de développement, dont la plupart sont confiées sous contrat à l'industrie canadienne.

L'adoption et la signature d'une Con- vention sur le droit de la mer au cours de la troisième conférence de l'ONU sur le droit de la mer vont entrainer une intensification de nos ac- tivités au large des côtes car, pendant les prochaines années, nous devrons effectuer des levés pour déterminer les limites du plateau continental, conformément à la Convention.

Le dernier point que j'aimerais soulever ce matin est notre participation au règlement des questions internationales en hydrographie. Dès 1899, on avait commencé à étudier la question de l'uniformisation en hydrographie en convoquant une réunion à Washington. Toutefois, ce n'est qu'en 1919 que fut organisée la première con- férence hydrographique internationale, sur l'initiative des hydrographes de Grande-Bretagne et de France. Cette conférence, tenue à Londres, a réuni des hydrographes de 24 pays. L'objet de la conférence était d'examiner l'opportunité, pour tous les pays maritimes, d'adopter des méthodes similaires pour la préparation, l'éta- blissement et la production des cartes et des publications et de faciliter les échanges de renseignements hydrographiques entre les pays membres.

A la suite de cette première conférence, on créait un Bureau hydrographique international

6 NOTES FOR AN ADDRESS convention on behalf of Canada. This convention BY creates far-reaching and unprecedented laws gov- THE HONOURABLE PIERRE DE BANE erning the uses of the world's oceans. The vast MINISTER OF FISHERIES AND OCEANS undertaking we were bringing to a conclusion, TO was brought home to all delegates by the display CENTENNIAL CONFERENCE of the new General Bathymetric Chart of the CANADIAN HYDROGRAPHIC SERVICE Oceans or GEBCO. This GEBCO display also provides an appropriate backdrop for your own de- Ottawa, Ontario liberations. April 6, 1983 The GEBCO chart shows that the ocean floor is no longer unmappable. In fact, its Good morning, ladies and gentlemen. It broad outlines are now known. But it is clear is a great pleasure for me to be with you today that much remains to be done. to launch the Centennial Conference of my department's Canadian Hydrographic Service. All of us Much of the discussion and debate on here today share the special sense of accomplish- the Law of the Sea since December has focussed ment which the Canadian Hydrographic Service on one narrow issue, the perception by some feels on this, their 100th, anniversary. I wel- countries and the business community that the come delegates from our "parent countries" of sections of the convention dealing with seabed France and England, our neighbours from the mining are unfair. It would have been much more United States and those who have travelled from to the point, I suggest, to discuss the extent countries as distant as Brazil, Peru and Japan. to which most of the nations of the world do not For those of you who are members of the Service, have the resources to determine the extent of you know its fine traditions and I share with their offshore areas and thus decide how best to you your pride in its excellent work. use these new resources for the betterment of their own populations and mankind. It is particularly appropriate that, as Minister of Fisheries and Oceans, I should It is indeed a challenge to the de- have the honour of opening this conference. It veloped countries to assist the developing na- was a predecessor of mine, the Minister of tions to achieve a hydrographic capability. We Marine and Fisheries, who, in 1883, persuaded are constantly being told that the economic the federal cabinet that his department should well-being of the world depends upon the free initiate a program of surveying. The need for flow of international trade, most of which moves hydrographic surveys was clear when, in 1882, in ships. How can that flow be achieved when the steamer 'Asia' sank in a storm in Georgian many of the world's charts were surveyed by Bay, resulting in the loss of 150 lives. As a leadline at a time when few ships drew more than result of this tragic event, Staff Commander a few metres? There are now tankers that draw 25 Boulton was sent out from Britain to survey that metres but they are restricted to the few routes area and to begin other vital survey work which and ports surveyed to meet their needs. continues to the present day. In the light of present reality, the Hydrographic surveying and charting dimensions of the task that confronted the early have been an integral part of Canada's history. French, British and Spanish explorers who came Today it is the hydrographer, the sailor, and to Canada's shores can scarcely be conceived the fisherman who share with those early ex- today. They came to make territorial claims and plorers the sense of awe at the dimensions of to establish trade. As an integral part of their and charts of each the chartmaker's task and have a keen apprecia- explorations, they made maps and tion of its critical importance. new area they reached. It was these maps charts which the governments of the European A few days ago I came across a passage countries used as evidence that they had ex- quoted from a recent publication titled "The Map- plored and therefore claimed a new territory. We makers" - remember the names of our earliest explorers in place names throughout Canada - Jacques Cartier "The greatest mountain range (Passage), Owen (Sound), Vancouver, Juan de Fuca on Earth is not the Himalayas (Strait) - these are only a handful of the names or the Rockies, the Andes or that live on. the Alps. The widest and deepest chasm is not the Grand During the course of this Conference, Canyon of the Colorado. The I know that you will be hearing much about the broadest plain is not the early days of hydrographic exploration in and the major steppes of Russia or the Canada, and the men, the ships exploration. Great Plains of North discoveries of that America. It may come as a sur- prise to landlocked minds, In the next few days you will also but the greatest mountains, learn a great deal about the new developments in chasms, and plains all lie be- hydrography from around the world. Technical de- neath the oceans, a grandeur velopments such as electronic charting, use of sonar, and global unseen and until recent times the laser sounder, side scan of the innovations unmapped and unmappable." positioning are just a few achieved through research and development. These progress in Last December I had the honour to be new technologies both highlight the a time when the alternate head of the Canadian delegation to hydrography and allow us to foresee the final session of the United Nations Confer- today's survey techniques will be supplemented by ever more sophisticated technology. ence on the Law of the Sea and to sign the 7 While I have no crystal ball to gaze scientiously day in and day out. It is here that into the future, I do see some new developments I think that the Canadian Hydrographic Service in hydrography and the links which it has with can be most proud. Every successive generation other sectors of the economy such as transporta- that has worked in the Service has been imbued tion, offshore exploration and development, re- with the idea that the life of a mariner may creational boating and tourism and of course the depend upon his or her own judgement. fishing industry. It is now my pleasure to declare the Hydrographic surveying and charting is Centennial Conference of the Canadian Hydro- as vital to Canadian economic growth today as it graphic Service open. I hope that you will all was to the countries who sponsored our early derive great benefit from your deliberations explorers. Today, the surveying and charting of over the next three days and that the next the sea floor has led to the major oil and gas century will be as interesting as the last. explorations off our East Coast and in the Beaufort Sea. The transportation industry on both coasts and in the Great Lakes is reliant on C.H.S. charts and is bound by law to carry these charts or their equivalent whenever sailing in Canadian waters. In Quebec, my own province, the earliest settlers were so dependent upon water transportation that they used the seigniorial system to lay out their land with long thin "rangs" so that every settler had access to the water. The large aluminum industry at the head of the Saguenay is based on the close proximity of deep water harbours and cheap hydro power. The recent opening of a salt mine on îles de la Madeleine has provided a third employment alternative to the fishing and tourist industries. One of the keys to the development of the isolated settlements along the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence will be the provision of better charts, a task for which the Hydrographic Service is now preparing.

The tourist industry in Canada has mushroomed in the last twenty years into a major contributor to the Canadian economy. Recrea- tional boating is a major component of that industry. The Hydrographic Service has kept pace with this development by producing an increasing number of small craft charts for the recreational boater. Today, more than 60 per cent of the half million charts sold annually in Canada are used for pleasure boating.

Staff Cdr. Boulton could never have imagined, back in 1883, the growth and scope of the Canadian Hydrographic Service. It has faced the enormous challenge of charting the longest coastline and second largest continental shelf in the world, working in a climate that verges on the sub-tropical in Lake Erie in the summer, to the frigid wastes of the Arctic. Today the Service publishes more than 1,000 navigation charts, which makes it the largest hydrographic office in the world apart from those that maintain world wide coverage.

While technological innovation has revolutionized the techniques of hydrography, there are many aspects of both hydrography and cartography that remain an art, not a science. Human judgement still prevails in deciding when a survey is complete or what is the most suitable scale for a chart. These are decisions that have an immediate impact on cost of a survey, though not, if the judgement is good, on the safety of ships using the chart. Such judgements can only be exercised by men and women, not computers or lasers or any existing technological advancements. It must be exercised con-

8 NOTES D'UNE ALLOCUTION servateur terrestre que les mon- DE tagnes les plus élevées, les L'HONORABLE PIERRE DE BANE gorges et les plaines qu'on n'a MINISTRE FEDERAL DES PECHES ET DES OCEANS pas réussi à découvrir jusqu'à A LA ce jour, se retrouvent sous CONFERENCE DU CENTENNAIRE l'océan inconnues et inacces- DU SERVICE HYDROGRAPHIQUE DU CANADA sibles."

A Ottawa (Ontario) Au mois de décembre dernier, j'avais le 6 avril 1983 l'honneur de partager conjointement la direction de la délégation canadienne à la dernière session de la Conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit Bonjour mesdames et messieurs. Il me de la mer et d'en signer l'entente au nom du fait grand plaisir d'être parmi vous, aujour- Canada. Cette entente a créé une législation à d'hui, pour inaugurer la Conférence du centenaire longue portée qui n'a pas de précédent et qui du Service hydrographique du Canada de mon Minis- régit l'usage des océans du monde. Cette vaste tère. Nous tous, qui sommes ici, nous partageons entreprise que nous avions menée à terme fut rap- le sentiment particulier du devoir accompli pelée à tous les délégués par la présentation de qu'éprouve ce Service à l'occasion de son cen- la nouvelle Carte bathymétrique générale des tième anniversaire. Je souhaite la bienvenue aux océans (GEBCO), compilée par le Service hydro- délégués de nos mères patries communes, de la graphique du Canada. Cette présentation de GEBCO France et de l'Angleterre, de nos voisins des constitue également une excellente illustration Etats-Unis, et de ceux qui sont venus de pays pour inspirer vos délibérations. aussi éloignés que le Brésil, le Pérou et le Japon. Pour ceux parmi vous qui appartenez au Cette carte GEBCO démontre que le fond Service hydrographique du Canada, vous connaissez de l'océan n'est plus inaccessible. En fait, ses bien ses traditions et je partage avec vous la larges contours nous sont maintenant connus. Mais fierté que vous avez de l'excellent travail que il est bien évident qu'il reste encore beaucoup à vous avez accompli. faire.

Il me revient tout particulièrement, en La plus grande partie des discussions tant que Ministre fédéral des Pêches et des et des débats sur le droit de la mer depuis le Océans, d'avoir l'honneur d'inaugurer cette Con- mois de décembre s'est concentrée sur la question férence. Ce fut l'un de mes prédécesseurs, le précise de savoir si la perception, qu'ont Ministre de la Marine et des Pêcheries qui, en certains pays et la communauté des affaires, des 1883, a persuadé le Cabinet fédéral que son articles de cette entente portant sur les droits Ministère devait entreprendre un programme de miniers est ou non fondée et adéquate. Il eut été levés. Le besoin d'un tel programme était devenu beaucoup plus approprié, comme je l'ai suggéré, criant après le naufrage, en 1882, du paquebot qu'on discute de l'étendue pour la plupart des ASIA, lors d'une tempête dans la baie Georgienne pays du monde de leurs zones hauturières, et qui entraîna la perte de 150 vies. Comme résultat qu'on décide ainsi de quelle façon ils pourraient de ce tragique incident, le Staff Commander au mieux en utiliser les ressources pour le Boulton fut envoyé de la Grande-Bretagne pour mieux-être de leurs propres populations et de effectuer des levés dans cette région et com- l'humanité. mencer un autre travail essentiel de levés qui s'est continué jusqu'à nos jours. C'est en effet un défi qui confronte les pays développés que d'aider aux pays en voie Les levés hydrographiques et la car- de développement, pour qu'ils arrivent à une cer- tographie font partie intégrale de l'histoire du taine capacité sur le plan de l'hydrographie. On Canada. Aujourd'hui, ce sont les hydrographes, nous dit, d'une façon constante, que le bien-être les marins et les pêcheurs qui partagent avec les économique du monde dépend du libre cours du explorateurs des premiers jours le sentiment commerce international, dont la plus grande d'étonnement en face du travail de la carto- partie se fait par bateau. Comment ce cours graphie, et ce sont eux qui témoignent le plus pourra-t-il se compléter quand la plupart des• vivement de son importance essentielle. cartes du monde ont été établies à partir de sondes levées à l'époque où les bateaux ne Il y a quelques jours, je suis tombé tiraient pas plus de quelques mètres d'eau? Il y sur un passage d'une publication récente intitulé a maintenant des pétroliers qui jaugent 25 mètres "LES CARTOGRAPHES" - et qui sont obligés de circuler dans quelques corridors et ports dont on a fait spécialement "Les cimes les plus élevées les levés pour répondre à leurs besoins. sur la terre ne sont pas celles des Himalayas ou des Roch- A la lumière de la réalité actuelle, la euses, des Andes ou des grandeur de la tâche qui a confronté les premiers Alpes. Les élévations les explorateurs français, anglais et espagnols à plus hautes et les gorges les venir sur les rives de notre pays peut à peine plus profondes ne sont pas être imaginée aujourd'hui. Ils sont venus celles du Grande Canyon du conquérir de nouveaux territoires et établir de Colorado. Les plaines les nouveaux postes de commerce. Tout en faisant plus vastes ne sont pas les l'exploration, ils ont dressé des cartes et car- steppes de la Russie ou les tographié chacune des nouvelles régions qu'ils Grandes plaines de l'Amérique ont atteintes. Ce sont ces cartes et ces relevés du Nord. Il peut s'avérer que les gouvernements des pays européens ont étonnant à l'esprit d'un ob- utilisés comme témoignages de leur présence dans 9 ces nouveaux territoires, à l'appui des posses- L'industrie du tourisme au Canada sions qu'ils réclamaient. Nous nous rappelons s'est développée au cours des 20 dernières an- les noms des premiers explorateurs en certains nées en tant qu'élément principal de l'économie endroits du Canada; le passage Jacques Cartier canadienne. La navigation de plaisance est un le détroit Owen, Vancouver, le détroit Juan de élément principal de cette industrie. Le Service Fuca - qui ne sont là que quelques exemples hydrographique du Canada a évolué de pair avec parais tant d'autres. ce développement en produisant un nombre grandis- sant de cartes pour petits bateaux à l'intention Au cours de cette Conférence, je sais des navigateurs plaisanciers. Aujourd'hui, plus que vous entendrez beaucoup parler des premiers de 60 pour cent du demi-million de cartes ven- jours de l'exploration hydrographique du Canada, dues annuellement au Canada servent à l'inten- commes des hommes, des bateaux et des princi- tion des plaisanciers. pales découvertes de cette vaste entreprise d'exploration. Le Staff commander'Boulton n'aurait jamais pu imaginer, en 1883, l'ampleur et la gran- Au cours des prochains jours, vous ap- deur du Service hydrographique du Canada. Ce Ser- prendrez aussi beaucoup à propos des derniers vice a dû affronter l'énorme défi de carto- développements de l'hydrographie autour du graphier le littoral le plus long du monde et la monde. De ces développements techniques tels que plate-forme continentale, la deuxième en impor- la cartographie électronique, l'usage des son- tance au monde. Il a dû travailler dans un deurs au lasers, le sonar à levé latéral, et le climat qui va du sous-tropical, dans la région positionnement global, ne sont que quelques-unes du lac Erié pendant l'été, aux espaces gla- des plus récentes innovations realisées par la ciaires de l'Arctique. Aujourd'hui, le Service recherche et le développement. Ces nouvelles publie plus de 1000 cartes de navigation, ce qui méthodes illustrent à la fois les faits sail- en fait l'agence hydrographique la plus impor- lants et les progrès de l'hydrographie et nous tante du monde, mises à part celles qui soutien- permettent de prévoir le jour où les techniques, nent un réseau de distribution mondiale. qui sont modernes aujourd'hui, seront remplacées par d'autres techniques encore plus sophisti- Alors que les innovations techniques quées. ont révolutionné les méthodes de l'hydrographie, il y a plusieurs aspects de l'hydrographie, et Bien que je n'aie point de boule de de la cartographie qui demeurent largement un cristal pour regarder dans l'avenir, je prévois art, non une science. Le jugement de l'homme quelques nouveaux développements de hydrographie prévaut encore lorsqu'il s'agit de décider à dans ses relations qu'elle a avec d'autres sec- quel moment un levé est complété ou encore à teurs de l'économie, comme le transports, l'ex- quelle échelle il convient d'établir une carte. ploration et l'expansion hauturières, la naviga- Ce sont de telles décisions qui ont une in- tion de plaisance, le tourisme, et bien sur, fluence immédiate sur le coût d'un levé, bien l'industrie de la pêche. qu'elles en aient aussi, si le jugement est bon, sur la sécurité des bateaux qui se serviront de Les levés hydrographiques et la carto- telles cartes. De tels jugements ne peuvent être graphie sont essentials à la croissance économi- exercés que par des hommes et par des femmes, que d'aujourd'hui, tout comme ils l'étaient pour non pas par des ordinateurs, des systèmes laser les pays qui ont parrainé les efforts des pre- ou toute autre méthode de technologie avancée. miers explorateurs. Aujourd'hui, les levés et la Ils doivent être régulièrement exercés avec cons- cartographie du fond de la mer one amené l'ex- cience professionnelle jour après jour et tou- ploration des principales exploitations pétro- jours. Et c'est ici, je pense, que le Service lières et gazières sur la côte est et dans la hydrographique du Canada a le plus raison d'être mer de Beaufort. L'industrie du transport sur fier. Toutes les générations qui se sont suc- les deux côtes et sur les Grands Lacs repose sur cédées à l'emploi de ce Service ont été in- les cartes marines du Service hydrographique du struites du fait que la vie d'un navigateur peut Canada et elle doit, de par la loi, garder à dépendre de l'exercice de leur propre jugement. bord de ses embarcations de telles cartes ou leurs équivalents, chaque fois qu'elle évolue J'ai donc le plaisir de déclarer main- sur les eaux canadiennes. tenant officiellement ouverte la Conférence du centennaire du service hydrographique du Canada. Au Québec, dans ma province, les pre- J'espère que vous tirerez tous grand profit de miers colons étaient tellement dépendants du vos délibérations au cours des trois prochains transport par la voie des eaux qu'ils ont établi jours et que le prochain siècle sera pour vous un régime seigneurial qui divisait les terres le aussi intéressant que celui qui vient de s'écou- long de minces rangs qui ont permis à tous ler. d'avoir un droit d'accès à un cours d'eau. La grande industrie de l'aluminium, elle-même, qui s'est établie sur le Saguenay, repose sur sa proximité des ports en eaux profondes et la disponibilité d'énergie hydroélectrique à bon compte. L'ouverture récente d'une mine de sel aux iles de la Madeleine y a apporté une troi- sième possibilité d'emploi, en plus de la pêche et de l'industrie du tourisme. L'une des clefs du développement des villages isolés de la côte Nord de l'estuaire du Saint-Laurent dépendra de la disponibilité de meilleures cartes, et c'est un travail que le Service hydrographique du Can- ada est actuellement à accomplir. 10 NOTES FROM HIS EXCELLENCY, history of the development of hydro- THE GOVERNOR GENERAL'S, REMARKS graphy in Canada including those on the AT THE CENTENNIAL LUNCHEON OF contribution of France and Britain. CANADIAN HYDROGRAPHIC SERVICE, OTTAWA APRIL 8, 1983 As the early explorers arrived by sea the earliest maps were in Il me fait particulièrement fact crude charts to permit a safe land- plaisir de vous transmettre les plus fall and to show the safe harbours and chaleureuses salutations de Sa Majesté, channels for trade and commerce. Once Elizabeth II, Reine du Canada, en ce this was accomplished the explorers be- Centenaire de la Conférence du Service gan to move inland along the network of hydrographique du Canada. major rivers that facilitated their exploration. Behind the explorers came In recognition of this sig- the fishermen, trappers, fur traders nificant milestone marking 100 years of and farmers and not far behind the sur- service to your country in a most impor- veyors. Throughout history mapping has tant area of endeavor, I want to ex- been a prime instrument of sovereignty press to the members of the Canadian claims and later to good administra- Hydrographic Service the congratula- tion. In the case of disputes over ter- tions, appreciation and best wishes ritory those with the best maps and from your fellow Canadians all across charts had the best legal claim. our land. It is from the work of these Je sais que plusieurs partici- early explorers that we can trace the pants à cette conférence sont venus de roots of today's survey industry in Can- l'étranger. Au nom du peuple canadien, ada. What a proud roll-call it is! Erik je souhaite à tous ces distingués visi- the Red who came from Greenland to Lan- teurs la plus cordiale bienvenue. ce-aux-Meadows in 1001. The Greenlan- ders' Saga, which dates from 1200, pro- May I say at the outset how vided the first sailing direction for very pleased I am to be associated with North America. It is one of the great the Canadian Hydrographic Service both "ifs" of history to think of what might in my role as Governor General, and as have happened if the link between Den- one who has more than a passing in- mark and the Norse colonists in Green- terest in your work. Baseball fans land had not been broken in the four- among you will understand my sense of teenth century. As it was there was a delight in being here when I tell you gap of almost 500 years before John that my presence is analagous to a life- Cabot made his first landfall at the long baseball enthusiast being invited northern tip of Newfoundland, only five to participate in an intersquad game years after Columbus, and discovered with the Montreal Expos, or even the the wealth of fish on the Grand Banks. Toronto Blue Jays. In 1557, Martin Frobisher made his first voyage in search for a commercial I am sure there are times North West Passage. A search which ob- when the staff at Government House, not- sessed the British over the next three ing the many survey charts and maps centuries. A search dogged by tragedy lying about the premises in almost con- and epic tales of endurance which slow- tinuous display, sometimes wonder just ly showed what an unrealistic goal it what my job really is. was in the days of wooden ships, even if the men were daring and courageous. En observant des cartes géo- We have made so much progress in sur- graphiques et marines, en visitant des veying and marine technology since Sir vaisseaux utilisés pour les relevés, je John Franklin but still have some chal- suis heureux de constater que de grands lenges to face. progrès technologiques ont été réa- lisés. J'envisage avec plaisir de parti- Samuel de Champlain entreprit ciper aux activités relatives à l'hydro- son premier voyage sur le golfe et le graphie de la région arctique du Can- fleuve Saint-Laurent en 1603 et les pre- ada. It must be admitted that the Polar miers colons s'y installèront au cours Continental Shelf Project and its recon- de la décennie qui suivit. Sept ans naissance bathymetry on the Continental plus tard, en 1610, Henry Hudson navi- Shelf northwest of Ellesmere and Alex gua jusqu'à la baie d'Hudson où il éta- Heiberg Islands only serve to add to my blit le premier système d'échange au addiction. coeur du continent entre les commer- çants de Montréal et la Compagnie de la Therefore, when I say that I Baie d'Hudson. truly welcomed the kind invitation to be with you today, and that I looked It was the French however who forward with increasing anticipation to proceeded in the most logical manner this conference, the comment may indeed with the appointment of a series of be taken as an understatement. Hydrographes du Roi at Québec. The best of these was Deshayes whose survey in You have listened to many pa- 1685-8 produced the charts which served pers during the past three days on the until the fall of Québec in 1759.

1 1. The foundations of James Cook's tion to the Arctic. Construction of the reputation as the grandfather of Bri- Dew-Line in the mid fifties gave a ma- tish Hydrography were laid when he gui- jor impetus. The 1958 Geneva Convention ded the British fleet up the St. Lawr- on the Continental Shelf gave ri se to ence for the siege of Québec. His repu- perhaps one of the most successful Can- tation was sealed by his three year adian undertakings, the Polar Contin- survey of the west and south coast of ental Shelf Project. In almost any Newfoundland which started in 1764. His other country scientific expeditions of observation of an eclipse of the sun at this magnitude would be headline news. Burgeo 1766 led directly to his three Yet most Canadians do not realise that great voyages of discovery. On the last in the past quarter d'ecade PCSP has of these he refitted his ship at Nootka wrought a miracle in the Arctic. The Sound. The pelts of the fur seals that hydrographic program has been the main- his crew acquired and his description stay of the project and we now at least of the verdant forests led to the first have reconnaissance surveys over most British settlements in British Columbia. of the Arctic.

George Vancouver followed Hydrographers had to chart Cook in 1791 and in five years surveyed the approaches to the Nanisivik mine at the intricate network of fiords that Strathcona Sound and the Polaris mine lace the B.C. coast. These opened up on Little Cornwallis Island to permit the coast for trade and the extraction some of the richest lead-zinc deposits of lumber. One could go on with names in the world to be developed. like Bayfield and Boulton, but I have said enough to show that the primary There is another industry to impetus of hydrography is commerce, the which the Canadian Hydrographic Service safety of which is still the main mo- has contributed much. Even though most tivating force of the Canadian Hydro- Canadians live in towns we have re- graphic Service. tained an almost mystic love of the outdoors. A cottage on a quiet lake and It was the work of land sur- the call of a loon is one of the most veyors which opened up the largely em- evocative images to Canadians. Canada pty interior of Canada. It was the work probably has more lakes and navigable of the Dominion Land Surveyors starting rivers than any other country. In many in 1871 that permitted the orderly set- areas of Canada tourism is one of the tlement of the Prairies at a cost of few industries capable of expansion, about four cents an acre, one of the and best of ail it is labour intensive best investments ever made by the fed- in areas where jobs are few and far eral government. between. Over the past thirty years a significant portion of our hydrographic It was the work of the rail- resources have been used to produce way surveyors and advance of the rail- charts of the more important lakes and ways that permitted the dramatic flood rivers. For twenty years special strip of immigrants that settled the Prairies charts have been published for the re- in the decades before the first world creational boater. Indeed, about 70% of war. The Prairie economy initially res- all charts sold go to pleasure boat ted on the export of wheat and the owners. hydrographers who surveyed the St. Law- rence Ship Channel played an essential Over the past twenty years an- but generally unappreciated role in de- other industry has posed major new veloping the Prairies. needs. The dramatic increase in the use and increasing draught of supertankers On the Pacific coast the jus- rendered many existing charts and sur- tification for the Grand Trunk Pacific veys inadequate. Surveys carried out Railway was its destination of Prince when the maximum draught was 10 metres Rupert. This is close to the great cir- are obviously suspect for ships drawing cle course from Vancouver to the Orient 20 metres or more. The ecological catas- and it was hoped to divert much of trophy that followed the grounding of Vancouver's trade. Henri Parizeau began the Liberian tanker Arrow in Chedabucto his almost legendary career on the Pac- Bay in 1970 showed clearly that oil ific coast in 1906 in the surveys to spills must be avoided at all costs. As chart a safe route into Prince Rupert. a consequence there are now regulations that require that the approach channels The Prairies farmers have al- to all oil terminals must be surveyed ways looked for the cheapest way to by a system that provides total bottom move grain. The hydrographers who sur- coverage. A technological problem with veyed Port Nelson in 1913-1914 and which hydrographers are still struggl- Churchill in 1930-33 were essential to ing. the dream of moving grain the shortest distance by rail and the longest dis- It is quite obvious that sur- tance by the far cheaper marine mode. veys and charts have been and will be a vital tool in the development of Since the war. hydrographers Canada. It is the men and women who have had to switch much of their atten- have met that challenge during the

12 first century of hydrography in Canada that I now salute, and to those that will meet the challenge during the next century that I offer my best wishes and hopes far your present and future work.

13 TROIS SICLES D'HYDROGRAPHIE FRANÇAISE 1. LES GRANDES DÉCOUVERTES ET LE CANADA AU CANADA (1500-1605).

Le "pays des merveilles", source des Jean Bourgoin épices et des métaux précieux, qu'avait décrit Service Hydrographique et Océanographique Marco Polo à la fin du 13è siècle, fut à l'origi- de la Marine ne d'un véritable mirage nautique parmi les puis- Paris — France sances occidentales.

Le mythe de la route maritime de l'Ouest pour gagner la Chine prit naissance après les dé- RÉSUMÉ couvertes de Christophe Colomb. Les Anglais et les Portugais plaçaient le passage au Cathay dans L'hydrographie française au Canada peut le Nord—Ouest du Labrador; les Espagnols entre la être décomposée en quatre phases: Floride et Terre—Neuve; les Français à hauteur du Canada. La croyance en un passage par l'Ouest du — une première phase (1500-1605) correspondant à ra jusqu'à la fin du 18è siècle: après J. Cartier la découverte du Nouveau Monde et à la conquête Champlain, Jolliet, le Père Marquette, Cavelier du Canada par la France. S'appuyant sur l'Ecole de la Salle, de la Verendrye, Chateaubriant part de Dieppe, la cartographie est caractérisée par encore dans cette intention en 1791. des planisphères à très petite échelle et des relevés d'itinéraire le long des voies fluviales de pénétration; Les précurseurs de Jacques Cartier.

À qui faut—il attribuer la découverte — une deuxième phase (1605-1665), qui démarre avec du Canada? à John Cabot, vénitien au service du la colonisation, correspond à une cartographie roi d'Angleterre, qui reconnut les côtes de l'Amé- d'exploration, basée sur des initiatives non rique septentrionale en 1497, ou à Gaspard Corté- coordonnées; réal, navigateur portugais qui aurait débarqué à Terre—Neuve en 1501? Au premier sans doute à cause de son antériorité et du caractère officiel — une troisième phase (1665-1775), marquée par de sa mission de prise de possession. Mais ni une prise en charge de l'hydrographie, officiel- l'un ni l'autre n'a laissé de rapport officiel, le, par l'Etat et de grands progrès techniques; de sorte que c'est à Jacques Cartier que revint une cartographie s'appuyant sur des travaux plus le mérite de prendre possession de la "Nouvelle— sûrs, une compilation coordonnée et une meilleu- France", ou Canada, au nom de son souverain. re connaissance des positions géographiques, se met en place; Les expéditions officielles ne représen- tent d'ailleurs qu'un des aspects de la réalité. Les pêcheurs ont été les premiers découvreurs des — une quatrième phase (après 1775) voit la géné- "Terres Neuves" comme on les appelait, c'est—à- ralisation des techniques modernes au service dire des rivages de l'Amérique septentrionale. d'une cartographie franco—anglaise des eaux La famine quasi généralisée au début du 16è siè- canadiennes. cle et les 150 jours de jeûne par an imposés aux chrétiens, expliquent aisément le succès des entreprises de pêche de la baleine et de la morue ABSTRACT devant les côtes du nouveau monde. Français et Portugais se donnèrent rendez—vous dès 1506 dans toutes les provinces maritimes du Canada pour French hydrography in Canada can be div- pêcher la baleine et la morue, l'orientation de ided into four phases: la politique française, jusque là inféodée à l'al- liance castillane, changea en 1475 et rapprocha — the first phase (1500-1605) is related to the la France et le Portugal lors de la guerre contre discovery of the New World and the conquest of la Castille et l'Aragon. Les rapports maritimes Canada by France. Influenced by the Dieppe et comerciaux ne cessèrent de se développer entre School of Cartography is marked by charts at a la France et le Portugal aux 15è siècles. very small scale and by route surveys along the Ils entraînèrent l'établissement en Bretagne et main river arteries; surtout en Normandie de pilotes et cosmographes portugais qui favorisèrent certainement la nais- — the second phase (1605-1665) which begins with sance de la fameuse Ecole de Dieppe sur laquelle colonization is characterized by uncoordinated nous reviendrons plus loin. Il est significatif exploration; que le pilote malouin Jacques Cartier ait été aussi interprète pour la langue portugaise. — the third phase (1665-1775) is marked by the acceptance of responsibility for hydrography Dans la première moitié du 16è siècle, by the state and major technical progress. près de 150 ports ou havres — normands, bretons, This resulted in charts compiled from better saintongeais, bordelais et basques — armèrent surveys based upon more accurate positions; pour la pêche de la baleine et de la morue, et c'est de ce vaste mouvement maritime que sont is- — The fourth phase (after 1775) saw the general sues les informations cartographiques qui servi- adoption of modern techniques for French and rent de base de données aux premiers hydrographes British chart making in Canadian waters. normands.

14 La pêche, d'abord très dispersée sur Le 19 mai 1535, J. Cartier appareilla tous les rivages de la Nouvelle France, se concen- - pour un second voyage avec la "Grande Hermine", la tra progressivement dans les régions les plus fa- "Petite Hermine", l'"Émérillon" et 110 hommes. Pé- ciles à exploiter, et notamment à Terre-Neuve. nétrant à nouveau dans le Golfe du Saint-Laurent Chaque groupe avait ses lieux de pêche préférés, par le détroit de Belle-Isle, il découvrit l'île comme l'atteste facilement la toponymie: les Bre- de l'Assomption (Anticosti), puis gagna Hochelaga tons fréquentaient le Petit Nord, c'est-à-dire la en octobre à bord de l'"Émérillon". L'expédition côte Nord-Est de Terre-Neuve, et la côte Sud de hiverna à Stadaconé (Québec), bloquée dans les l'île (Plaisance); les Basques fréquentaient les glaces et en proie au scorbut. Elle prit le chemin côtes Ouest et Sud ainsi que l'Acadie et les Nor- du retour le 16 mai 1536 en longeant la côte méri- mands le Cap Normand et la baie des Chateaux; les dionale de Terre-Neuve et arriva à Saint-Malo le Portugais pêchaient entre les caps Bonavista 6 juillet, Vingt-cinq marins étaient morts mais et Race. Les expéditions pour la pêche de la morue J. Cartier avait fait la preuve de l'insularité partaient fin mars et revenaient à la mi-septembre de Terre-Neuve et découvert que le Saint-Laurent tandis que celles pour la pêche de la baleine ap- était un fleuve. pareillaient à la mi-juin et revenaient à la fin de l'année. La pêche dite de la "morue verte" ou Jacques Cartier reprit la mer le 23 mai "pêche errante" se pratiquait sur les bancs, hors 1541 pour une troisième expédition commissionnée de vue de côte, tandis que la pêche dite de la par François ler. La cargaison de pierres et de "morue sèche" se faisait en vue de côte. Dans le métaux précieux qu'il rapporta, se révéla sans second cas, appelé aussi "pêche sédentaire" -parce valeur et le pouvoir royal se désintéressa de lui. que le navire restait mouillé près de la côte pen- Il mourut, ignoré de ses contemporains le ler sep- dant toute la campagne - le poisson était séché tembre 1557, à l'âge de 66 ans. sur les grèves, ce qui entraînait le besoin d'une main d'oeuvre non spécialisée, 5 fois plus importante que pour la pêche de la "morue verte". La Les débuts de l'hydrographie française : l'École vente de la morue sèche était aisée dans les pays de Dieppe et le Canada. méditerranéens et aux Antilles. Certains pêcheurs trouvèrent plus lucratif le commerce avec les in- Dieppe fut dès la fin du 15è siècle le diens, échangeant les couteaux, des haches, des berceau d'une École d'hydrographie d'une grande colliers et des casseroles contre des pelleteries. renommée. Les pilotes dieppois, avec des titres Le métier n'était pas exempt de risques: au danger de "cosmographe et pilote entretenu pour le Roy des brumes, des glaces et du mauvais temps, il en la Maryne" ou d'"ingénieur et géographe du Roi", fallait ajouter celui des mauvaises rencontres. En et pourvus de commissions royales les autorisant septembre 1542, par exemple, 13 navires de guerre à délivrer aux navigateurs un brevet de capacité, espagnols attaquèrent une flottille d'une centaine furent aux 16è et 17è siècles les promoteurs de de bâtiments français qui revenaient de Terre-Neuve. l'hydrographie française. Héritiers de la tradi- tion lusitanienne, ils étaient à la fois explo- Humblement et de façon anonyme, les pê- rateurs, professeurs et auteurs de traités d'hydro- cheurs jouèrent indirectement un rôle important graphie et de navigation, ainsi que cartographes. dans la naissance de l'hydrographie française au Canada. Les renseignements qu'ils accumulèrent Ils nous ont laissé de merveilleux pla- dans le secret de campagnes répétées, diffusèrent nisphères sur lesquels il est possible de suivre progressivement dans les documents officiels; et l'évolution de la cartographie du Canada et spé- surtout ils furent à l'origine du besoin hydro- cialement de Terre-Neuve. graphique. Terre-Neuve était cartographiée à l'origine comme une péninsule rattachée au Labrador. Jacques Cartier (Saint-Malo 1491-1557) Les cartographes dieppois en firent, après la dé- couverte du détroit de Belle-Isle par Jacques Pilote expérimenté, expert topographe, Cartier, en 1534, un archipel où de profondes compagnon de Verrazano en 1524 lors de son expédi- baies se prolongeaient jusqu'à la côte Ouest. C'est tion qui l'amena à longer les côtes de Nouvelle- le cas de Nicolas Desliens, dans sa mappemonde de Écosse et de Terre-Neuve, Jacques Cartier avait à 1541 et de Desceliers, dont la mappemonde de 1546, son actif plus de 15 ans de navigation lorsqu'il donne un morcellement excessif à Terre-Neuve. fut présenté à François ler et pressenti pour diriger une expédition dans le but de découvrir le Après une représentation sous forme fameux passage du Nord-Ouest. d'une péninsule, puis d'un archipel, un réel pro- grès fut accompli en donnant à Terre-Neuve une Jacques Cartier appareilla le 20 avril forme compacte et triangulaire. C'est le cas des 1534 de Saint-Halo àvec deux bâtiments de 60 ton- cartes de Nicolas Desliens, en 1566, de Pierre de neaux et 60 hommes. Parvenu à Terre-Neuve après Vaulx, en 1613, et Jean Guérard, en 1625, une traversée de 20 jours seulement, il pénétra dans le golfe du Saint-Laurent par le Détroit de Belle-Isle, longea les côtes occidentales de Terre- 2. LE 17è SIÈCLE : L'EXPLORATION DÉTAILLÉE DU Neuve, puis celles des Iles de la Madeleine et du CANADA PERMET LA CRÉATION D'UNE CARTOGRAPHIE Prince-Édouard, remonta en baie des Chaleurs, re- DE PRESTIGE FRANCO-CANADIENNE. lâcha en baie de Gaspé, découvrit le passage entre la Gaspésie et l'île d'Anticosti, avant d'embou- Les entreprises antérieures au 17è siè- quer à nouveau le détroit de Belle-Isle et de fai- cle avaient été seulement des entreprises de dé- re route vers Saint-Malo où il arriva le 5 septem- couverte. La colonisation du Canada ne commença bre 1534. L'expédition ramenait 2 hurons et la qu'avec Samuel Champlain, au début du 17è siècle. description des merveilles du Royaume du Saguenay. Il orienta d'abord ses efforts vers l'Acadie, la

15 la Nouvelle-Écosse d'aujourd'hui, où il fonda lites de Jupiter et la publication des éphémérides Port-Royal (Annapolis) en 1605. Puis il fonda de Newton, en 1713, permit la détermination des Québec en 1608, simple poste de traite à l'époque, longitudes à la mer, par observations des distan- et favorisa l'établissement de colons sur les ri- ces lunaires, avec, il est vrai, une précision ves du Saint-Laurent, là même où la race françai- médiocre de l'ordre du degré. se devait s'implanter avec le plus de force. Après la mort de Champlain, en 1635, la création de Montréal en 1642, l'établissement de missions re- La cartographie marine du Canada - et ligieuses et de postes de traite sur la voie des terrestre d'ailleurs aussi - du 17è siècle fut Grands Lacs qu'empruntèrent en 1673 Jolliet et le essentiellement une cartographie d'exploration ou Père Marquette en atteignant le Mississipi, jalon- de reconnaissance, basée sur la compilation. nèrent d'autres étapes de la pénétration françai- Colbert s'explique clairement sur le sujet dans se. Mais les résultats restèrent médiocres jusqu'à une correspondance adressée le 18 août 1670 à l'avènement de Colbert, le grand ministre de l'Intendant de Marine Colbert du Terron: "il faut Louis XIV, en 1661, et l'annexion de la Nouvelle- prendre garde de tirer de toutes nos navigations et France au domaine royal (1663). On sait l'atten- des journaux qui sont tenus, des connaissances tion particulière qu'il porta à la marine et aux exactes et fidèles pour tous ceux qui auront à colonies et son intérêt pour l'implantation d'éta- faire les mêmes voyages, et même, il faudra s'en blissements permanents au Canada. servir pour composer des cartes marines". De très grossières erreurs de longitude subsistent, mais Malheureusement, si l'ambition d'in- n'ont qu'une importance relative dans une repré- tallations permanentes en Nouvelle-France consti- sentation des côtes et des fonds qui s'affine tua un objectif du pouvoir de l'époque, sa contre lentement avec les seuls moyens des compas et du partie naturelle en fut l'ambition rivale de l'An- loch. gleterre. Entre les deux communautés aux traditions culturelles et religieuses et aux intérêts aussi L'immense territoire découvert offrait divergents, des conflits étaient inévitables. Les un champ illimité aux hydrographes; ils jouèrent chutes provisoires de Québec, en 1629, de l'Acadie un rôle de premier plan dans une pénétration qui en 1659, marquèrent les temps forts de cette situ- se fit le plus souvent par la voie d'eau. Un fait ation avant les luttes acharnées que se livrèrent caractéristique retient notre attention: c'est la les colonies française et anglaise de Terre-Neuve, création à Québec même, dans le dernier quart du basées respectivement à Plaisance et St.John's, siècle, d'une école franco-canadienne d'hydrogra- pendant les guerres de la Ligue d'Augsbourg (1688- phie et de cartographie, illustrée par J.B. 1697) et de la succession d'Espagne (1702-1713). Franquelin. La cartographie de prestige qui se développa à cette époque, montre le prix qu'atta- chait le pouvoir royal à cette forme symbolique Dans le domaine maritime, et pendant la de souveraineté. deuxième moitié du 17è siècle, il faut insister sur la remarquable puissance maritime française entre 1680 et 1688 et sur l'encouragement du pou- 3. LE 18è SIkCLE: DÉCLIN DES POSITIONS FRANÇAISES voir royal à la pêche sédentaire, favorisée elle- AU CANADA ET PROGRÈS DE L'HYDROGRAPHIE. même par l'implantation de colonies permanentes. La pêche sédentaire, en faisant appel à une main Le traité d'Utrecht (1713), qui mit fin d'oeuvre importante favorisait le recrutement dans à la Guerre de Succession d'Espagne, sanctionna la Marine Royale. Disséminée initialement sur tous les premières pertes territoriales subies par la les rivages de la Nouvelle-France, elle se concen- France en Amérique du Nord. La France reconnais- tra progressivement dans les zones les plus favo- sait la suprématie anglaise sur la baie d'Hudson, rables: la rive Sud du Saint-Laurent, les côtes Terre-Neuve, la Nouvelle-Écosse; elle conservait de Gaspésie, celles d'Acadie, les trois quarts des ses territoires le long du Saint-Laurent, dans côtes de Terre-Neuve (les Anglais étant resserrés les régions des Grands Lacs et du Mississipi, les entre les caps Race et Bonavista). Les côtes du îles Saint-Jean (Prince-Édouard) et Royales (Cap- Labrador et celles de l'île du Cap-Breton furent Breton), ainsi que des droits de pêche le long des progressivement désertées. côtes de Terre-Neuve, entre le cap Bonavista et la pointe Riche en passant par le Nord, frange litto- rale dénommée "French shore". Tel est le cadre dans lequel se dévelop- pa l'hydrographie du Canada. L'École de Dieppe En compensation de la perte de la capi- avait donné à la Marine ses meilleurs pilotes et tale acadienne, Port Royal, base de la guerre de Colbert eut soin d'associer l'hydrographie à l'im- course contre la marine de la Nouvelle-Angleterre, mense effort qu'il déploya pour réorganiser la Ma- elle s'empressa d'organiser les fortifications de rine. En 1661, il prit au compte de son Département Louisbourg (île Royale), tandis qu'elle faisait l'École d'hydrographie de Dieppe et la création traîner en longueur la cession de l'Acadie. Les d'établissements analogues dans d'autres ports. Puis possessions françaises étaient désormais prises il créa l'Académie des Sciences en 1666, et l'Obser- dans l'étau britannique de Terre-Neuve et de vatoire de Paris en 1667. En réalité, les moyens l'Acadie. mis en place et les découvertes qu'ils entraînèrent concernant les mesures d'angle et de temps, ainsi Dans la phase suivante des hostilités que la localisation astronomique et géodésique, ne franco-anglaises (1744-1748), la France perdit portèrent pleinement leurs fruits qu'au siècle Louisbourg dont elle obtint la restitution au suivant. Cependant, dès 1668, lorsque furent pu- traité d'Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Les hostilités bliées les éphémérides de Cassini, il fut possible, reprirent aussitôt après la signature du traité à partir d'un observatoire terrestre, de déterminer et apportèrent quelques succès à la France dans le la longitude avec la précision de la minute sexagé- secteur de l'Ohio et sur le lac Champlain, mais simale par observation des occultations des satel- lorsque la guerre de Sept ans éclata en 1756, ils 16 furent rapidement annulés par les victoires ang- Les décisions qu'il prit portèrent leurs fruits laises sur Louisbourg, qui tomba en 1758, et à tout au long du 18è siècle, amplifiés par un ef- Québec, en 1759, dans les sanglants combats des fort analogue poursuivi en Grande-Bretagne. Le Plaines d'Abraham où Wolfe et Montcalm trouvèrent grand problème resta celui de la détermination des la mort. longitudes: la mesure des distances lunaires fut rendue plus aisée après la mise au point de l'oc- Le traité de paris, signé par la Grande- tant par Hadley, en 1731, mais il fallut attendre Bretagne, la France, l'Espagne et le Portugal, le 1770 pour triompher définitivement des dernières 10 février 1763, mit fin à la guerre de Sept Ans difficultés, par la mesure directe des angles qui sévissait en Europe et dans les colonies et horaires au moyen du chronomètre. marqua la reddition des colonies française en Amérique du Nord. La France sacrifiait à l'Angle- Vers la même époque (exactement en 1775) terre les territoires qui lui étaient restés après Borda modifia l'octant et le transforma en cercle le traité d'Utrecht: le Canada et ce qui est au- à réflexion d'un usage encore plus commode et jourd'hui le Nouveau-Brunswick et toutes les îles précis. Ces progrès permirent de remplacer le adjacentes y compris l'île Royale (Cap-Breton) et compas par le cercle hydrographique dans le me- l'île Saint-Jean (Prince-Edouard). A Terre-Neuve, sure des angles horizontaux et d'obtenir ainsi elle conservait ses droits de pêche et recevait une excellente précision pour le positionnement. les îles Saint-Pierre et Miquelon. Mackenzie junior (1774) et Beautemps-Beaupré - en 1791-1792 lors de l'expédition dirigée par Enfin, la guerre de l'Indépendance amé- l'Amiral d'Entrecasteaux à la recherche de La ricaine (1775-1782) s'acheva en 1783 par les trai- Pérouse - furent les promoteurs de cette innova- tés de Versailles(entre la France et l'Angleterre) tion capitale dans la technique des levés hydro- et de Paris(entre l'Angleterre et les Etats-Unis). graphiques. Le traité de Versailles accordait à la France une souveraineté complète sur Saint-Pierre et Mique- lon, et réajustait les droits de pêche français C'est dans ce contexte technique que sur les côtes Est et Nord de Terre-Neuve, droits se développe l'hydrographie. L'amélioration pro- qui s'étendraient désormais du cap Saint-Jean au gressive des déterminations astronomiques permit cap Ray (au lieu du cap Bonavista à la pointe de relier les résultats partiels en ensembles co- Riche) et couvraient un périmètre sur lequel il hérents, surtout dans la deuxième moitié du 18è était interdit aux britanniques de se fixer. siècle. Du côté français, un jeune enseigne de vaisseau, le marquis de Chabert (né en 1724, et qui fut Directeur du Dépot des cartes, et mourut Sur le plan maritime, les traités d'U- en 1805) attira l'attention du Ministre de Maure- trecht en 1713 et de Paris en 1763 entraînèrent pas sur les dangers de la navigation dans les pa- directement et immédiatement des crises de la pê- rages de l'île du Cap-Breton et de Terre-Neuve, che sédentaire et indirectement un affaiblissement et fut chargé en 1750 et 1751 de diriger une cam- de notre Marine par réduction des armements à la pagne d'observations astronomiques et géodésiques. pêche. Il fallut, après 1713, abandonner Plaisance Ses travaux lui valurent les louanges de l'Acadé- et la côte Sud de Terre-Neuve, et l'Acadie. La mie de Berlin, Stockholm, de Bologne, de la France put cependant sauver son armement à la pê- Société royale de Londres et de l'Académie de che sédentaire en mettant en exploitation l'île Marine de France. Mais en dehors des campagnes du Cap-Breton, la côte Sud du Labrador et en main- scientifiques, le Ministre de la Marine, comme tenant ses installations en baie de Gaspé, à l'île l'écrit l'hydrographe Bellin (1761), continuait Percée et à l'île Bonaventure. de remettre à chaque vaisseau du Roi une carte manuscrite en demandant qu'on la lui rende rensei- La situation s'aggrava sérieusement gnée; il fit armer, par ailleurs, spécialement des après le traité de Paris, en 1763, puis qu'il ne bâtiments à Québec avec des offficiers et des pi- restait à la France que la jouissance du "French lotes qu'il chargea de visiter les côtes et les shore" et l'usage non militaire des îles Saint- rivières *. Pierre et Miquelon. Le gouvernement fit porter son effort sur l'aménagement de ces dernières. Si le jeune Chabert avait donné le coup En 1774, la France proposa à l'Angleterre d'envoi à l'hydrographie scientifique en Amérique l'échange du secteur Bonavista-cap Saint-Jean * septentrionale, c'est au célèbre capitaine James contre celui de pointe Riche-cap Ray; l'arrange- Cook que l'on doit d'avoir repris le flambeau; ment ne fut accepté qu'au traité de Versailles en ses remarquables aptitudes pour l'hydrographie se 1783. révélèrent sous le feu de l'armée française, lors du siège de Québec (1759) et c'est lui, le pre- Le 18è siècle fut la période la plus ri- mier, qui donna une vue d'ensemble correcte - bien che en ce qui concerne les progrès de l'hydrogra- qu'elle fut essentiellement basée sur l'estime - phie et de la navigation. Colbert avait eu le des côtes de Terre-Neuve (1765-1767). C'est encore grand mérite de reconnaître que l'importance des lui qui, lors de son troisième voyage en 1778 ef- techniques et des moyens nécessaires à l'hydrogra- fectua la première reconnaissance sérieuse de la phie justifiait une intervention directe de côte Ouest de l'Amérique du Nord. Quelques années l'Etat. plus tard, en 1786, La Pérouse reçut la mission selon les termes du Ministre de "reconnaître les parties qui n'ont pas été vues par Cook, et sur lesquelles les navigateurs russes et espagnols ne *Des Irlandais avaient fait souche pendant la fournissent aucune notion. Il cherchera avec le guerre de Sept Ans dans ce secteur dont les rivages poissonneux étaient fort inhospitaliers. plus grand soin si, dans les parties qui ne sont * 27 campagnes entre 1722 et 1737 partagées entre 14 bâtiments.

17 pas encore connues, il ne se trouverait pas quelque furent reconnues et adoptées les méthodes que rivière, quelque golfe resserré, qui pût ou- nouvelles imaginées par les Anglais et les Fran- vrir, par les lacs de l'intérieur, une communica- çais. La détermination des longitudes n'avait tion avec quelque partie de la baie d'Hudson", plus de secret. Les triangulations et les chemi- La Pérouse, malgré la rapidité de sa reconnais- nements topographiques servirent d'ossature au sance, fut le premier à soupçonner l'existence du positionnement en mer effectué au moyen du sex- chapelet d'îles qui borde la côte nord-américaine. tant ou du cercle hydrographique; la mesure des Vancouver, en prenant le temps nécessaire, au profondeurs continua de se faire à l'aide du cours de ses campagnes d'été de 1792, 1793, 1794, plomb de sonde. Par contre, le développement du en fit une hydrographie beaucoup plus détaillée. trafic et la relève progressive de la voile par la vapeur créèrent de nouveaux besoins. Pour des navires plus nombreux, manoeuvrant mieux et mar- 4. LE 19è SICLE: LES PROGRÉS TECHNIQUES PERMET- chant plus vite, il fallut entreprendre des levés TENT LA RÉALISATION D'UNE HYDROGRAPHIE MODERNE systématiques, avec recherche des hauts-fonds, FRANCO-ANGLAISE DES EAUX CANADIENNES. délimitation des chenaux, et tenir à jour les documents nautiques par des Avis aux navigateurs Les évènements politiques du 19è siècle (à partir de 1850 environ). touchèrent de moins en moins la France dans les parages du Canada; il ne lui restait plus en effet que Saint-Pierre et Miquelon et des droits de pê- Les pertes territoriales qu'avait su- che à Terre-Neuve. Sur le plan maritime, trois bies la France n'affectèrent pas son activité faits importants retiennent l'attention: hydrographique qui resta très soutenue le long des côtes de Terre-Neuve, à Saint-Pierre et Miqu- - le premier est le remplacement progressif, à elon et sur les bancs. Les travaux que menèrent partir de 1820, de la propulsion à voile par parallèlement les Anglais et les Français abou- la propulsion à vapeur, illustré par le premier tirent progressivement à une cartographie d'en- service régulier transatlantique, assuré par la semble et de détail de Terre-Neuve et des Bancs. "Cunard", d'Halifax,à partir de 1840. Il est à Les Anglais avaient ouvert la voie à la fin du noter que ce changement fit passer la formation siècle précédent avec Cook et Lane et furent maritime au second plan sous le Second Empire; aussi à l'origine des premières Instructions nautiques modernes. Le caractère mixte, franco-ang- - le second est le déclin progressif, à partir de lais, des travaux sur le terrain et des documents 1850, de la pêche sédentaire basée à Terre-Neuve, - cartes et ouvrages - sur Terre-Neuve, qui impl- après le regain qu'elle avait connu dès la fin iquait un bon échange d'informations, est le fait des guerres de l'Empire. Le Parlement dont fut marquant de cette période, sur le plan hydrogra- doté Terre-Neuve en 1833, et l'accroissement de phique. Il résultait, en partie, du partage des la population, rendirent de plus en plus diffi- eaux de Terre-Neuve entre les Français et les An- cile le maintien d'une communauté française sur glais, et en partie de l'ampleur de la tâche que Je "French shore", L'Entente Cordiale, conclue réprésentaient les levés. Aujourd'hui encore, en 1904 entre la France et l'Angleterre mit fin certaines cartes canadiennes s'appuient sur des aux droits exclusifs de pêche français à Terre- travaux français du siècle dernier. Neuve. Mais corrélativement Saint-Pierre et Mi- quelon était devenu un centre important et les morutiers fréquentant les Bancs venaient y dé- 5. CONCLUSION. charger leur poisson; La rétrospective de l'hydrographie - le troisième est l'établissement d'une certaine française au Canada nous amène, en conclusion, réglementation dans la circulation maritime à insister sur les points suivants: concernant les approches de l'Amérique septentrionale. Le célèbre Maury, inventeur des Pilot La découverte anonyme de Terre-Neuve charts, est à l'origine des voies recommandées est contemporaine de celle du Nouveau Monde par sillonnant les atterrages du Canada. Il se ren- Christophe Colomb en 1492. En 1520, Magellan dit compte le premier, vers 1855, des dangers montra que la Chine était séparée des Amériques que faisait courir le trafic transatlantique par le "Grand Océan", et c'est en recherchant un aux terreneuvas en pêche et à leurs doris. Qua- passage vers le Nord-Ouest vers le fabuleux tre grandes routes furent retenues officielle- Cathay qu'en 1535, Jacques Cartier découvrit le ment en 1898, correspondant respectivement à Canada et en prit officiellement possession. Le deux périodes de l'année (printemps-été et Canada apparait ainsi à la fois comme le premier automne-hiver), et aux deux directions de tran- pays de l'Amérique du Nord découvert par les sit (Europe-Amérique et Amérique-Europe). Cepen- Français et comme la zone de passage présumée la dant, du 15 août au mois d'octobre, le système plus favorable vers l'Extrême-Orient. en vigueur exposait les pêcheurs du Grand Banc, dans la nuit et dans la brume, aux collisions Avec une présence de plus de trois avec les vapeurs. Pour cette raison, la Compa- siècles dans les eaux canadiennes, l'effort gnie Générale Transatlantique française, malgré soutenu par les hydrographes français bat le les dépenses et les retards importants qui en record absolu des travaux effectués en dehors de résultaient pour ses paquebots, renonça vers leurs côtes métropolitaines. En réalité, la page 1900 à passer sur le Grand Banc pendant la sai- canadienne de l'hydrographie française illustre son de pêche; elle empruntait des routes passant le rôle qu'a joué la France dans le passé comme plus au Sud. promoteur d'une civilisation proprement maritime. Ce rôle fut évident pour l'installation de la France au Canada, mais il fut encore plus remar- Le 19è siècle n'apporta pas beaucoup de quable lorsque la présence française fut réduite changementsdans les techniques de levé une fois dans les eaux canadiennes à un peuple de marins 18 de l'État ou pêcheurs, sans support territorial, ou presque.

L'hydrographie française au Canada, en raison de son étalement sur une très longue pério- de, offre un exemple relativement standard du dé- veloppement de cette technique à travers le temps:

- la première phase (1500-1605) est une phase de découverte et de conquête. S'appuyant sur la dé- couverte du nouveau monde et sur l'École de Dieppe, l'hydrographie développe, d'une part, une cartographie à très petite échelle (planis- phères)et, d'autre part, une cartographie d'iti- néraires, axée sur les grandes voies fluviales de pénétration;

- la deuxième phase (1605-1665), démarre avec la colonisation et s'affirme dans le développement d'initiatives individuelles. La cartographie de découverte et d'itinéraires se transforme en cartographie d'exploration. Il reste de nombreux blancs sur les cartes, souvent meublés par des scènes de la vie locale, mais l'information, auparavant de caractère linéaire, tend à devenir surfacique;

- la troisième phase (1665-1775) est décisive pour l'hydrographie: elle est caractérisée, d'une part, par la reconnaissance du fait que les levés en mer requièrent l'intervention de l'État par l'importance des moyens qu'ils mettent en Deuvre et la plus-value économique qu'ils en- :rainent; d'autre part, par les progrès techniques réalisés dans la mesure des angles et du temps, qui viennent définitivement à bout du problème du positionnement relatif et absolu. Pendant cette phase, on assiste au Canada à l'apogée de la cartographie de prestige, mais aussi à une amélioration substantielle des levés hydrographiques qui se multiplient et font l'objet d'une compilation coordonnée dans l'établis- sement des cartes marines. Le canevas des positions géographiques progresse et permet de mieux raccorder les sous-ensembles;

- La quatrième phase (après 1775) correspond à une mattrise de plus en plus complète des moyens techniques requis pour l'élaboration des cartes marines modernes.

19 such appalling weather conditions, it is however remarkable how much detailed THE BRITISH CONTRIBUTION TO THE work was performed. Inspired by William HYDROGRAPHY OF CANADA Scoresby's reports of good whaling conditions in the Greenland Sea, the Navy Rear Admiral D.W. Haslam CB OBE FRICS Board mounted a succession of expedi- Hydrographer of the Navy tions between 1818 and 1827 to find a United Kingdom North West Passage. Parry, Beechey, Fran- klin, John and James Ross and their val- iant crews all struggled to fight their ABSTRACT way through the ice and back with varying degrees of success or failure. Bee- Almost inevitably, the start- chey, in HMS BLOSSOM, in 1826/27 discov- ing point for an account of "The British ered the coast from Icy Point Vo Point Contribution to the Hydrographic Survey- Barrow - leaving only about 140 miles ing of Canada" must start with Captain of unexplored coast between this Point Cook. B.C. - or before Cook - most other and Point Beechey. British visitors to Canadian waters had produced "maps" rather than 'charts. It From 1759 Cook, Colonel des is harder to decide on a finishing Barres and Major Holland were engaged point: although the Canadian Parliament in surveying the coasts of Newfoundland, attained authority in 1867 over certain Nova Scotia and the Gulf of St. Lawr- navigational matters and the Canadian ence: prior to this, Captain Taverner Hydrographic Office was formed in 1883, had produced in 1714 his "Trades and it was not until 1908 that the first Plantations Map of North America" and Canadian ship LILLOOET was available to Thomas Durell, in 1716 and 1732/35 had take over the surveying task and HM also explored extensively in this area. Ships continued to survey off British For the next 150 years, successive Brit- Columbia until 1910, off Newfoundland ish surveyors worked off the east coasts till 1912 - indeed HMS CHALLENGER was of Canada, Newfoundland and Labrador - surveying off Labrador from 1932 to 1934. notably Joseph Gilbert (1767 - 1770), Michael Lane (1768 - 1785), Francis Owen The paper considers the sub- (1800 - 01), Anthony Lockwood (1813 - ject in the four sections of Canada's 1818), Lieutenant Bullock (1823 - 26), roughly rectangular boundaries. Captain Bayfield (1827 - 1856), Comman- der John Orlebar (1857 - 64), James Kerr On the west coast, Cook's work (1865 - 71), William Maxwell (1872 - in 1778 was confined to Nootka Sound and 90), William Tooker (1891 - 1907) and its vicinity: two from this expedition - Captain Combe (1908 - 13). A.G.N. Wyatt, Dixon and Portlock - returned as fur in HMS CHALLENGER (1932 - 34) was the traders but added to the scanty know- last British contributor to Canadian ledge of the western channels as did surveys. other fur traders such as Barkley and Lieutenant Meares RN, whose acquisition The final section - the Great of land at Nootka almost led to another Lakes - was first tackled by Captain W. Anglo-Spanish war and did lead to George Fitzwilliam Owen in 1815 who handed over Vancouver's return, in 1792, to put into to Henry Bayfield (1817-1825): following effect the "Nootka Convention", signed his extraordinarily hard and accurate in Madrid in October 1790: fortunately work, the British disappeared until Com- the non-political comradeship of hydro- mander John Boulton was loaned to the graphic surveyors had already started new C.H.S. to take charge of the "Geor- and, although he agreed to differ on the gian Bay Survey" on 11 July 1883: in territorial claims of the Spaniards whom 1893, Boulton was succeeded by Mr. W.J. he found surveying off British Columbia, Stewart, but he - as the Chief Hydro- Vancouver amicably exchanged copies of grapher of Canada from 1904 to 1925 - his surveys with them and his many fair can hardly be counted as part of this sheets meticulously attribute the work account. done by the Spaniards. Some 60 years later, Captain G. Richards, in HMS PLUM- Thus, although - thanks to PER and then HMS HECATE surveyed the the ready acceptance of hydrographic re- west coast from 1856 till, in 1862 he sponsibility by the Canadian Government returned home to become Hydrographer of much earlier than other members of the the Navy - leaving Pender to continue British Commonwealth - the Royal Naval his surveys in a hired vessel till 1871 surveyors' contribution tailed off to- when British Columbia joined the Domin- wards the end of the 19th century, it ion. The final British surveys of this will be seen that they had provided a coast were from 1898 in HMS EGERIA till comprehensive basic survey of all but she paid off in 1910. the forbidding northern coasts for the Canadian Hydrographic Service one hun- The work on the northern coast dred years ago. Indeed, many of their perhaps does not fulfill the criteria of surveys in Canadian waters - as in many "surveying" being rather "exploration": other parts of the world - remained the in view of the small vessels employed in best available even till modern times.

20 Grande-Bretagne pour devenir hydrographe de la marine, laissant Pender poursuivre LA CONTRIBUTION BRITANNIQUE A ses travaux dans un bateau affrété jus- L'HYDROGRAPHIE DU CANADA qu'en 1871, année où la Colombie-Britan- nique est devenue membre du Dominion. Par le Contre-amiral D.W. Haslam (R.-U.) Les derniers levés britanniques de cette côte furent effectués à partir de l'EGERIA de 1898 à son départ en 1910. RÉSUM( Les activités menées sur les Il est presque inévitable côtes du Nord canadien relevaient plutôt qu'un compte rendu de la contribution de l'exploration que du levé. Toutefois, britannique aux levés hydrographiques le travail minutieux accompli par les du Canada commence par le capitaine hydrographes est remarquable si l'on Cook. Avant J.C. (James Cook), la plu- sait qu'ils opéraient à partir de petits part des visiteurs britanniques des eaux bateaux dans un climat aussi rigoureux. canadiennes avaient réalisé des cartes L'intérêt suscité par les rapports de "géographiques" plutôt que "marines". William Scoresby au sujet des excellen- Par contre, il est plus difficile de tes conditions de pêche de la baleine choisir une date pour la fin de cette qu'offrait la mer du Groenland a incité contribution: en effet, le Parlement l'Amirauté à organiser une série d'expé- canadien s'est vu attribuer en 1867 la ditions entre 1818 et 1827 pour trouver compétence sur certaines questions de un passage au Nord-Ouest. Parry, Bee- navigation et le Service hydrographique chey, Franklin, John et James Ross et du Canada a été créé en 1883, mais c'est leurs vaillants équipages s'efforcèrent seulement en 1908 qu'un premier navire avec plus ou moins de succès de se canadien, le LILLOOET, a été chargé d'ef- frayer un chemin à travers les glaces. fectuer des levés, et les navires britan- Beechey, à bord du BLOSSOM, découvrit en niques ont continué de réaliser des 1827-1827 la côte de la pointe Icy à la levés, jusqu'en 1910 au large de la Colo- pointe Barrow, laissant seulement 140 mbie-Britannique et jusqu'en 1912 au milles environ de côte inexplorée entre large de Terre-Neuve. Enfin le CHALLEN- cette pointe et la pointe Beechey. GER, navire britannique, a effectué des levés au large du Labrador de 1932 à A partir de 1759, Cook, le 1934. colonel Des Barres et le major Holland effectuèrent des levés sur les côtes de Le présent document examine Terre-Neuve, de la Nouvelle-Ecosse et les activités hydrographiques menées dans le golfe Saint-Laurent. Auparavant, dans les quatre parties du rectangle le capitaine Taverner avait produit en que forment approximativement les fron- 1714 sa "Trades and plantations map of tières du Canada. North America" (carte des commerces et plantations de l'Amérique du Nord) et Sur la côte Ouest, les tra- Thomas Durell, en 1716 et de 1732 à vaux que Cook a menés en 1778 ont porté 1735, avait aussi exploré cette région seulement sur la baie Nootka et ses en- de façon très poussée. Pendant les 150 virons. Deux membres de l'expédition, ans qui suivirent, les hydrographes bri- Dixon et Portlock, sont revenus plus tanniques qui se sont succédés dans la tard sur les lieux comme pelletiers, région ont travaillé au large de la côte mais ils contribuèrent à accroître les Est du Canada, plus précisément de Terre- rares connaissances sur les chenaux oc- -Neuve et du Labrador; on peut citer cidentaux, tout comme le firent d'autres notamment les travaux de Joseph Gilbert pelletiers comme Barkley et le lieu- (1767 - 1770), de Michael Lane (1768 - tenant Meares RN. En achetant des terres 1785), de Francis Owen (1800 - 1801), à Nootka, ces derniers furent bien près d'Anthony Lockwood (1813 - 1818), du de provoquer une nouvelle guerre anglo- lieutenant Bullock (1823 - 1826), du espagnole, ce qui amena George Vancouver capitaine Bayfield (1827 - 1856), du à revenir en 1792 pour appliquer la Con- commandant John Orlebar (1857 - 1864), vention de Nootka signée à Madrid en de James Kerr (1865 - 1871), de William octobre 1790. Heureusement, un esprit de Maxwell (1872 - 1890), de William Tooker camaraderie avait déjà commencé à se (1891 - 1907) et du capitaine Combe développer chez les hydrographes malgré (1908 - 1913). A.G.N. Wyatt, à bord du les luttes politiques, et, bien qu'il CHALLENGER (1932 - 1934) fut le dernier contestât les revendications terri- Britannique à effectuer des levés dans torales des Espagnols qui effectuaient les eaux canadiennes. des levés au large de la Colombie-Britan- nique, Vancouver échangea avec eux des Dans la dernière partie, les copies de ses levés, et dans ses nom- Grands Lacs, des levés ont été entre- breuses minutes de rédaction, il indique pris pour la première fois en 1815 par avec un soin méticuleux les travaux réa- le capitaine W. Fitzwilliam Owen qui lisés par les Espagnols. Quelque 60 ans confia la suite des opérations à Henry plus tard, le Capitaine G. Richards, à Bayfield (1817-1825). Après ces travaux partir du PLUMBER puis du HECATE, effec- si précis et si poussés, les Britanni- tuait un levé de la côte Ouest de 1856 ques disparurent de la région jusqu'à à 1862, date où il est retourné en ce que commandant John Boulton soit dé-

21 péché auprès du tout nouveau SHC pour to produce anything much better than se charger du levé de la baie Géorgienne rudimentary maps. Edmund Halley, for le 11 juillet 1883. En 1893, Boulton instance, visited Newfoundland in HMS était remplacé par M. W.J. Stewart au PARAMOUR in 1699 and produced a chart poste d'Hydrographe fédéral, qu'il occu- showing magnetic variations of the pait de 1904 à 1925, mais on peut dif- North Atlantic in 1701. ficilement l'inclure dans ce compte rendu. If it is difficult to establish a starting point, it is equally Il est à noter que le gouverne- difficult to do justice to the subject ment canadien a accepté la responsabil- in a short article and to decide on ité des activités hydrographiques beau- a finishing point. Although the coup plus tôt que les autres membres du Canadian Parliament attained authority Commonwealth britannique de sorte que la in 1867 over certain navigational mat- contribution des hydrographes de la ters and the Canadian Hydrographic Of- Marine royale a commencé à décroître fice was formed in 1883, it was not vers la fin du 19e siècle. Toutefois, until 1908 that the first Canadian nous pouvons voir qu'ils avaient fourni hydrographic ship LILLOOET was avail- il y a cent ans au Service hydrographi- able to take over the surveying task que du Canada un levé de base détaillé from the Royal Navy and HM Surveying de toutes les côtes canadiennes à l'ex- Ships continued to survey off British ception des côtes reculées du Nord. En Columbia until 1910 and off Newfound- fait, un grand nombre des levés bri- land until 1912 - indeed, HMS CHAL- tannique des eaux canadiennes, comme LENGER was surveying off Labrador from ceux de nombreuses autres parties du 1932 to 1934. monde, sont restés les meilleurs jusqu'à l'ère moderne. This inadequate account of the subject will consider the British contribution in the four natural sections of Canada's coastline - British INTRODUCTION Columbia, the Atlantic seaboard, the Great Lakes and the Northern coasts. Although Captain Greenville Collins was appointed Hydrographer to BRITISH COLUMBIA King Charles II in 1683, his work was confined to British waters and the ap- Although the name "British pointment lapsed until the appointment Columbia" was not used before 1858, of Mr. Alexander Dalrymple as Hydrog- it is convenient to use this when re- rapher to the Admiralty Board on 12 ferring to activities off Canada's August 1795. Some 35 years earlier, Pacific Coast. Sir Francis Drake, in however, the Seven Years War (1756 - his GOLDEN HIND, abandoned his search 1762) between Britain and France in for a passage north-about the Americas North America, highlighted the need when south of the Cape Flattery in for both a British American Regiment 1579; 13 years later, in 1592, the and suitable nautical charts. Greek navigator Apostolos Valerianos, better known as Juan de Fuca, was sent A chance meeting between the northwards by the Spanish Viceroy of mathematical, Swiss-born, British New Spain or Mexico, and for many years American Regiment Engineer, Des Barres was regarded as the first European to and the Yorkshire seaman, James Cook sail through the straits which now bear in 1758 led to the growth of a nucleus his name. No European seems to have of British hydrographers whose great visited this area until 1774 when the efforts subsequently grew to the pre- Viceroy of Mexico sent the Spanish sent day British Hydrographic Service. Naval Officer Juan Perez to explore Inevitably, having been spawned in the the N.W. Coasts of America primarily waters off the East coast of Canada to try to stop the Russians from ex- and Newfoundland and with the obvious tending their claims southwards from commercial potential of North America present-day Alaska which they had al- in general - and Canada in particular ready reached. - a fair proportion of the embryo British hydrographic effort was there- On his voyage north, Perez fore devoted to Canada. sighted (but did not name) the Queen Charlotte Islands, whilst, on his re- Although, theoretically per- turn south, he sighted Vancouver Island haps, this account should relate to and anchored off Nootka sound but only events AD (After Dalrymple's appoint- carried out very sketchy surveys from ment in 1795), some mention must be his corvette SANTIAGO. Following the made of earlier events - even those United States' Declaration of Independ- BC (Before Cook) - despite the fact ence in 1776, Spanish, British and that, until Cook's influence on hydrog- American sailors went to British raphy and British chart making, most Columbia in rapid succession. The most British visitors to North America were notable, perhaps, of these was Captain explorers, traders and whalers who James Cook who visited the coast during lacked the knowledge and instruments his third, and last, voyage to the

22 Pacific in command of HMS RESOLUTION, a portion of land near Nootka and built with Commander Charles Clerke in com- a 40 ton vessel - the NORTH WEST AMER- mand of HMS DISCOVERY. Their aim was ICA - launched in 1788 - the first ship to find the long-sought-for North West to be built on these shores. Colnett, Passage between the Atlantic and a Royal Naval Lieutenant on half-pay, Pacific oceans - for the discovery of also arrived the area in 1787, in com- which the British Government had, in mand of the PRINCE OF WALES, accompan- 1745, offered a reward of 20,000. It ied by Captain Charles Duncan in the is worth noting that they had offered a PRINCESS ROYAL; after wintering in similar sized reward in 1714 for a me- China, Colnett returned to Nootka, this thod of establishing longitude at sea. time in the ARGONAUT, in 1788; both Colnett and Duncan carried out useful When Cook arrived in the area surveys. in 1778 - interestingly with a young Midshipman George Vancouver in the Also in 1788, the Spaniards DISCOVERY - his first work was based read, in the account of Cook's third on what he first called King George's voyage, that the Russians had defin- Sound but later named Nootka Sound itely settled in NW America. The Span- wrongly thinking this to be the native ish frigate LE PRINCESA commanded by name. After about a month at Nootka Don Esteban José Martinez and the Cook sailed northwards directly to the packet-boat SAN CARLOS commanded by Alaskan coasts and onwards to the Sand- Don gonzalo Lopez de Haro, were sent wich Islands where he so tragically to investigate. They carried out much met his death in 1779. Athough Cook exploration and eventually arrived at therefore contributed little to the Nootka in 1789 and not only formally surveying knowledge of British Columbia took possession of the port in the name other than at Nootka - a chart of which of the King of Spain but seized first appeared in his published account - the IPHEGENIA (which was soon re- his visit there was to have very signi- leased), then the NORTH WEST AMERICA, ficant consequences. the ARGONAUT and the PRINCESS ROYAL. Colnett was taken, as a prisoner in When his ships arrived in his own ship, to San Blas in Mexico. China following his death, the profits Meares was away from Nootka, but when derived from the sale of the furs which he heard of the event, personnaly pre- they had obtained at Nootka were so sented a memorial to the House of Com- great that the North-West American mons claiming heavy compensation for fur-trade began to boom. The first "this unwarrantable outrage on British fur-trading voyage was by Capatin James commerce". Very strong feeling was Hanna, who sailed from China in 1785 raised in England and the British Gov- in the HARMON, a 60 ton brig and re- ernment demanded satisfaction from turned in the 120 ton "scow" SEA OTTER Spain and also fitted out a powerful in 1786; he did some useful exploration British Fleet. This had the desired work and named several features. (1) effect and, in October 1790, the "Nootka Convention" was signed in Of the many British seamen Madrid; this gave complete restitution whose fur-trading activities left their of all captured property and also ack- mark on this coast, George Dixon and nowledged equal rights between Great Nathaniel Portlock, in 1787, in the Britain and Spain for the exercise and scow QUEEN CHARLOTTE and ship KING prosecution of all commercial under- GEORGE, had both been shipmates with takings in the waters around America George Vancouver in DISCOVERY. Dixon which had hitherto been considered as named Queen Charlotte Island after his belonging solely to the Spanish Crown. vessel and, on return to England, Sir Joseph Banks gave Dixon's name to the This Convention was consid- opening on the northern side of these ered so significant that it was deemed islands. Also in 1787, another fur- desirable to send a British representa- trader, Charles Barkley, in IMPERIAL tive to Nootka to formally receive back EAGLE, discovered the large sound which the properties concerned and, accord- now bears his name, south-east of ingly, in 1791, Commander George Van- Nootka Sound, and discovered and named couver (in the newly built 340 ton Juan de Fuca Strait after the apocry- DISCOVERY) and Lieutenant William Brou , hpal explorer of that name. Berkley's armed brig CHATHAM) left ghton (in the 17 year old bride, Francis, accompanied to carry out this task and to make an him and so must be the first English accurate survey of the NW castp of N. lady to visit these waters. America between 300 N and 60'N.

The final English fur-traders On the voyage out to Nootka, of this period that must be mentioned Vancouver did valuable exploratory work are John Meares and James Colnett. off Australia, New Zealand and Drake's Meares, originally a Royal Naval Lieu- "New Albion" - as the Pacific coast tenant, arrived in 1787 in command of of North America, north of California a trading vessel FELICE together with was then known - until April 1972. a Captain William Douglas in IPHEGENIA; Instead of going direct to Nootka, Van- Meares purchased from the native chief couver started his explorations along

23 the southern shores of the Strait of wards of Cape St. Hermogenes provided Juan de Fuca; he then discovered and by the Russians). Two other charts re- examined Puget Sound and passed into sulting from this incredible survey the Strait of Georgia (which he first were one covering the coast from Cape called the Gulf of Georgia). In June Lookout, on the coast of Oregon, to 1792, when near Point Grey - off the Cape Swaine, on the coast of British entrance to Burrard Inlet, he fell in Columbia and including Queen Charlotte with the 2 Spanish vessels SUTIL com- Sound and Vancouver Island and with manded by Dionesio Galiano and MEXICANA plans of the Columbia River, Port Dis- commanded by Cayetano Valdes, and, covery and Gray's Harbour and another apart from learning much navigational covering the coast from Cape Swaine information from them, also heard that to Cape Ommaney, on Baranof Island in 4 Spanish vessels were waiting for him Alaska. It is of passing interest that, at Nootka; having exchanged copies of although the Royal Navy had funded this their surveys, Vancouver passed through expedition and had appointed Alexander Johnstone Strait and into Queen Char- Dalrymple as the first Hydrographer lotte Sound. Shortly after entering to the Navy in 1795, Vancouver's work this, on 6 August, his DISCOVERY ran was published, on 1st May 1798, by J. aground, on a falling tide, close east- Edwards of Pall Mall and G. Robinson, wards of Mary Rock in Ripple Passage. of Paternoster Row. Fortunately, she was refloated on the next high tide without damage and the However, between 1789 and survey was resumed to be broken off, 1791, Dalrymple had published 13 sheets reluctantly one guesses, when Vancouver of plans of anchorages in British learned from a British fur trader - Columbia which proved useful to Van- the VENUS - that a British ship DAEDALUS couver. Four of these plans were by had arrived at Nootka with supplies James Johnstone, Colnett's Master in for his expedition and that the Span- the PRINCE OF WALES; when Colnett re- iards awaiting at Nootka were getting turned to the Canadian Coast from China increasingly impatient. in the ARGONAUT, Johnstone was placed in command of the PRINCE OF WALES and Making his way round the returned in her to England (3), return- north of Vancouver Island, the expedi- ing to the North West coast with Van- tion reached Nootka on 29 August 1792 couver as Master of the CHATHAM. (4) to find the Spanish brig ACTIVA flying Colnett's own surveys (which are mostly the broad pendant of Captain Juan Fran- in the archives of the Hydrographic cisco de la Bodega y Quadra. Unfortun- Department, Taunton) were never pub- ately, Vancouver and Quadra could not lished. The fur-traders Meares, Dixon agree on which actual portions of land and Portlock included a number of were to be ceded and the matter had charts and plans in the published acc- to be referred back to London and ounts of their voyages. (5) Madrid. Meanwhile, Vancouver and Quadra became such friends that Vancouver sug- With the departure of Quadra gested that the large island whose insu- and the two Spanish vessels - SUTIL and larity he had just established should MEXICANA - that Vancouver had first be named "The island of QUADRA and VAN- met in June 1792, the Spanish explora- COUVER". tion, which had done so much to open up these waters, came to an end. Agree- Although Quadra left Nootka ment on the practical requirements of on 22 September 1792 for Monterey (and, the Nootka Convention was finally incidentally died in San Blas, Mexico reached on 28 March 1795 when General in 1794), Vancouver continued his sur- Don Jose Manuel Alava, the Spanish com- veys until he finally sailed from mandant handed over to Lieutenant Nootka for England on 17 October 1794. Thomas Pierce of the Royal Marines. During these two years, he completed an entire survey of British Columbia; however, the chart prepared by Lieuten- With the departure of Van- ant Edward Roberts "showing part of couver, no further British surveys were the Coast of NW America with the tracks carried out in British Columbia for of His Majesty's Sloop DISCOVERY and over 50 years. In 1846 - because of the Armed Tender CHATHAM, commanded by growing crisis over the disputed Oregon George Vancouver Esq. and prepared from Territory - the HERALD, Captain Henry the foregoing surveys under his imme- Kellett, and her consort the PANDORA, diate inspection in which the Contin- Commander James Wood, were sent to ental Shore has been correcOy traced British Columbia to carry out surveys and determined from La: 29"54'N and in Juan de Fuca Strait. The harbour Long 244 ° 33E (le e 115"27'W) to sape of Victoria was also surveyed by Douglas pi Lat 58 52N, Long 207 20'E Kellett, while Wood surveyed Esquimalt (ie. 152 40'W) during the summers of Harbour. Wood returned the following 1792, 1793 and 1794 meticulously attri- year to carry out some surveys in the butes (by the omission of shading) Gulf of Georgia. those parts eastwards of Cape Decision which were provided from the Spanish In 1853, Mr. George Inskip, explorers (as well as those to the west- Master of the VIRAGO, Captain James

24 Prevost, surveyed Port Simpson and ple Shoal in Johnstone Strait was wrote some Sailing Directions for the examined and the differences in longi- Queen Charlotte Islands. Inskip's tude from Esquimalt and Vancouver to brother, a schoolmaster on board the McGill Observatory, Montreal was deter- FISGARD, had earlier assisted Wood in mined with cordial cooperation from the survey of Esquimalt Harbour. the Observatory and Canadian Pacific Railway telegraphs; at intervals, the In November 1857 Captain ship broke off to complete soundings George Richards arrived in the steam- for telegraph cables across the Pacific sloop PLUMPER to join Captain James - in 1899, for example, 166 soundings Prevost of the SATELLITE (who had ar- were obtained at 20 mile intervals with rived 5 months earlier). Because of an average depth of 2,420 fathoms. his previous experience of British Smyth was relieved in 1900 by Commander Columbian waters, Prevost had been ap- Cortland Simpson who, in 1903, handed pointed as a British Commissioner of a over the task to Commander John F. joint United States Boundary Commission Parry. Captain Frederick Learmonth took to determine the boundary between the over the command of the ship in 1906, two countries. Richards was also ap- the year after the ship had damaged pointed to the Commission as surveyor a bilge through grounding on an un and astronomer. In 1858 Richards in the charted reef near Thetis Island and PLUMPER assisted by the SATELLITE sur- her senior assistant, Lieutenant G.E. veyed the waterways in the vicinity Mares had died, whilst Lieutenant I.B. of the San Juan Islands. The Joint Com- Miles had joined the Canadian Hydro- mission became deadlocked - the graphic Service on Canadas assumption Americans considered the boundary of hydrographic responsibility. Captain should run through Haro Strait, while John F. Parry returned to command the British favoured Rosario Strait. EGERIA in 1908 with orders to take her The dispute was not settled until 1872 to Australia but she was unfit for this when, as a result of arbitration by service and continued in British Colum- the Emperor of Germany, the American bia to the end of her useful life in claim was upheld. (6) 1910. In March 1911, Parry handed over to Lieutenant Oswald T. Hodgson who In 1859 Richards started to prepared her for sale in April 1911 resurvey Vancouver Island - a survey thus completing British work on this conducted with extraordinary energy coast. and almost severe zeal; the survey continued the following year. In 1859 and There is a permanent reminder 1860 Lieutenant Richard Mayne made two in Taunton of an important phase of extensive journeys into the interior British activity on this coast. Joseph of British Columbia, during which he Whidbey, the Master of Vancouver's DIS- traced the course of the Fraser River COVERY, spent more time away from the for a considerable distance. (7) ship in small boats than any other officer; he later served as Master Attend- As PLUMPER was proving too ant at both Sheerness and Plymouth be- small and defective, the fine, roomy, fore retiring on 31 March 1830 to Taun- coal-burning paddle-sloop HECATE was ton where he died on 8 October 1833 sent from England in 1861 to replace and is buried in St. James' Churchyard her. By the end of 1862, Richards had - not 400 metres from my present house. completed his survey of Vancouver and part of British Columbia and early in EAST COAST 1863 sailed for England in the HECATE. Daniel Pender was left to complete the In 1497, the Italian born coasts of British Columbia, using a John Cabot, sailing under Letters Pa- hired paddle-steamer the BEAVER. Pender tent by King Henry VII, discovered New- remained on this task for 8 years, foundland. As a result of this voyage being promoted to Staff Commander in and similar ones - such as those by January 1869 and returned to England the Frenchman Jacques Cartier - the in 1871, having completed the examina- east coast of Canada began to appear on tion of the western seaboard of the maps in rudimentary form. Newfoundland, islands which front the coast of Brit- for instance, was depicted as a number ish Columbia northward of Vancouver of islands in Jean Rotz's world atlas, Island - including the inner ship-chan- which he presented to Henry VIII in nels of communication as far as the 1542. (1) Perhaps the first British northern boundary of British Columbia chart showing the east coast of Canada and many large scale surveys of anchor- is an undated, unsigned chart of the ages. North Atlantic in Thames School style, attributed to Thomas Hood 159?, which The last British contribution also shows Newfoundland as a number to the surveying of British Columbia of islands. (2) Gabriell Tatton's chart began in 1898 when EGERIA, commissioned of the North Atlantic 1602, also of the previous year by Commander Morris the Thames School, (3) depicts Newfound- H. Smyth, arrived from England. EGERIA land in a more recognisable shape. remained surveying off British Columbia These early British manuscript charts until 1910; in 1898, the dangerous Rip- and the engraved ones by John Seller

25 published at the end of the 17th cen- Regiment (23 February 1756) and sailed tury were based mainly on Dutch for N. America in spring 1756 as an sources. The first British map, based engineer. Whilst he had learned little on personal experience, was that of new whilst at Woolwich, he had used Newfoundland by Captain John Mason, his time to study surveying and, during who spent the summers of 1616 and 1617 the winter of 1758, he began a survey surveyings its southern coasts. This which by 1759 had produced a large map was eventually published in 1625. scale chart of the St. Lawrence which (4) with those of others - including young James Cook - was used when Wolfe moved It was not until the 18th up river to Québec City; towards the century that the British carried out end of the Seven Years War, Des Barres any detailed surveys off the east coast joined a 1762 expedition to recapture of Canada. In 1716 Captain Thomas St. John's, Newfoundland and then sur- Durell, assisted by Mr. Gaudy, surveyed veyed many of the island's principal the south coast of Newfoundland, pro- harbours. ducing 2 charts as a result. Durell returned to Newfoundland in HMS SCAR- His hydrographic work came BOROUGH in 1732-5 and produced plans to the attention of the senior Royal of Torrington Harbour in 1732, Port Naval Officer, Captain Richard Spry Wager in 1734 and Franklands Harbour who arranged for Des Barres to be sein 1735. In 1736 Durell surveyed the conded to the Royal Navy as a hydro- south coast of Nova Scotia. (5) It was graphic surveyor. The British had split not, however, until the start of the their newly won possessions in N. Seven Years War (1756-1762) that America into two Districts, each with British Hydrography made any great im- a Surveyor General; in charge of the pact. Some notable work was done in North was Samuel Holland, in the South the 1760s by Charles Morris, Nova was William De Brahm - both appointed Scotia's Surveyor General, a dozen or by the Board of Trade. so of whose surveys are held in the archives of the Hydrographic Depart- Samuel Holland was, appropri- ment. A real boost, however, came in ately, a Dutchman born about 1728 who, the unlikely guise of 2 British Army after mathematical training, enlisted Officers (one Swiss and the other Dutch in the Dutch Army before transferring born), an emigré from Germany and an to the British and joining the Royal ex-merchant seaman trained in Whitby American Regiment. De Brahm was a Ger- colliers - Des Barres, Holland, De man military engineer who had - because Brahm and Cook. of religious persecution - emigrated in 1751, to Georgia, where he became In the 18th century, charts showing Provincial Surveyor in 1755. With these the east coast of Canada were issued two appointments made, there was no by most of the leading British chart room for Des Barres in the land sur- publishers - such as Faden, Sayer, veying hierarchy so he concentrated Kitchen, Bowen and Mount and Page. It his efforts on the eastern coasts of was the latter firm that published, N. America under the direction of the in 1759, Cook's first chart, Gaspé Bay Admiralty. and Harbour. His later charts of the St. Lawrence were, however, first pub- Holland, between 1764 and lished by Thomas Jeffreys. Cook was 1766, surveyed St. John's (Prince allowed to publish his Newfoundland Edward) Island and Cape Breton Island charts for his own benefit. However, and, until 1770, surveyed the lower when he was appointed in command of St. Lawrence and many of its tribu- the ENDEAVOUR, Cook sold his copper taries and the upper St. Lawrence from plates to Jeffreys, who published them Montreal to what is now Ogdensburg in in atlas form as A Collection of Charts New York State before pressing his sur- of the Coasts of Newfoundland and Labra- veys south as far as Cape Cod. dor etc., which also incorporated the work of Michael Lane and Joseph Gil- Des Barres concentrated far bert. After Jeffrey's death, the plates more on hydrography than did Holland were bought by Sayer and Bennett and or the French surveyors, whose earlier later acquired by Laurie and Whittle, excellent work was available through who last advertised 2 of Cook's charts the charts published by Jacques Nicolas in 1886. (6) Bellin. Until Des Barres' work - as the English map-maker Thomas Jeffreys Joseph F.W. Des Barres was wrote in 1755 - "the generality of ma- born in 1721 probably in Basle, Switzer- riners seem to know of no qualities land where he was taught mathematics in observing latitudes, farther than by father and son Bernouilli, who can to find the place where they are bound be compared with Galileo, Newton, to; and when they come in sight of Legendre and Laplace. In his early 30s, land, lay their quadrant aside - as he joined the British Army, and, after an insturment no longer of use - and some 3 years at the Woolwich Royal Mili- sail by direction of the coast". Geog- tary Academy was commissioned in the raphers were often too broad in their newly formed British Royal American observations, mariners too inaccurate

26 - regarding an error of 8 or 10 minutes joint survey of Saint John Harbour and (of latitude) as but a trifle. Des River is in the Library of Congress. But Barres was to put things right. the most important protege was James Although he seems to have had no offi- Cook. As has been mentioned earlier, the cial staff, he borrowed many young young James Cook had begun to produce Naval officers as his assistants and surveys during the Seven Years War; he hired local civilians to man his small was later to work with both Holland and open boats (shallops), paying their Des Barres, supplementing their profound wages out of his own pocket (he was mathematical and army backgrounds with then but an Army Lieutenant) and keep- his seaman's experience. It could be ing a good table especially during the that his "mariner's eye" was helpful to long winter months when - by the light the engineers. But when Cook sailed as of candles and under his supervision - Master of HMS PEMBROKE for Canada in the summer's work was translated into February 1758, he had done no surveying. charts. Among the Royal Naval officers In May 1759, the advanced British forces to assist both Holland and Des Barres had penetrated up the St. Lawrence to was Thomas Hurd, who was to succeed within about 30 miles of Quebec, where Alexander Dalrymple as British Hydrog- the main navigable channel changes from rapher in 1808. the north to the south bank over a complicated stretch of water known as The Des Barres spent two years Traverse; the buoys had all been removed surveying the Isle of Sable alone; des- by the French defenders and, on 8 June ite its low economic value, he realised 1759, the Masters of all the British the navigational importance of the sand- ships present, Cook prominent amongst bars extending over 15 miles from either them, began to rechart and rebuoy the end into the major shipping lanes and channel, working at night and within the dangers thereabouts due to fogs and range of the defenders' guns; by 25 strong currents: by 1769, he sent back June, a British Fleet of over 200 ships to the Admiralty charts of the Isle of surprised the defence by making the pas- Sable, the eastern part of Nova Scotia, sage of The Traverse without a single Chedabucto Bay, Richmond Isles and the casualty. Cook later drew a 10 foot long Gut of Canso yet was unhappy at his slow manuscript fair chart - of which three progress. The first edition of his mag- copies remain - probably in England in nificent "Atlantic Neptune" appeared in late 1762. Cook remained in Canada when 1777 and the fourth and last in 1784; in PEMBROKE returned home in September 1778 he published a set of sailing direc- 1759, as Master of HMS NORTHUMBERLAND, tions to accompany the first part of the spending the winters in ice-free Halifax Neptune - which was made up of five but spending the summers of 1760 and Books; unusually for this period (when 1761 surveying in the St. Lawrence below pirating of data was common and copy- Quebec when his other duties allowed, right unknown) Des Barres gave credit continuing in 1762 in Newfoundland and meticulously to all sources of data off the coast of Nova Scotia. other than his own. De Brahm had returned to England in 1771 as did both His work was so well received Holland and Des Barres in 1774; by 1776 that Captain (later, Lord) Graves, the both land Surveyors General had returned Governor of "Newfoundland, Labrador to North America; so, on the outbreak of etc." took Cook with him to Newfoundland the American Revolution, Des Barres was in 1763; that year, he surveyed the is- given the task of providing a British lands of St. Pierre and Miquelon before Fleet of over 100 capital ships with these were handed back to France under the charts and precise information they the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht. In needed and was able to provide them with 1764, when Captain Palliser became Gover- an advantage because not even the local nor, Cook was appointed in charge of American pilots could match the accuracy the survey of Newfoundland as King's of Des Barres' information. His Neptunes Surveyor (rating as Master) in a small were not improved upon until Henry W. schooner GRENVILLE, with a crew of nine. Bayfield began his surveys of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1828 (continuing them Having measured a base at until his retirement in 1856); the Bay Noddy's Harbour, on the north coast, of Fundy was next surveyed in the 1840s and extended his control westwards by Captain William FitzWilliam Owen and through the Strait of Belle Isle to Nova Scotia in the 1850s by Captain Point Ferolle, Cook ran soundings over Peter F. Shortland. the Grand Banks on passage back to Dept- ford, where his tiny vessel was But, before dealing with the converted to a brig. For the next three work of these later surveyors, mention years, Cook sailed GRENVILLE acrose the must be made of the facet of Des Barres Atlantic for about five months surveying life of perhaps even greater importance off Newfoundland, sailing for the last than the painstaking practical work time for Deptford in October 1767. Per- which he produced. This was a very fer- haps even more significantly, he had, tile period for British hydrography and in August 1766, observed an eclipse of the winter evenings spent in Des Barres' the sun at Eclipse Island in the Burgeo house must have resulted in much "shop" Islands; the accurate observation of talk: certainly there was cooperation longitude obtained brought him to the between Holland and Charles Morris whose 27 attention of the Royal Society and led in command of HM Brig SNAP by Lieuten- to his appointment in 1768 to ant John Hose a month after commission- observe the transit of Venus in Tahiti ing her in 1821; Hose was probably the and to his three circumnavigations of first to continue work over the ice in the world. winter but his work was subsequently published under the name of Lieutenant Whilst Cook was delineating Frederick Bullock who relieved him in Newfoundland, Joseph Gilbert was simi- May 1823. By the fall of 1826, F. Bul- larly employed, in HMS GUERNSEY, off lock had surveyed the whole of the the coast of Labrador in 1766 with coast between Notre Dame Bay and Cape Michael Lane as assistant; Lane relieved Bauld; working under him in SNAP was Mr. Parker as Master's Mate of Cook's Edward J. Bedford, another young offi- GRENVILLE in late 1766 and, when Cook cer who together with his brother, left at the end of 1767, Lane took com- George Augustus, were to achieve later mand and continued to work for about acclaim for their surveys around the five months each year off the coast of British Isles. From 1821 to 1827, Labrador until, in 1772, he resumed more Thomas Smith also undertook surveys detailed surveys of Newfoundland includ- off Newfoundland in the SCRUB and the ing Placentia Bay (1772), St. Mary's INSPECTOR, tenders to the SNAP. How- Bay (1773), Conception Bay (1774), Cape ever, an even greater name was now to Bonavista to Cape Spear and Trinity Bay appear off Canada's East coasts. (1775). Between 1776 and 1777 Lane was appointed Master in HMS LYON under Lieu- Whilst in London from 1826 tenant Richard Pickersgill; Lane does to 1827 drawing his charts of the Great not seem to have returned to Newfound- Lakes, Bayfield managed to persuade land again until 1784 when he surveyed the Admiralty that surveys were needed the vicinity of the Virgin Rocks; in of the St. Lawrence River and Gulf of 1785 he surveyed Fogo Island and, in St. Lawrence, pointing out that there 1791, William Faden published a chart was still no chart whatever of the bearing the title "The Island of New- river between Montreal and Quebec or foundland laid down from surveys taken from Quebec to Anticosti Island (ig- ... by Lieutenant Michael Lane, Princi- noring Cook's surveys in the 1760's pal Surveyor of the said island 1790". and the work by Holland and claiming that Des Barres' charts were "very in- Another officer from GREN- correct"). VILE who figured briefly, was John Cart- wright who, in 1768, had reached the In September 1827, Commander source of the River Exploits and drew Bayfield arrived in Quebec with two a very beautiful chart of Lieutenant's assistants - Lieutenant Philip Collins (now, Red Indian) Lake, the River Ex- and Midshipman Augustus Bowen; a year ploits and part of Notre Dame Bay. later a Dr. William Kelly joined the St. Lawrence survey team - to remain There seems to have been some- for 20 years as a surveying surgeon. what of a lull in British surveying Bayfield ordered a 140 ton schooner, on Canada's Atlantic seaboard from GULNARE, to be built to his specifica- about 1776 till 1813 - apart from the tion with two boats; he also ordered years 1800-01 when Francis Owen, Master two six-oared cutters to be built as of HMS AGINCOURT was employed surveying survey boats. Bayfield spent the next St. John's and other areas on the East fourteen years, 1827-1841, with head- coast of Newfoundland. However, in quarters in Quebec City, conducting about 1813, Anthony Lockwood (who was the St. Lawrence survey including the to describe himself as "Professor of entire north shore of the St. Lawrence Hydrography and Assistant Surveyor River, Lac Saint-Pierre, Quebec and General of the Provinces of Nova Scotia Montreal harbours, the navigable part and Cape Breton" but who was a Master of the Saguenay River, the northern RN was appointed by Sir Alexander Coch- Gaspé coast, the Strait of Belle Isle, rane to carry out a survey of Nova the coast of Labrador from Belle Isle Scotia. Using a hired vessel and crew to Cape St. Lewis, the Belle Isle coast and without an officer to help him, of Newfoundland, Anticosti, the Mag- he completed his work in 1818 when he dalens and other St. Lawrence islands, published a book containing charts of Baie des Chaleurs, the New Brunswick several ports in Nova Scotia; in the coast of Northumberland Strait and the same year he published a chart of New main ri vers and harbours along all Brunswick. Also, between 1814 and 1820, these coasts. Mr. George Papps Holbrook, Master RN was employed in command of RN Brig During the summer, Bayfield SYDNEY surveying the east coast of New- drove his team very hard, setting very foundland; from 1817 to 1820, his astro- high standards; he worked from daylight nomical surveyor was Mr. William Bul- to dark, six days a week and sometimes lock whose elder brother Lieutenant even on Sundays. In boats only 25 feet Frederick Bullock joined the team, on long, loaded with provisions, tents, half-pay, in 1821-22. bedding, extra clothes, instruments, cooking gear, etc., there was barely Mr. Holbrook was relieved room for the oarsmen's feet but, even

28 , in the exposed, open areas in which a marvellous combination of natural they worked little water was shipped; talent with tremendous physical energy when the weather became too severe in and was a man who would have gained the fall to work in the exposed outer the summit of any profession he might areas of the Gulf, Bayfield moved to have honoured for his one thought was Lake St. Peter or the sheltered waters his work". of the river between Montreal and Quebec. In late October, the team re- It might seem almost presum- turned to Quebec to plot their season's ptuous to question his work; yet this work. After meticulous checking by Bay- was only as good as the equipment and field himself, the plans and charts techniques available to him; that they were sent back to the Hydrographic Of- sufficed for well over 50 years is a fice in London to be engraved. great tribute to this man who above all others provided the foundation for Bayfield was promoted Captain hydrography in Canada. in 1834, but, in September 1835, Lieu- tenant Collins died of apoplexy whilst When Commander John Orlebar surveying the Magdalen Islands; his relieved Bayfield in January 1857, he over place was taken by Lieutenant John had been his senior assistant for the Orlebar. At the start of the 1841 sea- twenty-one years. He introduced son, Bayfield moved his headquarters steam driven vessel LADY ST. MARCHANT to Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island to the survey and, between 1852 and - a harbour more central to his next 1864, surveyed from Codroy eastwards surveying project and with a longer to La Poite, from Laun to Great Burin ice-free navigation season. For the and from Capt St. Mary's and St. Mary's next fifteen years, Bayfield and his Bay to Capt St. Francis - including two assistants (Orlebar and George Agus- many excellent plans of harbours. Owing tus Bedford - who had replaced Bowen to failing eyesight, Orlebar retired in 1939) concentrated on the coasts at the end of 1864 and handed over to of Prince Edward Island and Nova Staff Commander James Hooper Kerr. Scotia; his assistants usually worked independently for a few days or weeks In 1865, the Admiralty de- but Bayfield was always in command, cided on a thorough resurvey of New- issuing explicit instructions and re- foundland which was progressed systema- quiring regular reports either in per- tically by Kerr until he handed over son or by post. to Staff Commander William Frederick Maxwell in 1871/72. Maxwell not only By 1848, Bayfield had sur- worked around Newfoundland but also veyed the entire coastline of Prince surveyed in the St. Lawrence River and Edward Island (including its bays and triangulated the Labrador coast, during deeply indented harbours) and the his eighteen years in Newfoundland. Northumberland Strait coast of Nova Scotia and resurveyed the northern Staff Commander William Maxwell in 1891 Gaspé coast which had not been surveyed Tooker relieved Captain of New- in detail in 1828/29. For the next and resurveyed the west coast five years, he concentrated on a survey foundland from Cape Anguille to Cape of Cape Breton Island, the Strait of Rich, White Bay on the east coast and Canso, Ile Madame and Bras d'Or Lake. the greater part of Exploits Bay. He His last survey was in 1852 and 1853 also made several plans on the Labra- of Halifax Harbour and the adjacent dor coast and, in conjunction with Com- headlands and bays. At the end of this, mander Purey-Cust in HMS RAMBLER his health began to fail and he concen- sounded out the Strait - of Belle Isle; trated on his "Sailing Directions" for later, in 1903, continued sounding con- the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence" siderably to the eastward with Comm- which he had produced, chapter by chap- ander Learmonth in HMS GOLDFINCH. ter, each year from 1828; this epic Tooker continued his work after his work was published in three stages, official retirement in 1907 handing in 1837, 1847 and 1857; the entire work over to Captain J.W. Combe in 1908. was revised and published, in 1860, as 1913, in two volumes as "The St. Lawrence Writing as long ago Pilot". Lieutenant J.A. Rupert-Jones RNR reported that during Captain Combes five Finally, Bayfield wrote "The years in Newfoundland, the first months Nova Scotia Pilot" in two parts (in of each season were devoted to system- 1856 and 1860); in 1856 he retired, atic sectional lines across the western as a Rear Admiral, to live quietly with approach to the Strait of Belle Isle his wife and six children at Charlotte- which "are of extreme importance not town until his death in 1885, aged 90. only from a hydrographical point of After his death, Captain Boulton RN view but from that of the geologists. said "The Admiralty Surveying Service They developed a tremendous area of had produced good men, from Cook on- shallow water in the centre of the Gulf wards, but I doubt whether the British of St. Lawrence, about 30 miles north Navy has ever produced so gifted and of Cape Rich and stretching east and zealous a Surveyor as Bayfield. He had west for many miles directly along

29 the steamship route. This submarine Mate Alexander B. Becher and John plateau ... carries a general depth Harris, Master RN; using the schooner of 30 fathoms with heads rising to with- HURON, they proceeded up the St. Law- in 20 fathoms of the sea level and rence and, by the end of 1815, were appears to be straited by decayed surveying the eastern shores of Lake basaltic dykes carrying 70 fathoms Huron and Georgian Bay. In January running NNE and SSW; these dykes or 1816, Owen also recruited Henry Wolsley clefts are found on both the neighbour- Bayfield who had been bdrn in Hull in ing shores of Newfounding and Labrador January 1795 and accepted as a "young and form an interesting study ... to gentleman, supernumerary volunteer 1st officers interested in geology". Class" two weeks before his llth birth- Prophetic words. day; within nine months he had served in three ships, including HMS DUCHESS The final British surveys OF BEDFORD in which young Bayfield was in Canadian waters took place in HMS slightly wounded during an action in CHALLENGER from 1932-34 under Captain the Straits of Gibraltar. His captain, Guy Wyatt: although she was echo- Francis Spilsbury reported to the First sounding at the time, she ran on a pin- Lord that "though a youth (he was nacle rock and only the efforts of two 11 1/2), he displayed presence of mind divers working in water only a degree that would well become the greatest above freezing point got the leaks un- Warrior". der control sufficiently for her to reach Battle Harbour whence she was After this auspicious start, escorted to Halifax for docking. A he was made a Midshipman in 1810 and wintering party was landed at Nain, visited Quebec and Halifax; after ser- in November 1933 under Edmund H.B. Baker vice in the West Indies and off the who made an epic sledge journey from Iberian Penànsula, he joined the Bri- Nain to Hebron to help a trader in dif- tish Flotilla on Lake Champlain in ficulty with the Esquimaux; the party October 1814. Although promoted to Lieu- was collected in July 1934, shortly tenant in March 1815, he was still before CHALLENGER left Canadian waters, serving as a Midshipman in HMS PRINCE thus concluding the British surveys REGENT when Owen persuaded him to join in Canadian waters. him in HM Sloop STAR in the 1816 surveys of Lake Ontario. He made such a THE GREAT LAKES good impression, that the experienced Owen commended him, within six months, The early exploration of the to Mr. Croker, Secretary of the Great Lakes was carried out by the Admiralty and, at the end of the 1816 French, and, as early as 1672, the season Owen persuaded him to remain shape of even remote Lake Superior was rather than return to England. accurately depicted on a Jesuit map.(1) While navigation on the Lakes was main- Bayfield accepted without ly confined to bark canoes and boats hesitation and, when (as a result of there was no need for charts with their scrapping of all Fleets on the Great soundings and navigational aids. The Lakes in accordance with the Rush-Bagot Seven Years War illustrated the value agreement) Owen had to return of water transportation for the armies unexpectedly to England in mid-1817, and, subsequently, its value as a means Bayfield - then aged 22 - was placed of carrying goods and passengers more in charge of the surveys of Lakes Erie cheaply, quickly and easily than by and Huron - but with a greatly reduced wagons. establishment, including an inexperienced Midshipman, Philip Collins, and In 1812, war started between but two boats, the TROUGHTON and the Britain and America owing to America's RAMSDEN. Having completed the survey objection to British restrictions with of Lake Erie in 1818, Bayfield began neutral trade with Europe and her insis- to survey the more intricate Lake tence on searching vessels for naval Huron, based at Penetanguishene. This deserters. During the two year war, was to last for the four seasons 1819 there were naval battles on the Great - 1822 - including the delineation of Lakes. Following the Treatly of Ghent, about 20,000 islands and numerous deep in 1814, Captain William FitzWilliam bays and coves; conditions must have Owen was appointed Senior Officer Com- been appalling - swarms of mosquitoes manding the Great Lakes and Naval Sur- and flies in the summer, near zero tem- veyor in March 1815; he had already peratures in the winter, no shore fa- distinguished himself as a navigator cilities and, with at times six weeks' and surveyor in the Maldives and South- provisions in their small boats, barely east Asia. room to sit - let alone lie down to sleep. Originally it had been intended to operafe from Quebec, but Owen In the spring of 1823, Bay- chose Kingston as being closer to his field moved his party into Lake intended survey area and recruited Lieu- Superior with the Schooner RECOVERY, tenant Alexander T.E. Vidal, Master's chartered from the Hudson's Bay Corn-

30 pany, as a floating base, as he found Boulton was an experienced it faster to survey in the boats. Even surveyor having already spent nine when wintering at Fort William, the years in Newfoundland and Labrador party was very isolated, with no medi- during which, in 1880, he had been cal aid and mail only once in six loaned to the Hudson's Bay Company for months. Promoted Acting Commander in a voyage to Fort Chimo. Although it 1823, Bayfield persevered and by the was hoped that at least Bayfield's end of the third season, in late 1825, coastline could be accepted, this the team had circumnavigated the proved inadvisable and Boulton, largest freshwater lake in the world, accepting the U.S. geodetical control, and Bayfield and Collins were able to decided to start his survey at the en- return to England to work up their re- trance to Georgian Bay from Lake Huron sults into charts that were to serve and the North Channel.(1) After charter- well for over 50 years. ing the fishing tug ANN LONG for the last working days of 1883, he spent The hardships they had end- the winter drawing up plans for the ured and the excellence of their work 1884 season and selecting a Canadian resulted in Bayfield being promoted assistant William J. Stewart from the to Commander and Collins to Lieutenant Royal Military College, Kingston. in 1826. Despite his efforts,Bayfield was honest enough to report to the Early in 1884, the 20 year Hydrographer in 1827 that "whilst the old former American tug EDSELL was charts which I have just finished are bought and, after a refit and conver- as critically correct in all the de- sion, was renamed BAYFIELD - for ob- tails as to render any future survey vious reasons. Although his fair sheets of them unnecessary for nautical or were still rendered to the British Ad- general purposes, it is highly desir- miralty for inclusion in British Ad- able that they should be filled up with miralty charts, Boulton also in each soundings which - except to a certain year produced, for local use, a new extent from the shore - I could not chapter of the "Georgian Bay and North obtain without a vessel." Channel Pilot", starting in 1885 from his 1884 work. Also in 1885 he For the next 58 years, the recruited a second graduate from the only surveying done in the Great Lakes Royal Military College at Kingston and was by the United States Lake Survey eventually added a third assistant. who, from 1841 began to tackle the By the start of 1886, the first 5,500 miles of American coastline and Admiralty chart from Boulton's surveys about 61,000 square miles within the - No. 906 covering Lake Huron from Cabot U.S. portion of the Great Lakes. Head to Cape Smith and the Entrance to Georgian Bay - was available. Following the tragic loss of the passenger and cargo carrier SS Each year, BAYFIELD wintered ASIA on 14 September 1882 during a vio- at Owen Sound when the lakes became lent storm on Lake Huron, unproven frozen over; by 1887, Boulton was claims of her having hit an uncharted working on the northern shore of Lake shoal provoked public opinion to demand Huron which was progressed each year more modern surveys than those by Bay- until, by 1891, the eastern shores of field within the Canadian sector. The Georgian Bay were reached and, in April volume of traffic and increased size 1893, Boulton felt able to hand over of vessels since 1826 was certainly to his Canadian deputy William Stewart justification for a full scale Canadian and return to England. During his surveying and charting programme. eleven years in the Great Lakes, the British Admiralty published thirteen Under the British North Ameri- general, coast and harbour charts for can Act of 1867, the Canadian Parlia- the Great Lakes - eight of Georgian ment had attained authority over cer- Bay and five for the North Channel. tain navigational matters and no Im- Although British Admiralty charts were perial funds were available for sur- the primary documents for a consider- veying. The Canadian Government, unable able period and the Canadian Hydrogra- to find a qualified hydrographer in phic Service was not brought into being Canada, approached the British Govern- until an Order-in-Council dated 11 ment and the British Hydrographer, Cap- March 1904, the appointment of Stewart tain Sir Frederick Evans, instructed may be considered to have brought to Staff Commander William Maxwell - the an end the British surveying contribu- officer in charge of the surveys of tion to the Great Lakes - or Georgian Newfoundland (not then, of course, part Bay - surveys. of Canada) - to go to Ottawa to discuss the requirement. As a result, Staff The North Coasts Commander John G. Boulton was appointed, on loan to Canada, to take In 1817, William Scoresby charge of the surveys, then called - a whaling friend of John Barrow, Se- "The Georgian Bay Survey", from July cond Secretary to the Admiralty - re- 1883 until April 1893. ported that, after many years of whaling experience, he was confident

31 that a seasonal recession of the Arctic mouth by July 1821 when, turning east, pack ice had taken place. To Barrow, they explored the coast by canoes for the senior civil servant in the about 550 miles as far as Port Turn- Admiralty who had travelled in his again; their return to civilization youth in a whaler to Greenland, this was so difficult that few survived, suggested that the time was ripe to but John Franklin, Back and Richardson renew the attempts to find a North West were to return despite their frightful Passage to the Pacific - which had experiences. begun some 200 years earlier when Luke Foxe had penetrated Hudson's Strait In 1824, after Parry had be- and explored Foxe Basin and since Baf- come Hydrographer, perhaps the most fin had passed through Davis Strait ambitious three-pronged expedition was to Baffin Bay. planned. Parry himself set off in 1825 in HECLA, with Commander Henry Hoffner In 1818, Barrow strongly sup- in FURY: they entered Prince Regent ported by Sir Joseph Banks and the Inlet hoping to sail south to reach Royal Society persuaded Lord Melville, the area explored by Franklin's canoe the First Lord, to approve the first party. The ice was particularly bad of many expeditions to Arctic waters. that year and FURY was so badly damaged Commander John Ross (with his nephew that she had to be beached to try to James Clark Ross) in ISABELLA, with repair her; despite superb seamanship, Lieutenant W. Edward Parry in ALEXAN- she had to be abandoned and both crews DER, sailed in April 1818 and passed had to return to England. The second through Davis Strait to the western party was a second overland trip led side of Baffin Bay and Lancaster Sound by Captain Franklin, again with Lieuten- before turning back. The next season, ant Back and Dr. Richardson but, this HECLA and GRIPER sailed with the inten- time, taking all their stores with tion of wintering in the ice, with them; having built a base camp at the Parry in command and with Captain western end of Great Bear Lake, the Edward Sabine RA as his astronomer and team set off in June 1826, down the Frederick Beechey as his First Lieu- Mackenzie River. As soon as they tenant; they sailed through Lancaster reached the coast, Franklin and Back Sound and, after exploring Prince Re- set off westwards (hoping to meet the gent Inlet, carried on along the north third party - BEECHEY - of whom more sids of Barrow Strait as far as almost later) but were soon attacked by Esqui- 114 West before turning back to a shel- maux; the calm bravery of their Eastern tered winter haven on the south coast Esquimau interpreter, Augustus, and of Melville Island; in 1820, he dis- Franklin's refusal to use his firearms covered Liddon Gulf by an overland jour- resulted in a peaceful return of most ney across the Dundas Peninsula, before of their gear, so that they were able returning to Deptford about the middle to reach Return Reef (near the site of November. of present day Prudhoe Bay, in Alaska) before returning on 18 August 1826 - In 1821, Commander Parry set bitterly disappointed not to have met off again in FURY with Commander George Beechey. Lyon in HECLA; passing south of Baffin Island, they carefully explored the Meanwhile, Dr. Richardson western side of Foxe Basin and wintered had been more successful as, despite on the eastern side of Melville Penin- a similar encounter with the Esquimaux, sula. After deducing from an Esquimau his party had explored the coast east- woman that a passage existed to the wards in their two small boats DOLPHIN north of this peninsula, the ships and UNION and reached the mouth of the started in early July 1822 to try to Coppermine River before walking to the battle their way through the ice and eastern shores of the Great Bear Lake islands of Fury and Hecla Strait but and crossing this to their base camp had to turn back frustrated by the cur- to reunite with Franklin. rents and conditions; after a second winter in the ice, they returned to The third prong of the 1825 England in November 1823 to find that plan was Captain Frederick Beechey who the second Hydrographer of the Navy, sailed, in January 1825, in HMS BLOSSOM Thomas Hurd, had recently died. via Cape Horn to tackle the North-West Passage from the Pacific. Although he Whilst Parry's expedition did not reach the Canadian coast, he in HECLA and GRIPER had been reaching reached the head of Kotzebue Sound - so far west, Lieutenant John Franklin where he had hoped to meet up with had been sent overland to explore and Franklin - by 25 July 1826 and sent survey the northern coasts with the Mr. Elson, the Master, in a barge to help of the Hudson's Bay and North-West survey the coastline and build beacons Companies; accompanied by Midshipmen on any prominent points with messages George Back and Hood, Doctor John for Franklin; having explored 125 Richardson, two British Able Seamen miles, Mr. Elson turned back at Point and several local guides, the party tra- Barrow - only some 160 miles short of velled down the Coppermine River from Franklin's Return Reef. Beechey sailed the Great Slave Lake and reached the south in mid October but returned next

32 summer without any further success. in 1850, pressed on alone and, entering M'Clure Strait, reached the longitude Parry's third voyage to the previously reached by Parry in 1819 North-West - again in HECLA - was more but became stuck in the ice at Mercy scientific than surveying as was the Bay, on the north coast of Banks Island privately organized expedition of John where he remained for three years. and James Ross which located the mag- Collinson, not entering Bering Strait netic north pole in 1829, in a 150 ton until 1851, followed the Alaskan coast steam vessel VICTORY (provided by the and, in 052/53 wintered at Cambridge gin-distiller Felix Booth); after two Bay, 105W, near the south-east corner winters in the Gulf of Boothia, the of Victoria Island; both Collinson and VICTORY had to be abandoned and the M'Clure sent parties exploring by crew spent a third winter in Fury Bay sledge and leaving cairns and messages (using supplies left by Parry in 1825) about their achievements during the before very fortunately meeting the winters spent in the ice. old ISABELLA, then whaling off Cape Liverpool (but in which John Ross had Meanwhile, a carefully travelled in 1818) and returning home planned expedition under Captain Austin late in 1833. with two 400 ton sailing barks RESOLUTE and ASSISTANCE and the screw sloops After a lull of twelve years, PIONEER and INTREPID had spent 1850 successful work in Antarctica and the and 1851 making a thorough search by advent of screw propulsion, led Sir boats and winter sledge journeys and John Barrow to persuade Captain Francis finding the first evidence of Frank- Beaufort, the then Hydrographer, to lins tracks - his first winter's quar- send HMS EREBUS and TERROR on another ters at Beechey Island. In April 1852, attempt to force their way through the the same four ships left England to- North-West passage; the 60 year old gether with the sloop NORTH STAR as Sir John Franklin volunteered and was supply ship, under Commander Pullen, selected to lead the ill-fated expedi- but with the well-named Captain Sir tion, which set off in May 1845. Edward Belcher in overall command, in Stopped frequently by pack ice, they ASSISTANCE, and the experienced Captain spent three winters„without getting Kellett in RESOLUTE and Commander Leo- more than about 100'W and eventually pold McClintock in INTREPID. On all must have perished by the end of reaching Lancaster Sound, Belcher and 1848. Lieutenant Sherard Osborn, in PIONEER, search northwards through Wellington Concerned by lack of any news Channel whilst Kellett took RESOLUTE or their non-return, some 25 separate and INTREPID searching westward towards searches were made between 1846 and Melville Island, leaving NORTH STAR 1859 to try to find their fate.(1) So at Beechey Island. During the 1852 much has been written of these winter, Commander George Richards, searches, that mention can only be made Belcher's deputy, made an epic 95 day here of a few. Captain Henry Kellett sledge journey to search and survey made three attempts from the Pacific; the islands and channels to the north on the second of these, in 1849, one of Melville Sound, during which he met of his officers, Lieutenant William a similar sledge party, under Lieuten- J.S. Pullen - using PLOVER's boats, ant Hamilton from the RESOLUTE who re- explored the Alaskan coast, beyond ported that Kellett's group, whilst the point reached by Mr. Elson in 1826 wintering at Winter Harbour, on Mel- and, indeed, reached the Mackenzie ville Island, had found a note from River and made his way up this in his Commander M'Clure reporting that two whale-boats to Fort Simpson - thus INVESTIGATOR had been iced in for the completing the British survey of the last three winters at Mercy Harbour, western part of Canadas northern some 150 miles on the opposite side coast. Having made his way overland, of Melville sound. nearly to the Great Slave Lake by 25 June 1850, he was amazed to find two As early as possible in 1853, Indians in a canoe with a message from Kellett sent Lieutenant Pim by sledge Beaufort saying that he was promoted to and, on 6 April 1853, the first meeting Commander but would he return for a took place between expeditions further search for Franklin; undaunted, approaching from either end of the North he returned for another search without -West Passage. But there was to be no success. single passage through by ship until the Norwegian Roald Amundsen achieved A second expedition from the this between 1903 and 1906, and now Pacific was that under Captain Richard disaster was to strike all the British Collinson in HMS ENTERPRISE with Com- ships. After a second winter in the mander Robert M'Clure in HMS INVESTIGA- ice, Belcher sent orders to Kellett TOR which left England in 1849, after to abandon RESOLUTE and INTREPID and an unsuccessful search by the two make their way overl and to the NORTH ships, under Captain Sir James Ross STAR with the crew of INVESTIGATOR: from the east in 1848. INVESTIGATOR, Belcher's own two ships were also aban- having met Kellett in HERALD off Alaska doned and all five crews of the aban- 33 doned ships embarked in NORTH STAR on Government much earlier than other mem- 26 August 1854 to return home; luckily, bers of the British Commonwealth, the shortly afterwards, they met the PHOENIX British Royal Navy's hydrographic sur- and TALBOT with fresh stores and orders veyors' efforts in Canadian waters tail- to abandon the search. ed off by the end of the 19th century but that, by that time, successive gen- As a postscript, an American erations of them had given devoted ser- whaling bark, GEORGE HENRY, found RESO- vice in order to produce charts which LUTE in 1855 and managed to tow her were very adequate for the purposes clear of the ice and took her to New required at the time they were exe- London where she was bought by the cuted. As everywhere else in the world, United States Government, refitted and however, improving technology enables presented back to Queen Victoria at hydrographers to react to improved Spithead. When finally broken up in accuracy requirements and succeeding 1880, a large desk was made from her generations of hydrographers must re- timbers and presented to the President check the work of their predecessors - of the United States.(2) however illustrious and painstaking these may have been. The mystery of the fate of Franklin and the crews of EREBUS and BIBLIOGRAPHY TERROR was not solved until Captain McClintock returned to the area in the British Columbia FOX - privately equipped by Lady Franklin - which left Aberdeen on 1 July 1857 and found a cairn with a (1) Warren Cook - "Flood Tide of paper, signed by Captain Fitzjames of Empire" (New Haven and London 1973) the TERROR, dated 25 April 1848 cer- p. 63. tifying that both ships had been trapped on 12 September 1846 and aban- (2) F.W. Howay (Ed.) - "The Journal doned on 22 April 1848, on the western of Captain James Colnett aboard side of King William Island. the Argonaut from 26 April 1789 to 3 November 1791" (Toronto 1940). The final British contribution was to the furthest point north yet (3) Howay op. cit. p. 7. reached. On 29 May 1875, Captain George Nares, in the screw sloop ALERT with (4) John T. Walbran - "British Columbia Captain Stephenson in the similar DIS Coast Names" (Ottawa 1909) pp COVERY passed up the east coast of Elles 271-272. mere Island; leaving DISCOVERY on the west side of Hall Basin, Nares (5) For early charts of N.W. America continued northwards through Robeson see Henry R. Wagner - "Cartography Channel, before wintering in a higher of the Northwest Coast of America latitude than any earlier ship had for the year 1800" (Berkely 1937). reached. During the winter, sledge parties left under Commander Clements (6) Barry M. Gough - "The Royal Navy Markham to try to reach the North Pole and the North-West Coast of North and under Lieutenant Pelham Aldrick who America 1810-1914" (Vancouver surveyed the northern coast of Ellesmere 1971). Island as far as Alert Point; the whole of ALERT's crew were then attacked by (7) Richard Charles Mayne - "Four Years scurvy and only skilled work from both in British Columbia and Vancouver ships enabled the expedition to return Island" (London 1862). at the end of October 1876. General Thus, over a period of some 60 years, numerous British expeditions (1) Captain J.F. Parry RN - "An His- had explored the Arctic unknown, in torical Sketch of the Exploration robust but very small vessels, appalling and Survey of the Waters of British weather and often very poor medical Columbia" from Hydrographic Annual conditions but with enormous courage, for the Year 1913 - No. 2 (Hydro- energy and tenacity. Many lives were graphic Department, London - MD lost in the illusive search for a North No. 249 1914). West Passage, the economic potential of which was finally demonstrated when (2) Vice Admiral Sir Archibald Day- the 300,000 ton British Petroleum tanker "The Admiralty Hydrographic MANHATTAN forced her way through Barrow, Service 1795-1919" (HMS0 1967). Melville and McClure Straits in 1969. (3) Vice Admiral Sir Archibald Day CONCLUSIONS - "The Royal Naval Surveyor's Ser- vice 1920-1960" (Hydrographic De- This account indicates that, partment, Taunton 1972). thanks to the ready acceptance of hydrographic responsibility by the Canadian

34 (4) Commander L.S. Dawson - "Memoirs General of Hydrography between the years 1750 and 1885 - in Two Parts" (1) Captain J.G.Boulton RN "Trans (Henry W. Keay, The Imperial Li- actions of the Literary and His- brary, Eastbourne 1885). torical Society of Quebec, Sessions of 1908-09, No. 28", Quebec East Coast Chronicle Printing Co. 1910.

(1) This beautiful atlas was published (2) Vice Admiral Sir Archibald Day facsimile in 1981 by Lord Eccles; "The Admiralty Hydrographic Service a copy of the facsimile is held 1795-1915" (HMSO 1867). in the Public Archives of Canada. (3) Commander L.S. Dawson "Memoirs (2) British Library, Add MS 17, 938B. of Hydrography between the years 1750 and 1885 in Two Parts" (Henry (3) Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale, W. Keay, Port. 21. The Imperial Library, Eastbourne 1885). (4) Published in William Vaughan Cambrensium Caroleia. (4) Ruth McKenzie "Admiral Bayfield - Pioneer Nautical Surveyor" (5) Public Record Office CO 700 Nova (Fisheries and Marine Service, Scotia No. 12(1). Miscellaneous Special Publication 32 1976). General The North Coasts (1) G.N.D. Evans "Uncommon Obdurate - The Several Public Careers of (1) Rear Admiral H.F. Pullen RCN "The J.F.W. Des Barres" (Peabody Museum Pullen Expedition in search of of Salem and University of Toronto Sir John Franklin" (Arctic History Press 1969). Press 1979).

(2) Vice Admiral Sir Archibald Day (2) Rear Admiral G.S. Ritchie "The "The Admiralty Hydrographic Ser- Admiralty Chart" (Hollis and Carter vice 1795-1919 (HMSO 1967). 1967).

(3) Vice Admiral Sir Archibald Day (3) Captain R. Maybourn "Problems of "The Royal Naval Surveyor's Ser- Operating Large Ships in the Arc- vice 1920-1960" (Hydrographic De- tic" (Journal of the Institute partment, Taunton 1972). of Navigation, Vol. 24, No. 2 April 1971).

(4) Commander L.S. Dawson "Memoirs General of Hydrography between the years 1750 and 1895 - in Two Parts" (1) Vice Admiral Sir Archibald Day (Henry W. Keay, the Imperial Li- "The Admiralty Hydrographic Service brary, Eastbourne 1885). 1795-1919" (HMSO 1967).

(5) Ruth McKenzie "Admiral Bayfield (2) Commander L.S. Dawson "Memoirs - Pioneer Nautical Surveyor" of Hydrography between the years (Fisheries and Marine Service Mis- 1750 and 1885 - in Two Parts" cellaneous Special Publication (Henry W. Keay, The Imperial Li- 31 1976). brary, Eastbourne 1885). (6) Lieutenant J.A. Rupert Jones RNR "An Historical Sketch of HM New- foundland Survey 1714-1912" (Hydro- graphic Annual for the Year 1913 - HMSO 1914).

(7) Captain J.G. Boulton RN "Trans- actions of the Literary and His- torical Society of Quebec, Sess- ions of 1908-09, No. 28, Quebec Chronicle Printing Co. 1910.

The Great Lakes

(1) R.W. Sandilands - "Hydrographic Surveying in the Great Lakes during the 19th Century" (The Canadian Surveyor, Vol. 36, No. 2, June 1982, p. 156).

35 VIGNETTES FROM HYDROGRAPHY'S PAST I was placed in the awkward situation of disproving a fact that mariners had been R.W. Sandilands accepting from their charts for anything Canadian Hydrographic Service up to one hundred years - and to do this Sidney, British Columbia one has to be very certain that not only Canada is it not there - but it is not in the vicinity. So how far afield should one look?

ABSTRACT An appreciation of how the rock/shoal or whatever might have been This paper takes a fixed was obviously going to be of non-technical and humorous look at our help. Also you got into the skin of predecessors in Canadian Hydrography. your predecessors - A was an excellent It touches on the value of history to man, always reliable and accurate, B had the modern hydrographer and from inexperienced assistants, C was just historical records and personal passing through the area on a correspondence of the day shows that the reconnaissance survey, etc. problems faced by yesterdays hydrographers are frequently the same as Thus I found that an those faced today by the field man, the appreciation of the history of cartographer, Ship Division management hydrography, our predecessors, their and administrators. instruments and methods had a practical application for the present day surveyor and that applied history could be RÉSUM interesting. As a corollary I also found that such information was sadly Cette étude jette un regard lacking; that history in hydrography was humoristique et non technique sur les a neglected subject and that the pionniers de l'hydrographie au Canada. cartographic historians, of whom there Elle fait ressortir la valeur de l'his- were legion, had little appreciation of toire pour l'hydrographe moderne et, à hydrographic surveying. partir de données historiques et de cor- respondances personnelles de cette However these aspects of the époque, elle montre que les problèmes history of hydrography will be covered qui se posaient autrefois aux hydro- off in "The Chartmakers" and today I graphes sont souvent les mêmes que ceux have chosen to pick a few notes from que rencontrent encore aujourd'hui various historical documents that I came l'hydrographe, le cartographe, le ges- across whilst researching that book. tionnaire et l'administrateur de la These are non-technical fragments from Division des navires. our past which show that little is new in the life of the hydrographer.

For the hydrographer; the cartographer; the ship division types; At school, history frequently the administrators; the problems; appears as a boring, mind-numbing, gripes; bureaucracy; paperwork are the commitment to memory of lists of kings, same today as they were in the past. prime ministers, wars and peace treaties. I hope that there will be Later in life in certain something for everyone, some incident professions and viewed in different that you can relate to and smile to perspectives it comes to have a certain yourself taking new heart from the fact relevance, particularly in law and that you are not the first to contend perhaps, surprisingly, in surveying. with some particular problem. Historical precedents figure largely in surveying of lands and land ownership, Periodically hydrographers and they also have a place in bite their fingernails as they sally hydrography. forth for their interviews with the CHS National Appraisal Board and the annual Every hydrographer in the appraisal report time passed a month or course of his survey compares his two ago. Those of you who have to make present survey with the previous one of these appraisals may be interested in a the area. Many of the surveys I few choice quotations and phrases for conducted on the West Coast were this exercise. resurveys of previous Admiralty work and meant a step back in time to the Egeria, On hearing of an appointment which worked on the coast from 1898-1910 to his ship bound for B.C. surveys - and in some cases even back to the Captain Richards commented "I confess I work of Captain Richards and should have be'en glad if Mr. H. had Commander Pender in 1858-1870. chosen China as the field whereon to make his reputation". So when faced with not finding a shoal or rock in its charted position Or, "Our second master is more

36 than useless wherever he might have been complain of my living instruments - but picked up". Mr. H. has quite disappointed me. He is too old to be teachable and too Admiral W.F.W. Owen was not irascible and uncourteous to make any quite so brief in his condemnation of a sort of rationalism agreeable even when Lieutenant K. reporting that "he is no the ends would be attainable. I know of seaman, his vessel is his master, he no remedy but Abrahams with Lot - let us mistakes tyranny for discipline, is most part". He reserved brevity for contentious, disrespectful even to favourable comments and his highest insolence, and dangerously prone to approbation was "He is a gentleman". litigation. Altogether a character as totally unfit for the place in which I But enough of Owen for the find him as could have been found, I present. believe, in our Service". Try for a promotion after that report! Now the hydrographers may not have been happy with their most recent Owen had started up the contract but what of working conditions surveys of the Great Lakes in 1815 and in the past. had gone on to carry out his great surveys on the African coast. Despite Bayfield on the St. Lawrence the hardships of work on that coast survey noted in his journal for llth where he lost two thirds of his officers July 1842 "We gave ourselves and all and half his crew to fever during the hands a holiday today - the third in five years survey, he survived and fourteen years; all the early part of retired to Campobello where his family the day however was occupied in cleaning had estates. Largely due to his the ship completely fore and aft". exertions The Bay of Fundy survey was mounted by the Admiralty and its And the following week "This history, like the bay, was tempestuous. if it had not been the Sabbath would have been a day in which we could have The chain of command was sounded 70 miles. I am convinced unusual to say the least as Owen was however that there is nothing lost in nominally in charge of it but was not the long run by doing right". commissioned. His survey ship came out from U.K. with her own Captain who had Bayfield would probably have his instructions, his estimates etc. been quite happy to be in the field all There was an immediate clash as Owen, year long as in 1827 writing of life in who was also an M.P.P. (Member of the Quebec City he penned "This is the most Provincial Parliament) had arranged a dissipated place I ever was in, nothing reconnaissance cruise around the Bay but balls, dinners, suppers etc. and with the Lieutenant Governor while the they that do not have the strength of Captain naturally wanted to start on his mind to resist the temptation are likely survey. With Owen's holdings in to add about five years to their age for Campobello where better to base the every one they pass at Quebec". And ship, erect a stores depot, set up a later, "There are also several very stock of coal, put in a tide gauge, hire agreeable girls that I have no time to a pilot than at Campobello - on property fall in love with permanently. I say owned by the Owen family, with men who permanently because I often fall in love would vote for Owen. For the efficiency with one or the other of them for a day of the survey naturally - pork or two - generally the last one I danced barrelling by an officer and a gentleman with. A kind look, or kind words lights was unheard of. up the flame - but triangles etc. quench at the next day". Think what a pocket Worse than all this however he calculator could have done for him!! got religion and the unctuous phrases "This is the case with C. - a fellow one finds in his letters make peculiar officer and when we happen to be in love reading these days. with the same lady at the same time we play for her after dinner at Perhaps a Regional Backgammon. I win nearly all of them Hydrographer could try ending a letter from him to his great annoyance". I to the Dominion Hydrographer "God bless don't know if this is a reflection on and preserve you a thousand years", Bayfields skill or the tact of his having previously scattered a few "God junior officer. willings" throughout his proposed program for the Region. Later he wrote that he was half in love with two young ladies and In the midst of Owen's tirade that he was therefore like a jackass against Lieutenant K. he wrote the H.O. between two bales of hay but he married "Let Mr. H., which the Providence of God in 1838 and in January '39 "My beloved and of the Admiralty may give me, be Fanny became a mother - this addition to appointed to supercede Lieutenant K." my responsibility was given to me just but one year later, having had H. nine months and twelve days after my appointed Owen wrote "No task so marriage so you can see no great deal of repulsive and disagreeable as having to time was lost". 37 By 1846 he was answering a and the smallest space in which the most letter "You asked me how many we have - intricate places can clearly be shown is only four with a narrow miss of having therefore the only rational law. The half as many more". more compact in absolute as well as relative size, the more useful they are On the subject of families, to the poor seaman". Owen had two daughters, Portia and Cornelia - both named after ships he had But poor Captain Tooker of the commanded. Now Richardson McCulloch has Newfoundland survey had a blast from his a fine Scottish ring to it, Hudson Hydrographer when he submitted three Henderson an alliterative appeal, Sir sheets for engraving at a scale of 3/4 John A. Macdonald Williams and Cartier inch to the mile instead of 1 inch to Kerr would be politically committed for the mile, the error being made during a their lives but North Star Bolton! change of command in the middle of the field season. A winters draughting was We all have our problems with wasted. The error mitigated somewhat by D.S.S. (Dept. of Supply and Services), the comment. "Do not put your who are keen on lowest bids and insist inexperienced assistants to draughting on supplying something similar to our charts for the engraver. To overhaul requisition but not really filling the and correct such work here gives more bill for our exact requirements. This trouble than if done here. We could not type of bureaucratic stores control has have engraved from the sheets sent in by been around for centuries as is them last year even if the scale had evidenced by this reply to an Admiralty been right". directive from Hurd, Hydrographer of the Navy in 1822. A fixed number of candles Another Hydrographer-in-Charge per ship per year had been laid down and earned the following rebuke from London Hurd commented "These vessels being on his penmanship "It is also necessary employed on a particular service in I should point out that the figures used search after hidden dangers and in the in your chart are of so diminutive a construction of sea charts for the size it is very difficult to make out general benefit of navigators which what the soundings are and will requires the free use of all kinds of therefore thank you in future to have mathematical instruments and apparatus them enlarged". whose delicate figures and divisions thereon marked, it would be difficult to As in the case today the make out without a good and strong light hydrographer is always anxious to see and as the duty of surveying officers on his survey in print and cartographers all open and fine weather days is were unable to meet production demands. occupied in making the necessary Wharton wrote Boulton who was pressing observations, they are constrained to for publication of his Georgian Bay commit to paper in the evening whatever charts "You must curb your impatience has been the results of the day. Thus for its appearance. Our hands are very for the most troublesome part of their full but it will be taken up as soon as labours a strong light is absolutely possible". necessary. I should presume a yearly sum of between ten and twelve pounds The chart planners of the last might be allowed the surveyor leaving century also had their digs at the field him at liberty to supply himself with men "Considering the short season in that kind of light most suitable to his which the surveying vessel can work in own eye and the complex nature of his Newfoundland too much time should not be work". taken up in superfluous detail. Distinction should be drawn as to the I am sure that all fullness of details bestowed on a Hydrographers-in-Charge would echo harbour or anchorage of conspicuous Bayfields comments from his journal for merits, whether looked at politically or 30 May 1841 where he wrote "I made my commercially and on a harbour or cash accounts up to this day and thereby anchorage that in all probability is not dismissed from my mind that part of my likely to be of use at least to a very duty till next autumn, which will allow distant future". me to turn my undivided attention to the survey". However the same letter contained a paragraph that "Much that Those of you who have had to you have forwarded lately is so refer to old Admiralty charts may have extremely minute in details that our wondered about the unusual scales used Sailing Directions Department is and apparent lack of standardization in becoming embarrassed as how to deal with these scales. Beaufort, as such lengthened descriptions". That Hydrographer, wrote to Bayfield - "To Stan Dee should be so embarrassed! lay down a priori any unbending rule to which a surveyor is to adhere in the The practical mind of the scales of the several parts of his work hydrographers came to the fore in a is absurd. A chart larger than flurry of correspondence about 1870 when necessary is in my opinion a nuisance the Fenian raids were a matter of

38 concern. The Trans-Atlantic cable had Good crews were hard to find just been completed to Newfoundland and for the tenders and other charter thence across the Island to a second vessels. Lieutenant C. returned from cable to the mainland. The brass bound Riviêre du Loup with three men who "had military ashore were worried about the never pulled an oar in their lives - we possibility of the Fenians getting a shall have to teach them' - and this ship and cutting the cable offshore but comment in one form or another is in a matter of fact memorandum, Kerr of recited by all survey parties. the Newfoundland survey pointed out that the weakest link in the system was its Though there were no union overland route where it was remarkably contracts it was as difficult to fire easy to shin up a pole and cut the poor seamen then as it is now. For wire. - End of correspondence with its example - "There was one man who had schemes of patrols and on with the been drunk, insolent and disobedient, survey. but upon reflection I could not punish him by stopping his wages without being In the backward days of the subject to a lawsuit the result of which last century tides were included in the would have been doubtful and even if general work of the survey and Owen got decided in our favour we should have had his first automatic gauge for Halifax in to pay the costs as he would sue me in 1846, followed closely by Saint John forma pauperis. This took place last Campobello - naturally - and Cape year when a man was declared to have Sable. He agonized about the design for partly forfeited his wages but the agent one for the Cumberland Basin with its 60 had to pay nearly double the wages foot rise and fall however. As this was forfeited in costs". a previously unheard of range Owen had a grand plan for a sen es of gauges right The crew were paid one months up Fundy to measure the progression of salary in advance and recovery of this the tide. advance was naturally well nigh impossible. On the B.C. coast today the pilot of an inbound vessel can radio The lack of seamanship led to ashore and quickly obtain a height of at least one incident which could have tide for the Fraser. But one hundred been serious but in retrospect was years ago Pender arranged that the amusing. A poor Lieutenant returns to lightkeepers at Sand Heads signalled the his base after a days hike over rough height from a gauge by means of a territory to report the loss of his boat special code of signals. and all equipment. It transpired that the Coxswain had anchored his boat for The problems facing todays the night on too short a scope of ship division are those that have faced cable. As the tide rose the anchor all ship operators throughout the ages. lifted and the boat drifted off in the The ships assigned to survey duties were darkness. The anchor caught ground castoffs from the fleet. They were again round a headland and on awakening regularly surveyed and regularly the boat keepers were as surprised to condemned. Contractors were always find no one camped ashore - for one cove trying to get a few more dollars for looked just like the next - as the shore hire of their vessels. The ships found party were to find no boat in their rocks the hard way. Their boilers cove! wheezed their last. The first thing Pender had done for the Beaver was a new In another unseamanlike funnel casing for preventing the incident the Coxswain carelessly left hurricane deck catching fire from the the plug out of a boat which had been boiler room sparks. hauled on the beach at low water after having been scrubbed out at the end of a One officer who served onboard days work. At night the flood tide the charter survey ship Ellinor of the made, the boat filled, all the field Newfoundland Survey reminisces. When notes and instruments were damaged and in St. John's, Lloyds Survey on the ship about ten days provisions were ruined. came due and on inspection it was found that seventeen planks on the ships side William J. Stewart summed up required renewal. The Captain having the situation as well as anyone "It is a satisfied himself that the contractor mistake to engage these young farmers understood what was to be done went off who enjoy life at sea till the novelty on leave to New York. Later, when wears off, then they want to go home to discussing the repairs with me, the Mother". contractor said he thought it was quite unnecessary to remove so many planks, For those of you who complain and that a little paint would cover up about the food onboard our ships I have any defects, remarking that it would some quotes illustrating the high mean £50 to me. I was rather shocked standards of gourmet fare enjoyed by our with this suggestion and on the Captains predecessors. return told him about it - he laughed and said, don't worry they offered me "We began today to catch £1001". puffins and young gulls to make our 39 provisions last out as long as possible. of Canso. Heavy rain and low visibility These are but indifferent food and my to Gaspé and there they went close in to men would not use them until they allow H.R.H. a view of the town and took learned my determination of not bottom. One hour later they were off returning to the vessel till the work again and picked up a pilot for the was finished and the consequent River Saguenay who promptly ran the ship possibility of their being on short Hero aground due to a buoy being out of allowance". position. Out sextant and fix the buoy and shoal. Onboard all the guns were Or on the Great Lakes. run aft and off they went again.

"In the afternoon 17 chipmunks However all ended well with - were trapped. Porcupine boullion for quote - gratifying testimonials from dinner, no pepper thus enhancing full Commodore Seymour, The Duke of Newcastle porcupine flavour. We found a few and even H.R.H. the Prince of Wales did potatoes which were duly incorporated in me the honour to thank me and make me a the boullion. Second course was present of his own portrait. Perhaps hardtack, for tea fricassied chipmunk Steve MacPhee could consider handing out with the usual etceteras". However the autographed photographs to following day "A supply of fresh trout Hydrographers-in-Charge at the end of put an end to fancy cookery". particularly successful seasons!

William J. Stewart fired one If anyone had the idea of cook with the remarks "He has not one going sick to avoid work it would appear redeeming quality, he cannot cook, is from some journals that the cure was dirty and untidy". This coming about worse than the ailment. Entries in one when the cook refused to bake bread as medical case book or Nosological Journal he was a chef - and it was not part of a as it was headed records "Bowels chefs duties to make bread. confined, which in all cases was dealt with by a dose of sulphate magnesia but Of course even hydrographers one poor fellow who suffered from are not infallible and have their neuralgia of the facial nerve was moments of embarrassment. treated by galvanic shock along the course of the reoccurrence of the lis Royal Highness the Prince paroxyms and quinine draft twice a day". of Wales visited Canada in 1860 and the officer in charge of the St. Lawrence Though I've chosen my few Survey wrote to the 0.0. "I humbly anecdotes today from the lighter side of suggest that the occasion of the Prince history I would like to end on a of Wales visit seems a proper slightly serious note. opportunity for showing the usefulness of that branch of the service to which Today is yesterdays tomorrow. we belong and of which you are the And every now and then vie should look at respected chief. I believe no one our yesterdays to plan our tomorrows. A afloat possesses a more thorough cliché it may be but history does repeat knowledge of the coast, of the soundings itself. between Halifax, Sydney and Quebec than myself and no one can be more anxious to Governments in Canada have devote himself zealously and efficiently gone through periods of ignoring to the pilotage of the Royal Squadron hydrography. It is not a high profile, through the Gulf of St. Lawrence. On no vote catching way of spending money. ordinary occasion would I have proffered But a neglect of continuing programs of my services but on the advent of H.R.H. hydrography has always ended in a the heir apparent to the British throne tragedy the cost of which has often to these colonies I should be indeed exceeded the costs of the abandoned gratified at having the opportunity of survey program. aiding in any way the successful prosecution of so auspicious an event". The French put their money into the fortress of Louisburg to the Now the poor fellow has broken detriment of a survey program and the the old service rule of - never loss of the transport Elephant shocked vol unteer. them back to activity.

It may have seemed a good idea The loss of the steamer Asia to get away from the monotony of the in Georgian Bay after over fifty years survey, meet with H.R.H. and all his of inactivity on the Lakes brought about accompanying brass, have a few decent the commencement of the Georgian Bay meals, perhaps sample the Royal cellar Survey, the immediate predecessor of the etc. but little of this happened. Canadian Hydrographic Service.

The Royal squadron left A few years ago the St. John's in a thick fog and had a dirty Sir John A. Macdonald was damaged in the passage to Sydney. The weather was Arctic. She could just as easily have reasonable to Halifax but leaving there been lost requiring a multi-million they were in thick fog through the Gut dollar oil spill clean up. 40 A steady but regular investment of a fraction of these costs, in well considered hydrographic survey programs would in the long haul be a saving to the Canada taxpayer.

There are lessons in history for all of us.

41 the refined mentioned method was generalized to handle tidal records of any len- IMPROVED TECHNIQUES OF SHORT gth. Experience showed very good results. PERIOD TIDAL ANALYSIS However it has been concluded A.S. Franco and J. Harari that shorter series would be better work- Instituto des Pesquisas Tecnologicas do ed out through cross spectral analysis. Estado de Sao Paulo S.A./Instituto Oceanografico da Universidade de Sao Paulo, Brazil 2. DIRECT ANALYSIS

The previously mentioned refined ABSTRACT method of tidal analysis devised to handle long series of tidal heights proved to be 14 Spectral methods of tidal anal- very accurate and quick when 2 hourly ysis used in Brazil from 1971 onwards heights were analysed. Such a span is nec- have been improved to analyse short tidal essary to improve the resolution, reduced records. In addition, a cross analysis of by the use of a cosine taper in the time short spans with the predicted tide of an- series. other place proved to be very fast and accurate enough to justify its current Recently, the method was gener- use. The predicted tide for Cananeia was alized in order to handle shorter spans, used as driving function in cross analy- because practiçO work showed that a ser- sis with the observed tide in Ubatuba for ies of 2048 (2'') hourly heights the ac- several spans. The two places are about curacy of the results were greater than 300 km apart and have very different topo- that reached with the general method de- graphy. Notwithstanding high coherences vised by Franco and Rock (1971). We will were found even for the frequency corres- show now how we have arrived at this con- ponding to shallow-water constituents. clusion.

In the spectral methods of tid- RÉSUMÉ al analysis used in Brazil, the statistically unreliable constituents, selected Les analyses de marée par la according to the theory developed by Fran- méthode spectrale, utilisées au Brésil, co-Rock (1971), are . preceded by an aster- depuis 1971, ont été améliorées afin isk. Such a selection usually based on a d'analyser les registres des marées de 95% probability, showed so many astericks courte période. En outre, une contre- in a recent analysis of 2048 hours, that analyse des amplitudes de marées de an attempt was made to apply the refined courte période, en ayant recours à la method. The results were not very differ- prédiction des marées d'un autre en- ent by the asterisk "constellation" was droit, s'est effectuée si rapidement reduced. Thus the idea came to study the qu'elle s'est avérée assez exacte pour inverse symmetrical matrices multiplying justifier son utilisation courante. La the known vectors. A sample taken from a prédiction des marées dans la région de 9 species analysis (Table 2-1) shows that Cananeia a été utilisée comme point de the matrix (upper part of the table) is départ pour contre-analyser, avec la almost diagonal. This means that the ele- marée observée à Ubatuba, plusieurs am- ments of the known vectors are almost in- plitudes. Les deux endroits sont situés dependent of each other. In fact, the lar- à 300 km de distance et leur topogra- gest influence of neighbouring consti- phie diffère. Malgré tout, on a décou- tuents is about 2.5%. The filtering effect vert qu'il existait une grande cohé- produced by the cosine taper is excellent rence, même pour ce qui avait trait à indeed. la fréquence correspondant aux compo- santes de marée en eau peu profonde. It is interesting to note that the diagonals corresponding to the analysed species are all approximately equal 1. BACKGROUND to 0.667 and that the influence of neighbouring constituents are also about 2.5%. As early as 1971 it was under- In addition, the background noise with stood that the classical methods of tidal frequencies different from each computed analysis were not sufficient to take all constituent has little effect on it. advantage offered by electronic computer. Thus the problem was studied in Brazil The spectrum of residual ampli- and a spectral method was drawn by Franco tudes, in Table 2-1, indicates that, if and Rock (1971), which proved to be as any important constituent was ignored, flexible as efficient. Hence an improved its residual should be large and therefore version of such a method was devised by„ should have been included in the analysis. France (1976) to analyse long series (2'' This helps the selection of shallow-water hours) of tidal records. constituents considerably.

Very recently it has been more 3. CROSS SPECTRAL ANALYSIS necessary to analyse short series (about three months) of hourly tidal heights and The method used to work out the

42 analysis is not the conventional one. Its energy for each tidal frequency band is theoretical basis is fully explained in obtained by the sum of R'/2, for the Four- Franco (1981), thus it is sufficient to ier lines covering that band, and obvious- mention here its main features. ly the less residual energy the better the analysis results will be. If (t) is the observed tide and z (0 the predicted tide at a nearby port 5. DESCRIPTION OF THE TIDAL ANALYSIS and the non coherent energy - The analysis was performed with hourly height samples from a continuous S(p) - [1 -y z (P) ( 3 yPnsu j) conventional tidal record obtained at Ubatuba, Flamengo Harbour, in 1977-1978. are also computed. The latter is called For the cross analysis, Cananeia was used here residual energy. as the standard port, about 300 km away from Flamengo Harbour (Fig. 1). An important remark is that the results obtained with this method of analysis are nearly the same as obtained 23 0 through the covariance method worked out of free- Flamengo harbour with the same number of degrees 240 dom.

In order to avoid to jeopardize 250 Cananeia the resolution of the analysis it is not convenient to use large values of Y. In current work we make =3. If the series 1 is too short (15 days or less) we must 480 460 44 0 420' use y =1. In this case the coherence is equal to 1 for all p. Longitude (W)

Since the tidal frequencies do Figure 1 - Brazilian southeast continen- not correspond to the Fourier frequencies tal shelf - Cananeia and Flam- the gain (3g) and the phase correction engo Harbour (3h) must be interpolated in order to obtain their values corresponding to the The harmonic constants for Can- tidal harmonics. A second degree parabolic aneia were obtained by finding the vecto- interpolation is sufficient. The interpol- rial means of the harmonic ccnstants com- ated gains multiplied by the amplitudes puted in three analyses of 2'' hourly H of the constituents used to predict heights. z(t) will give the amplitudes H corresponding to (t). The interpolated correc- It is interesting to note that tions o(p) added to the phase lags G of even the shallow water constituents were the above mentioned constituents in the included in the prediction for Caneneia series z(t), will give the desired G, re- and in the cross spectral analysis. As a ferred to the observed series (t). result of the cross spectral analysis, the coherence corresponding to the fre- An interesting remark is that quency bands of those constituents showed even if the number of hourly heights is that the transfer function for these bands not a power of 2, the classical Cooley- would be thoroughly used. Thus an impor- Tukey F. F. T. algorithm can be used to tant conclusion can be drawn: the shallow- work out the Fourier analysis. This is water effect is a global phenomenon on possible because the series z(t) and r(t) the coast between Cananeia and Flamengo duly normalized, are both completed with Harbour rather than in the very shallow- the same number of zeroes, producing the waters inside both harbours. Consequently same frequency shift in the harmonics of cross spectral analysis is also valid to both Fourier series. find harmonic constants of shallow-water constituents in large areas. 4. ACCURACY OF THE RESULTS 6. NUMERICAL RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The spectral method is the most convenient to compare the accuracy of the fable 4-1 lists the residual en- results of several analysis. Using the ergy in cmx hour for the tidal bands in harmonic constants obtained in any analy- each analysis as well as their consti- sis, a tidal prediction is performed for tuents. any period covered by tidal observations. Then a spectral analysis of the residuals It is shown that for 360 hourly (difference between the prediction and heights the harmonic constants obtained the observation) is effected in order to for 1C 360 are much more reliable than obtain the residual energy spectrum. The those found by D 360. spectral window 11, can be ignored in this case. Except for 2048 hourly heights, the F method gave less accurate results Since R is the amplitude of than the D method. That can be easily ex- the residual autonspectrum, the residual plained: the F method reduces the resolu-

TABLE 2-1

CYCLES PER DAY: 2

2NS2 MNS2 MU2 N2 M2 L2 S2 MSN2 2SM2 2sN2

0.6667 0.0017 0.6667 -0.0001 0.0017 0.6669 -0.0000 0.0001 -0.0134 0.6669 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0001 0.0017 0.6667 0.0000 0.0000 -0.0000 -0.0001 0.0017 0.6669 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0001 -0.0134 0.6669 -0.000C 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0001 0.0017 0.6669 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0001 -0.0134 0.6669 -0.0000 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0000 -0.0000 0.0001 0.0017 0.6667

DEGREES OF FREEDOM: 44

RESIDUAL ENERGY (CM2*HR) 5.02

SPECTRUM OF RESIDUAL AMPLITUDES

DEG/HR RES. DEG/HR RES. DEG/HR RES. DEG/HR RES. DEG/HR RES. CM CM CM CM CM 26.543 0.08 26.719 0.21 26.895 0.14 27.070 0.39 27.246 0.28 27.422 0.14 27.598 0.53 27.773 0.74 27.949 0.37 28.125 0.79 28.301 0.42 28.477 0.16 28.652 0.56 28.828 0.76 29.004 0.32 29.180 0.59 29.355 0.29 29.531 0.30 29.707 0.44 29.683 1.34 30,059 0.61 30.234 1.73 30.410 0.18 30.586 0.18 30:762 0.50 30.938 0.30 31.113 0.44 31.289 0.44 31.465 0.11 31.641 0.16 31.816 0.07 31.992 0.46

at instant t, the Fourier analysis of The spectral window used in our these curves will be given the following practical work is normalized, i.e. complex Fourier coefficients:

N-1 11)(p-n)= [11)1(p-n ) hiP i (p-n) C = I s z(kàt)exp(-iwkat) n where n N K=0 and sin nx/ Eirx( 1 -X 2 )J for x < 2 (3d) N-1 )1(P - n)= c = I E OKet)exp(-iw ket) { 0 for x 2 r: n (3e) N K=0 x=4(p-n)/u Expression (3d) is the usual Hanning where N is the number of samples, w n the function. angular frequency and àt the sampling in- The number of harmonics covered by terval. the window is approximately equal the The smoothed cross spectrum is number of degrees of freedom. given by The transfer function is obtained p+u/2 from (3a) and 3(b): s 2c 0 (3a) S ; (p)= c'*IP(p-n) n=p-u/2 w(p)=S c (p)/S zz (p) (3f) where the asterisk indicates the complex If we call X(p) and Y(p), respectively conjugate of c„, ,p is a smoothing func- the real and the imaginary parts of w(p) tion known as "spectral window" and u+1 we have is the number of harmonics covered by the spectral window. k(p)J=/X 2 (p)+Y 2 (p) (3g) The auto or energy spectra of the for the gain and "driving function z(t) and of (t) are 19(p)=arctan EY(p)/X(pE (3h) expressed, respectively by for the phase lead. p+u/2 S (p). E 2c The coherence zz n c*(p-n)n (3b) n=p-u/2 (3i) y 2 z (p). I5 z p)1 2 /5 zz (P) S„(PU p+u/2 S (p)- E 2c 1 c 1 *11)(p-n) (3c) n=p-u/2 n n

Table 4-1

-CC - cross analysis with a spectral window covering -C. harmonics D - direct analysis without cosine taper F - direct analysis with cosine taper

These symbols are followed by the span's extension in hours

N9 of A- Species Residual Residual Residual Energy Energy na1yN. Energy Const. Species . sis: N. Species Species Species Code,N9 1 and 2 3 to 6 1 to 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 - 6 of Points N, 32 lc 168 38.06 27.50 7.05 5.90 1.65 3.24 65.56 17.84 83.40 38 lc 360 10.53 17.47 2.55 3.25 1.69 0.94 28.00 8.43 36.43 08 D 360 12.76 29.80 2.80 10.53 1 54 1.38 42.56 16.25 58.81 32 3c 1024 7.01 12.20 4.11 2.38 1.90 1.20 19.21 9.59 28.80 17 D 1024 2.98 8.55 1.49 3.09 1.40 1.01 11.53 6.99 18.52 19 F 1024 2.93 9.45 1.35 3.03 1.54 1.09 12.38 7.01 19.39 33 3c 2048 7.94 7.20 1.53 2.68 1.40 1.02 15.14 6.63 21.77 29 Sc 2048 6.86 8.80 1.08 2.26 1.53 1.18 15.66 6.05 21.71 20 D 2048 3.01 10.53 1.23 3.31 1.20 0.85 13.54 6.59 20.13 25 F 2048 3.05 8.70 1.11 3.41 1.28 0.90 11.75 6.70 18.45 29 3c 2880 4.62 5.24 1.26 2.39 1.37 1.18 9.86 6.20 16.06 23 D 2880 2.98 7.87 1.24 2.97 1.16 0.86 10.85 6.23 17.08 55 D 10944 2.02 4.17 0.86 1.36 0.96 0.59 6.19 3.77 9.96 57 F 10944 2.15 4.28 0.99 1.39 0.99 0.62 6.43 3.99 10.42

tion of constituents of nearby frequen- An interesting remark is that cies, thus when the series length does in the F method, the adopted probability not balance the reduction of the resolu- to reject constituents was 99%. tion, no improvement results from the use of the cosine taper. This is exactly what happens with all the direct analysis, ex- 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY for the 2048 hour series.

It became evident in this re- FRANCO, A.S. & ROCK, N.J., - 1971 - "The search that the statistical selection of fast Fourier transform and its applica- the constituents in the direct methods of tion to tidal oscillations" - Bolm. analysis is very efficient. In fact, when Inst. Oceanogr., Sao Paulo, V. 20, the flagged constituents are included in No. 1, 145-199. the predictions the results are worse than if such constituents are neglected. FRANCO, A.S. - 1976 - "A refined method of tidal analysis" - The Belle Baruch The direct methods of analysis Library in Marine Science, 7. Symposium are very quick; consequently, even for a on Estuarine Transport Process hold in one year analysis, there is no harm done Georgetown, South California. in considering a large number of constituents (about 100 up to the sixth diurnal), FRANCO, A.S. - 1981 - "Tides - Fundamen- and use in predictions the not flagged tals, analysis and prediction" - constituents only. Public. IPT. No. 1182.

45 THE LEGAL LIABILITY OF THE CHARTMAKER Le degré de fiabilité que l'on accorde aux cartes et autres publica- Peter M. Troop tions nautiques du S.H.C. peut, en vertu Assistant Deputy Attorney General de la Loi sur la responsabilité de la (Admiralty and Maritime Law) Couronne, obliger le Gouvernement cana- Department of Justice dien à respecter les demandes d'indem- Ottawa, Ontario nité de plusieurs millions de dollars, provenant des propriétaires de navires ABSTRACT ou de cargos pour des dommages causés par des cartes erronées ou inexactes. Il Recent developments in the faut ainsi sensibiliser les employés du law have imposed increased liability S.H.C. à cette responsabilité et prendre and responsibility on Government Depart- les mesures nécessaries pour protéger le ments and Agencies providing services Gouvernement de cette éventualité, ou to the public. The Canadian Hydrograph- tenter du moins de la limiter. L'accent ic Service as the Crown Agency providing doit être mis sur l'importance pour le reliable information to the marine navi- S.H.C. d'établir des normes d'excellence gator must be aware of the legal respon- et de prévoir les dispositions visant à sibilities and duties and the extent assurer qu'elles sont respectées. Nous to which the Crown may be liable for nous reportons notamment aux problèmes shipping casualties and other marine d'ordre juridique qui sont reliés à l'ad- accidents. judiction de contrats de levés ou d'autres enquêtes scientifiques et la façon The degree of reliance placed selon laquelle la Couronne peut s'acquit- on charts and other nautical publi- ter de ses obligations et ainsi limiter cations of the C.H.S. potentially expose son degré de responsabilité. the Government of Canada, under the Crown Liability Act to claims by ship La grande fiabilité du Gou- owners, cargo owners for damages ranging vernement et des employés maritimes, up to many millions of dollars based pour ce qui est de la crédibilité et upon misleading or inaccurate charts. de l'expertise des hydrographes, y est Members of the C.H.S. need to be aware également décrite, de même que l'utili- of this responsibility and take all nece- sation de l'information et des résul- ssary measures to protect and to limit tats. Les litiges relatifs aux change- this potential exposure of the Govern- ments apportés aux techniques, aux nou- ment of Canada. The importance of the velles procédures et à la mise à jour C.H.S. establishing standards of excell- des vieilles cartes et publications, ence and providing for mechanisms to afin de satisfaire aux normes modernes ensure that these standards of excell- de la cartographie, sont également pas- ence are met is emphasized. Special ref- sées en revue et font l'objet de discus- erence is made to the legal problems and sions. other scientific investigations and the manner by which the Crown can discharge Admiral Beaufort's Revenge its responsibility and limit its liability therefor. 1. My topic is the legal liability of the hydrographer. The heavy reliance by Govern- ment and the marine public on the hydrog- 2. My text is taken from the rapher's creditability and expertise eleventh edition 71-gTO) of the Encyclo- is also described as well as the use paedia Britannica. It is written by Cap- to which the information and results tain Thomas Hull, formerly Superintend- are put. The legal problems associated ent of Admiralty Charts. He writes: with changing technology, new procedures and the updating of older charts and "The ocean and general charts publications to meet modern charting are compiled and drawn at the Hydrograph- standards are reviewed and discussed. ic Office, and as originals, existing charts, latest surveys and maps, have RÉSUMÉ to be consulted, their compilation requires considerable experience and is Des récentes réformes à la a pains-taking work, for the compiler législation ont imposées de plus grandes has to decide what to omit, what to in- responsabilités aux sociétés et minis- sert, and to arrange the necessary names tères du Gouvernement qui assurent des in such a manner that while full informa- services au grand public. En fournissant tion is given, the features of the coast de l'information fiable aux navigateurs are not interfered with. As a very maritimes, le Service hydrographique slight error in the position of a light du Canada, à titre de société de la Cour- or buoy, dot, cross or figure, might onne, ne doit pas ignorer ses respon- lead to grave disaster, every symbol on sabilités et engagements juridiques et the admiralty chart has been delineated jusqu'à quel point le Gouvernement fédé- with great care and consideration, and ral peut être tenu responsable d'acci- no pains are spared in the effort to lay dents de navires et autres incidents before the public the labours of the maritimes. nautical surveyors and explorers not only of England, but of the maritime world; reducing their various styles 46 into a comprehensive system furnishing My purpose in doing so is to the intelligent seaman with an intell- emphasize once again the reliance the igible guide." navigator places on the marine chart and accuracy of the information depicted 3. My Subject Matter is hydro- thereon. graphy which I define as follows: When I last spoke to some of HYDROGRAPHY (Gr. vowp, water, you in Victoria in 1969, I was able to and ypaoelv, to write), the science deal- say, and did say, "that the courts in ing with all the waters of the earth's Canada have not dealt with a case invol- surface, including the description of ving an allegation of negligence on the their physical features and conditions; part of the chartmaker. If and when that the preparation of charts and maps show- case arises (and we hope it will not ing the position of lakes, rivers, seas arise) it may be possible to give more and oceans, the contour of the sea- advice." bottom, the position of shallows, deeps, reefs and the direction and volume of As you may know, my last pre- currents; a scientific description of diction was only good for five years. the position, volume, configuration, motion and condition of all the waters Before I discuss the case of of the earth. the GOLDEN ROBIN, I will outline the legal basis to which under the laws of 4. The chart is the product Canada, the chartmaker (and more impor- of the hydrographers labours. The first tantly, his employer), is exposed. Admiralty chart was published in 1801. The Admiralty had to be persuaded to put A. Legal liability may be based either their charts on public sale, a major on contract or in tort ("delict" change from the days when national secur- in province of Quebec). ity was considered paramount. J.D. Pot- ter Ltd., in the City of London, sold B. In contract, the liability will charts for 150 years. Potter's advertise arise if there is an agreement to that their chart warehouse has a stock supply an accurate chart and the of 65,000 charts. It is fair to say that supplier provides an inaccurate millions of copies of charts are sold chart. The other person can then worldwide every year. claim there has been breach of contract and can sue the supplier of The chart is, or used to be, the chart for any damages resulting the navigators working document. Its from the breach. This type of claim objective must be clarity. The battle would be rare. has always been to avoid encumbering the chart with detail which is not essen- C. The more common case is a claim in tial for its navigation purpose. negligence. The user of the chart sues the Crown for the negligence Unlike other surveys, the of a person to act carefully where chart shows the navigator what he cannot the law imposes on him a duty to see. The chart shows him the shape and act carefully. depth of the bottom. For practical purposes, the navigator must put his faith D. A chartmaker or hydrographer is a in the chart to tell him where he can professional and, in law, is expect- safely go and where he cannot go. The ed to exercise the skill and compe- navigator may have no other means of tence of an ordinarily competent knowing. chartmaker or hydrographer.

The chart's reputation for E. Under the Crown Liability Act, the accuracy is legend. It is said that the Crown (H.M.Q.) is responsible for first hydrographer of the Navy, Alex- the negligence of the Crown-employed ander Dalrymple, was hesitant to publish hydrographer and for any damages any material of which he was in doubt or suffered by the chart-user caused of which he had no personal knowledge. by that negligence. Admiral Beaufort, we are told, personally signed each and every chart pub- F. To succeed, the chart-user must esta- lished during his 26 years as Naval Hy- blish: drographer. 1. He relied on the accuracy of Even though Dalrymple may have the chart; been meticulous, these high standards of 2. The chart was inaccurate or mis- integrity and accuracy are so well estab- leading; lished today that no backsliding will be excused. 3. The chart was inaccurate because the hydrographer was careless; I have taken some of your valuable time to set this stage for my se- 4. The damages claimed were caused cond discussion of the hydrographer's by that inaccuracy and not by legal responsibility.

47 an error of navigation. and currents and who are, therefore, presumed to read and apply the informa- In my 1969 paper, I reviewed tion on the chart in the light of that a number of these issues in detail viz: expertise.

1. The duty to be careful; With regard to soundings, they are not a standing offer of depth, that 2. The applicable standards and is, they do not constitute guarantees the application of those stand- that the depths shown will remain or ards to specific facts; be maintained, unless there is representation to that effect on the chart." 3. The use and misuse of charts by navigators; Addy J. reviews the survey evidence on which the Notices to 4. Warnings on charts and dis- Mariners were issued, and at page 20, claimers of liabilities. I refer says: "On examining the 1973 survey, you to my 1969 paper for that there is no doubt that, at that time discussion. also, the defendant's servants in the Hydrographic Survey Services, if they Now the GOLDEN ROBIN (Ex. Esso even looked at the document, could not Oxford) which grounded on Dalhousie Is- help but be fully aware that a shallow land while approaching the harbour on depth of some 26 feet extended across a beautifully clear morning, 30 Sept. the range line to a distance of some 25 1974. The owners sued the Crown under feet south of the line. The chart it- the Crown Liability Act for $2,000,000 self, since it was coloured white at for the ship as a constructive total that point, represented that all depths loss. The claim was based on various for some distance north of and on the allegations including a claim that range line as well as south of it were C.H.S. Chart 4426 was both incorrect and over 30 feet above chart datum and, misleading, as read in conjunction with furthermore, the nearest sounding figure two Notices to Mariners, which were al- showed seven fathoms or 42 feet above leged to be incomplete or inaccurate. datum.

The trial was heard in I reject the evidence of the Montreal in Sept., 1980 and the trial expert hydrographer of the defendant judge, Mr. Justice Addy, of the Federal who stated that the reason why the chart Court of Canada, on Nov. 26, 1980, dis- itself was not amended either in 1972, missed the action. The case is now under 1973 or before the accident was because, appeal. In doing so he did make some being of such a small scale, that is useful and some helpful remarks about 1:36,360, more information could not charts in general and about the alle- be inserted without cluttering it up gations in particular. and rendering it difficult to read and decipher. In the first place, the warn- At page 16, he points out: ing could have been accomplished very easily by a proper Notice to Mariners "Charts are representations of the na- describing the extension of the shoal as ture, character and position of naviga- discovered in 1972, much along the same tional aids as well as of the land and lines as the inter-departmental report bottom configuration, depths and other quoted above, rather than by merely indi- features of both the shore and the sea cating the presence of two-spot sound- bottom. The information given speaks, ings. In the second place, and more of course, as of the date of the last importantly, in 1976 an amendment to the survey which is alWays indicated on the chart was published extending the face of the chart. The last survey for 30-feet contour by a dotted line well the chart in issue was 1966, eight years south of the range line and the chart previous to the accident. The previous remains •every bit as clear and legible surveys were taken in 1923 and 1964. as it was previous to the amendment. In addition, a chart is to be read subject to all reservations shown on the It is not an answer to say chart itself and subject to any instruc- that no hydrographer contradicted this tions, notices, cautions and other hydro - evidence at trial. A chart is not ad- graphic and navigational information dressed merely to hydrographers." communicated in conjunction with, previous to or subsequent to the publi- Finally at page 24, Addy J. cation of the chart and which are requir - sets out the Court's opinion of the ed to be read with it. chart:

All information contained on "In the case at Bar, not only is the a chart is there primarily for naviga- representation made for a public purpose tional purposes. It is, therefore, ad- or object (i.e., aiding and assisting dressed to mariners, that is, persons navigation in the area) as opposed to who are presumed to possess a working a private object (i.e., advising an in- knowledge of seamanship, navigation and dividual), but the representation itself related subjects such as winds, tides is made to and intended for the public,

48 namely all mariners who might be expect- rock, and she becomes a total loss': Is ed to use the chart. It was also made the unfortunate hydrographer to be lia- with the full knowledge and expectation ble to her owners in negligence for some on the part of the authority making it, millions of damage? If so, people in the that it will be relied on by the masters future will think twice before making of ships and other craft sailing those maps. Hydrography would become an ultra- waters, to ensure the safety of their hazardous occupation. vessel, cargo and passengers. Where such public representations for public pur- In 1965, I raised with the poses are made, with full expectation then Dominion Hydrographer, Mr. Gray, of a reliance on the representations, the possibility of the C.H.S. putting there is no.need for the existence of a cautionary note on the charts to the any greater particular or special rela- effect that Her Majesty does not assume tionship between the person making them any responsibility for any errors or and person relying on them for a duty omissions that may exist on the chart. to take care to arise. In addition, Mr. Gray expressed the opinion that such where, as in the present case, the safe- a note would be "a retrograde step great- ty of many lives and serious damage to ly lowering our prestige and not be in property might well be at stake, and the conformation with the policy with other breach of duty may thus result in very major hydrographic offices or of the serious consequences, the degree of care International Bureau". At that time, must be correspondingly high." the total claims being made against the C.H.S. amounted to $500.00. Now the to- The crux of the case appears tal claims against the C.H.S. are in on page 22. The Court finds that the the neighbourhood of ten million dol- two Notices to Mariners issued prior lars. Assuming that there is no change to the casualty were misleading in the in policy, the question remains as to context of hydrographer's knowledge at whether the chart should be more expli- that time. As they dealt with soundings cit as to what it shows and, more import- at or near a recommended track shown antly, what it does not show. Although on the chart, a "critical and sensitive each C.H.S. chart refers the navigator area" in the words of the court. to Chart No. 1 (now a folder), I find that in practice, very few ships masters In the result, the court did admit that they have ever seen chart No. not have to decide whether the hydrog- 1 let alone read it in its entirety. rapher was liable in tort or not (p. This is a fact that must be reckoned 27). The Court found at page 36 that with. neither the Captain nor the Pilot ever consulted the chart and neither were, Contract Hydrography in fact, misled by the misinformation in Notices to Mariners. It is an unfortunate sign of the times that hydrography can be priva- So the issue is still open tized. or is it? When the issue was raised in As this case is under appeal, 1977, I provided an opinion to the Dom- we must wait the final decision of the inion Hydrographer which concluded with Court. There is always a possibility this paragraph: of further appeal to the Supreme Court of Canada which could take several years. "If all the essential steps of chart making are not carried on by the govern- There are and will be other ment, with government resources and gov- cases. In the world of modern shipping, ernment people, then the ability to pro- and modern financing, shipowners are vide legal proof of the data exhibited compelled to increase the earning capa- on a chart may be impossible where the city of their ship. To do so, it is like- private industry who did the work has ly that margins of safety and prudence gone bankrupt or has ceased to exist will be compromised. The result can be and its records destroyed. Essentially, the "excessive dependence" on the accur- the problem with these management tech- acy of the information on the chart. niques is that they do not give any weight to the quality of the survey work Limitation of Legal Liability performed, the historical continuity of the surveys and the promotion of na- You may ask why should a hydro- tional and international standards of grapher or his employer render them- hydrography and chart making." selves liable for millions of dollars of damage for supplying a chart at a price In spite of my advice, the of $5.00. This potential liability has Treasury Board directed the Dominion also concerned some courts. In 1951, an Hydrographer to contract out some hydro- English judge said this: "The Captain of graphic surveys. One of the most recent the Queen Mary, in reliance on a map is the Survey of Lake Manitoba, Manitoba (i.e. a chart) and having no opportunity the contract for which I have read with of checking it by reference to another interest. I am afraid to say that the chart steers her on the unsuspected

49 difficulties raised in my letter have not been solved. The key question of legal liability is left largely in doubt. The contractor's warranty is only as to competency and qualification. The quality of service is only "at least equal to that which contractors generally would expect of a competent contractor in a like situation". Such a measure of legal liability cannot be tested in the courts because the concept is elliptical.

Furthermore, the contractor is not required to insure himself against future liabilities that may arise because the Crown relied on the data produced by the contractor which may turn out to be faulty. On this point, I should say that, in the good old days, such a situation would not arise. In 1766 the Royal Society proposed an expedition in the South Pacific. Dalrymple was suggested to be the leader. The Admiralty, however, insisted that the expedition be lead by a naval officer who turned out to be Captain James Cook who sailed in 1768 in command of what was to be the first of his three great voyages of discovery.

Conclusion

The fact is that allegations of negligence are being levelled at hydrographers in many marine casualties. Although we have escaped so far, the C.H.S. must be prepared to defend its actions and standards in court. There is no doubt, in my view, that hydrography has become an ultra-hazardous profession and the C.H.S. must govern itself accordingly.

A final word - in this modern age of digitizers, electronic distance measuring equipment, mini-computers and automated plotting, the hydrographer should not be afraid of getting his feet wet.

The opinions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author and are not intended to represent the views of the Gov- ernment of Canada nor the Department of Justice.

50 the 1970's and into the 1980's as chang- A HISTORICAL REVIEW OF ing technology offered better methods TIDAL, CURRENT AND WATER LEVEL SURVEYING of performing old tasks. IN THE CANADIAN HYDROGRAPHIC SERVICE This paper will review each B.J. Tait and L.F. Ku phase of development within the fields Canadian Hydrographic Service of tidal, current and water level Ottawa, Ontario surveying and will search out the high- Canada lights of each. That is to say each phase will be reviewed except for the 1970's and 1980's. Since the authors are part of this era it cannot be ABSTRACT regarded as history and will be left for some future surveyor to chronicle. This paper presents a perspective of the history of tidal, current and water level surveying in Canada, TIDAL AND CURRENT SURVEYS highlighting the development of surveying techniques, instrument tech- Prior to the establishment nology, data processing and archiving of a formal tidal survey group in the procedures, and analysis and prediction late 19th century little had been done methods. Individuals making prominent in the way of systematic tidal or contributions to the above fields are current surveying in Canada. Tidal mentioned. Major organizational changes records had been obtained at several that have taken place over the years major ports and were used to provide are described. tidal predictions based on differences referred to the tide at various foreign RÉSUMÉ ports. However, the only well documented records available were those collected Ce présent document offre une at Halifax during the periods 1851 to perspective historique sur les levés 1852 and 1860 to 1861. hydrographiques destinés à étudier les marées, les courants et les niveaux Concerned over the increasing d'eau au Canada, et il décrit la mise number of shipping disasters in the St. au point des techniques et des instru- Lawrence River and Gulf of St. Lawrence, ments de levés, des procédures de the British Association appointed a com- traitement et d'archivage des données mittee in 1884 to collect information et des méthodes d'analyse et de prévi- on the importance of publishing tide sion. Les personnes qui ont largement tables for Canadian waters and the contribué à faire progresser les necessity of carrying out tidal surveys. domaines ci-dessous sont mentionnées. After several unsuccessful petitions Les auteurs décrivent aussi les princi- to the government, authorization was paux changements survenus au fil des finally given in 1887 for Lieut. Andrew années au niveau de l'organisation. Gordon of the Royal Navy to take tidal observations at Georgetown, P.E.I., and INTRODUCTION at Louisbourg, Pictou and Port Hawkes- bury, N.S. These surveys confirmed that The history of tidal, current large errors existed in the predicted and water level surveying in Canada for tides available at that time. Under navigational applications has always pressure, the government finally had a close association with the Cana- authorized the expenditure of $2000.00 dian Hydrographic Service, although in 1890 to make some further preliminary none of these activities actually got observations, to purchase 3 tide gauges, started under the auspices of C.H.S., and to process the records obtained at they all eventually found their way in- Halifax during 1860 to 1861. to the Service. The survey was conducted by The level of activity and Lieut. Gordon with the objectives of development within each field of establishing the suitability of Halifax interest has had peaks and plateaus. as a reference station and of determin- The early days of tidal and current ing tidal differences for the whole surveying under Dr. W. Bell Dawson and eastern coast of Nova Scotia. Mr. water level gauging under Mr. C.A. Price Carpmael, who was at the time the saw the rapid expansion of new programs Director of the Meteorological Service, under the guidance of dedicated indivi- assisted the Minister of Marine in the duals and often in spite of rather limi- design and procurement of equipment ted funding. The 1930's, 40's and early required to set up a self-recording tide 50's generally saw less development gauge. After consultation with Professor but, rather, programs with well-defined G.H. Darwin, of Cambridge, three float- objectives being properly managed. The operated, drum-recording gauges devised late 50's and 60's heralded a period by Sir William Thompson (Lord Kelvin) of rapid development in instrumentation were acquired. The 1860-61 Halifax and techniques which continued through records were processed and analyzed by

51 Mr. Edward Roberts of the Nautical greater depths, and the laying of the Almanac Office in London, and the har- intake pipe was an expensive and labour- monic constants obtained were used to ious undertaking. One of the most diffi- predict the tide for 1891. This was done cult stations established by Dawson was using a tide predicting machine designed that at Pointe-au-Père, where 2 sections primarily for the prediction of tides of intake pipe were installed. The in India. first section was 260 ft. long, and was made of 12 inch diameter logs with a After the death of Lieut. bore 3 inches in diameter. It was laid Gordon in 1891, the tidal work was left in a trench 9 to 10 ft. deep dug through entirely to Mr. Carpmael. Between 1891 a rocky foreshore. The second section and 1894, the department allocated extended the intake a further 140 ft. $10,000 annually for tidal surveys. By and was made of 2" diameter iron pipe. 1893, gauges were operating at Saint John, N.B., St. Paul Island, N.S., A shelter built over the well Southwest Point (Anticosti), Magdalen housed the recorder. In the winter, heat Islands (Grindstone), and Québec, P.Q. was supplied by an oil lamp or a small In addition, construction of a gauge oil stove which frequently malfunctioned at Pointe-au-Père had begun. and generally produced considerable smoke. The smudge settled on the clock- The Dawson Era work, necessitating frequent cleaning and occasional repair. The appointment of Dr. W. Bell Dawson (Figure 1) as Engineer-in-Charge The 3 Kelvin tide gauges of the Tidal Survey in 1893 marked the acquired initially by the department beginning of a systematic survey of recorded the tide levels on a drum tides and currents in Canadian waters recorder whose rotation was clock con- which would result in a much improved trolled. understanding of the characteristics of these phenomena and an ability to produce accurate predictions of their occurrence. Dr. Dawson reported to Mr. P. Anderson, Chief Engineer of Technical Branch, Dept. of Marine and Fisheries, at the time of his appointment, and it was not long before he had submitted plans for both tidal and current surveys, including a request for $29,000 for the 1894-95 fiscal year. This budget allowed for the construction of new gauges at Halifax, Belle Isle and Yarmouth, the publication of tide tables and the charter and outfitting of a steamer for a 4-month current survey. Although only $10,000 were appropriated Dawson also obtained the use of the government steamer LANSDOWNE for 3 months.

Tidal Surveys

In 1894, Dawson submitted a plan to establish principal tidal stations at 4 sites on the East Coast and 3 sites on the West Coast. These were carefully chosen to provide tidal data required in the subsequent tidal current surveys and to serve as reference stations for the prediction of tides at other ports in the areas.

The typical self-recording tidal station of Dawson's era was equipped with two stilling wells secured to the side of a wharf or a crib. The well was made of planking with an inside dimension of about 10x14. One of the wells served a float operated recorder, and the other a sight gauge. Piping was often required to extend the intake to Figure 1. Dr. W. Bell Dawson

52 Where possible, the timing of the clock was regulated once a week by telegraphic exchange. Otherwise, a meridian instrument called a dipleidoscope was installed near the station to provide accurate time (Figure 2). In 1900 chron- ometers were installed at the tidal stations.

When the clock in a Kelvin gauge malfunctioned, the whole unit had to be removed and shipped for repair. To overcome this problem Dr. Dawson devised a gauge whose clock could easily be detached for repair and which was also capable of recording tides of different ranges. This gauge was manufactured by Messrs. A. Légé & Co., London, England and is shown in Figure 3 installed at Charlottetown, P.E.I.

The permanent gauging stations were visited on a regular basis and spirit levels run to the bench marks yearly (Figure 4). The work of establishing and documenting bench marks and datums was of considerable importance to Dawson (Figure 5). Prior to the establishment of the Tidal Survey, chart datums and the datum planes for marine construction or harbour improvements were not generally well documented. Dawson spent a great deal of effort to re-establish these datums by installing Figure 3. Tide Recorder and Sight better bench marks, carrying out tidal Charlottetown, P.E.I. observations and precise levelling, and Gauge, documenting and publishing the information. His 2 publications "Tide Levels The tabulation of tidal and Datum Planes on the Pacific Coast, records and their subsequent analysis 1923" and "Tide Levels and Datum Planes and expensive. in Eastern Canada, 1917" are evidence were very time consuming in 1900 Dawson estimated of this commitment. For example the cost of processing 2 years of from Quebec City at $450. Dawson had also carried out records Because the analysis of all records short period tidal observations at many could not be funded many were used places to establish the tidal adjustment simply to establish the tidal difference for secondary port predictions. The 1925 between the port where the record was Tide Tables contain data for approxi- obtained and a selected reference port. mately 350 secondary ports. A fire in February, 1897 destroyed the attics of the Marine Department in which the Tidal Survey Office was located. Copies of 3 years of tidal records from Victoria and Sand Heads, supplied by the Department of Public Works, were lost (although they were later replaced). In 1898, the whole of the original tidal record for the Pacific Coast was lost in fire at New Westminster, and the copies previously supplied to the Tidal Survey were the only ones left in existence. These events prompted Dr. Dawson to urge that more funding be made available for the tabulation and analysis of the tidal records.

The first predictions computed for a Canadian port from harmonic constants were those for Halifax for 1891 mentioned earlier. Although these were Figure 2. Meridian Instrument published they did not enjoy a wide

53 West Coast East Coast

Vancouver Quebec City Caulfield Pointe-au-Père Prince Rupert Point Peter Victoria Charlottetown Clayoquot St. Paul Island Esquimalt Saint John Halifax

Current Surveys

Dawson's eight year plan submitted in 1894, recommended that current surveys be carried out in the following areas: Anticosti Island, the Strait of Georgia and its connecting channels, Cabot Strait and the Strait of Belle Isle. The main objective of the surveys was to gather information along the routes of the steamship and sailing vessels on the Atlantic Coast, in the St. Lawrence River System, and through the Strait of Georgia. Although deep currents were occasionally measured, greater emphasis was put on the surface current, at depths of about 18 feet, which had a direct effect on vessel movement.

Figure 4. Dr. Dawson (left) and H.W. In 1894 Dawson carried out Jones Inspecting Port Alberni his first current surveys in the Strait Tide Station, 1909 of Belle Isle and Cabot Strait using the vessel S.S. LANSDOWNE of the Lighthouse and Buoy Service. The follow- circulation. It was subsequently decided ing year he surveyed the entrance to to supply the tables directly to the the St. Lawrence Estuary between Gaspé leading almanacs without any charge in and Mingan and, in 1896, the channel hopes that this would improve distribu- between Anticosti Island and the Strait tion. In the following years tide tables of Belle Isle. Whenever possible, were again supplied to almanacs but were records were taken day and night. also distributed directly to newspapers and to steamship companies. The first From the direct measurement set of tide tables printed by the of currents and other physical proper- department were those for Charlottetown, ties of the waters carried out during Pictou and St. Paul Island beginning these three surveys, Dawson was able in 1898, and the second set were those to provide badly needed information to for Victoria and Sand Heads in 1901. the marine and scientific communities. These findings were cited in a variety In his 1897 annual report, of scientific and commercial journals. Dr. Dawson indicated the need to print tide tables for Halifax, Saint John and Quebec City in one volume. Again the lack of funding prevented this and it was not until the publication of the 1904 tide tables that this volume was printed, and included, as well, predictions for Pointe-au-Père. In 1907 the tide tables were printed in two volumes, one volume for the Eastern Coasts, and the other for the Pacific Coast.

The last tide tables published under Dr. Dawson's supervision were for the year 1925 and contained a total of 16 tidal reference ports and 7 current reference stations. At that time there were 13 principal tide stations in operation, distributed between the East and Figure 5. Bench Mark at Halifax West Coasts as listed below: Dockyard

54 In 1897, after 3 successful Tidal and Current Surveying, 1924-1950 seasons, the offshore current surveys were discontinued because Dawson felt After the retirement of Dr. that the vessel "Lansdowne" was not Dawson in 1924 the Tidal and Current suitable for efficient survey opera- Survey Division was transferred to the tions. He requested that a properly Canadian Hydrographic Service. Mr. H.W. equipped steamer be made available for Jones, who had commenced his service future use. with Dawson in 1904, continued the work of this group on the Atlantic coast, In the meantime shored-based while based in Ottawa and reporting to current surveys were carried out at the Dominion Hydrographer. On the Paci- L'Islet in the Upper and Lower Traverse fic coast, Mr. S.C. Hayden, who had of the St. Lawrence River in 1900, at worked with Dawson as early as 1899, First Narrows in Burrard Inlet in 1901, had been stationed at the regional of- and at Cape Tormentine and Cape Tra- fice in Vancouver since approximately verse in Northumberland Strait. 1920. He continued to work out of this office while reporting to the Dominion The purchase of the steamer Hydrographer as well. These two men GULNARE in 1903 allowed offshore opera- were, on their respective coasts, res- tions to resume. The survey that year ponsible for the operation of the perma- took place mainly off the southeastern ment tidal gauging stations. coast of Newfoundland along the Euro- Mr. H.W. Jones' major contri- pean steamship route. The following bution to tidal current surveying invol- year the survey moved to the entrance ved a multi-year survey of the Lower of the Bay of Fundy, extending from St. Lawrence River which extended from Grand Nanan Island to Cape Sable. Areas Quebec City downstream to Pointe des surveyed in later years included Nor- Monts and which lasted from 1932 to thumberland Strait and return visits to This survey used a variety of the Gaspé Passage and the Strait of 1937. techniques and ships, with the Belle Isle. GULNARE being the most frequently mentioned vessel. One major product of this survey Offshore current measurements was the Tidal Current Atlas of the St. were carried out by anchoring the ship Lawrence Estuary published in on station and either lowering current 1939. T.his atlas is still the only one avail- meters over the side or tracking drift able for this area and the data from buoys, icebergs or other floating ob- these 6 years of work form the basis jects. Difficulty was experienced in for the majority of the current inform- maintaining the ship on station because ation appearing on present day C.H.S. of a lack of proper anchoring equip- charts of the Lower St. Lawrence River. ment. The LANSDOWNE, in particular, was very heavy and, having a high free- On the West Coast Mr. Hayden board, could easily be moved off sta- retired in 1940 and at this time the tion by strong winds. responsibilities of the tidal division were transferred to the Regional Hydro- Current meters used during grapher in Victoria. Under this arrange- the surveys had either anemometer or ment Mr. G.W. Lacroix became the Tidal propeller type rotors. Dawson felt that Surveyor and held this position until the anenometer type was more suitable 1952. During this time he was responsi- for the marine environment because it ble for permanent gauging and also con- was less affected by the vertical mo- ducted current surveys at First and tion of the waves and the rolling of Second Narrows, Seymour Narrows, and the vessel. The propeller type was apt Yuculta Rapids. This work was enhanced to "head up" or "head down" as the ves- no doubt by the commissioning in 1947 sel rolled and so gave an exaggerated of the first hydrographic vessel on the record. The direction of the current Pacific Coast dedicated to tidal survey- was determined from the horizontal an- ing, the reconverted R.C.N. patrol ves- gle of the line supporting the meter. A sel PARRY. The PARRY was used in a deep fan was also used which consisted tidal current investigation with the of two sheets of galvanized iron pass- Fraser River Project in 1950. Mr. La- ing through each other at right angles croix was succeeded in 1952 by Mr. S.O. and supported by a light wood frame. Wigen, who still serves with the West After a careful calibration, the ver- Coast office as Tsunami Adviser. tical angle of the wire supporting the fan could be used to estimate the current speed in deep water with an accur- Turning our attention back acy of 0.1 knot. to the tidal work in eastern Canada, Mr. Jones retired in 1946 to be succeeded by Mr. R.B. Lee. Mr. Lee had Dr. Dawson actively solicited started his career with the Tidal Sec- local knowledge of currents from fisher- tion in 1912 serving under Dawson. In men and ships captains, and used this 1954 Mr. C.M. Cross, who was later to information extensively in his many re- become Superintendent of the integrated ports describing current characteris- Tides, Currents and Water Levels Sec- tics. tion,in turn succeeded Mr. Lee.

55 WATER LEVEL GAUGING ON INLAND WATERS under the direction of Mr. Charles A. Price (Figure 7), who continued in this In view of the economic impor- role until his retirement in 1953. tance that navigation on the Great Lakes and Upper St. Lawrence River system has The number of gauges operated played in the development of Canada it by this division grew rapidly and the is not surprising that early systematic period of operation for many extended gauging of these inland waters took throughout the year. Self-registering place. Staff readings on the Beauharnois gauges were installed on the Lower St. Canal near Montreal, though not contin- Lawrence River in support of the uous, date back to 1845. Daily staff Montreal-Quebec Ship Channel Investiga- readings were first collected on a year tion in 1912, and on the Upper St. round basis at Lock No. 1 of the Lachine Lawrence River in 1915. By 1930 there Canal starting in 1856. These were were 19 gauges in operation on the Great usually recorded by the lock master Lakes, 15 on the Upper St. Lawrence under the authority of the Department and 10 on the Lower St. Lawrence River. of Canals and Railways. The records All but 5 of these 44 guages operated available up to 1900 generally consist year round. of the type of data just mentioned. Many of these have since been referred to Of interest during this period present day datums but this is not were developments such as the use of always the case since vertical reference electric heat for the gauge well at Port points were often not used in measuring Arthur (Thunder Bay) in 191i and its the water level heights and, even when successful operation to -42"F, and the used, they were not always well docu- installation of an automatic gauge in mented. the Marine Signal Service Office at Trois Rivières in May, 1924 to, as In 1906 the continuous record- pointed out by Mr. Price in his 1924 ing of water levels in the Great Lakes report, "provide exact time and correct using self-registering gauges was depth in the ship channel for high and started by the Department of Public Works in support of the Georgian Bay ship canal levelling program. Three Haskell graphic gauges (Figure 6) were installed during the first year and by 1912 nine were operating, but only during the navigation season.

In 1912 responsibility for the operation of these gauges was placed under the Chief Hydrographer, Department of the Naval Service. The section doing this work was initially called the Automatic Gauge Division but this was later changed to the more well- known Precise Water Level Division. From its inception in 1912 this division was

Figure 6. Haskell Gauge Figure 7. Mr. Charles A. Price

56 low waters whether they occur during sion and the Tides and Current Division the day or night." Also of interest were had been consolidated in 1956 into the the first publication and distribution Tides, Currents and Water Levels Section of monthly and annual water level bulle- under Mr. C.M. Cross, Superintendent. tins in 1925 and the distribution of Within this section a further reorgani- water level information to the public zation took place in 1960 to divide the through press releases in 1929. This work on the basis of vertical water latter action was precipitated by level motion (Tides and Water Levels general interest over abnormally high headed by G.C. Dohler) and horizontal lake levels at the time. In 1945 with water level motion (Current Surveys). high lake levels again causing concern The Tides and Water Levels group con- a first attempt was made at predicting cerned themselves with water level mea- lake levels, in this case for the surements on both tidal and inland Toronto Harbour Commission. At about waters. the same time the Division began to document photographically gauging sta- SURVEY DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1950 tions and bench marks - a valuable procedure which has since been encour- Water Level Gauging aged for all hydrographic survey parties. During the late 1950s and the 1960s a number of significant Many of the problems encoun- changes took place in inland gauging, tered in the early operation of the both in the collection of data and in gauging network are reminiscent of those the subsequent processing of this data. faced today. Weather conditions on the St. Lawrence River have long worked against efforts to successfully gauge water levels year-round. The loss of four gauging stations to river ice in 1976 was thought to be a setback of unprecedented proportions. However the destruction of stations at Neuville and Pointe au Platon due to a storm on November 18, 1919 was undoubtedly just as severe a blow to the early development of the gauging system. Winter operations, in spite of the use of electric heating, were consistently difficult, then as now, due to the formation of Figure 8. Strip Chart Gauge ice within the stilling well and the resulting damage to equipment. In 1959 strip chart gauges (Figure 8) began to replace the older Personnel problems also appear Haskell units and in the early 1960's to have changed little. To quote Mr. dedicated telemetry units were installed Price in his 1917 annual report, "The for specific users of real-time data. main difficulty in operating the gauges At the same time automation of the data is in obtaining reliable men as processing task was well under way. A attendants." One reads as well in the scaling device had been developed for annual reports of rejected efforts to digitizing the strip charts and had been obtain more personnel or to have the interfaced to a punch tape unit car allowance increased. (Figure 9).

A study of crustal movement in the Lake Ontario - Upper St. Lawrence River Basin completed by Mr. Price late in his tenure is worthy of note since it attempts to correlate records at various gauging sites back to 1860 in order to establish rates of crustal tilt. The Precise Water Levels Division expended considerable effort in tabu- lating the pre-1900 records from the various canal offices and in referring these data to current datum planes.

Upon the retirement of Chas. Price in 1953 direction of the Precise Water Level Section was taken over by Mr. A.S. Matthewman who had worked with Mr. Price in the group since 1923. Mr. Matthewman retired in 1958 and was Figure 9. G.C. Dohler succeeded by Mr. G.C. Dohler. In the (left) Demonstrating Early Scaling Equipment meantime the Precise Water Levels Divi-

57 Digital data on punched tape were trans- electronic computer were carried out. ferred to computer cards and then The development processed on an electronic computer. and use of In 1962 the first annual summary of the Ottboro tide gauge (Figure 10) was gauging station data utilizing the com- a major step in facilitating the collec- puter print-out was published. tion of tidal records of short duration during hydrographic surveys and the In 1967 Ott punch tape gauges subsequent processing of these records. were first installed, helping to further This unit was a marriage of the Ott automate data processing by eliminating strip chart recorder, which was being the digitizing task. The development used in permanent gauging stations, and in 1969 of a telemetry system consisting a pressure bellows sensor which could of a Hagenuk punch tape gauge interfaced be installed offshore and would trans- to Telex terminals resulted in the first mit a pressure signal to the onshore deployment of a unit capable of trans- recording unit via a capillary tubing mitting data from a gauging station back link. The records from this unit could to the central data centre, in this case be digitized on the scaling equipment using CN/CP Telecommunication lines. which had been developed for the Ott records. At about the same time tele- announcing gauges were being introduced at a number of sites on the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence River and the coasts where a real-time direct line to the gauging station was required for navigational applications as well as for other uses such as storm warning services.

Since then a number of improvements have been made to the telemetry system utilizing technological development from the electronics industry. The present unit is microprocessor controlled and stores data in semicon- ductor memory. These features permit novel data accumulation and storage techniques such as integrated data sampling and direct entry into memory Figure 10. Ottboro Tide Gauge of the gauge attendants comparison data. This, in turn, permits faster and The unit itself could be set up at a less labour-intensive data processing variety of sites with no requirement at the archiving centre. The gauges to have a wharf handy or to build an equipped with these units are interro- offshore crib such as had been necessary gated on an auto-call basis by the during earlier surveys (Figure 11). The central computer. Ottboros were first used around 1960 and continue today to be the major It is impossible to discuss instrument for temporary tidal gauging the history of inland gauging without during hydrographic survey work. mentioning the establishment in the late 50's and early 60's of the Interna- tional Great Lakes Datum. This project resulted in a uniform vertical datum for the whole of the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence River System.

Tidal Gauging, Data Processing and Publication

The late 1950s and 1960s saw many advances as well in the field of tidal surveying. Mechanical tide predicting machines were purchased in 1956 and were subsequently used to prepare predictions for secondary ports. In addition the analysis of short term tidal records to determine harmonic constituents using graphical and tabular techniques was first carried out in Canada in the mid-1950's. In 1962 the semi-automatic processing of data was implemented, for tidal records, as it was with the inland records and in the Figure 11. Crib Constructed for Float same year the analysis of tidal records Gauge, Eastmain River, and the prediction of tides using the James Bay, 1958

58 The construction of permanent gauging stations at Brevoort Harbour and Resolute, Northwest Territories in

1957 in support of the International - atzzeilee Geophysical Year marked the expansion of the tidal program into this new Cana- dian frontier. Since then, and particu- larily in the last 10 years, the tidal survey program in the Arctic has expanded considerably with a view to the future need for this type of data for navigational applications.

In 1967 a signal event in the production of Tide and Current Tables occurred when the first edition of these tables was published utilizing predictions computed entirely in Canada. It had taken some 70 years to find the funding that Dr. Dawson had first started searching for but the Canadian Tide Tables were finally home to stay.

Current Surveys

Current surveys in the early 1950's still depended on the use of current meters suspended over the sides of anchored vessels or the tracking of various types of drifting objects. The 1952 survey of Miramichi Bay is typical of the surveys of this day. Working from C.G.S. ANDERSON, current measurements were obtained using Price pattern Gurley Figure 12. Gurley Current Meter and current meters, Ekman current meters Dummy Compass and current drag devices. None of these had continuous, self-recording capabil- In the late 1950's the type ities. The current direction was of instrumentation, nature of survey obtained by aligning a "dummy" compass operations and the treatment of data mounted on the current meter boom in began to change. A 1958 survey carried the direction of the meter suspension out in support of the Northumberland wire (Figure 12). Similar instrumenta- Strait causeway investigation employed, tion was used in 1954 during the survey for the first time, self-recording of the Strait of Canso (carried out in current meters. These Hydrowerkstaetten connection with the causeway construc- Paddle Wheel meters were bottom-moored tion), and in 1957 and 1958 during the to obtain continuous records for periods survey of Passamaquoddy Bay (carried of up to 24 days. In 1959 surveys of out in connection with tidal power Hudson Strait and Cabot Strait also em- proposals). The latter survey also ployed self - recording current meters employed electromotive force recorders (both Paddle Wheel and BBT Neyrpic across narrow passages in the bay as Courantograph models). a method of measuring flow. On the West Coast the first use was made of self-recording meters It is interesting to take note in 1963 on a survey of a section across current survey carried out in 1959 of a the Strait of Georgia to investigate by Forrester in Little Current W.D. the residual pattern of the tidal Lake Huron. The pur- Channel in northern streams. Cross-sectional type current the pose of the survey was to determine surveying had earlier been used during cause of the current that flows back a survey of the St. Lawrence River forth through the channel and and between Montreal and Quebec in 1960. an assessment of the tidal and included This technique had been chosen in order influences on this flow. meteorological to satisfy data requirements for hydrau- current survey On the West Coast the lic studies as well as for navigational the destruction of Seymour Narrows after applications. of Ripple Rock in 1958 was, as well, a noteworthy event.

59 Even with the radical changes The people and events that seen in the instruments described above have been described in this paper have the current surveyors were not satis- had an undeniably positive influence fied. Commander W.I. Farquharson, who on the history of the Canadian Hydrogra- had been recruited from Britain by Cross phic Service. Leaders such as Dawson in 1956, was Officer-in-Charge of Cur- and Price had the determination and rent Surveys in the late 50's and early foresight to initiate and implement pro- 60's. He was concerned with the vast grams which not only met immediate data amounts of data that were being acquired needs but also provided for future with the new instruments and stated in requirements. They have set an excellent a 1961 report that "every effort must example for present and future genera- be directed towards the automation of tions of surveyors to follow. the processing stage, if an ever increasing backlog of work is to be ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS avoided." These words tend to ring true even today. The harmonic analysis of A paper such as this one can- tidal streams data using electronic com- not be prepared entirely from textbook puters began under Farquharson as early material and, in this case, invaluable as 1959. The lack of digitally logged information and advice were obtained data was an impediment to automation through personal communication. The in the early 60's that was later over- authors wish to extend their thanks to come with the logging of data on mag- all contributors, and in particular to netic tape. The early meters had other Messrs. 0.M. Meehan, C.M. Cross, S.O. problems which Farquharson felt required Wigen, G.C. Dohler and D.G. Mitchell. solutions, including: high threshold speeds (0.5 knots for the Paddle Wheel), BIBLIOGRAPHY depth limits, short deployment periods and the inability to measure current Classen, H.G. The Tidal Service Comes directions close to the magnetic pole. of Age. Department of Energy, Mines All of these problems save that of mea- and Resources, Ottawa, 1966. suring direction at northern latitudes have been alleviated in modern instru- Dawson, W. Bell. Survey of Tides and ments. Currents in Canadian Waters, First Report of Progress. Ottawa, 1894. EPILOGUE Progress Report, Survey of Tides The history of tidal, current and Currents in Canadian Waters. and water level surveying within the Ottawa, Issued Annually from 1895 Canadian Hydrographic Service does not to 1901. end with the publication of the 1967 Tide Tables. As was pointed out at the The Currents in the Gulf of St. beginning of this paper a whole new set Lawrence including the Anticosti of developments unfolded during the Region, Belle Isle and Cabot 19705 and continues to unfold in the Straits. Published by Order of the 1980's. Ministry of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa, 1900. Numerous organizational changes have taken place since 1967. The Currents on the South-Eastern Field operations are now carried out Coasts of Newfoundland and the entirely by the regional tidal offices Amount of Indraught into the in Bedford, N.S., Burlington, Ont., and Larger Bays on the South Coast. Patricia Bay, B.C., with a fourth office Department of Marine and soon to be created in the newest C.H.S. Fisheries, Ottawa, 1904. region, Quebec. An instrumentation development group resides, as well, in Survey of Tides and Currents in the Burlington office. Data processing Canadian Waters. Ottawa, Issued in and archiving tasks now deeply involve 1902 and 1903. the Marine Environmental Data Services Branch of our department. Currents at Entrance of Bay of Fundy and on Steamship Routes in Instrumentation, surveying Its Approaches Off Southern Nova techniques and data processing, analy- Scotia. Department of Marine and sis, archiving and distribution methods Fisheries, 1905. have all changed remarkably during the past 15 years. However there is not Tide Levels and Datum Planes on sufficient space within the framework the Pacific Coast of Canada. of this paper for a description of these Supplement No. 1 to the Thirty- "recent" events which will do them jus- Eighth Annual Report of the tice. The reader is referred to De Wolfe Department of Marine and et al (1981) for a discussion of some Fisheries, 1906. aspects of this work.

60 The Currents in Belle Isle Strait. Huggett, S. and D. Dobson. Surveys on Department of Marine and the Continental Shelf, Techniques Fisheries. 1907. for Mooring Self-recording Current Meters, Canadian Hydrographic Ser- The Currents in the Entrance to vice, 1965. the St. Lawrence. Department of the Naval Service, 1913. Meehan, O.M. An Outline of Oceano- graphic Activities by the Canadian Tides at the Head of the Bay of Hydrographic Service Between the Fundy. Department of the Naval Years 1883 and 1962. SOUNDINGS Service, 1907. Vol. 2, No. 2, Canadian Hydrogra- phic Service, Ottawa, 1963. Tides Levels and Datum Planes in Eastern Canada. Department of Patterson, J. William Bell Dawson. Pro- Naval Service, Ottawa, 1917. ceedings of the Royal Society of Canada, 1945. The Tides and Tidal Streams with Illustrative Examples from Cana- Price, C.A. Annual Reports of Precise dian Waters. Department of Naval Water Levels Division, Canadian Service, Ottawa, 1920. Hydrographic Service, Ottawa, 1914-1952. Tide Levels and Datum Planes on the Pacific Coast of Canada. De- Soutar, M. Reflections. Unpublished partment of Marine and Fisheries, notes concerning the history Ottawa, 1923. of Tidal Surveys,Ottawa, 1970.

Dohler, G.C. Current Survey, St. Lawr- ence River, Montreal-Quebec. Cana- dian Hydrographic Service, Ottawa, 1961.

De Wolfe, D.L., B.J. Tait and B.F. White. Recent Developments in Can- adian Ti de and Water Level Mea- surements. Proceeding of Oceans '81, Boston, September, 1981.

Eldring, S.E. The Data Processing Sys- tem of the Tides and Water Levels Section. Canadian Hydrographic Ser- vice, Ottawa, 1964.

Farquharson, W.I. and C.J. Langford. Current Measurements in Canadian Waters. Canadian Hydrographic Ser- vice, Ottawa, 1961.

Farquharson, W.I. Tides, Tidal Streams and Currents in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Canadian Hydro- graphic Service, Ottawa, 1962.

Forrester, W.D. Current Measurements in Passamaquoddy Bay and the Bay of Fundy, 1957 and 1958. Canadian Hydrographic Service, Tidal Publi- cation No. 40, Ottawa, 1961.

Tidal and Meteorological Influ- ences on the Current in Little Cur- rent Channel. Canadian Hydrogra- phic Service, Ottawa, 1961.

Fothergill, N.O. Tidal Circulation in Miramichi Bay. Tidal and Current Survey, Canadian Hydrographic Ser- vice, Ottawa, 1953.

61 CHART LATTICING - PAST, PRESENT next likely charting element to be removed may AND FUTURE be the navigational lattices. Also there may well be an end to the use of paper as the exclu- David H. Gr ay sive means of portraying a chart. The lines and Canadi an Hydrographic Service digital information on a chart will be recorded Ottawa, Ont ario on magnetic tape or microfiche and displayed se- Canada parately or in conjunction with the radar screen. ABSTRACT NAVIGATION SYSTEMS Hyperbolic radio navigation systems have been shown on Canadian Hydrographic Service Radio navigation started, and indeed conti- charts since the 1950's. The author traces the nues, with the use of direction fixing from development of the various systen.is: Loran-A, coastal radio beacons by which a mariner with a Decca and Loran-C and the draunhtinn methods by directionally sensitive antenna can obtain in- which they were drawn on charts. The accura- tersecting bearings. But a latticed chart is cies of these systems and alternate systems pre- not necessary. The need for latticed charts sently available and future systems are compa- really started with the Consol, Loran and Decca red. The author foresees the demise of the pre- systems developed in the Second World War. sent day lattice chart with the advent of other positioning systems and with the commercial pro- Consol was developed by Germany for the po- duction of automatic co-ordinate converters and sitioning of submarines in mid-Atlantic to about plotters and the possibilities of charts displa- a five mile accuracy. Essentially, it is a di- yed in video screen images. rection bearing system with radials of constant number of dots and dashes that repeat in adja- RÉSUMÉ cent sectors. The fe,w Consol stations remaining are in the Norwegian Sea. Les systèmes hyperboliques de radionavigation sont indiqués sur les cartes du Service Loran (later renaned Loran-A) was an Ame- hydrographique du Canada depuis I es années rican developed system that operated in the 1950. L' auteur retrace l'élaboration des divers 2000 kHz frequency band. Loran-A was a pulsed systèmes: Loran-A, Decca et Loran-C, ainsi que hyperbolic system that provided several hundred les méthodes employées pour les dessiner sur les mile range from the two transmitters and gave cartes. Il compare la précision de ces systè- one to two mile positioning accuracy. As a day- mes, d'autres systèmes actuellement disponibles time navigational tool, it helped convoys along et des systèmes futurs. L'auteur entrevoit le the Canadian and American Atlantic seaboard. moment où les réseaux actuellement représentés Nighttime use started once it was realized that sur les cartes deviendront périmés par suite de skywave signals, which are so evident at night, la mise au point d' autres systèmes de position- could be accommodated with the use of correction nement, de la production commerciale de conver- terms thereby aiding the nighttime bombing of tisseurs et de traceurs automatiques de coordon- Germany in the latter stages of the war. After nées, et du visionnement futur des cartes sur the war, the United States extended the system écrans vidéos. as a mil it ary requirement, and through encouragement of other nations, as a domestic INTRODUCTION navigational system. In its heyday, it provided navigational assistance throughout most of the This conference is a suitable time to re- maritime world including the American and flect back on what a chart looked like 100 years Canadian east and west coasts. (see figure 2). ago, what it looks like now and what it might Canada operates the last two Loran-A rates and look like 25 years from now (see figure 1). The these will close down at the end of 1983. typical chart a century ago was of small scale, without graduated borders or grid lines. It had The development of Loran has gone from the a few individual lead line soundings but cer- original version, now called Loran-A, as far as tainly no deep-sea soundings and no bottom con- a fourth version - Loran-D. Loran-B was an un- tours. Printing was done in single colour from successful attempt to use the individual cycles an engraved copper plate. Over the years, gra- within the Loran-A pulse. It was realized that duated borders and grid lines have been added, a longer wave length, i.e., lower frequency, was the waters are being filled in with a multitude required. Therefore the next development, of representative soundings with reliable con- Loran-C, uses 100 kHz transmissions where the tours to the greatest of ocean depths, shoals wave length is 20 times as long as Loran-A. are now tinted blue, the land depicted in buff With the lower frequency, the range of reception and topographic details shown. On top of all increases and it is possible to transmit over this information, radio navigation lattices are land, but larger antennae are required. Because printed in a rainbow of colours. the system uses pulses and only analyzes the cycles at the early part of pulse, the skywave in- The cycle is now in full swing the other terference that occurs at long ranges is avoi- way. The number of representative soundings is ded. Loran-C becane operational in 1958 and was being drastically reduced and contours emphasi- adopted by the United States as the prime zed with the metrication of charts, and super- coastal radio navigation aid in 1974. It is de- fluous topography is also being deleted. The ployed in Canada and the United States for domes-

62 tic purposes and in the North Atlantic, Mediter- Since 1977, Canada has been changing its ranean and Pacific for American military reasons radio navigation aids from Loran-A and Decca to (see figure 3). The USSR operates two chains of Loran-C. Table 1 shows the activity of provi- their equivalent to Loran-C. The Decca Company ding latticed charts in the last few years by operates its own version of Loran-C, called the CHS. Pulse 8, in the North Sea for several oil comp an i es. Satellite positioning is sufficiently complex to negate the possibility of showing the po- Decca was developed by the British using sition fixing as a family of intersecting hyper- several low frequencies (70, 84, 112 and 126 bolae, although that is exactly the method of kHz) each transmitted continuously from separa- solution. The TRANSIT system has been available ted transmitters. The interference pattern, to the public since 1967. But a position can when the received signals are compared at the only be computed each time a satellite passes lowest common multiple, is a family of hyperbo- overhead which occurs once every two hours on lae. The result is a system that has slightly the average. A positional accuracy of 200 m is shorter range than Loran-A but greater preci- possible but is dependent on the maximum eleva- sion. Decca was used in the Normandy landings tion angle of the satellite, the length of time and for close tactical support by aircraft, for that signals are received and accurate course which several Decca chains were established as and speed of the ship during that period. The the front advanced. After the war, Decca chains GPS (NAVSTAR) satellite system is still being were established by many nations so that there put in place, but once established, it will pro- is, or has been, coverage throughout northern vide world-wide continuous positioning to 100 m, Europe, the Canadian Maritime provinces, and or less, accuracy. In fact, discussions are elsewhere (see figure 4). Two of the original going on to decide how the accuracy ought to be four Canadian Decca chains were reconfigured in degr aded artifici ally. the 1960's, two chains have been closed down recently and the other two chains will close LATTICING down by 1985. In the 1950's and early 1960's when most of Omega is a very low frequency hyperbolic the Loran-A and Decca lattices were being prepa- system that uses only eight transmitters to pro- red, the computations and draughting was a vide positioning capability to most of the manual operation. Simplifications of the proce- globe. Again, the system was developed by the dures were the order of the day. An average ve- United States for military reasons, principally locity was assumed, tables of hyperbolae (LOP) because submarines can receive low frequency intersections along successive meridians and transmissions under water. There are serious parallels were computed, and splines were used diurnal effects that limit the positioning accu- to draw the lattice lines through these plotted racy to about 5 km. points. The spacing between lines was decided by the draughtsman as the lines were being To date, CHS has published Loran-A, Loran-C scribed. and Decca charts but has not yet published any Omega charts. The British Admiralty, U.S. When automated cartography started, latti- Defense Mapping Agency, and other charting orga- ces were prepared using computer assisted nizations have published latticed charts, inclu- flat-bed plotters for enormous savings in ding Omega, of Canadian waters. manpower. Then, it was necessary to provide the

Table 1

CHS Chart Latticing Activity

Radio Charts Charts Charts Navigation Cancel led in in System since 1979 Stock Preparation

Loran-A 16 25 0

Loran-C 17 58 51

Decca 25 40 2

Omega 0 0 0

(Dec. 1, 1982)

6 3 basic information such as transmitter locations, features are in the correct geographic position lane width along the baseline, and desired lane relative to the position from the radio naviga- interval as well as chart scale, projection and tion system or that the relationship between the 1 imits. two coordinate systems is provided. Receivers of each of these four systems are presently com- When Loran-C lattices were beginning to be puting positions in the World Geodetic System - required, it was realized that these simplifica- 1972 (WGS-72) coordinate system. But most CHS tions were no longer needed nor justified. In charts are on the 1927 North American Datum fact, they were detrimental. A sophisticated (NAD-27) and at large scales there may be plot- velocity model is now used as well as a mathema- table differences between the WGS-72 and NAD-27 tical model to reflect the delay caused by value for the same point. Some charts are wor- transmissions over land. This last step is un- se, for they are not based on the currently dergoing a three pronged development analysis: recognized NAD-27 values. The problem will only polynomial in latitude and longitude, a grid of be rectified once all charts are converted to data, and computation of the delay as needed, the 1983 North American Datum (NAD-83) where which in itself needs a data bank of digitized there should be no plottable difference from coastlines and conductivity areas. WGS-72.

POSITIONING WITHOUT LATTICES Up to now, it has really only been a matter of convenience that all charts be on the same Satellite positioning and radio direction datum. But once positioning and navigation are fixing have never required latticed charts. done by an external system, such as discussed These two methods are at opposite ends of the here, it is paranount that coordinates on a cost spectrum. However electronic hardware is chart and from the navigation system be compati- making such rapid development that the user of ble. the other systems no longer requires latticed charts either. DIGITIZED CHARTS

Only the simplest of Omega receivers provi- The Canadian Hydrographic Service is deve- de the raw data. Most receivers sold today loping methods to have charting information in track all Omega stations, provide the propaga- digital form as an alternate method of producing tion corrections by internally stored mathemati- a chart - the traditional paper chart. The cal models, by computed corrections from the digitized method could possibly save person- most recent satellite fix, or by transmitted years in the preparation of charts, particularly corrections from a local (within 300 miles) since data is arriving from the field in digital shore monitor. The typical outputs from such a form. The updating of charts by notices to ma- receiver are the geographic position, its relia- riners as they occur, could reduce the time nee- bility, course and speed made good, and bearing ded to prepare a reprint and hence the capabili- and distance to desired points. ty is possible of doing cyclical printing to reduce the mount of hand corrections to stock not Loran-C receivers once cost $10,000 but now yet distributed. start at $2,000 thanks to electronic technology and mass production. Many of today's receivers A real bonus to digitized charts, and per- can give the geographic position and other asso- haps the more crying need, is the eventuality of ciated data, such as previous Decca or Loran-A selling the chart in digital form. No more just LOP's, either as a built-in or an add-on fea- selling paper versions of a chart, but rather ture. Some receivers compensate internally for also marketing a cassette tape of a chart. This the propagation over land. Unti 1 recently, cassette is plugged into a computer that is con- Loran-C receivers operated on only one chain at nected to a colour video screen. Also connected a time and they operated with only two master- to the computer are one or more radio positio- slave pairs. However there are many receivers ning systems so that the ship's position is dis- available now that track several master-slave played at the centre of the screen. pairs and some that are master independent thus providing slave-slave LOP's. Some receivers can A radar scanner could also be connected to operate on two chains simultaneously so that the system so that radar images could be shown cross-chain fixes are possible, making position on top of the charted information. Images such fixing more assured and providing a 1 arger cove- as other ships could be flagged much as air rage area. The next generation of receivers may traffic controllers do. The computer could pre- have only an "on button". It will search for dict possible collision courses, particularly if the strongest master signal, find the associated the ship's intended course had been entered into slaves, compute the position and verify against this system via keyboard or cursor. an internal library for the correct LOP's to use. At least one manufacturer has already developed the first stage. The Loran-C position CHART DATUM from a receiver/converter is the centre of the image of a portion of a chart that is back- The future output of all radio navigation projected from a colour slide of the chart. systems, whether Omega, Loran-C, TRANSIT or GPS satellites will be in geographic coordinates. Therefore, CHS will have to be sure that charted

64 CONCLUSIONS

What lies ahead for the Canadian Hydrogra- phic Service? There is the need for the charts to be converted to the 1983 North American Datum as quickly as possible so that positions computed from radio navigation systems can be used directly on the charts. The overland propagation anomolies of Loran-C, commonly called ASF, need to be mapped as accurately as possible, probably by a combination of predictive and surveying techniques so that mariners can safely use Loran-C in more restrictive waters than they can tod. Charts will have to be transcribed into digital form so that they can be marketted as a cassette in lieu of paper.

And what is the time span required to do these projects? In five years, given reasonable resources devoted to these projects, CHS could have: the relationship between existing charted coordinate values and the 1983 North American Datum values, even if no NAD-83 charts had been published by then; a reasonable mapping of the Loran-C ASF; and maybe some charts available in, at least partial, digital form. Considering that the NAD-83 coordinate values will not be available until 1985, that the Loran-C will not be in its presently recognized final form until 1984, and that digitizing procedures are still being developed, this time estimate of five years is optimistic. Churchill, during the darkest hours of World War II, when being pressed for resources, likened himself to a sow with only so many teats; it appears to be the same for CHS. Fortunately, he never gave up hope.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

International Hydrographic Bureau, Radio Aids to Maritime Navigation and Hydrography, Special Publication No. 39, Monaco, 1965.

Admiralty List of Radio Signals - Di agr ans Relating to Radio Communication, Position - Fixing Systems and Traffic Management, The Hydrographer of the Navy, Taunton, England, issued annually.

Radio Aids to Marine Navigation, Dept. of Transport, Canada, issued semi-annually.

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FIGURE 3 MIMI WORLD-WIDE LORAN-C COVERAGE

67 ? FIGURE 4 MU WORLD-WIDE DECCA COVERAGE

FIGURE 5 IIIMIII WORLD-WIDE OMEGA COVERAGE

68 ment des Etats-Unis devront être discon- IMPACT OF THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM tinué (et quand ils le seront) lorsque ON HYDROGRAPHY deviendra disponible le nouveau GPS, voilà ce que propose le tout récent David We ll s ' , Plan fédéral de radionavigation des Gerard Lachapelle Etats-Unis. Dans ce document, nous dis- Michael Eaton' 1 cutons l'influence du système de posi- Stilianos Mertikas tionnement global sur l'hydrographie à partir de quatre aspects différents. D'abord nous décrivons le rendement ABSTRACT actuel du GPS dans son état d'application initiale partielle et nous discu- In Navigation Satellite Timing tons de son influence lorsqu'il sera and Ranging (NAVSTAR) system, also known presque complètement établi (avant as the Global Positioning System (GPS) is 1990) sur l'hydrographie. En particu- scheduled to be fully operational by the lier, nous décrivons notre projet con- end of this decade, and will be capable joint de développer un système de navi- of providing real-time continuous posi- gation GPS/BIONAV pour l'hydrographie tions accurate to about 10 metres. Poli- de l'Arctique. Ensuite, nous adoptons cies regarding what GPS accuracy will be une vue optimiste et présumons que made publicly available, and which of the quelque chose d'approchant la pleine other navigation systems supported by the capacité du GPS sera disponible publi- U.S. Government should be shut down (and quement et à peu de frais, et nous when) once GPS is available, have been explorons l'utilité du GPS à des fins proposed in the recent U.S. Federal Ra- d'execution de diverses fonctions de dionavigation Plan. In this paper we dis- levés hydrographiques. Troisièmement, cuss the impact of GPS on hydrography nous discutons les implications d'un from four points of view. First, we des- scénario pessimiste dans lequel les cribe GPS performance today in its part- caractéristiques du GPS sont sévèrement ially-implemented state, and discuss its restreintes à l'égard du grand public. near term (pre-1990) impact on hydro- Enfin, nous explorons diverses possi- graphy. In particular, we describe our bilités d'usages différents du GPS afin joint project to develop a GPS/BIONAV d'en améliorer l'exactitude disponible. system for arctic hydrography. Secondly, we adopt an optimistic stance, assume INTRODUCTION that something close to the full GPS capa- NAVSTAR/GPS is a military nav- bilities will be publicly and inexpensive- igation system being developed by the ly available, and explore the usefulness U.S. Department of Defense (USDoD). How- of GPS for various hydrographic surveying ever GPS will also have a double impact tasks. Thirdly, we discuss the implica- on civilian navigation. tions of the pessimistic scenario, in which GPS capabilities are sharply cur- In the first place, GPS is tailed to the general public. Finally we capable of accurate (10 metre), four- explore various possibilities for using dimensional (three coordinates plus GPS differentially to improve the accur- time), continuous, realtime, all wea- acy available. ther position fixing. No other present or planned navigation system has all these attributes. However, the full per- RÉSUMÉ' formance of GPS may not soon be available to civilian users. Le nouveau système automatisé de navigation par satellite (satnav) NAV- In the second place, naviga- STAR, également connu sous le nom de Sys- tion systems which are presently freely tème de positionnement global (GPS) a son available, such as TRANSIT, LORAN-C, échéancier prévu pour être pleinement and OMEGA will eventually be shut down fonctionnel à la fin de cette présente once GPS satisfies most military naviga- décennie, et pourra fournir en temps réel tion needs. des positions interrompues précises à 10 m près. Les politiques concernant l'exac- Hydrographers ,(and other civ- titude du GPS seront rendues publiques et ilians requiring precise positioning). lequel des autres systèmes de navigation will be critically affected by the rela- qui ont l'appui et le soutien du Gouverne- tionship between the timing of these shutdowns and the timing of civilian access to full GPS performance.

1. Department of Surveying Engineering Before discussing these future University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, uncertainties, and their impact on the New Brunswick, E3B 5A3 use of GPS for hydrography, we first 2. Nortech Surveys (Canada) Inc., 309-2nd summarize the present status of GPS, Avenue S.W., Calgary, Alberta, T2P 005 and some results we have already obtain- 3. Canadian Hydrographic Service, Bedford ed using GPS. These are the outcome of Institute of Oceanography, Dartmouth, a joint agreement involving Nortech Sur- Nova Scotia, B2Y 4A2. veys (Canada) Inc., the University of

69 New Brunswick's Department of Surveying Engineering, and the Bedford Institute of Oceanography. The goal of this NUB (Nortech/UNB/B10) project is to develop an offshore GPS marine navigation capability, to be used in hydrographic surveys of Baffin Bay, starting in 1984. So far, three NUB sea trials have been conducted on BIO ships using Nortech GPS equipment (see Figure 1). Further tests are planned.

PRESENT STATUS OF GPS

The principles of GPS are similar to those of rho-rho LORAN-C. A GPS receiver makes time-of-arrival measurements on signals from several (usually four) GPS satellites. The resulting pseudorange observations are then used to compute both position and the time bias between the satellite and receiver clocks. For marine navigation, and if we carry a cesium clock aboard ship, four kinds of solution are possible. The unknown parameters can be (1) latitude and longitude only (height and time bias held fixed) (2) latitude, longitude and time bias (height held fixed) (3) latitude, longitude and height (time bias held fixed) (4) latitude, longitude, height, and time bias. The values to which we hold the height Figure 1. Location of the Baffin Bay test point, and of the or time bias fixed must be close to first three NUB sea trials, their actual values, or the position fix held in November 1981, June 1982 and November 1982 will be corrupted. Sufficiently accu- respectively. rate ellipsoid heights can easily be obtained from available geoid maps, or geopotential coefficient sets. Estab- lishing a sufficiently accurate synchronization between a shipboard cesium and the GPS satellite clocks is a little more difficult, but possible.

The signals used can be either of two binary coded modulations on the GPS carrier--the "P-code" or the "C/A- code". The higher frequency P-code yields higher position fix accuracy (10 to 25 metres). Details of GPS signals and operation are described in ION [1980] and Wells et al. [1982].

GPS can be used today, but the 270 coverage is incomplete. Prototype GPS satellites were launched in 1978 and 1980. Four such satellites (which we designate here as Space Vehicles (SV) numbers 5, 6, 8 and 9) are currently operating, with a fifth (SV4) scheduled for launch in June 1983. Three more prototype satellites are available, and it is likely they will be used to maintain a five-satellite constellation between 1983 and 1986 [Kruh, 1983]. Be- tween 1986 and 1989 these prototype Figure 2. Polar plot of GPS satellites satellites will be replaced by 21 pro- (azimuth and elevation relative to Baffin duction model GPS satellites (18 oper- Bay test location, for 1982 November 16). ational plus 3 active spares). Despite warnings that GPS signals may be unreliable and inaccurate until the production stage [Healy, 1981], many months 70 of tracking by Nortech and others for marine navigation, it must be used indicate that GPS signals and ephem- in conjunction with ship's speed and erides are almost always stable, con- heading data. This limitation should be sistent and accurate. removed, now that a portable, fast switching receiver is available--the GPS satellites have orbital Texas Instruments 4100 multiplexing periods of nearly 12 hours, so that receiver shown in Figure 7 [Ward, 1982]. coverage nearly repeats from day to day. Nortech has acquired two of these Typical coverage for Baffin Bay is shown receivers, and they will be used for NUB in Figure 2. In order to translate a trails during 1983. particular satellite configuration into position fix accuracy, we introduce the CURRENT GPS MARINE NAVIGATION concept of Dilution of Precision (DOP). CAPABILITIES AND RESULTS This is a simplistic conversion factor from range measurement accuracy to posi- We will summarize results tion fix accuracy. For example, if the obtained in the NUB trials so far. range measurement error is 8 metres, and These results are fully described in the DOP factor is 2, the position fix Wells et al. [1983] and Lachapelle et accuracy would be 16 metres. The DOP al. [1983]. value reflects the geometri cal strength of the satellite/user configuration, As already mentioned, the STI however it also depends on which of the 5010 GPS recei ver used in these trials four kinds of solution listed above is must be used with ship's speed and being computed. We will use the fol- heading data. The accuracy of the com- lowing kinds of DOP: bined GPS/dead reckoning system will be (1) HDOP (Horizontal DOP) for latitude, affected by both errors inherent in GPS longitude solution; and noise in the ship's log and gyro (2) HTDOP (Horizontal/Time DOP) for data used to estimate the ship's dis- latitude, longitude, time bias so- placement between successive GPS pseudo- lution; range measurements. In order to evaluate (3) PDOP (Position DOP) for latitude, the inherently GPS error component, the longitude, height solution; quasi-instantaneous accuracy of GPS pos- (4) GDOP (Geometrical DOP) for lat- ition fixes were studied with the re- itude, longitude, height, time bias ceiver static. Position fixes were com- solution. puted using series of two to four The DOP value at a given location will pseudorange observations to different vary over a 24 hour period, but will satellites over time intervals of two to nearly repeat from day to day. Compar- five minutes to obtain a series of isons between these various DOPs are independent fixes. Typical results are shown in Figures 3 to 6. Figures 3, 4 shown in Figure 8. Similar accuracy and and 5 show predicted values for DOPs for repeatability has been obtained consis- three different satellite constellations tently over the past three years by (the present four-satellite, the expec- Nortech [Lachapelle and Beck, 1982]. ted five-satellite, and the final 18- The accuracy of 16 metres quoted earlier satellite constellations, respectively). for an HDOP of 2 was obtained not only Until the final constellation is in 50% of the time (as implied by GPS spec- place, it is clear that there are sig- ifications) but consistently for 80% to nificant advantages to using an exter- 90% of the time. Using the TI 4100 nally synchronized cesium clock: HDOP is receiver, this static accuracy and re- below six for 11 hours per day in Figure peatability should also apply in the 3 (four satellites), and is below ten dynamic mode. for 16 hours per day in Figure 4 (five satellites). Figure 6 corresponds to The integration of STI 5010 the same satellite constellation as pseudorange observations with ship's Figure 4, but represents actual DOP speed and course was carried out in values at Halifax rather than predicted realtime using three different types of values in Baffin Bay. HDOP at the two algorithms, namely a TRANSIT type, a sites are remarkably similar, indicating sequential type, and a Kalman filter; that the sea trial results should rep- these are discussed in more detail in resent GPS performance in Baffin Bay. Wells and Delikaraoglou [1982] and Lachapelle et al. [1983]. Positions The number of GPS receivers derived from this aided GPS navigation presently available to civilian users is system were compared with positions limited. The three NUB sea trials so derived using other navigation systems, far have used the Stanford Tele- such as LORAN-C and Mini ranger. Typical communications Inc. 5010 P-code receiver results obtained during the second NUB acquired by Nortech in mid-1980 and sea trial, in June 1982, are shown in described in Lachapelle and Beck [1982]. Figure 9. The TRANSIT type algorithm This is a bulky piece of equipment, was used in this case to combine pseudo- weighing 550 kg, and is a single-channel ranges with speed and course. The un- receiver (capable of measuring ranges to knowns consisted of latitude, longitude only one satellite at a time), requiring and time bias (at least three satellites 50 to 70 seconds to switch between sat- were available). The track of the ship ellites. In order to use this receiver was relatively smooth during this 71 4 SAIS 15' 15 - 5 SATS

GDOP 10- - 10 GDOP 5- 5- ll -'

o o 20- 20-

15- 15 - PDOP PDOP 10- 10-

0 o 20- 2

15 HTDOP 10" 10

5- 5

0 — o 101 0- HDOP HDOP 5 5-

o jJ o 6 12 21 18 UT HOUR OF DAY UT HOet OF DÀ"if Figure 3. Predicted dilution of precision (DOP) Figure 4. Predicted dilution of precision values for Baffin Bay test point, (DOP) values for Baffin Bay test point, for November 16, 1982, using the present for November 16, 1982; using the five GPS four fully operating GPS satellites. satellites expected to be available from June 1983.

18 SAIS

3 HTDOP 2 — HDOP GDOP 1-1 20- .. HTDOP o 15' 3-+ 10- 2 - HDOP 5- o o 12 118 24 F 12 i -é- 24 UT HOUR OF DAY UT HOUR OF DAY Figure 6. Actual dilution of precision Figure 5. Predicted dilution of precision (DOP) values for Halifax for November 1, (DOP) values for Cape Race, assuming a 1982 (four GPS satellites available). complete GPS 18-satellite constellation.

72 -20 -10 0 10 20 AA (rn)

Figure 8. Scatter plot of 75 quasi-instantaneous two dimensional GPS position fixes, collected over a four day period in May 1982 at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography. P-code pseudoranges from the Nortech STI 5010 GPS receiver were used.

Figure 7. Texas Instruments 4100 GPS geodetic receiver.

-6422 A -6420 Figure 10. GPS and Miniranger track plots during a buoy check on the third NUB sea trial, November 17, 1982.

(m) — Act) 200 -1 --- STD DEV 100 - DIFFERENCE WO — LATITUDE 0 - LONGITUDE 100 -100- -200- 0 -i 8:0 0 1 8 20 11E 3 0 -100 17 50 1 4 5 6 7 UT HOUR OF DAY UT HOUR OF DAY Figure 11. Difference between GPS and Figure 9. GPS marine navigation perform- Miniranger latitudes from Figure 10. ance, using LORAN-C as a reference. From The longitude differences were similar. second NUB sea trial, June 3, 1982. Also shown is the GPS standard deviation Transit-type algorithm used for GPS. estimated by the Kalman filter used.

73 period. LORAN-C was estimated to be Predictable Accuracy: The accuracy accurate to 50 m, hence the rms dif- of a position with respect to the ference of 50 m to 75 m between GPS geographic, or geodetic, coordinates aided and LORAN-C derived positions is of the earth. excellent. Figure 10 shows both Mini- Repeatable Accuracy: The accuracy ranger and GPS position fixes during a with which a user can return to a buoy test conducted as part of the third position whose coordinates have been sea trial in Nove.mber 1982 in Mahone measured at a previous time with the Bay. Several 180' course changes were same navigation system. made, and an adaptive Kalman filter was Relative Accuracy:,The accuracy with used to combine GPS pseudoranges with which a user can measure position speed and course. Figure 11 shows the relative to that of another user of position difference in latitude together the same navigation system at the with the standard deviations estimated same time. This may be expressed by the filter. Within straight segments also as a function of the distance of the path, rms differences are of the between the two users. Relative order of 25 m. The larger position dif- accuracy may also refer to the ferences that occur during sharp turns accuracy with which a user can are attributed to delays in recording measure position relative to his own and processing log and gyro data; this position in the recent past. For problem was due to the particular hard- example, the present position of a ware configuration used during the test craft whose desired track forms a and has since been rectified. The es- specific geometric pattern in search timated standard deviations of latitude operations of hydrographic survey, and longitude are consistent with the will be measured generally with position differences, indicating that a respect to a previously determined realistic weighting scheme was used in datum. the filter. Variations in the standard Referring to SPS, the FRP states that it deviations are due to the variable is policy to system noise of speed and course (during make the NAVSTAR GPS Standard turns), and to changing GPS geometry as Positioning Service (SPS) con- the receiver sequences through the four tinuously available worldwide for satellites available during the test. civil, commercial and other use at the highest level of accuracy con- FUTURE UNCERTAINTIES IN GPS PERFORMANCE sistent with U. S. national security interests. It is presently pro- GPS is principally a military jected that a predictable and re- system, but will be available as well to peatable accuracy of 500 metres (2 civilian users. This brings into con- drms) horizontally and 820 metres (2 tention the two concerns of military sigma) vertically will be made security and civilian economic benefits. available during the first year of Originally it was expected that the more full NAVSTAR GPS operation with precise P-Code signal would be available possible accuracy improvements as to military users, and the C/A-code sig- time passes. nal (expected to be an order of magni- and tude less accurate) to civilian users. the relative accuracy will be 10 m However, early experience with the two (2 drms) horizontally and 16.4 m (2 codes showed C/A-code position fixes sigma) vertically. were only about a factor of two less The "2 drms" accuracy level quoted is accurate than P-code fixes. Consequently the radius of a circle containing 95 new concepts have been introduced: percent of all possible fixes that can distinction between the two GPS signals be obtained with the SPS at any one has been replaced by distinction between place. In addition to this Denial of the two services to be provided by GPS-- Accuracy concept, there is also a user- these are the "Precise Positioning Ser- pay policy for SPS which will be en- vice (PPS)" and the "Standard Position- forced by encrypting the signal for SPS ing Service (SPS)". PPS is intended for as well, and charging an annual fee of military (and selected non-military) $370 per receiver for the necessary SPS users and will provide full P-code GPS encryption device. accuracy. Access will be controlled by encrypting the P-code signal, and an , The FRP also describes how GPS annual user's fee to non-DoD users of may affect other U.S. government sup- $3700 per receiver will be enforced ported navigation systems. The present through sale of • these encryption policies are to devices. SPS will be available for (1) phase out DoD use of TRANSIT general worldwide use, but will provide between 1987 and 1992, after which less than the full C/A-code accuracy. the system will be shut down for all users. The authoritative statement (2) phase out DoD use of LORAN-C regarding SPS accuracy is the Federal between 1987 and 1993. Civilian use Radionavigation Plan [USDoD/DoT, 1982], will continue at least to 2000. in which three accuracy specifications Coverage may increase if LORAN-C is are given: adopted for aviation use. On the other hand, LORAN-C may be phased 74 out in favour of GPS. this concept. We have studied some (3) phase out DoD use of OMEGA aspects of differential GPS navigation, between 1987 and 1992, except for in particular changes in the geometrical U.S. Navy use, which will continue. effect as the user moves further away However, OMEGA too may be phased out from the monitor [Mertikas, 1983]. We in favour of GPS. postulated that the C/A-code accuracy The FRP describes two key events in the may be degraded to meet the above SPS process of determining what the impact specifications in one of three ways; by of GPS will be on these other systems. adding errors to the broadcast satellite In 1983 DoD/DoT will make a preliminary ephemeris parameters, to the broadcast recommendation on the future navigation clock parameters, or to both. The system mix. Four years (1983-1986) are monitor station was postulated to con- scheduled for consultations with other tinuously measure either the variation nations, NATO, IMCO, and ICAO. Then in in its coordinates, or variations in the 1986 DoD/DoT will formulate final deci- biases in the measured ranges to each sions. GPS satellite in view, and to transmit these variations to users in realtime. DIFFERENTIAL GPS Typical results are shown in Figure 13, for the case of clock parameter degra- Noting that the SPS relative dation; measured range biases; and a accuracy will remain undegraded, it is user solution for latitude, longitude natural to ask whether using the SPS and clock bias. These results indicate differentially would permit civilian that the differential technique may be users to recover much of the full C/A- useful up to several thousand kilometres code accuracy. Figure 12 represents from a monitor. Many questions remain regarding differential GPS, some of which we intend to study during the 1983 NUB trials.

IMPACT OF GPS

A great advance in positioning for hydrography has been the post-World War II development of radio navigation, from DECCA and LORAN-C through Hi-Fix to Miniranger and Syledis. In GPS we may see the final step in that revolution.

Every one of our present radio positioning methods has problems. With LORAN, DECCA and Hi-Fix, where we make the measurement using groundwaves that follow the earth's curvature, we suffer from range errors due to propagation over land or ice, and interference from skywaves. Direct propagation microwaves Figure 12. Differential GPS navigation reflect from the sea surface to give concept. Variations in GPS ranges or range holes, and VHF signals propagated coordinates are measured by monitor and by diffraction reflect from hillsides sent to users over data link, to correct and buildings. All these problems go their positions. away if instead of battling to transmit a signal along the earth's surface we transmit straight down from a satellite.

From experience one suspects that nothing is going to be perfect: 200 signals from satellites are very weak and so subject to interference, but 0150 because they use very high frequencies, WITHOUT DIFFERENTIAL CORRECTION they can be coded to overcome this. 2 There probably will be some snags with 2 100 -1 0 a precise satellite navigation, but noth- WITH DIFFERENTIAL CORRECTION ing we have seen so far suggests serious m 50- problems. It looks likely that GPS, and cl) its successor systems, will eventually a ISo replace all our terrestrial radio nav- 0 0 • 1000 2000 aids leaving terrestrial laser systems KM FROM MONITOR to satisfy the highest accuracy requirements. Figure 13. Typical differential GPS results. SPS performance is measured by There will be some years of the 50th percentile of the radial uncertainty for this final stage of the deviations from the "true" positions. radio positioning revolution to sort itself out, and as this period will 75 extend over the next decade it is im- uses, such as an urgent requirement to portant that some effort is put into survey Baffin Bay, where there is no considering how it will affect hydro- LORAN coverage. GPS would cost about graphy. Let us consider three possible one third the amount required to put in cases, when GPS is fully operational, our own Accufix (portable LORAN) trans- and look at the impact of each on mitters and would avoid the uncertain hydrography. logistics of that operation in a very hostile environment. However, GPS at Worst case. In this case, SPS present provides fixing for one third to accuracy is degraded in such a way that one half of the day. Keeping a ship we cannot recover it using differential usefully employed for the remainder of techniques, and we are left with 500 m the day is a tricky problem. positioning. Most mariners, and many oceanographers are quite well served, If we can lind one convenient but hydrographers are worse off than at site on shore where we can put a single present. Hi-Fix or Accufix transmitter, then the range from this can be integrated with The FRP states that LORAN-C the range from a single GPS satellite and TRANSIT will be phased out once GPS (as long as it gives a good cut) to is operational. If this happens while further extend the time of hybrid GPS GPS is still at the 500 m accuracy coverage. level, we will be worse off than at any time since 1969. With no LORAN-C or We plan to test GPS thoroughly TRANSIT we will be unable to fix accu- under the NUB agreement during the run- rately beyond the 300 nautical mile up to full deployment. We expect to range of Accufix transmitters. have the experience to know what performance and limitations to expect. We Probable case. In this case, will know, for instance, whether we need SPS accuracy is degraded in a manner to operate a monitor receiver in the that allows us to recover by differ- survey area to verify accuracy, by fix- ential operation. The degree of recov- ing on the same satellites, using the ery may not be complete, and will be same broadcast ephemeris, and under the some function of distance from the dif- same fix geometry, as the survey ferential reference recel ver. For SPS vessels. Until full GPS deployment, and Denial of Accuracy to be effective, it the consequent SPS Denial of Accuracy, must obviously change at intervals, there should be no need for real time perhaps even continuously. That means transmission. we must broadcast corrections to the survey vessel continuously, in real At that stage we can decide time. We have the technology to do whether to pension off LORAN, Hi-Fix, this, but it will take effort and money Miniranger and Syledis in favour of GPS. to set it up. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Best case. In this case, DoD decides not to apply any Denial of Ray Banks, Norm Beck and Accuracy. We get full access to the Pierre Heroux at Nortech, Demitris C/A-code (20 m accuracy) and perhaps the Delikaraoglou at UNB, and Steve Grant P-code (10 m accuracy). We may pay a and Mike Ruxton at BIO have all con- user fee, which seems a very reasonable tributed to development of the algo- requirement. rithms, software, data collection, and results described in this paper. The SUMMARY UNB contribution to this work was funded in part by operating and strategic At present, GPS is in the de- grants from the Natural Sciences and velopment stage, and we have full access Engineering Research Council of Canada, to all its codes. It will become fully and in part by the Bedford Institute of operational towards the end of this Oceanography. decade, and at that time, or possibly even earlier, some as yet unspecified REFERENCES form of deliberate accuracy degradation will probably be applied, in order to Healy, M.S. (1981). "NAVSTAR/GPS nav- deny the enemy full use of this military igation satellite system status." system. Federal Register, 46, pp. 20724- 20725. At present four or five satellites are up and, with their 12 ION (1980)."Global positioning system." hour period, these give two fix periods Collected reprints of GPS papers per day, each lasting between three and published in Navigation, The Inr eight hours, depending on location. Fix stitute of Navigation, Washington. accuracy is about 50 m. It will cost about $1,000 per day to rent a receiver. Kruh, P. (1983). "Coverage and buildup of the NAVSTAR constellation." Under this limited time cover- Presented at the DoD symposium on age, applications are limited to special GPS, Arlington, VA, April. 76 Lachapelle, G. and N. Beck (1982). "NAVSTAR/GPS single point positioning at Sheltech Canada - Pre- liminary results." The Canadian Surveyor, 36, pp. 29-42.

Lachapelle, G., N. Beck, P. Heroux and D.E. Wells (1983). "GPS aided marine navigation with a slow switching receiver." Submitted to Navigation, Journal of the (U.S.) Institute of Navigation.

Mertikas, S. (1983). 'Differential Global Positioning System navigation: a geometrical approach." Master of Science in Engineering thesis, Department of Surveying Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton.

USDoD/DoT (1982). "Federal Radio- navigation Plan." Vols 1 to 4, March. (Available from National Technical Information Service, accession numbers ADA116468-71.)

Ward, P. (1982). "An advanced NAVSTAR GPS geodetic receiver." Proceedings of the Third International Geodetic Symposium on Satellite Doppler Fositioning, Tic Uruces, pp. f125 -1142.

Wells, D.E. and D. Delikaraoglou (1982). "Models for combining single channel NAVSTAR/GPS with dead reckoning for marine positioning."Proceedings of the Third International Geodetic ymposium on ate ite lopp er 15- ositioning, -Las C-ruces, 1274.

Wells, D.E., D. Delikaraoglou and P. Vanicek (1982). "Marine navigation with NAVSTAR/GPS today and in the future." The Canadian Surveyor, 36, pp. 9-28.

Wells, D., G. Lachapelle and S. Grant (1983). "Enhanced offshore positioning using current Global Pos- itioning System capabilities." Marine Geodesy (in press).

77 EXPLORING ARCTIC SEAS - INTRODUCTION TODAY AND YESTERDAY

Neil M. Anderson and Adam J. Kerr The Canadian Arctic is Canadian Hydrographic Service comprised to a large extent of islands Headquarters, Ottawa, Ontario separated by channels and was explored Atlantic Region, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia primarily by seafarers. Most of the journeys of the explorers were either by ship or by sled across the frozen sea. ABSTRACT The catalyst for much of the exploration was to discover a new sea route to the Orient. In this paper we wish to touch The surveys of beaches and upon some of the major journeys of routes in preparation for landing exploration, particularly those which supplies for the DEW line set off a new actually mapped the Arctic coastline and wave of Arctic hydrographic exploration. waters, and then to march forward to this This was followed by the unique century and show how those modern Arctic through-the-ice sounding operation with explorers - the hydrographers, have the Polar Continental Shelf Project and progressively surveyed the channels and more recently the major surveys carried seas of the Canadian Arctic. out in the Beaufort Sea and throughout the Northwest Passage in preparation for the transportation of oil and gas through Throughout this paper it will these Arctic Seas. Hydrographers on all not be possible to cover every voyage of these surveys have followed in the exploration or the work of every modern footsteps of the British Navy expeditions hydrographer. Our intention is to follow in the nineteenth century. Survey bases the history and dwell on those people and have often been established on the same events where ancient and modern site where those early explorers had exploration have come together. wintered, such as at Winter Harbour where Lieutenant Parry spent the winter in 1822 and at Beechey Island from where Franklin Although the Vikings are set off on his ill-fated voyage. This believed to have travelled from Greenland paper discusses the surveys both old and to the Canadian Arctic Islands we shall new, comparing the conditions under which begin our story with the Elizabethan the hydrographers worked and the results sailor, Martin Frobisher. In the period they achieved. 1576-78, this tough Elizabethan sailor made three voyages to southeast Baffin Island, landing in what is now known as RÉSUMÉ Frobisher Bay. With his two small vessels, the GABRIEL of 20 tons and the MICHAEL of 25 tons, he initially arrived Les levés des plages et des near Resolution Island. routes maritimes, effectués en vue de l'approvisionnement des stations du RAPA, ont relancé l'exploration hydrographique There was considerable de l'Arctique. Ces levés ont été suivis confusion about the exact location of par l'expérience unique de sondage à his discovery and on early maps travers la glace, dans le cadre de Frobisher's Straits are shown l'Etude du plateau continental polaire near the southern tip of Greenland. et, plus précisement, par les grands Although he was disappointed in failing levés réalises dans la mer de Beaufort et to reach the Orient he did bring back le long du passage du Nord-Ouest, pour some ore which set off a "gold rush" but permettre le transport des hydrocarbures, unfortunately this turned out to be dans des navires, à travers les mers "fool's gold", and Frobisher ended his arctiques. Pour tous ces levés, les Arctic endeavours in some disgrace. hydrographes ont suivi la même itinéraire que les expéditions de la marine britannique, au 19e siècle. Les bases In the nineteen fifties the bay ont souvent été établies aux endroits which Frobisher had visited had assumed mêmes où ces pionniers avaient hiverné: some importance as an administrative à Winter Harbour où le Lieutenant Parry a centre and strategic air base. The need passé l'hiver en 1822 et à l'île Beechey, for a safe route for shipping through the d'où Franklin est parti pour sa tragique tortuous channels in the bay with the expédition. Dans son étude, l'auteur met strong tides led the Canadian en parallèle les levés d'hier et Hydrographic Service to send the d'aujourd'hui, en comparant les chartered vessel ALGERINE there in 1954. conditions dans lesquelles ils ont été This was followed by the new RCN effectués et les résultats obtenus. icebreaker LABRADOR with a team of hydrographers aboard led by Mike Bolton which located and surveyed the important Pike - Resor Channel. This in turn was followed by surveys using the brand new

78 Arctic survey ship BAFFIN in 1958 with Interest in Hudson and James D'Arcy Charles as hydrographer. Bay has waxed and waned over the years as a result of various economic developments. In 1585, another tough Elizabethan seaman, John Davis with his two ships the SUNNESHINE and the The Canadian Hydrographic MOONESHINE, building upon Frobisher's Service has followed these economic knowledge, sailed around the south coast trends, which usually come on an urgent of Greenland and headed north. In three basis and then fade as interest in the successive voyages Davis penetrated development itself wanes. In the mid Baffin Bay and followed the west coast of fifties hydrographers working aboard Greenland and on his last voyage reached charter ships surveyed Rankin Inlet, the latitute of 72°42'N. Eskimo Point and later the Belcher Islands. In 1961-62 interest in Moosonee was so high that a winter survey party From the late nineteen sixties, was dispatched to survey the channel the Canadian Hydrographic Service has through the ice. Hydrographers Bob systematically surveyed its offshore Golding, Earl Brown and Neil Anderson waters. These surveys, known as were on this winter team. About this multi-parameter surveys, are combined same time, 1961 but during the summer, surveys of bathymetry, gravity, magnetics the chartered sealing vessel NORTH STAR and other geophysical measurements. IV surveying at the entrance to James These surveys which had started in the Bay struck a rock and sank. In 1973-74 south, had by 1981 reached Davis Strait the Coast Guard vessel NARWHAL with Bob and in that year the HUDSON with Gary Marshall in charge was dispatched to Henderson in charge and DAWSON with Steve survey the route into Grand Riviére. The Grant in charge, surveyed the Strait ship was equipped with modern high speed which John Davis had found so many years launches and for the first time an before in his little ship. automated data processing system HAAPS was used. In 1975, the need for multi-parameter surveys to better define The fate of Henry Hudson is the hydrocarbon prospects, came to the well known. In 1610 he was sent out in fore and NARWHAL was used once more to command of DISCOVERY to find a passage to systematically survey the entirety of the the other ocean called the Southern Sea. offshore waters of Hudson Bay - this time In what is now James Bay his crew with Bruce Wright as hydrographer-in- mutineered and he was set adrift in a charge. boat to perish. Nevertheless, prior to the mutiny he managed to explore the south side of Hudson Strait and the east By the middle of the 17th side of Hudson Bay and down into James Century, the avenues to the west through Bay. Hudson Bay were almost exhausted as the explorers defined the perimeter of the bay. One of these explorers, Luke Foxe, The precise charting of Hudson had discovered the northern appendage to Bay and approaches was started by the CHS the Hudson Bay that bears his name. in 1913. The new survey vessel ACADIA However it was left to a British naval was dispatched to survey a port intended officer nearly two hundred years later to for the export of Prairie grain. The really probe its northwesternmost entrance to the Nelson River was first extremity to discover the narrow channel chosen but was later changed to that leads to the west. In 1821-23 Churchill. Parts of the coast of Hudson Lieutenant Parry, who had already won Strait were surveyed using a shore party fame in extending the northern channel to deployed from an icebreaker. This party Melville Island attempted to penetrate was under the charge of F.C.G. Smith who the Strait named after his two ships FURY later became Dominion Hydrographer. and HECLA. Unfortunately the heavy ice Later in the mid nineteen fifties BAFFIN which presses down through the Gulf of and the two chartered vessels THERON and Boothia and the fierce currents that set ARCTIC SEALER surveyed a major section of through the straits provided an Hudson Strait. impenetrable barrier in that era of sailing ships. The first surveys in Foxe Basin were carried out using the ice During the early part of the breaker the LABRADOR under the command of Seventeenth Century several explorers, Capt. O.C.S. Robertson with hydrographers followed up Hudson's discoveries. Blandford and Bolton onboard. These Amongst these were Thomas James, who, in surveys were in support of the sealift the HENRIETTA MARIA in 1631-32 required for the DEW Line sites. circumnavigated both James and Hudson Bays spending a miserable winter near Charlton Island in the bay which bears Fury and Hecla Straits were his name. first travelled overland by Charles Francis Hall in 1868 but it was not until

79 1948 that the U.S. icebreakers EDISTO and survey launches and life was generally EASTWIND finally made the first ship easier than for Lieutenant Parry 140 transit and in 1957 the icebreaker HMCS years previously. In 1971 Ken Williams LABRADOR now under the command of Captain as Hydrographer-in-Charge aboard the CCGS T.C. Pullen made the first east to west LABRADOR attempted to survey westwards transit and carried out the first from Barrow Strait. The ice conditions hydrographic surveys. Onboard again was in Viscount Melville Sound are far more a party of CHS personnel. Not only did difficult than the comparatively clear this party carry out useful surveys of waters of Lancaster Sound and it became Fury and Hecla but also carried out the increasingly apparent that west of Barrow first detailed surveys of that other Strait would always require the use of narrow but critical Arctic channel, major ice breakers such as LABRADOR or Bellot Strait. In 1959 the CHS returned JOHN A. MACDONALD to carry out any useful again, this time with CSS BAFFIN having work. surveyed a cross section of Fury and Hecla. In 1975 with R. Pilote as Hydrographer-in-Charge (HIC) and in 1976 At about the time that Parry with Dick Lelievre as HIC BAFFIN was was setting off to find a Northwest involved in surveying the eastern Passage by sea another naval officer, approaches to Fury and Hecla but did not John Franklin, was setting out to confirm penetrate the strait and it was left to the reports made by explorers from the Gary Henderson on BAFFIN and Bud Swim on fur trading companies and to map the LABRADOR in 1981 to complete the surveys northern mainland coast of Canada. John of the narrow constriction of this Franklin made two epic overland journeys waterway. These surveys located several to the northern coast in the company of dangerous shoals which further narrowed Dr. John Richardson and Lieutenant George the navigable water which at the time was Back. The first nearly ended in being contemplated as a route for LNG disaster, although he succeeded in tankers. exploring a substantial length of coastline east of Coppermine. The second was highly successful; he travelled down The numerous voyages into the Mackenzie and split his party into Hudson Bay, culminating in Parry's two groups. One group travelled attempts to enter Fury and Hecla Strait eastwards with the boats DOLPHIN and had exhausted the possibility of making a UNION from which the Straits into westwards passage through Hudson Bay and Coronation Gulf were named. The other interest turned to the north. Sir John group encountered greater difficulties Ross set out in 1818 with the ISABELLA but succeeded in travelling west as far and the ALEXANDER to explore Davis Strait as Return Reef at 149°37'W. With these and Baffin Bay. Although his scientific arduous travels he had delineated most of observations were successful he the coast which surrounds the Beaufort unfortunately failed to recognize the and Coronation Gulf. entrance to Lancaster Sound and this glory was left to his second in command, Lieutenant Parry, a year later. Parry In the nineteen fifties the sailed his ships HECLA and GRIPER through DEW line Stations sited along the 70th the length of Lancaster Sound and into parallel were constructed at points along Viscount Melville Sound being finally the northern mainland shore. This stopped and forced to winter at Winter stimulated a need for hydrographic Harbour on the south coast of Melville surveys at places such as Cape Parry and Island. The following year Parry, who Cambridge Bay. had spent a most organized and relatively trouble-free winter in camp set off west again and reached 113°47'W in M'Clure The first of these at Strait before being stopped by the heavy Tuktoyaktuk was surveyed by Phil Corkum, ice. Nevertheless Parry's voyage was A. Rogers and J. Robichaud with the highly successful and he returned to Mackenzie River Survey Party but other England in 1820 hain..g surveyed a large surveys were carried out by the U.S. Navy part of the main Northwest Passage. and Coast Guard with participation by Canadian hydrographers such as Harvey In 1960 Prime Minister Blandford. In 1954 the Beaufort Sea Diefenbaker's "dream of the north" was Expedition with the U.S. icebreaker having some political reality and BURTON ISLAND worked into Prince of Wales BAFFIN was dispatched again under Strait. The following year Ralph Wills Charles, to systematically survey and later Tom McCulloch, accompanied the Lancaster Sound. In the years that U.S. Coast Guard icebreaker STORIS and followed this important waterway from carried out surveys in the western Bylot Island to Beechey Island was Arctic. In 1960 the Canadian Coast Guard progressively surveyed. D'Arcy Charles replaced the U.S. vessels with CAMSELL using BAFFIN was followed by Russ and with hydrographers from the CHS Melanson and later by Ken Williams on aboard began a program of surveying in LABRADOR and Tony O'Connor on HUDSON. Beaufort Sea and other areas of the Full use was made of the helicopters and western Arctic that has continued to this

80 day. In 1961 Tom McCulloch who had been accomplish what other British naval working previously on CAMSELL transferred officers to date had failed to achieve. his attention to the borrowed RCMP launch While he personally failed and he and all SPALDING, which proved to be less than a his crew perished, the subsequent success and in 1962 he arrived with the searches for his expedition resulted in new 66 foot survey vessel RICHARDSON. In the exploration of huge areas of the RICHARDSON he surveyed many of the Arctic and eventually led to the coastal harbours stretching from the discovery of the elusive Northwest U.S. border as far east as Spence Bay. Passage. The actual wanderings of Surveys were made of many of the areas Franklin are speculative as there is such as Bathurst Inlet and the Coppermine limited evidence but it is now believed River where so many years before Franklin that he circumnavigated Cornwallis Island and others had toiled so hard to map that passing the site of the modern lead-zinc northern coast. mine on Little Cornwallis Island. He most certainly wintered on Beechey Island where his monument is located. He In spite of the efforts of eventually made his way into Peel Sound hydrographers working from the RICHARDSON but his two ships were beset and and the Coast Guard icebreaker CAMSELL foundered in the ice northwest of King the amount of surveying that could be William Island in Victoria Strait, an completed during the brief ice-free area today recognized as extremely season was miniscule compared with the difficult to navigate because of heavy task at hand. Today much of the southern concentrations of pressured ice. waterway through Dolphin and Union Straits, Coronation Gulf and Queen Maud Gulf contains some of the most poorly Over many years the Canadian charted waters in Canada. The Beaufort Hydrographic Service has been fortunate Sea was another matter and following the in being able to place hydrographers discovery of oil both on the mainland and aboard the Coast Guard icebreakers. offshore, a major drive was made to Although in most cases the icebreakers' survey those waters. In 1967-68 PARIZEAU first task is to escort shipping, there under hydrographer Stan Huggett started are numerous opportunities to gather systematic offshore surveys. In 1969 the soundings from the ships or to lower a voyage of MANHATTAN to Prudhoe Bay with launch and survey a harbour. It is from its attendant escort of icebreakers this work that a steady buildup of revealed an unusual and very significant knowledge has been acquired, particularly hydrographic hazard. This was the in areas where navigation through the ice existence of submarine pingoe-like is difficult for CHS's own ice- features, or PLF's, similar to those that strengthened survey ships. It has been can be seen on the adjacent mainland of in the area around Barrow Strait and the Tuktoyaktuk peninsula. These pingoes Cornwallis Island, the site of Franklin's are thought to be ice-covered hills that limited journeys that this work has been rise abruptly from the seafloor and since most successful. Hydrographers they rise to as close as 14 metres from Blandford, Williams, Lelievre, Gaudet, the sea surface, pose a serious hazard to Hemphill, to name but a few, have the anticipated deep draft supertankers extended our knowledge of Wellington of the future. In 1970 the CHS tasked Channel, Macdougall Sound and Barrow the area with the major survey ships, Strait on this opportunity basis. The PARIZEAU under Sandilands, BAFFIN under icebreaker captains, themselves, have Burt Smith, and HUDSON, which was used added immeasurably to this program. primarily for oceanography. The hydrographic party of the Polar Continental Shelf Project (PCSP) also Evidence of Franklin's final became involved with the surveys in journey was eventually found on King Beaufort Sea and carried out William Island. He himself had died in through-the-ice spot sounding, and in June 1847 and the command was taken by 1968 under the direction of George Yeaton Captain Francis Crozier who in April 1848 and John O'Shea a hovercraft was first began a fateful march with 105 men used for hydrographic surveys. It towards the Back River during which they happens that the major offshore oil all perished. Arctic history then discoveries in the Beaufort Sea lie in records a vigorous period of searches areas where the PLF's are most dense and with ships being dispatched to both the during the last four years the CHS has east and western Arctic. The searches directed considerable attention, were numerous and only those whose including the development of technology wanderings can be related directly to to surveying a corridor into the oil modern hydrographic surveys will be fields. Major surveys have been carried discussed. out recently by O'Connor and Vosburgh.

During the winter months when In 1845 Captain Franklin was the ships were iced in, the search was given a seagoing command and with two carried out by sledge journeys. These ships, the EREBUS and TERROR, set out to led to the discovery of much of the

81 central part of the Arctic Islands. One west. Together Collinson and M'Clure of those who sent out such parties was charted large sections of the coast of Captain William Penny who in 1850-52 the western Arctic Islands, including the explored the area through Wellington latter's almost total circumnavigation of Channel and north to the Grinnell Banks Island. Peninsula. The strait between Devon Island and Bathurst Island which bears Penny 's name was surveyed by Mike Eaton Prince of Wales Strait is today in 1962. This survey was conducted recognized as the western entrance to the through the ice and was one of the first North West Passage. Regular navigation examples of the use of Hi-Fix over ice. through M'Clure Strait has proven to be It showed that the propagation of the impossible even for the major icebreakers signals could vary as the ice moved to and only one ship to date, the American and fro on the tide. icebreaker "NORTHWIND" has made the passage passing west to east. The southern route through Dolphin and Union The last and greatest search Strait, Coronation Gulf and out through expedition sent out by the British Victoria Strait, sometimes provides a Admiralty was commanded by Sir Edward relatively ice-free passage when Prince Belcher. The expedition from 1852-54 had of Wales Strait is blocked but the two thrusts, one to proceed west to southern route is shallow, particularly Winter Harbour to search for M'Clure and at the east end of Dolphin and Union Collinson who were themselves searchers Strait. It is certainly out of the from the west, having set out in 1850; question for deep draft tankers. Earlier the other to search for Franklin north information on the hydrography of Prince through Wellington Channel. Belcher of Wales Strait was from a survey by himself took two ships ASSISTANCE and U.S. icebreakers. In 1970 BAFFIN with PIONEER and proceeded north as far as hydrographer Burt Smith in charge carried Northumberland Sound on Grinnell out a detailed survey of the area around Peninsula where he went into winter the Princess Royal Islands, the narrow quarters. From this vantage point sled west portion of the strait where the parties explored much of the northern channel is less than twelve miles wide. coasts of Bathurst Island and the The looming significance of the Beaufort Grinnell Peninsula, and many of the Sea oil discoveries and talk of oil off-lying islands. Lieutenants Osborn tanker shipments through the Northwest and Richards travelled west and explored Passage in the mid-eighties forced the the Sabine Peninsula; Kellett travelled Canadian Hydrographic Service to consider around Prince Patrick Island and picked further, more detailed surveys of this up M'Clure who was stranded at Mercy waterway. But in three consecutive Bay. Others from the expedition years, surveys planned using icebreakers travelled through Belcher Strait as far failed to take place due to their as Nell Gate and Cardigan Strait. inability to reach the strait across Viscount Melville Sound from the east. In 1982 the narrow waterway was finally Hell Gate and Cardigan Strait systematically surveyed using through-ice are important marine passageways into the sounding methods from helicopters. Queen Elizabeth Islands. Icebreakers travel each summer through the former en route to Eureka, one of the most northern It remains to discuss the work Arctic settlements. It was for these of one last member of the Franklin reasons that in 1962 Mike Eaton and Ross search, Captain Leopold M'Clintock. Douglas, then working with the Polar Although the Admiralty felt that it had Continental Shelf Project, carried out done all it could to search for Franklin, detailed surveys of Hell Gate and Lady Franklin was not satisfied and Cardigan Strait. Eaton developed a novel outfitted the FOX, sending it out under technology for these surveys using a the command of M'Clintock. The vessel helicopter-towed sounding system. The sailed in 1857 and after an initial delay area has fast tidal currents which keep in Baffin Bay M'Clintock addressed his the ice broken up and provide large open attention to the channels leading south water areas. The helicopter system could from Lancaster Sound. During the spring be flown to the open water area and of 1859 the expedition finally found the deployed. Although the surveys of these traces of the Franklin expedition on King narrow channels were completed in detail William Island, including written the system proved to be difficult to use messages. and dangerous. Attempts to overcome these difficulties led to the use of hovercraft noted earlier. These south reaching channels, Prince Regent, Peel and M'Clintock have always presented difficulties to Earlier mention has been made navigation and they become progressively of M'Clure, who with Captain Richard more difficult from east to west. Prince Collinson in the ENTERPRISE and Regent and Peel Channel are sometimes INVESTIGATOR set out to search from the navigable but M'Clintock Channel, which

82 is open to the full sweep of ice pressing Islands had been relatively unexplored. down from Viscount Melville Sound is Belcher had conducted a number of normally impenetrable. It is through explorations on sled as part of the this channel that the heavy pack ice Franklin search along the north shore of sweeps down and against King William Devon, Bathurst and Melville Islands. Island and into Victoria Strait. During However it was Otto Sverdrup and his 1981 the ubiquitous Polar Continental Norwegian exploration team that really Shelf hydrographers under Paul Davis opened up much of this area. In Nansen's carried out a systematic through-ice former ship the FRAM the expedition survey of M'Clintock Channel not so much started off to explore the northern coast for navigation but simply to provide the of Greenland but in several successive regional coverage that is needed to seasons heavy ice directed their travels complete our scientific knowledge of the elsewhere. During the summer of 1901 he Arctic. actually sailed FRAM into Norwegian Bay but had to retrace his steps back through Cardigan Strait after meeting heavy ice. The concentration on the His main explorations were by sled and Northwest Passage and the subsequent dog team and his expeditions explored and expeditions involved in searching for claimed for Norway the entire eastern Franklin had tended to by-pass the part of the Queen Elizabeth Islands channel that leads northwards from Baffin including Ellesmere, Axel Heiberg, Amund Bay to the Arctic Ocean. In spite of it and Ellef Ringnes Islands. This large being named after a British naval officer area known today as the Sverdrup Islands, this area was predominantly one of was eventually ceded to Canada in 1930 by American exploration as some of the names Norway. Denmark laid claim to Ellesmere along its track, such as Kane Basin, Island during the early part of the testify. In the latter part of the 1920's but the presence of Canadian nineteenth century interest was directed postal and other governmental to reaching the Pole along this route and organizations such as the RCMP and amongst those persons with this in mind military has strengthened Canada's were Hall, Greely and eventually Peary, sovereignty claim. Denmark no longer who finally, early in this century, claims Ellesmere Island. reached the North Pole.

It was the uneasiness of the To the Canadian Hydrographic Canadian Government concerning the Service this channel has presented sovereignty of these Arctic Islands that several interesting challenges. Neil led it in 1958 to launch an expedition Anderson in 1966-67 surveyed Robeson which has had a major impact on Canadian Channel and the Lincoln Sea at the hydrography to this date. This was the northern exit of the channel. He carried Polar Continental Shelf Project which has out soundings through the ice but had the already been mentioned several times. greatest difficulties using a Hi-Fix The initial aim of this expedition was to positioning system over the heavily survey the continental shelf of the pressured and rafted ice. The medium Arctic Islands and some of the earliest frequency signals were seemingly work involved the setting up of a Decca incapable of propagating across the very Lambda Chain. The expedition was under heavy ice. the able leadership of a geologist, Dr. Fred Roots, who had considerable experience in polar operations. In 1971 Gerry Wade, working Hydrographers Blandford, Eaton and Kerr with the Polar Continental Shelf Project were originally assigned to the continued the survey southwards through expedition. Much of the early work Robeson Channel. This survey also became involved surveying the location of the associated with a boundary dispute Decca transmitters, calibrating and between Canada and Denmark involving the developing methods of sounding through small uninhabited Hans Island, lying near the thick ice. Not the least of the the centre of Kennedy Channel. The problems was discovering and overcoming position of the boundary could be altered the limitations of modern electronic depending upon the ownership of Hans instruments, such as tellurometers when Island, which was a matter for operating in temperatures as low as contention. After considerable -50°F. historical research the matter was put aside with the boundary being tentatively agreed to be broken on each side of the During the subsequent island. In 1975 Jack Wilson continued twenty-four years that the Polar Wade's work southwards through the Continental Shelf has been in operation channel in a cooperative venture with the the expedition has reached out from its Danish Hydrographic Office. original base camp at Isachsen on Ellef Ringnes Island to provide a basis of logistic support for an almost Until the turn of this century limitless range of scientific field the channels between the Queen Elizabeth research covering the entire Arctic, with

83 base camps at Tuktoyaktuk and Resolute. Aircraft have been the main mode of transportation and every year the PCSP charters numerous helicopters and fixed- wing aircraft. Hydrography has always been a major component of PCSP and over time the systematic mapping of the seafloor through the ice has been extended to cover almost all the Arctic Islands and much of the continental margin extending into the Arctic Ocean. The work has always been closely related to that of the geophysicists with the measurement of gravity going hand in hand with the bathymetry. Some remarkable sorties have been made into the Arctic Ocean itself. In 1967 Neil Anderson accompanied the geophysicist Hans Webber to take soundings at the North Pole. In 1980 a geophysical expedition called LOREX was mounted to explore the tectonic character of the Lomonosov Ridge and included in this scientific expedition were studies of satellite navigation by Dave Wells. In 1983 another seafloor ridge in the Arctic Ocean, the Alpha Ridge, will be explored and on this occasion hydrographer Dave Pugh will be involved in measuring the deeper ocean depths beneath the ice.

CONCLUSION

It would be impossible in a story of this kind to mention every explorer either ancient or modern who has helped to accumulate knowledge of these Arctic coasts and Arctic seas. Clearly in the case of the earlier explorers there have been some obvious omissions of several great names such as Stefannson, Amundsen, Bernier, Larsen of "St. Roch" and numerous earlier explorers. In recent years there has been the important work of surveyors with the Surveys and Mapping Branch and the Army Survey Establishment in establishing basic control including the Shoran triangulation and the pioneering work of photogrammetrists. Mention should be made of two names in the ranks of recent surveyors; one is of Frank Hunt, a tough Newfoundlander, who has followed the fortunes of the Polar Shelf Project from the start until today and the second is Hans Pulkinen, who has probably surveyed more Arctic Seas than any man alive. There are very tew of today's hydrographers who have not spent some of their career fighting off mosquitos in the sub-Arctic or freezing in the high Arctic be it aboard ship, or working from the Polar Continental Shelf over-ice surveys. The explorers of the 19th Century discovered the Northwest Passage; the hydrographers carried on their work.

84 SIDE SCAN SONAR - AN ALTERNATIVE INTRODUCTION TO WIRE DRAG FOR ITEM INVESTIGATION To the navigator who trusts Lieutenant David H. Peterson, NOAA in nautical charts to keep a safe cour- Charting and Geodetic Services se and avoid danger, a charted wreck or National Ocean Service obstruction not accurately shown can be National Oceanic and Atmospheric as much a menace to navigation as one Administration which has never been discovered. While Rockville, Maryland undiscovered dangers are one problem in U.S.A. hydrography, dangers shown inaccurately on charts are quite another matter.

Complete hydrographic surveys ABSTRACT usually include supplemental operations which are intended to verify the chart- Since 1906 Charting and Geode- ing accuracy of all dangers shown. In tic Services (C&GS) and its predeces- Charting and Geodetic Services (G&GS) sors (including the National Ocean Sur- these supplemental field operations are vey and the U.S. Coast and Geodetic generally referred to as "item investi- Survey) have relied mainly on standard gations". wire drag methods for conducting investigations to prove or disprove the ex- ITEM INVESTIGATIONS istence of charted dangers to navigation. Despite its effectiveness, wire An item investigation is a drag has usually proved inefficient and very thorough search, using approved cumbersome when prosecuted by vessels methods, which will reveal either that: and field parties not specially equipped for it. As a consequence, many in- 1) a charted danger actually vestigations were deferred to special does exist; or that, wire-drag survey vessels. 2) a charted danges does not C&GS has recently approved the exist within an areas, accounting for a use of side scan sonar by hydrographic reasonable amount of uncertainty in its ships and field parties as an alterna- reported position. tive to wire drag for conducting item TrTîistigations. This paper describes If the danger does exist, a item investigations, wire drag, evalua- hydrographic examination will then ver- tions of sonar, and discusses the C&GS ify its charting accuracy by confirming policy on side scan sonar use. A brief its true position and its least depth. discussion of operational requirements If a thorough search by approved me- for sonar search is also provided. thods has failed to find the danger, this search may be considered satisfactory proof of the danger's nonexistence RÉSUMÉ where it had been reported or charted, permitting its removal from the charts. Depuis 1906 le National Ocean Survey (NOS) et ses prédécesseurs ont There are three primary re- employé surtout la drague hydrographi- quirements for reliable, credible re- que à fil, pour mener des enquêtes afin sults in an item investigation. First, de vérifier ou de réfuter l'existence the search must cover an areas for a de dangers signalés pour la navigation. reasonable amount of error in the re- Cependant, cette technique se révèle ported or charted position. Second, généralement inefficace lorsqu'elle est within the search area, the major por- utilisée par des équipages et à bord de tion of the water column and/or sea bateaux non spécialisés dans ce genre bottom must be scrutinized, using a pos- de travail. Aussi, plusieurs enquêtes, itive detection method, in such a way surtout celles qui portent sur des dan- as to leave no doubt about the complete- gers signalés au large des côtes, sont ness of the coverage. Third, the confiées à des navires spécialement search must resolve all indications équipés d'une drague. which may be the danger being sought, continuing either until the specific Le NOS a récemment approuvé danger is found or all indications with- l'utilisation d'un sonar à balayage la- in the area are proven false. téral, au lieu de la drague, par tous les navires et les équipes hydrographi- The hydrographer must apply ques qui effectuent des recherches pour certain principles of search theory in localiser des dangers signalés. L'au- order to establish a search area of teur de cette étude y décrit la politi- sufficient size to make the investiga- que et les procédures actuelles du NOS tion credible. In specifying the search pour l'utilisation du sonar à balayage area, the basic consideration is the latéral, afin de localiser les dangers reliability of the charted position. pour la navigation. The source with which the charted danger

85 originated is a useful indicator of the which a vessel reports encountering reliability of the charted position. while navigating in what were thought to be safe depths. In general, the positions of dangers which originate with prior Clearly, for features with surveys are known, reliable positions. such attributes, sounding methods alone For these features, a simple search in will be incapable of providing the high the immediate vicinity of the charted degree of assurance required of the position will almost always suffice to search. The search must be accomplished relocate the danger. Item investigation using a method which provides wide-path then becomes a matter of normal overlapping coverage of the bottom in hydrographic examination. order to effectively cover all points within the search area. The equipment Most item investigations, must incorporate some means of posi- however, involve "reported" dangers. tively indicating to the hydrographer These are the wrecks and obstructions, the presence of a feature on or protrud- often shown on charts as "PA" (position ing from the bottom. In the negative approximate), "PD" (position doubtful), sense, when no features are present, the and sometimes even "ED" (existence search operation must also serve to doubtful), which originate with sources indicate that fact. such as Local Notice to Mariners, etc. These dangers have been charted on the An item investigation is not basis of the "reported" position considered complete until every supplied in the source document. While indication, which may be the object of reported positions may have been faith- the search, has been resolved satisfac- fully determined, they do not often torily. It must continue until the item reflect true positions because of fixing is located, or until the entire search errors associated with the methods by area has been covered and all indica- which they were observed. tions have been proven not to be what the hydrographer is looking for. For For a credible search to example, if a hydrographer is searching locate a reported danger at its true for the wreck of a 40-foot fishing position, the hydrographer must take vessel and happens upon the wreck of a into account a reasonable amount of 40-foot barge, the search must continue fixing error in the reported position. until the hydrographer proves that the Opinions vary on the amount of fixing fishing vessel is not within the search error which is considered reasonable. area. At the present time, the C&GS policy is to assume a fixing error of 1 nautical mile, and to require the hydrographer to CONVENTIONAL METHODS AND THE NEED FOR AN search an area 1 nautical mile in all ALTERNATIVE directions from the reported position. In actual practice, this requirement The conventional method used applies when no additional positional by C&GS and its predecessors (including information is available which can serve the National Ocean Survey and the U.S. to reduce the search area with Coast and Geodetic Survey), for accom- confidence. If information is avail- plishing item investigations has been able, which can reduce the search area with the standard wire drag (figure 1). to a smaller area of high probability, a This venerable apparatus is a true smaller search area can be specified. contemporary of the lead line.

Within the search area The wire drag was introduced considered appropriate to the situation, in 1904 and adopted in 1906.(1) It has it is essential that all points on the undergone only minor improvements since bottom be covered during the search. If that time. The standard wire drag was a danger is not found by the search, developed by integrating, into a single there must be no possibility that it may system, certain aspects of similar have been missed because of gaps or devices described by the U.S. Army "holidays" in the coverage. No claim of Engineers (2) and the French Hydro- disproval of a charted danger can be graphic Service.(3) The result was a accepted unless the completeness of the mechanical sweeping device suitable for coverage has been assured. ocean use, because its depth could be adjusted for tidal height changes. Most dangers which are investigated are considered to possess Originally, wire drag was used certain attributes. They are usually exclusively as a means to supplement discrete features, having only limited standard hydrographic surveying methods physical extent, such as a wreck. All whereby all obstructions lying between are assumed to be stationary and of a sounding lines would be revealed. solid nature. Finally, to a greater or Incident to this, a further use of the lesser degree, they are assumed to be drag suggested itself. This was to protruding above the general surrounding determine with certainty that an area, bottom. This will usually be the case such as a channel, was free from for an obstruction of unknown nature, obstruction to a specified maximum

86 „ rr r -y-e

‹.'11

›.■

FIGURE 1 Standard Wire Drag

depth. Its use for these purposes was Because of this, hydrographic usually in conjunction with the sounding units defer some investigations of survey and was oriented more to general wrecks and obstructions, particularly areas rather than specific individual those offshore, to the special wire-drag features. unit. When there was a renewal of emphasis on item investigations to Item investigation, as we increase the overall quality of hydro- perceive the process today, began to graphic surveys and nautical charts, it become more prominent as a required quickly became apparent that success hydrographic operation during World War would depend upon some alternative to IL Wire drag was pressed into service wire drag being available to make to locate and correctly chart the wrecks investigations of large search areas in of ships which had fallen victim to a cost-effective manner. submarine action along the east coast of the United States--a job which continued well into the 1950s. Since that time, C&GS EVALUATION OF SONAR AND ITS wire-drag operations have been devoted ACCEPTANCE almost totally to item investigation. Various forms of active sonar By virtue of its construction equipment have been used by C&GS prede- and method of operation, wire drag has cessors in the years since World War II. long fostered great certitude in its Despite observations made by hydrog- results. If a wire could be passed raphers concerning the effectiveness of close to the bottom over an entire these instruments as detection devices, search area, it would surely "hang" on a great deal of caution was shown in an obstruction if one were present. accepting any but a mechanical means for Conversely, if a wire could be passed detecting a danger or proving that it close to the bottom over an entire area does not exist. without incident, then surely no danger could exist in that area. In item As early as 1955, the U.S. investigations, a long-standing wire- Coast and Geodetic Survey was using an drag policy has been that complete, "asdic" type sonar. This sonar was used overlapped coverage of the search area, as an adjunct to the standard wire drag at a bottom clearance of 3 feet, is for making preliminary searches of the sufficient to disprove the existence of area surrounding the reported position a danger to navigation. of wrecks.(4) On one project, it was noted that "not one wreck was found by Normally, a few wide drags dragging after a thorough sonar search. will satisfactorily cover a large item In some cases, a wreck was found by investigation search area. As a sonar outside the required drag limits practical matter, however, most hydro- that would have been missed, had not a graphic ships and field parties cannot sonar search been made." mount wire-drag operations of such magnitude. They simply are not The 1959 edition of the Wire designed or equipped for it. At best, Drag Manual(5) clearly stated that use the hydrographic launches which must be of sonar had proven "very valuable" in used could handle a drag of about 500 the location of wrecks and obstructions feet. To investigate full search areas whose exact locations were doubtful. with such small drags would require Perhaps the reason that sonar failed to large amounts of usually scarce project be accepted as a stand-alone detection time, and would require most, if not device, at this point, was that success all, of the available survey launches. with the early sonars depended so much

on the operator's skill in aurally Table 1. Comparison of various distinguishing between wreck echoes, operational aspects between wire echoes from other reflectors, and noise. drag and side scan sonar. Side A side-scanning sonar, the Wire Scan Ocean Bottom Scanning Sonar (OBSS), was Drag Sonar first used in 1965. However, this use was not for hydrographic surveying Launches 2 1 purposes; rather, it was to investigate Skiffs 1 0 submarine faulting in the vicinity of Personnel 12 6 Montague Island after the great 1964 Load/unload time in hours 1 0 Alaska earthquake. The use of this Transit time in hours 1 1/2 1 device did, however, finally begin to Deployment time in hours 1/2 0 foster an awareness that fixed- Search time in hours 2 1/2 1 direction-scanning sonar had potential Recovery time in hours 1/2 0 hydrographic applications. Total time in hours 6 2 Total person-hours 72 12 It was 10 years later, after towed side scan sonar systems were more widely available, that side scan sonar It was probably the 1975 received its first thorough evaluation DAVIDSON test that had more to do with by C&GS, demonstrating its potential as making side scan sonar the obvious an alternative to wire drag. In 1975, alternative to wire drag than any other NOAA Ship DAVIDSON performed a practical single internal event. It dramatically test designed to evaluate side scan proved that acceptable results could be sonar's performance in detecting sub- produced with reasonable consistency by merged dangers against that of wire a nonmechanical method. One additional drag. This evaluation spanned 2 months bit of evidence, which tipped the scale and was conducted during an actual toward side scan sonar, was a fairly survey project under typical working informal evaluation conducted in 1976 by conditions. This comparison was con- the , specially designed wire-drag ships ceivably the fairest which could be made RUDE and HECK. These ships are capable since the standard wire drag was of deploying drags over 12,000 feet in operated from launches--the situation in length. While the side scan sonar again which the width of the drag is demonstrated its effectiveness by comparable to the swath width of the detecting wrecks which had previously side scan sonar. been located by wire drag, it reinforced this effectiveness by detecting a wreck A total of 18 investigations which had not been found within its were made for various submerged dangers. search area by the drag. The side scan sonar was operated as the primary detection device on all In 1982, after the side scan searches, while the wire drag was used sonar had been regularly used during for confirmation whenever the side scan wire-drag projects for 5 years, the side sonar search had negative results. Nine scan sonar was approved for general use investigations resulted in side scan by all C&GS hydrographic ships and field sonar detections of the dangers, parties as an acceptable alternative to followed by verification by divers. All the more cumbersome and time-consuming remaining investigations resulted in wire drag for making item investiga- negative findings by the side scan tions. Item investigation has now sonar. In six of these, the subsequent joined other aspects of hydrographic wire dragging confirmed that no danger surveying in the electronic era. was present. In the remaining three, all in shallow water over irregular bottom, the drag found the danger when POLICY ON USE OF SIDE SCAN SONAR FOR the side scan sonar had indicated clear. ITEM INVESTIGATION

The 15 of 18 success rate was For detecting many of the a significant finding. However, perhaps commonly encountered submerged dangers even more significant, from an opera- which require the hydrographer's inves- tional standpoint, was the comparison of tigation, side scan sonar has been found the survey times and resources required essentially equal to mechanical methods by the two methods. This comparison is in its effectiveness. In view of this summarized in table 1. The wire drag finding, C&GS has developed a basic typically required three times the policy to guide the use of this instru- amount of onsite time as did the same ment for making item investigations. investigation using the side scan sonar. Wire drag is both equipment- and labor- As a matter of policy, side intensive. There was a three-fold dif- scan sonar may now be used as a primary ference in the number of vessels resurvey tool for the detection of sub- quired and a six-fold difference in the merged dangers with characteristics number of person-hours. If side scan and/or circumstances which make a sonar is nothing else, it is certainly detection highly probable. It is more efficient in terms of resources! recognized, however, that not every

88 danger may be reliably detected by this The most efficient systematic acoustic method. The following condi- search pattern for covering a search tions are presumed to define those area with a wide-path detector is the characteristics and/or circumstances parallel-track pattern. This pattern is which will make a detection highly repeatable, requires only a minimum likely: number of turns to produce uniform coverage, and permits ease of overlap of (1) when there is adequate swept paths. reason to expect that the danger is capable of returning echoes of suffi- Related to the search pattern cient intensity to exceed the intensity is the second requirement of a side scan of the general reverberation background sonar search in item investigation. against which they must be detected; This is the requirement for complete scanning coverage of the bottom as the (2) when there is adequate search progresses. There are two reason to expect that the danger has determinants for complete coverage: the sufficient size (length, breadth, search track spacing and the side scan height) to produce a marking on the sonar's scanning range. To achieve sonargram which is distinguishable from complete scanning coverage, the area the generalized trace corresponding to swept from one search track must, at the seabed. least partially, overlap with the area swept from the adjacent search track. When it can be reasonably All points between any two tracks will determined, a priori, that a particular have been scanned from at least one of danger to be investigated satisfies the tracks. To achieve this degree of these conditions, that danger may then coverage, the side scan sonar's scanning be selected and assigned as an item for range must be greater than one-half the side scan sonar investigation. Side track spacing to be used. scan sonar may only be used as the primary detector for those items which Each search pattern that the have been specifically selected and hydrographer runs must achieve the identified as sonar candidates. minimum 100-percent coverage between the search tracks. To obtain the highest Once a side scan sonar search probability of detecting a danger, the candidate item has been detected and hydrographer should run two parallel properly identified as the danger being search patterns, the second being run sought, the hydrographer must proceed normal to the initial pattern. This with further examination using only will provide two "looks" at each point standard methods. Position and least in the search area and prevent, as much depth of the danger must be established as is possible, a chance of having to the accuracies required by the overlooked a danger, should it have been Hydrographic Manual. Side scan sonar scanned from its "least photogenic" determined positions and estimates of aspect during the initial pattern. If a the least depth will not meet the danger truly does exist within the required standards of accuracy. search area, should have been detected by this level of searching A thorough side scan sonar effort. If no danger has been detected search having a negative result with to this point, the hydrographer shifts respect to the specific danger being the emphasis to proving that the danger sought shall be acceptable as conclusive does not exist. proof of that danger's nonexistence where it had been charted or reported to "Proof" that a danger does not be. If all procedural requirements of exist within the search area is presumed

TFe- search have been satisfied, such a when additional searching effort from negative investigation shall be the "splitting" the search tracks of the authority for the removal of the danger first two patterns also fails to detect from all pertinent nautical charts. the danger. When this level of searching effort has been completed, the hydrographer has scanned every point PROCEDURAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SIDE SCAN between any two parallel search tracks SONAR SEARCHES four times, and has viewed each point from four different directions. The first requirement of a side scan sonar search in item investi- The final procedural require- gation is that it be systematic rather ment is to resolve each detection made than random. By searching systemati- by the side scan sonar which might be cally, a danger can often be found with the danger being sought. Detections are the least amount of searching effort indicated on the sonargram. The hydrog- being expended by the hydrographer. A rapher must determine, through interpre- search done systematically will give tation of the shape, size, shadow, greater credence to the claim of dis- tonal, textural, and pattern information proval if eventually the danger is not from the recorded echoes, which found. detections may be the danger sought.

89 Examinations of these indications must be made which are sufficient to establish whether or not each is the danger under investigation. For these examinations, the hydrographer must use all the tools available, including divers. Until all possible indications are disposed of, the search must continue.

REFERENCES

1. Heck, N.H. 1907

Long wire drag. Report of the Superintendent, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. pp 549-562.

2. Shenahon, F.C. 1903

Report of Mr. Francis C. Shenahon, Assistant Engineer, in, An Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army for FY 1903. Appendix FFF, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. pp 2759-2764.

3. Etat-Major General de la Marine - Service Hydrographique. 1902.

Drague flottante. Annales Hydrographique. 2e Serie, 24, pp 152-154.

4. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1957

Wire Dragging for Wrecks. The Journal of the Coast Geodetic Survey No. 7. pp 111-113.

5. Ulm, K.S. 1959

Wire Drag Manual. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Publica- tion 20-1. Government Print- ing Office, Washington, D.C. pp 103.

90 U.S. NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHIC OFFICE et les programmes servant à recueillir HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY OPERATIONS les données hydrographiques. Les opéra- 1972 - 1982 tions et les programmes décrits compren- nent les opérations effectuées par le Maxim F. van Norden CHAUVENET et le HARKNESS; l'Hydro- U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office graphic Survey Assistance Program Bay St. Louis, Mississippi 39522 (HYSAP) qui fournit des ressources et U.S.A. des conseils techniques aux pays participants pour leur permettre d'effectuer leurs propres levés et de produire des ABSTRACT cartes; le programme Hydrographic Con- tracts (HYCON) aux termes duquel des The U.S. Naval Oceanographic entreprises privées sont chargées Office (NAVOCEANO) located at the Nation- d'hydrographier certaines régions, les al Space Technology Laboratories, Bay St. levés effectués dans le cadre d'une co- Louis, Mississippi, conducts oceanograph- opération nationale et internationale; ic, geophysical, and hydrographic survey les activités d'équipes hydrographiques operations with twelve Military Sealift indépendantes qui ont utilisé d'autres Command Ships (MSC) under NAVOCEANO tech- navires de la Marine, de petites embar- nical control and three specially modi- cations ou des navires affrétés sur fied P-3 Navy aircraft operated by Ocean- place. L'auteur décrit, en outre, l'ex- ographic Development Squadron EIGHT. pansion des ressources et des capacités hydrographiques de NAVOCEANO, notamment This paper will discuss the la mise en place de systèmes tels que world-wide hydrographic survey operations l'Hydrographic Airborne Laser System conducted by the U.S. Naval Oceanographic (HALS), l'Hydrographic Information Hand- Office from 1972 to 1982 including the ling System (HIHAN), l'Active/Passive resources and programs used to collect Multi-Spectral Scanner (A/P MSS) et le hydrographic data. The operations and Global Positioning System (GPS). programs described will include those by coastal hydrographic survey ships, USNS CHAUVENET and USNS HARKNESS; the Hydro- graphic Survey Assistance Program (HYSAP) which provides participating countries with technical resources and advice to conduct their own surveys and produce charts; the Hydrographic Contracts (HYCON) program INTRODUCTION which uses private contractors to survey selected areas; national and international The ocean is the traditional en- cooperative surveys with other national vironment of the Navy. Operating in this agencies and foreign hydrographic organi- environment requires the Fleet to have zations; and independent survey teams available the best information possible to using other Navy ships, portable boats, provide for the Nation's defense in war or locally hired vessels. Furthermore, and to insure the safety of all those who this paper will describe the expansion of use the sea in peace. The U.S. Naval NAVOCEANO's survey resources and capabili- Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) located at ties including the implementation of such the National Space Technology Laboratories, future systems as the Hydrographic Air- Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, conducts borne Laser Sounder (HALS), the Hydro- oceanographic, geophysical and hydrograph- graphic Information Handling (HIHAN) sys- ic survey operations with twelve Military tem, the Active/Passive Multi-Spectral Sealift Command (MSC) ships under NAVO- Scanner (A/P MSS), and the Global Position- CEANO technical control and three speci- ing System (GPS). ally modified P-3 Navy aircraft operated by Oceanographic Development Squadron RÉSUMÉ EIGHT (VXN-8), located at Patuxent River, Maryland (see Table 1). Since 1830 when NAVOCEANO began Le U.S. Naval Oceanographic as the Depot of Charts and Instruments, the Office Office (NAVOCEANO), situé aux National has been in the forefront Space Technology Laboratories, Bay St. of hydrographic survey practice. Louis (Mississippi), effectue des opéra- tions océanographiques, géophysiques et The year 1972 marked the begin- hydrographiques, à l'aide de 12 navires ning of a new era in hydrography for the du Military Sealift Command (MSC), U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office. First, placés sous le contrôle technique du chart compilation, production, printing NAVOCEANO et de trois aéronefs, P-3 and distribution functions were separated modifiés de la Marine, exploités par from NAVOCEANO and combined with similar l'escadron VXN8. Army and Air Force mapping functions to form the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA). L'auteur de cette étude dé- With this reorganization, NAVOCEANO retain- crit les activités hydrographiques ef- ed the responsibility for the collection fectuées dans le monde entier par le of hydrographic data. Second, two new U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, de ships --USNS CHAUVENET and USNS HARKNESS -- 1972 à 1982, ainsi que les ressources began hydrographic survey operations. These ships, unlike previous Navy hydrographic 91 TABLE 1. NAVOCEANO SHIPS AND AIRCRAFT

LENGTH COMPLEMENT SHIPS (FT) COMMISSIONED CREW SCIENTIFIC PURPOSE

USNS LYNCH 209 27 Mar 65 27 15 Oceanographic Research (T-AGOR 7) USNS DESTEIGUER 209 28 Feb 69 27 15 Oceanographic Research (T-AGOR 12) USNS BARTLETT 209 31 Mar 69 27 15 Oceanographic Research (T-AGOR 13) USNS SILAS BENT 285 24 Jul 65 50 26 Oceanographic Surveys (T-AGS 26) USNS KANE 285 19 May 67 50 26 Oceanographic Surveys (T-AGS 27) USNS WILKES 285 28 Jun 71 50 26 Oceanographic Surveys (T-AGS 33) 1 DUTTON USNS 455 12 Sep 58 67 39 Geophysical Surveys (T-AGS 21) USNS BOWDITCH 455 12 Sep 58 67 39 Geophysical Surveys (T-AGS 22) USNS WYMAN 285 3 Nov 71 41 10 Geophysical Surveys (T-AGS 34) USNS HESS 563 16 Jan 78 67 39 Geophysical Surveys (T-AGS 38) USNS CHAUVENET 393 13 Nov 70 69 73 Hydrographic Surveys (T-AGS 29) USNS HARKNESS 393 29 Jan 71 69 73 Hydrographic Surveys (T-AGS 32)

' Note: Scheduled to be replaced in 1985 by converted C3-33a class cargo ships.

COMPLEMENT AIRCRAFT TYPE CREW SCIENTIFIC PURPOSE

BIRDSEYE RP-3A 12 5 Arctic Studies SEASCAN RP-3A 12 5 Oceanographic/Acoustic Surveys MAGNET RP-3D 12 5 Geomagnetic Surveys

survey ships which had military crews, (HYSAP) which provides participating are manned by civil service mariners em- countries with technical resources and ployed by MSC with an embarked military advice to conduct their own surveys and Oceanographic Unit (OCEANOUNIT) respon- produce charts; the Hydrographic Contracts sible for conducting survey operations. (HYCON) program which uses private contractors to survey selected areas; national The continuing need for hydro- and international cooperative surveys with graphic surveys is substantiated by DMA other national agencies and foreign hydro- requirements for the collection of over graphic organizations; and independent sur- 200 ship-years of hydrographic data to vey teams using other Navy ships, portable support current charting needs. Also the boats, or locally hired vessels. Further- combination of shifts in the world econom- more, this paper will describe the expan- ic and political balance resulting in in- sion of NAVOCEANO's survey resources and creased traffic into newly developed ports, capabilities with the planned implementa- the emergence of the deep-draft supertanker tion to the hydrographic program of advan- and the increasing ability in the near ced technology such as the Hydrographic future to navigate precisely anywhere in Airborne Laser Sounder (HALS), the Hydro- the world with the NAVSTAR Global Position- graphic Information Handling (HIHAN) sys- ing System (GPS), combine to highlight the tem, the Active-Passive Multi-Spectral inadequacy of the existing hydrographic Scanner (A/P MSS), and the Global Position- data base. ing System (GPS).

This paper will discuss the world-wide hydrographic survey operations USNS CHAUVENET (T-AGS 29) AND USNS HARK- conducted by the U.S. Naval Oceanographic NESS (T-AGS 32) Office from 1972 to 1982 including the resources and programs used to collect The USNS CHAUVENET and USNS hydrographic data. The operations and HARKNESS (Figure 1) are the largest hydro- programs described will include those by graphic survey ships built specifically USNS CHAUVENET and USNS HARKNESS; the for this role for the U.S. Navy (Table 2). Hydrographic Survey Assistance Program

92 FIGURE I. USNS HARKNESS (T-AGS 32)

Both ships were built by Upper Clyde Ship- TABLE 2. USNS CHAUVENET AND USNS HARKNESS builders, Govan Division, Glasgow, Scot- CHARACTERISTICS land. The CHAUVENET's keel was laid on 24 March 1967; it was launched on 13 May Length 393 feet 1968 and delivered on 13 November 1970. After a shakedown cruise off Virginia and Beam 54 feet North Carolina in May-August 1971, the CHAUVENET began hydrographic operations Draft 17 feet surveying Korean waters in July 1972. The HARKNESS keel was laid on 30 June Displacement 4300 tons 1967; it was launched on 12 June 1968 and delivered on 29 January 1971. In July- Propulsion Two 1300 HP diesel engines November 1971, the HARKNESS also performed driving one controllable a shakedown cruise off Virginia and North pitch propeller through Carolina and in July 1972 began hydrograph- reduction gear ic survey operations in Greece. Speed 15 knots

The USNS CHAUVENET and USNS Endurance 12,000 n. miles HARKNESS are operated by Military Sealift Command (MSC) with a military Oceanograph- Hull Steel, ice strengthened ic Unit (OCEANOUNIT) aboard responsible for conducting the hydrographic survey Winches 2 hydrographic, operations. Each OCEANOUNIT is augmented 1 magnetometer and supported by: civilian NAVOCEANO hydrographers and electronic engineers and Design The only U.S. survey ship technicians to provide the hydrographic with a full helicopter expertise; Navigational Aids Support Unit support capability (NAVAIDSUPPUNIT) personnel and equipment to operate and maintain the shore-based position fixing stations; a electronic TABLE 3. USNS CHAUVENET AND USNS HARKNESS Helicopter Antisubmarine Squadron Light SHIP'S COMPLEMENT (HSL) detachment to fly and maintain the embarked HH-2D helicopter used to support shore-based NAVAIDS sites and geodetic MSC 69 survey teams; and, as required, a U.S. Marine Corps Coastal Survey Team (USMC CST). OCEANOUNIT 52

Table 3 is a listing of each ship's comple- NAVOCEANO Civilians 7 ment. Each ship carries four 36-foot survey launches which are used to conduct the HSL detachment 14 shallow water hydrography, two 36-foot landing craft (LCVP) and one helicopter NAVAIDSUPPUNIT 12 for logistical support, and two 16-foot detachment (ashore) utility boats. Table 4 is a listing of each ship's major survey equipment and USMC CST As needed, instrumentation. up to 22 93 TABLE 4. LIST OF SHIP'S SURVEY EQUIPMENT Geodetic Equipment 2 AN/PRR-14 Geoceivers AND INSTRUMENTATION 6 T-2 theodolites 2 T-3 theodolites Aircraft 1 HH-2D Seasprite 3 N-2 levels helicopter 6 0M-20 Electrotapes 1 Ranger IV laser Boats 4 36-ft survey launches 2 LCVP Oceanographic 5 nitrogen gas purging 2 16-ft utility boats Equipment tide gages

Electronic 1 over-the-side current Positioning meter USNS CHAUVENET 1 XBT launcher and recorder Short range Mini-Ranger III various bottom samplers 10 shore stations 10 mobile stations Chart production 1 Harris offset rotary press Medium range ARGO 0M-54 1 Robertson gallery 3 shore stations camera 8 mobile stations 1 hydraulic paper Long range LORAN C, SATNAV cutter

USNS HARKNESS 1 IBM Electronic Selec- tric Composer Short range Trisponder 520

6 shore stations 6 mobile stations

Medium range ARGO DM-54

2 shore stations 4 mobile stations Data Handling

Long range LORAN C, SATNAV A typical hydrographic survey involves the collection of: geodetic in- Depth sounders/ formation to reference the survey to the sonars geocentric World Geodetic System 1972 (WGS 72) datum or to an acceptable region- Precisfon shallow 6 DSF-600 (20 0 beam- al datum; time correlated position and water width, 40 KHz) depth data to chart the bottom; side-scan sonar information to delineate submerged Portable shallow 1 DE-719 (8 ° beamwidth dangers to navigation; tidal data to de- water 200 KHz) fine a vertical reference datum and to adjust the depths to that datum; bottom sam- Deep water wide 2 Raytheon Blue Water ples to determine safe anchorages; and beam Systems (33 ° beam- current flow information to assist the width, 12 KHz) mariner in navigating safely.

Deep water Harris Narrow Beam During the 1972-1982 period, narrow beam Echo Sounder System data handling by CHAUVENET and HARKNESS (2-2/3° beamwidth, has been a mixture of automated and manual 12 KHz) methods. Each ship was equipped with the Hydrographic Data Acquisition System (HDAS) Side-scan sonar 2 Klein 400 systems which consisted of two Digital Equipment (CHAUVENET) Corporation POP-9 computer subsystems, one 2 EDO Western 606 for real-time data acquisition and the systems (HARKNESS) other for post-time data editing, sharing a common drum memory. Each subsystem had Automated data Ship an assortment of peripherals including collection/pro- flatbed and drum plotters, magnetic tape cessing Hydrographic Oceano- drives, teletypes, and paper reader/punch graphic Data Acquisi- units. Although the HDAS was designed to tion System (HODAS) collect and process ship's hydrographic data completely by automated methods, the Launches HDAS had no capability to edit and correct the sounding data recorded on the magnetic Boat Data Logger Sys- tapes. Consequently, soundings were digi- tem (BDLS) tized from the echo sounder analog traces

94 using a Wang Digitizer System and the USNS CHAUVENET (T-AGS 29) Survey Operations soundings hand-inked on the field/smooth sheets. Survey launch data for most of The USNS CHAUVENET began its this period were collected and processed first survey in July 1972 when it assumed manually except that launch echo sounder the mission of surveying the coastal waters analog traces were also digitized using of the Republic of Korea (ROK) (Figure 2) the Wang system. from the survey ship USNS KELLER. For the next three years, in the summer and autumn Normally, survey manuscripts seasons until November 1975, the CHAUVENET (field sheets) and data received from the conducted survey operations in Korea. The field are recompiled and smooth sheets pro- CHAUVENET's survey of Korea was complement- duced, edited, and reviewed in the Office ed in the inshore areas by Korean survey for quality control before sending them to vessels operating under the US-ROK Cooper- the Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic ative Survey Program. In April 1973, the and Topographic Center (DMAHTC) for com- CHAUVENET commenced survey operations in pilation into nautical charts. Alterna- Mindoro Straits, Philippines (Figure 3) tively, in emergency situations, both and for the next three years, in the win- ships have the capability to perform all ter and spring seasons until June 1976, the survey data processing and the compi- the CHAUVENET performed hydrographic sur- lation and printing of multi-color nautical veys in the Philippines and the Bashi and field charts for immediate distribution to Balintang Channels between Luzon, Philip- Fleet units. pines and Taiwan. After the termination

12e 126° 128° 130° 132°E

NORTH KOREA SEA OF JAPAN

38°

SOUTH KOREA LEGEND COOPERATIVE II SURVEYS 1970-1982 Min USNS CHAUVENET 361- •■• JULY 1972- NOV 1975

11 11 .11 PRIOR US SURVEYS

34. 34°

32 ° 124° 126°

FIGURE 2. Hydrographic Survey Operations in Korea

95 of the Korea-Philippine surveys, the ed. The HARKNESS renewed its survey ca- CHAUVENET conducted hydrographic surveys reer by surveying an area in the Jamaica of Ulithi Atoll, Caroline Islands (Septem- Channel (Figure 8), during July-November ber-October 1976) and off Maui, Hawaii 1981 and the Yucatan Channel (Figure 10), (November 1976-January 1977). In February during November 1981-February 1982. Both 1977, after completing its transit across these operations completed areas partially the Pacific Ocean, the CHAUVENET began surveyed by NOAA, U.S. Coast Guard and the surveying the Bay of Panama. It operated British Hydrographic Department under the in Panamanian waters until October 1978 Cooperative Surveys Program. In April when it finished the northern entrance 1982, USNS HARKNESS commenced surveying to the Panama Canal (Figure 4). In the the coastal waters of Haiti (Figure 8) and survey of the Bay of Panama, CHAUVENET was is scheduled to continue survey operations assisted by USNS BARTLETT, USNS DESTEIGUER there until July 1983. USNS LYNCH and the Hydrographic Survey and Charting (HYSURCH) system. After returning to the Far East in April 1979, CHAU- VENET began conducting hydrographic surveys of the Makassar Straits, Indonesia, in cooperation with the Indonesian Navy Hydrographic/Oceanographic Office (JANHI- DROS) (Figure 5). This cooperation includes assisting Indonesian Naval vessels 120° 122 ° 124 ° in surveying the western inshore portions TAIWAN of the Makassar Straits. Unfortunately, 22 ° 1— —122' on 8 May 1982, while transiting from Subic BASHI CHANNEL Bay Naval Station in the Philippines to the Makassar Straits survey area, the CHAUVENET went aground near Cagayan Island, Philippines, and severely damaged its hull. e BATAN ISLANDS Even then, the expertise of the CHAUVENET's 0 survey personnel was required to conduct BAUNTANG a mini-survey of the reef area to assist 20°F- CHANNEL —120 ° the salvage operations. In JanUary 1983, the CHAUVENET resumed the Makassar Straits LUZON STRAIT VO BABUYAN survey. 0 ISLANDS o

USNS HARKNESS (T-AGS 32) Survey Operations 1 8 ° —118° The USNS HARKNESS began survey operations in Greek coastal waters in July 1972 and until October 1974 conducted hy- LUZON drographic surveys near Samothraki, Lesvos, northern Greece, Peloponnesos, Andikithira and Crete (Figure 6). Upon completion of survey operations in Greece, the HARKNESS lei-- 1, -- f — 116' shifted operations to the Caribbean area. [Z] USNS CHAUVENET In March 1975, the HARKNESS began survey- APR 73 - JUN 76 ing the western and northern portions of Mona Passage, and then extended its operations in September 1975 to include the SUBIC BAY entire coastline of the Dominican Republic e ell (Figure 7). The HARKNESS survey of the 14°1— PHILIPPINES —114° Mona Passage was adjacent to the Coopera- tive Surveys by National Oceanic and At- mospheric Administration (NOAA) survey ships, MT. MITCHELL and WHITING. By Aug- ust 1977 HARKNESS completed the Dominican Republic survey and commenced surveying Port-au-Prince harbor; Haiti (Figure 8). 12 ° 12 ° With the return of friendly diplomatic relations with Egypt, the HARKNESS began surveying the north coast of Egypt in Jan- uary 1978 and continued on to survey the Gulf of Suez separation zone, finishing that shipping channel in January 1979 (Figure 9). After a transit to the United States, HARKNESS was placed in reduced 120° 122° 124° operating status (ROS) and the OCEANOUNIT decommissioned due to a lack of operating funds. In October 1980, when funds again became available, the HARKNESS was taken FIGURE 3. Hydrographic Survey Operations out of ROS and the OCEANOUNIT recommission- in the Philippines

83 ° 82 81 80° 7 78 ° 77° ° 11 11°

1 0 ° 1 0 ° --...... leALMIRANTE/BOCAS DEL TORO HYSAP PORT SURVEY :---- ------ 7.///./ _ 0 INDEPENDENT 7 /./// : RACAL-DECCA ///// CHARTER BOAT -= SEP 81 - MAY 82 =-/, d SAMBA BONITA "------_, HYCON COMPLETED MAR 80 USNS CHAUVENET c.) PCOLON CHARTER BOAT IN PROGRESS 9° PANAMA CITY F- ///// 7'11, cn CHIRIQUI LAGOON //////// 0 VACAMONTECAMONTE // HYSURCH MAR.78 : DEC 77 / -4 PEDREGAL /// ///// PANAMA ///// ///// REMIDIOS BAY OF PANAMA USNS LYNCH AGUADULCE USNS USIVS DeSTEIGUER '""/"/"/"1 FEB78-MAYM , /2r /////////// /////• ///////// Aire//// /7/ „„„„,„00e."/////„„„„ //////// ,4 COLUMBIA 7 °

USNS CHAUVENET A FEB 77 -OCT 78 ./.;

83 ° 82 ° 81 ° 80° 79 ° 78 ° 7r

FIGURE 4. Hydrographic Survey Operations in Panama

Improvements of Survey Ship Capabilities paper tape reader and punch, and a MFE-250 cassette reader. The HODAS has the capa- Improvements of survey ship bility to switch the data collection from capabilities by replacing obsolescent the real-time subsystem to the post-time equipment have been planned or are already subsystem upon a failure of the data acqui- made. These improvements are necessary to sition computer. Data acquisition by each expand the quality and quantity of CHAU- ship's four survey launches will be per- VENET and HARKNESS surveys. formed using the Boat Data Logger System (BDLS) which is scheduled to be installed Automated data collection and in all survey launches in April 1983. The preliminary data processing of survey in- BOLS is an Ocean Data Equipment Corporation formation is now performed by each ship's Model HSS-600 microprocessor-based data brand-new Hydrographic Oceanographic Data logger which displays, prints, and records Acquisition System (HODAS). This system navigation, depth and time data. Data are consists of two subsystems -- one for recorded on magnetic digital cassettes real-time data acquisition and the other which are then processed on the ship's for post-time data editing. As indicated HODAS for data editing and display via the by Figure 11, each HODAS subsystem consists MFE-250 cassette reader. of a Digital Equipment Corporation PDP- 11/34 computer, two five-megabyte disk Major equipment acquisitions are units, 64 K word main memory, a teleprinter planned to maintain and expand the survey terminal, a plotter, and two TU-58 cassette capabilities of both ships. First, it is cartridge units. Also the real-time sub- expected that in 1983 funds will be made system ha S one nine-track 1/4” magnetic tape available to add more shore and mobile unit and the post-time subsystem has two ARGO DM-54 stations for HARKNESS hydrograph- nine-track le magnetic tape units, a gra- ic operations. Second, funds have been phic CRT terminal, a digitizer table, a budgeted and orders placed for eight new 97 114E 115"E 11 °E 117°E 11 E llcf E 1 2 d" E 121 °E

1°N

ce K ALI MAN TAN

—I 2'S

—13'S

III; II. -15%

-I es

USNS CHAUVENET SURVEY APR 79 - PRESENT

COOPERATIVE SURVEY JANHIDROS APR 79 - PRESENT

117° E

FIGURE 5. Hydrographic Survey Operations in Makassar Straits, Indonesia

hydrographic survey launches, to be deliv- SUPPLEMENTARY HYDROGRAPHIC PROGRAMS ered in 1984. These launches will be a variation of the 36' LCP(L) MK12 landing In addition to conducting sur- craft with a top speed of 17 knots. Third, veys with CHAUVENET and HARKNESS, NAVOCEANO preliminary investigations are being made further augments its hydrographic data to find candidate replacements for the AN/ collection efforts with the following pro- PRR-14 Geocei vers and the 0M-20 Electro- grams: Hydrographic Survey Assistance Pro- tapes. These systems are over 15 years gram (HYSAP), Hydrographic Contracts (HYCON), old and are now failing too frequently to National/International Cooperative surveys, retain. and Independent Operations.

22 ° 2 24 ° 25 ° 26° 27° 41 1 ■ 41°

0 O SAMOTHRAKI

401-- — 40°

TURKEY

GREECE N

‹.? LES VOS 39 ° 1- 39°

diell4°11141l‘b\ iiiiiit AEGEAN SEA

38 ° r- 38° ■ le CL, 0

37 ° 37°

USNS HARKNESS AUG 72 - OCT 74 KITHIRA

36° ANDIKITHIRA 36°

SEA OF CRETE

MEDITERRANEAN SE CRETE

35° — 35° 22 ° 23° 24° 25° 26° 27°

FIGURE 6. Hydrographic Survey Operations in Greece

Hydrographic Survey Assistance Program obtain more than 100 new and updated charts (HYSAP) of Latin American harbors and coastal waters that comply with U.S. and Internation- The Hydrographic Survey Assist- al standards. ance Program (HYSAP), formerly known as the Harbor Survey Assistance Program (HAR- The program began operations SAP), is a program to provide technical in 1964 by assisting the Port Authority in assistance to foreign countries in con- Guayaquil, Ecuador and has since expanded ducting hydrographic surveys primarily in to its present level of providing contin- ports, harbors and near-shore areas where ual support to eleven Latin American coun- large scale charts are required for safe tries. Figures 4, 7, 8, and 10 indicate navigation. This program augments NAVO- the ports completed by HYSAP in Panama, CEANO capabilities in hydrographic data Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Bahamas and

collection, yet is tailored to the parti- Honduras. • Not shown are surveys completed cular needs of each participating nation. in Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Sal- Through HYSAP, the U.S. has been able to vador, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Peru. 99 72 ° 71 ° 69 ° 65 ° 6 6

23 °I- 23° • HYSAP PORT SURVEY 0 INDEPENDENT EI COOPERATIVE 22°1— 22° USNS HARKNESS

21 ° F- 21°

20 ° 1-- \ USNS HARKNESS\ ,\ 20' MAR "75 - AUG 77 • \S"\\.\\\NN PUERTO .1 0' HMS BULLDOG HMS BEAGLE I DOMINICIAN REPUBLIC JAN -MAR 76 19 ° 1— 19° HYSURCH /////////// SANTA SAN PERDO' MAR -APR 75 LAS CALDERAS DOMINGO. DE. MACORIS o ■=. ■5:ee' PUERTO RICO 2 7//////// • ANDRES N MAYAGUEZ ANGUILLA] 181— ST. CROIX /////////// 18°

MT. MITCHELL CHARTER BOAT //////////// NOV72 JAN -MAY7S // USNS BARTLETT // JAN -JUN 76 /," 17 ° , 17° 222////

161— 16°

1 L 7 2 ° 71 ° 70 ° 69 ° 68 ° 67 ° 66 ° 65 ° 64° 63°

FIGURE 7. Hydrographic Survey Operations in the Dominican Republic, Mona Passage, and Anegada Passage

Other countries receiving HYSAP support Hydroqraphic Contracts (HYCON) are Sudan, which is receiving hydrographic assistance under a HYSAP managed contract Hydrographic Contracts (HYCON) from Martel Laboratories, and Nigeria is a program which uses private contractors which received a jointly prepared Navy and to perform hydrographic surveys. DMA plan for the establishment of a hydrographic office that includes HYSAP assist- HYCON surveys typically contract ance. Additional requests for participa- for the collection of geodetic information, tion in HYSAP have been received from 13 correlated position and depth data, sus- countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, pected hazards to navigation investigations, and Latin America. In 1970 the first re- side-scan sonar records, tidal data, and gional HYSAP office was established in the Sailing Directions information. Deliver- former Panama Canal Zone. This Office ables include all raw analog records, field closely works with the Inter-American Geo- sheets, smooth sheets, and a final edited detic Survey (IAGS) in the compilation and nine-track magnetic data tape for each construction of nautical charts based on smooth sheet. The first HYCON survey was HYSAP surveys and also in providing Span- awarded to Tetra Tech, Inc. for $0.93 mil- ish language instruction in hydrography at lion on 15 December 1980 for 3,200 linear the IAGS Cartographic School in Panama. nautical miles at two sites along the coast Future expansion of HYSAP is being consid- of Oman. Field survey work began in Jan- ered and may include increasing resources uary 1981 off Salalah and subsequent sur- to allow for expansion from one to four veys were performed off Al Masirah Island. regional offices, and to establish a prac- A total of 3,334 linear nautical miles for tical six-month training course in hydro- both areas was completed in April 1981 and graphic surveying at NAVOCEANO. final delivery of data was made in June 100 78 ° 7 76 ° 75 ° 7 7 72° 71 ° 70°

26 ° F- —126 ° • HYSAP PORT SURVEY CHARTER BOAT OCT - DEC 81 0 INDEPENDENT CUFTONPT 0 COOPERATIVE —125 ° 25° NEW ELEUTHERA ISLAND USNS HARKNESS PROVIDENCE ISLAND 0e,

241— o —124 ° BAHAMAS

231— —123 °

CAICOS ISLANDS 2 2 ° —122 ° N o. TURK ISLAND

HMS HYDRA 210 21 OCT 81 -JAN 82 CUBA

GUANTANAMO BAY 20° —120 °

USMC CST SEP - NOV 80 USNS HARKNESS HAITI APR - DEC 82 —119° 1 9 ° RIO BUENO PORT AU PRINCE OCHO RIOS USNS HARKNESS PORT ANTONIO AUG - SEP 77

---‘21e JAMAICA MANCHIONEAL 1 8 ° —118° LIJANA PT R k\r \IX\ NOAA PEIRCE KINGSTON HARBOR PORT MO FEB - M AR 81 USNS HARKNESS JUL - NOV 81

17 ° I- —117 ° _L J- 1 _L j- J- 78 7r 76° 75 ° 74 ° 73° 72° 71 ° 70 °

FIGURE 8. Hydrographic Survey Operations in the Central Caribbean Area

1981. The second HYCON survey was awarded Since HYCON is a valuable pro- to Racal-Decca Survey, Inc., for $2.4 gram to NAVOCEANO for satisfying survey million on 27 July 1981 for 12,200 linear requirements, funds have been programmed nautical miles along the north coast of in fiscal year 1983 for another HYCON sur- Panama (Figure 4). Field survey work be- vey in the Caribbean Sea area. gan on September 1981 in the Approaches to the Panama Canal. Racal-Decca completed only 8,900 linear nautical miles (73%) Cooperative Surveys when the contract expired in June 1982 because funds were fully expended. Delivery Cooperative surveys with other of data was made in September 1982. The national agencies such as NOAA and the U.S. third HYCON survey was again awarded to Coast Guard (USCG), and with foreign hydro- Tetra Tech, Inc. for $1.4 million on 12 graphic organizations, such as the Korean April 1982 for 11,400 linear nautical miles Hydrographic Office, JANHIDROS, and the in the Rosalind Bank area (Figure 10). British Hydrographic Department (HYDRO UK), Field work began on July 1982 and a total are the most cost effective surveys avail- of 6,730 linear nautical miles (60%) was able to NAVOCEANO. These surveys make completed when the contract expired on 19 available to NAVOCEANO, at a fraction of November 1982 because funds had been fully what survey operations would normally cost, expended. data for areas of high marine interest. 101 3eE 31' 32' 33' 3e MEDITERRANEAN SEA 32'N 2 °

ALEXANDRIA

31 °

USNS HARKNESS JAN 78-JAN 79

30' o° INDEPENDENT SURVEY USMC CST APRIL 82-SEPT 82

29 °

28 28 °

30 ° 31 ° 32 ° 33' 34 °

FIGURE 9. Hydrographic Survey Operations in Egypt

Furthermore, such surveys are advantageous ships and boats with depth sounders and to the cooperating organization whenever other hydrographic survey equipment and mutual survey requirements exist for the provided the technical advice and assist- sanie areas or whenever ship and personnel ance in the operation and maintenance of costs can be partially paid for by exten- that equipment. Figure 7 indicates the ding the ship operating season at NAVOCEANO Mona Passage area surveyed by the NOAA expense. Figure 2 indicates the extensive ships MT. MITCHELL and WHITING in January areas surveyed under the US-ROK Cooperative - March 1975 using a Raydist DRS electronic Survey Program since 1970. The Korean Hy- navigation net established and operated drographic Office has made such significant by a NAVAIDSUPPUNIT detachment. Figure 7 advances in its technical capabilities to also shows the Anegada Passage area sur- perform hydrographic surveys that since veyed by HMS BULLDOG and HMS BEAGLE (Jan- 1976, NAVOCEANO has been able to reduce its uary - March 1976) in conjunction with role to providing just technical services the USNS BARTLETT, operating off the sanie and advice and providing supplementary sur- NAVOCEANO supplied ARGO 0M-50 positioning vey equipment. Figure 5 indicates the net. Figure 8 indicates the cooperative areas surveyed by JANHIDROS ships and boats surveys conducted by the NOAA ship PEIRCE in the Makassar Straits of Indonesia. The in the Jamaica Channel during February — Indonesian vessels operate using the same March 1981, and HMS HYDRA near Turk Island ARGO DM-54 positioning nets as the USNS October 1981 - January 1982. Figure 10 CHAUVENET or by using NAVOCEANO supplied indicates extensive cooperative surveys Mini-Ranger III positioning equipment. in the Yucatan Channel by three organi- NAVOCEANO has also outfitted the Indonesian zations -- NOAA, USCG, and HYDRO UK.

102 87 ° 86 ° 85 ° 84 ° 83° 82° 81° 80° 25 ° 25 °

24°I- 24 °

USNS HARKNESS NOV 81 - FEB 82 MT. MITCHELL ::: :1:1 JUL -AUG 80 ,USCGC EVERGREEN:, 23 23° MAR 81

CUBA

22 ° 22 °

I MEXICO /HMS BULLDOG 211— 21° DEC 80- MAR 81

u .si,ile■ RiLÉtr;; 20 ° 20° /// USNS LYNCH '//// // / E; CHARTER BOAT, 6 "/" NOV 79 - MAR 80 /•:,. %/2,e ./ ./ ./ .//2>///// ///).-4- ////////////,

19 CAYMAN ISLANDS 19 °

18 ° F- HYSAP PORT SURVEY 18 ° 0 INDEPENDENT _ • COOPERATIVE TETRA TECH = • HYCON JUL 82- NOV 82 17 ° E— \ 17° • USNS HARKNESS

ROSALIND BANK PUERTO CORTES TRUJILLO 16 16°

TELA LA CEIBA HONDURAS

15'1 1 1 1 1 I I 15 ° 87° 86° 85° 84° 83 ° 82° 81° 80°

FIGURE 10. Hydrographic Survey Operations in the Yucatan Channel Area

In July - August 1980, NOAA ship MT. MIT- Independent Surveys CHELL surveyed the eastern side of the Channel; in December 1980 - March 1981, Independent surveys are hydro- HMS BULLDOG, using a NAVOCEANO furnished graphic surveys conducted by NAVOCEANO integrated navigation system, surveyed the using NAVOCEANO ships not normally used for southwestern portion; and in March 1981, hydrographic surveys (e.g., oceanographic USCGC EVERGREEN surveyed part of the west- research ships USNS LYNCH, USNS DESTEIGUER ern side. The western side was then com- and USNS BARTLETT), other Navy ships, port- pleted by USNS HARKNESS in February 1982. able boats, or locally hired vessels. It Cooperative surveys are presently under- also includes the associated survey capa- way by Royal Navy ships HMS FOX and HMS bility of the USMC Coastal Survey Team FAWN near Pedro Bank (southwest of Jamaica) (USMC CST). Figures 4, 7, 8, 9, and 10 and by NOAA in the Bahamas. indicate most of the major independent surveys conducted by NAVOCEANO over the last ten years. As indicated by Figures 7, 4, and 10, USNS BARTLETT, USNS DESTEIGUER and USNS LYNCH conducted extensive hydrographic survey operations in Anegada Passage (Jan-

103 DISK DMK no.1 nod POP-11/34A DISK DISK PDP-11/ 34A CPU CONT. CONT. CPU DMK DMK no.2 no.2

128 Kbyte MA G NOS TAPE MEMORY CON T.

DEC TAPEll , no.I LA-36 LA-36 TU-58 TU-58 TERMINAL CON T. 'DEC` DEC` CONT. TERMINAL TAPE II TAPE 11 , no.2, no.2 ,

U N IBUS"A °

UNIBUS "B"

// o o r,

VT-I00 SENSOR 1/F CALCOMP Y CALCOMP Y Lt\ GRAPHICS p NAVIGATION CRI PLOTTER PLOTTER \1-1 TIME TERMINAL BATH',' WATER COLUMN ENVIRONMENTAL MFE -250 MOAOKMC« DIGITIZING METEOROLOGICAL CASSETTE DlieLAY TABLE rV READER

PC-I1 PAPER TAPE READER & PUNCH

FIGURE 11. The Hydrographic/Oceanographic Data Acquisition System (HODAS)

uary - June 1976), Bay of Panama (February tanamo Bay, Cuba (September - November 1980) - May 1978), and the Cayman Islands (Nov- and Alexandria Harbor, Egypt (April - Sep- ember 1979 - March 1980). Figures 7 and 4 tember 1982). Figure 8 also indicates an indicate the areas surveyed by the HYSURCH independent survey of Eleuthra Island, Ba- system in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico (March - hamas using the chartered NOAA MV VIRGINIA April 1975) and the Bay of Panama (March KEY in October - December 1981. Generally, 1976 - December 1977). The HYSURCH system independent surveys may be very cost effect- consisted of two fully automated portable ive, especially when using NAVOCEANO ships survey boats and a data processing center (e.g., LYNCH, DESTEIGUER, and BARTLETT), housed in a portable van. Figure 7 also in conjunction with other survey ships such shows an independent survey of St. Croix, as in the Bay of Panama and Anegada Pass- Virgin Islands, using a chartered boat age surveys. Unfortunately, since NAVOCEANO (November 1972). Figure 4 also shows in- operates these ships for the use of other dependent survey operations on the north Navy laboratories to conduct oceanographic coast of Panama, Almirante/Bocas del Toro research, availability of these vessels for (completed in 1981) which was conducted hydrographic surveys has become virtually using a boat chartered from the Panamanian nonexistent. Other types of independent Instituto Geografico Nacional (ION) and surveys have not been entirely successful Chiriqui Lagoon (in progress) which is also generally due to the unsuitability of the being conducted using a boat chartered from survey platform to perform a hydrographic IGN. Figures 8 and 9 indicate the port survey under less than ideal conditions. surveys conducted by the USMC CST in Guan-

104 IMPLEMENTATION OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY Hydrographic Information Handling System (HIHAN) The following new technology is under development or is planned in support To improve its effectiveness in of Navy hydrographic programs and will hydrographic data processing, NAVOCEANO is significantly improve and increase NAVO- planning to upgrade its hydrographic in- CEANO data collection capabilities. formation handling capabilities aboard CHAUVENET and HARKNESS and at NAVOCEANO's main office. The Hydrographic Information The Hydrographic Airborne Laser Sounder Handling (HIHAN) system will consist of (HALS) software and hardware needed by the hydrographer to process hydrographic data from The HALS will be an airborne its initial input into the system until the laser hydrographic survey system which final output format is generated for deliv- will measure water depths using a frequen- ery to DMAHTC. The system will automate cy-doubled Neodymium YAG laser (Figure 12). the preprocessing, merging, integration, When completed and after extensive evalu- and preparation of hydrographic data from ations, the HALS will be mounted on the a variety of sources such as HODAS-equipped HH-20 helicopter aboard USNS HARKNESS in ships (CHAUVENET/HARKNESS), BDLS-equipped 1985. The HALS laser transmits five nano- launches, HALS, contract vessels with other second-long laser pulses at a pulse repe- automated data collection systems, and tition rate of 400 Hertz and at a wave- automated or manually collected data from length of 532 nanometers. The time dif- independent surveys or HYSAP. In addition ferences between initial transmission, to the current HODAS shipboard system, surface reflection, and bottom reflection HIHAN will include a developing in-house are used to compute aircraft altitude and system, the Hydrographic Automated Infor- water depth. Maximum depth penetration is mation System (HYAIS) which will function highly dependent on water clarity, but will in both on-line and off-line modes with be 50 meters in many cases. Typical area NAVOCEANO's UNIVAC 1100/82 mainframe com- coverage for the HALS, flown at an altitude puter as the host. of 150 meters, speed of 70 knots, pulse repetition rate of 400 Hertz, and a 36° off- nadir scan angle, is designed to be 8000 The Active/Passive Multi-Spectral Scanner square meters per second. Average data (A/P MSS) density for these operating conditions is one sounding per 20 square meters. The The A/P MSS is a hybrid active/ helicopter-mounted HALS will be able to passive scanner which collects data in the achieve almost any data density merely by blue-green and near-infrared portions of varying the aircraft's speed and altitude the electro-magnetic spectrum (Figure 13). and the scanner angle. With just 50 A pulsed blue-green laser which is bore- missions per year, the HALS will double sighted with the passive scanner provides the shallow water data collection rate on calibration data to derive quantitative USNS HARKNESS. water depths from the passive data. This system is scheduled to be operational with NAVOCEANO after 1988 and will operate from a fixed-wing aircraft. With the availability of positioning information from the Global Positioning System (GPS), the A/P MSS-equipped aircraft will be able to conduct high-speed, wide-area coverage hydrographic surveys in any part of the world with minimal ground support. Normal operations will consist of several low- altitude flights over the survey area to obtain calibration data with the laser and passive scanner. The actual survey will be conducted at higher altitudes with the passive scanner only. Resolution is expected to be 10 meters at an aircraft altitude of 3000 meters. Maximum depth penetration is highly dependent on water clarity, but will be approximately 10 meters in most cases.

00 •• MS •

FIGURE 12. Artist's Conception of HALS

105 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY BY AIRBORNE ACTIVE/PASSIVE SCANNER

aricamimumaga\ ..1. k MIIIII 1111181111■111 11111.10 MIIMMOO111111111 0-11111111111 wie WAVIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIMI WM: raiIIMIW,M11111111111111111111111111 111111010 MIWITEMIIIII1111111111"111111111111 WO IMMILIIIIIIIIIIMI1111111111011111111 111111111 rrnigia.7111/Mnilinni MOW 5111%/1/M//8/11111111111111111117•11111M / 11.11010 rAIMMIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIMIIM111111- 1 Ileab: %/11/111MMOMMIIIIIIIIIMIIIMILIVIM VIMMISIWMal«MMUUMMILIIMUM r/MBIMIMMIIMMOMMIMMILW raIMIMM111111.11MMMIIIIMIMMIIIMW FAIMMUNI/OMMIIIIIIMMIMMUMMIDrne rrnirniMMUMIlannILIMI

FIGURE 13. The Active/Passive Multi-Spectral Scanner (A/P MSS)

NAVSTAR Global Positioning System Since its establishment in 1830 as the Depot of Charts and Instruments, The NAVSTAR Global Positioning the Naval Oceanographic Office has System (GPS) is being designed to provide been involved in every major event late 1980 users with world-wide, continu- in which naval forces of America had ous three-dimensional position and velocity a part The proud history of one information, along with Coordinated Uni- of the oldest continuing organiza- versal Time. The final GPS space segment tions in the Navy -- the Naval Ocean- will consist of 18 satellites in circular ographic Office -- has brought great 10,900-nautical mile orbits with 12-hour credit to the United States. periods. Each satellite continuously transmits a unique precise timing and The U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office takes waveform signal which contains a navi- its responsibilities to conduct world-wide gational message including orbital para- hydrographic surveys in support of navi- meters and clock correction terms. CHAU- gation and charting requirements very VENET and HARKNESS are scheduled to re- seriously and is constantly striving to ceive six medium-dynamic GPS receivers expand and upgrade its capabilities. apiece (one for the ship, one for each survey launch, and one for the helicopter) in 1990. Furthermore, the procurement of geodetic-type GPS receivers is also plan- REFERENCES ned. Naval Oceanographic Office, Sesquicentennial Symposium Program, NSTL, Bay St. Louis, MS, 8 May 81. SUMMARY van Norden, M.F., The Hydro- During NAVOCEANO's Sesquicenten- graphic Airborne Laser Sounder, A Survey nial celebrations on May 8, 1981, the System for the 1980s, Oceanology Inter- Secretary of the Navy, John F. Lehman, Jr., national Exhibition & Conference, Confer- stated: ence Papers vol 2, Brighton, United King- dom, 2 - 5 Mar 82.

106 AIRBORNE HYDROGRAPHY TECHNIQUES - Systems for Aerial Hydrography

AN EVALUATION There are at present four separate remote sensing techniques which have been used to By survey shallow coastal areas by the CHS, while a fifth, pulsed radar, is currently being evaluated The Aerial Hydrography Project Team by industry. Certain features of the data sets Canadian Hydrographic Service produced by each technique are complementary and Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. can be used to compensate for some of the disadvantages in other techniques. As in most remote N. Anderson sensing, a multi-sensor package will likely ob- P. Bellemare, Québec Region tain the best results. A brief description of M. Casey each of the techniques is given in the following K. Malone, Atlantic Region subsections. R. MacDougall, Central Region D. Monahan R. O'Neill, CCRS Area-Measuring Systems - Photo Interpretive Hydro- S. Till, CCRS graphy

The Canadian Hydrographic Service has This technique (Hunter 1982), which to date tested the following airborne techniques: uses colour aerial photography and a knowledge of Conventional Photogrammetry, fixed baselength sim- the local geomorphology, is a very quick way to ultaneous photogrammetry, photo-interpretation, carry out a reconnaissance survey. Although the multi-spectral scanning and the laser sounder. cloud cover and sun ange requirements are strin- This paper outlines the successes to date and gent (sun elevation 35 and no cloud more than points the way to a fully operational, integrated 37 above the horizon), acceptable data can be system which is obtainable within the next few acquired during a conventional photo survey. In years. some circumstances even archived data can be used. Very little field verification is needed ÉVALUATION DES TECHNIQUES D'HYDROGRAPHIE beyond a few selected acoustic or lidar depth AÉRIENNE profiles perpendicular to the shoreline and a par "feel" for the water conditions, the aquatic vegetation, the bottom type, and the bottom topo- N. Anderson, graphy. Contours can be drawn very easily by P. Bellemare, Région du Québec trained personnel provided bottom features are M. Casey recognizable in the imagery and the observed wa- K. Malone, Région de l'Atlantique ter colour only changes as a result of changes in R. MacDougall, Région du Centre water depth Additional surface transects may be D. Monahan required to follow the depth contours through R. O'Neill, CCT areas where this assumption does not hold. S. Till, Centre canadien de télédétection The position and depth accuracy of Le Service hydrographique du Canada a contours established by this technique vary with mis à l'essai jusqu'ici les techniques aériennes depth. In Lake Huron, Monahan et al (1982) report suivantes: photogrammétrique conventionnelle, pho- that the 1 m contour was exceTTént, the 2 m togrammétrique simultanée avec longueur de base contour acceptable but that beyond those depths, fixe, photo interprétation, balayage multispec- contours could only be considered as form lines tral et sondage au laser. Dans le présent docu- rather than true depth contours. Even form lines ment, nous examinons les succés obtenus et signa- are, of course, very useful. lons un système intégré totalement opérationnel qui pourrait être mis au point dans les prochaines années. Stereo Photogrammetric Hydrography

INTRODUCTION In the measurement of water depths by means of stereo photogrammetry an operator mea- The initial factors for carrying out sures the parallax to an identifiable point on hydrographic development in Canada are quite sim- the sea floor and, after correcting for the re- ple. (Monahan, Casey and MacDougall, 1982) Canada fraction at the water surface, is able to compute is an enormous country; much of the area to be the depth. A system of this type has been des- surveyed is afflicted by ice and/or bad weather cribed by Reid et al. (1980). An analytical plot- for large portions of the year multiplying the ter is essential when there are no fixed refer- magnitude of the problem. Secondly, launches and ence points for the operator on which to set up ships are extremely slow; they are even slower his stereo model. Instead, the analytical plotter when operating in shallow and therefore dangerous takes precise position and attitude data recorded waters. Finally echo sounders measure only a pro- at the moment of exposure of each photograph and file, leaving vast areas unmeasured. All develop- calculates the correct orientation for the stereo ment projects are ultimately tied to one of these model. The analytical plotter also handles the factors and when a project is proposed which is refractive correction and uses lidar and acoustic potentially both fast and measures over areas, soundings to remove any residual errors in the that project is so intrinsically appealing that photogrammetric measurements. The analytical plot- it must be pursued. The Aerial Hydrography Pro- ter and its companion plotting table are used to gram in its many guises has such appeal. Here we locate the shoreline and to plot the resulting evaluate some results of this program. water depths onto a field sheet.

107 This technique allegedly yields high ance of the water surface in the visible and near quality water depth data where clear water over- infrared portion of the spectrum. Through the use lies a highly figured bottom. The necessary of a mathematical model describing the propaga- precision can be obtained only if sufficiently tion of light in the water as a function of accurate attitude and position data are available wavelength and correcting for atmospheric ef- or there is sufficient shoreline in the stereo fects, it is possible to produce a map-like pic- pair that the model can be leveled correctly. In ture which has some resemblance to depth. The addition, the operator must be able to recognize results to date are impossible to evaluate pro- bottom features to measure the parallax. This is perly, because of the geometric distortions men- not possible with the low contrast features tioned above, but some images bear enough res- found when the bottom sediment smooths the fea- emblance to acoustically determined depths to en- tures with a uniformly coloured layer. Similarly, courage some hope that the technique will prove slowly varying bottom structures are difficult to viable. handle. Scattering by turbid water also reduces One of the most serious limitations of the contrast of bottom features. Rather than fol- passive e-o imaging is the need to know the lowing an underwater contour under these condi- bottom reflectivity for each pixel in which the tions, the operator is forced to measure the water depth is to be measured. At present this depth only on discrete bottom features on which must be estimated using a knowledge of the local he can fuse the cursor. conditions; thus, the technique is suspect when the bottom reflectance is very non-uniform It is It is, on the other hand, straight for- believed that the model can be improved to cor- ward to measure the relative positions of rocks rect for the bottom reflectance in each pixel. and shoals photogrammetrically, trace the shore- Because the model used to reduce the e-o data is line and to locate cultural features. With suf- not yet sophisticated enough to handle the vary- ficiently precise navigation data or using conven- ing sky radiances found on a cloudy day, the tional photogrammetric manipulations (aero trian- technique also requires atmospheric conditions gulation) it is possible to locate these within similar to those of photogrammetric hydrography. the accuracy demanded by the CHS charting specifications. Profiling Lidar Bathymeter

An evaluation of results in Canada has In the CCRS MkII lidar bathymeter revealed that this approach is virtually useless. (O'Neil 1980), a short pulse of green light ( = Nowhere was it possible to draw contours: spot 532 nm) from a frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser is depths could only be obtained in less than one launched towards the water surface. At the surface quarter of the water shallower than six metres part of the pulse is reflected back towards the and none in water deeper than six metres; the aircraft and part is transmitted through the in- depths that were obtained were widely inaccurate terface and propagates to the ocean floor where (Monahan et al (1982). Consequently, this tech- it is reflected. This latter portion of the origi- nique as —a -a-épth measurement device has been nal incident pulse travels back up through the abandoned in Canada. water and through the air water interface. This is shown schematically in figure 1. The dif- MULTI-SPECTRAL SCANNING (Passive Electro- Optical ference in arrival time between the surface pulse Imaging) and the bottom pulse is a measure of the water depth: Unlike the photographic methods discus- Figure 1 sed above, MSS provides continuous coverage through a device from a pixel (picture element) by means of which the entire image is divided into adjoining squares or rectangles. The average value being measured in each pixel is printed on the map. Pixels as small as 2mx2mare possible; since the data are recorded digitally, the possibility exists for having a digital depth every 2 metres. Such dense coverage is enormously appealing.Unfortunately, enthusiasm must be tem- pered with the realization that those pixels cannot as yet be located on the earth very accurately. Imagery over land is "corrected" for distortions by fitting identifiable points on the imagery to known points on the ground and then "stretching" the rest of the image to agree with the fitted points. Over water, of course, this is impossible since there are no identifiable points. The only recourse is to some extremely precise measurements of the sensor attitude followed by some elaborate computations. The theoretical mathematics involved has been developed (Gibson 1982) but an enormous amount of computer software is required before the effectiveness of this approach can be assessed.

BMtom Within any pixel, the passive e-o technique is an elaborate water colour measurement in which a multispectural scanner measures the radi-

108 ct The minimum depth which can be mea- d= sured is approximately 0.8 m. At this depth the bottom echo causes a small but noticeable broaden- Where: d = water depth ing of the surface return pulse. c = velocity of light in water t = difference in arrival time A comparison of data of this type between surface and bottom pulses with that obtained from a precision high density acoustic survey showed that the lidar data exhibi- The depth to which a lidar bathymeter ted a constant bias of 1.8 m deeper than the can sound depends, among other things, on the accepted acoustic data; most of this bias can be attenuation coefficient of the green light pulse removed by reducing the lidar depth to the chart through the water column. As a rule of thumb, for sounding datum. The standard deviation between the CCRS MkII lidar bathymeter the following the lidar and acoustic depths was slightly less holds: than 0.3 m. In deeper water (d . 10 m), there was some indication that the error was correlated to ad = 14 max the water depth. With the available surface measurements it was not possible to determine whe- Where: a = beam attenuation coefficient* ther this was a correlation with depth or with water quality. d = maximum depth which can be sounded max Guenther (1981), using early bathy- In Canadian field trials the beam attenpation metric data obtained with the NASA- Wallops Air- coefficient has varied between 0.7-1.7 m - '. Al- borne Oceanographic Lidar has examined the error though the sounding depth is expected to be less sources which affect the depth measurement proc- than 10 m î or an attenuation coefficient greater ess. Although the present results obtained with than 1.4 m - , these large values tend to occur in the CCRS MkII lidar meet the hydrographic charti- shallower water close to shore, thus a bottom ng standard, this may have been fortuitous par- echo can still be detected. The attenuation co- ticularly in that the CCRS instrument is a pro- efficient is largest in areas with high concentra- filer in which the laser beam enters normal to tions of suspended solids, chlorophyll or dis- the water surface. In order to correct the depths olved organic materials. During trials in Lake obtained by the lidar under varying environmental Huron where the flight lines were flown perpen- and operating conditions,Guenther's calculations dicular to the shore, the maximum depth obtained are being reworked using the characteristics of was between 17 and 20 m on most flight lines. the existing lidar. The same calculations will Figure 2 shows some typical data from the lidar provide both guidance in the design of the new bathymeter. In the shallows, the effect of turbid scanning lidar and the depth corrections appro- water is apparent: some photons have been back- priate for the new system. scattered from the water column as the pulse travelled from the surface to the bottom causing Other Techniques the long exponential trail of the surface return. Recently, a series of experiments Figure 2 have been reported (Hickman 1980) in which a high power infrared laser pulse is absorbed at the water surface causing an explosive vapourization of the water. The resulting acoustic pulse propagates to the ocean floor where it is reflected !,1 and travels back up towards the water surface. It was demonstrated that the acoustic echo could be detected either in the water with a conventional sonar transducer, or in the air above the water surface using a sensitive directional microphone. The technique is not influenced by water turbidity as are the optical techniques and the penetration depth is expected to be substantially greater than the other airborne techniques discussed.

Mono-pulse and synthetic pulse radars are used to measure fresh ice thickness. Under certain situations these have been shown to measure sea-ice thickness as well. Several airborne

* The effective attenuation coefficient, which determines the lidar performance, is a function of the system parameters (especially the receiver field of view) It is generally believed to be numerically closer to the diffuse attenuation coefficient than the beam attenuation coefficient. The beam attenuation coefficient is used in this rule of thumb because it is easier to measure using conventional oceanographic instrumentation.

109 systems have been designed for sea ice thickness measurement and it has been proposed that an ap- propriately designed radar might also be used for shallow water hydrography. The radar techniques may prove to be very useful in rivers where the high turbidity and possibility of bub- bles and foam will limit the application of optical techniques.

It has been suggested that the electro-magnetic (e-m) technique often used in airborne geophysical exploration for conductive ore bodies may provide water depth information. Be- cause a low frequency e-m signal is used for the sounding, the bottom area sampled in any one measurement will be very large, and hence, it will be difficult to achieve the accuracy demanded by the charting standard.

REFERENCES

G.C. Guenther and R.W.L. Thomas; Error Analysis of Pulse Location Estimates for Simulated Bathymetric Lidar Returns; NOAA Technical Re- port OTES 1; Rockville, MD; 1981.

G.D. Hickman; Lidar/Acoustic Technique for shallow Turbid Water Bathymetry; Presented at Bolkesjo Workshop on Remote Measurement of Underwater Parameters (abstract appears pp 17- -18, publication SAD-91-T, Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Res- earch, Space Activity Division, P.O. Box 309 Blindern Gaustadalleen 300, Oslo 3, Norway); October 30, 1980.

G.T. Hunter; Fixed Base Simultaneous Photo Bathy metry; Proceedings of the Convention of the Canadian Institute of Surveying, Ottawa; April 19, 1982.

D. Monahan, M.J. Casey, R.J. MacDougall; Compa- risons Between Acoustic and Active and Pas- sive Optical Depth Measuring Systems; Light- house, No. 26, 1982, pp. 30-34.

R.A. O'Neil; Coastal Hydrography Using the CCRS Lidar Bathymeter; Proceedings of Offshore Goteburg 83, Goteburg, Sweden, March 1983.

D.B. Reid, S.A. Masry, A.J. Dow and J.R. Gibson; System Concept and Results of the Canadian Aerial Hydrography Project; Proceedings of the Fourth Laser Hydrography Symposium, De- fence Research Centre Salisbury, South Aus- stralia; September 30, 1980; pp 456-466.

110 11 2.0 Principles of Lidar Bathymetry BEGINNING THE SECOND HUNDRED YEARS - THE LASER A Lidar (Light Detection And Ranging) is SOUNDER an active optical measuring device which uses electromagnetic By radiation in the optical spectrum to sense the position of remote objects - in this case both the water surface and the bottom. It is The Aerial Hydrography Project Team active since it supplies its own source of N. Anderson, Headquarters P. Bellemare, Québec Region illumination - the laser. As with an acoustic sounder the idea is to measure the time differences M. Casey, Headquarters from transmission of signal to detection of the K. Malone, Atlantic Region R. MacDougall, Central Region reflected pulses. D. Monahan, Headquarters R. O'Neil, Canada Centre for Remote Sensing Figure 1 shows the system concept. The S. Till, Canada Centre for Remote Sensing laser, on board the aircraft at A, fires a short pulse of laser light downward at an angle -61-. At the water surface a portion of the incident pulse energy is reflected upward and the remainder The Airborne Laser-based Lidar Sounder is, at this Hundredth Anniversary, sufficiently advanced refracts into the water at angle -61. . The in design and testing to indicate that it refracted pulse undergoes scattering and absorption within the water column. Depending on represents viable technology for some time into water quality and depth, a portion of this pulse the second one hundred years of hydrography in eventually reaches the bottom and is scattered Canada. It offers advantages of speed and upward. The optical receiver at A thus receives a mobility over a vessel mounted echo-sounder in pulse corresponding to the surface reflection and much the same way as the acoustic echo-sounder then, some time later, receives the bottom offered speed and mobility over the leadline. reflected pulse. The time difference between This paper presents an overview of the system now surface and bottom pulse receipt can then be used flying, an evaluation of results to date, and to determine the depth as indicates the future development and development of this second centenium device. d = ât c [ Cos(S1n-1 (Sin .ffl] (1) 2n À l'occasion de ce centenaire, nous pouvons annoncer que la conception et les essais du where d is the water depth système lidar de sondage aérien au laser sont t is the time difference suffisamment avancés pour indiquer qu'il c is the velocity of light in air représente une technique efficace qui sera n is the index of refraction of water employée quelque temps encore au Canada dans le cours du deuxième siècle d'hydrographie. Il Figure 1 offre l'avantage d'être plus rapide et plus mobile qu'un écho-sondeur installé à bord d'un navire, toute comme l'était l'écho-sondeur acoustique par rapport à la ligne de sonde. Le présent document décrit brièvement le système en vol, évalue les résultats obtenus jusqu'ici et indique le perfectionnement et le déploiement futurs de cet instrument du deuxième siècle.

1.0 Introduction There are at present five independent research and development progials 3 tepg place in the area of laser bathymetry ' ' " . Each has as its goal the eventual deployment of a scanning laser sounder into production hydrographic surveying. Such a high degree of interest indicates the value which many of the leading hydrographic nations attach to such 6 a 7 dgvelopment. Several cost-effectiveness studies " have been performed which give ample evidence of the syster4i s economic viability. It has also lmen shown ' that (once the propagation biases have been compensated for) laser soundings can It appears meet the IHO Accuracy Standard. Bolton% therefore, that laser bathymetry is a viable concept and its development and progress should be followed closely by all those interested in future developments in hydrography.

The purpose of this report is to examine in some detail the basic underlying concepts behind laser bathymetry and highlight the major components of a typical scanning laser system.

111 Scattering phenomena in the water column cause Several solutions have been proposed for significant spatial and temporal spreading of the this problem. One study has been completed which returning energy which complicates the depth shows the return peak power of volume return determination process. See Figure 2. This versus surîgce return for various wind speeds and phenomenon is extremely important since, if this directions • Under low wind speed conditions the "beam stretching" is ignored, signifhant depth volume return dominates resulting in a shallow measurement biases could be incurred • Bias bias in the depth measurement. Unfortunately for correctors based on certain water quality a substantial portion of operating conditions one parameters have been calculated as a result of a type of return does not significantly dominate Monte 4510 simulation of the in-water scattering over another which leads to an uncertainty as to process . Recently these results have been where the return originated; surface or volume. expanded upon to allow for the necessary water This uncertainty has been termed the "flip-flop" quality parameters i? be estimated directly from problem. This flip-flop bias can be reduced by the wave form shape . This alleviates the need usiyg a laser with a pulse width no wider than for making in-situ water quality measurements. 2ns . Lasers of this speed and with the necessary power are not, as yet, commercially Figure 2 available. An alternative solution which shows considerable promiseM the measurement of the

FIELD OF VIEW Raman backscattering . Because of the high attenuation coefficient at the Raman wavelength the location of the surface return is expected to TRANSMITTED be sharply defined. The measurement of the Raman BEAM return adds a new complexity to the system but does alleviate another severe problem - the dynamic range of the received laser power. Air The cost-effectiveness of laser Water bathymetry hinges on its penetration. The penetration varies with receiver sensitivity and with peak laser power. Clearly a more sensitive receiver will detect bottom scattered return pulses from deeper water than less sensitive ones. The problem lies in the variance between the surface return power and the bottom return power. Pfflum As much as 6 decades difference can exist between pATH a surface return at a CP nadir angle and a weak bottom scattered return. This problem is

4- ILIMMINATID compounded by the fact that such differences can REGION Bottom occur over a period of say, 30 nanoseconds. The result is spurious responses in the Photomulti- plier Tube (PMT). A number of techniques have been employed te reduce this dynamic range. They include polarization, optical blocks, time-varialMe-gain PMT's and logarithmic amplifiera .

These problems, although complex, are Determining the true location of the surmountable and scanning laser system construct- surface return can pose a serious problem for a ion is proceeding in the United States, Australia, scanning system. This occurs because only a small Sweden and Canada. In the next section a typical fraction of the incident energy is reflected back system is examined component by component. toward's the receiver at large scan angles. In fact, the surface return can originate from typ 3.0 The Canadian Scanning Lidar Bathymeter distinct areas - the interface and the volume 3 . The Canadian system - known internally as An interface return originates at the air/water the Larsen 500 - has evolved from the Lidar interface and corresponds to a "true" surface. Profiler which has shown considerable promise The volume return on the other hand results from a towards becoming a viable survey tool. The new diffuse backscattering return from particulates in system comprises four major subsystems the underlying water column. The peak location of this volume backscatter can be as much as a i) scanning lidar transceiver pulse-width deeper in the water than the interface ii) data acquisition return. For a 7ns pulse this corresponds to a iii) navigation and guidance . depth uncertainty of about 0.8 metre. This bias iv) data processing. can be corrected for provided a mechanism is 19 established to discriminate between what is an 3.1 The Scanning Lidar Transceiver interface and what is a volume return. The Figure 3 is a block diagram of the Mk II problem lies in the uncertainty of knowing what Transceiver unit. The transmitter is an kind of surface return has occurred. International Laser Systems NT 462 frequency- doubled Nd-Yag laser which delivers up to 10 MW peak pulse power at 532 nm and 15 MW at 1064 nm simultaneously. The output pulse width at 532 mm is 5ns. The laser pulse repetition rate is 20 Hz.

112 Figure 3 The lidar altimeter measures the slant range from the transmitter to the water surface. The trigger pulse for this circuit is obtained from the IR receiver. The measured lidar slant range is used to drive the lidar forewarning n system which in turn permits the bathymeter operator to select the time at which the green LASER 11 .1..111111ff n 632 AN01.0114 receiver PMT is gated on thereby compensating for electronic propagation delays in the system. By appropriate selection of the magnitude and risetime of the gating pulse the operator can set

TO MU the PMT gain to a relatively low value at the TN« 1N1/1111m1 _..,1.113/111111101111IIIWYMMO water surface where the reflected laser signal is LUNN /11,11111M-11 evrre. strong, and then increase the PMT gain as the return signal becomes weaker on the way to the bottom. This gain variability feature when used ULIM111.11W1 11 .11T 00.11t.MMOL compression of the IPA 1 in combination with logarithmic Mg«. IIMI11111 PMT output signal, enables the green receiver to 1.111.1114MCOVIII accommodate a 90dB range in input power. t I Since a reliable sounding digitizer has yet to be developed the entire waveform of each individual lidar return pulse is digitized and LIDAR BATHYMETER SYSTEM recorded. This is accomplished by using a Biomation Model 6500transient digitizm. Figure 5 show some typical digitized waveforms . De Biomation has a timing accuracy of 0.2 ns .

Figure 5

A schematic of the 532 nm (green) receiver is shown in Figure 4. The receiver consists of a 20 cm aperture, f/1 refracting telescope, a 3 nm bandwidth filter, variable field stops and an ITT F4084 gridgated PMT with a 2ns risetime. A logarithmic amplifier (LA-80-HS) with a 2ns rise time and fall time of 5ns is used to compress the dynamic range of the PMT output umawmfflorme Bneel.enlosub-Poplect82.18 signal. The 1064 nm (infrared) receiver P11=2.., incorporates a 5cm aperture, f12 refracting telescope, an 8.3 nm bandwidth filter and a General Electric LE-103 8 Laser-Eye photodiode detector with 8 ns risetime. The two receivers were designed and integrated with the transmitter by Optech Inc. of Downsview, Ontario.

Figure 4 any

GAM /— CL MG MODIT 1 TO TRANSIENT INSITGOR un.mmhe AMPLIFIER ISOLATION OAINCITOR

,L• rewoors c

GATING OMO 3.2 Data Acquisition System PHOTOCATHODE Figure 6 is a block diagram of the Larsen NC. FRESNEL FOCUSING LENS data acquisition system. The BERS (Bottom Echo - FITERFERENCE INLTER (532•M 1N3NO Recording System) subcomponent is charged with the — POLARtZER is a PDP 11-23 -- NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTERS logging of all relevant data. BERS EEG> MEMEL COWMATINO LENS based control system which orchestrates the entire — n — SPATIAL on-board suite of processes. Laser arming and firing, scan-pattern control, receipt and quality control of incoming data, formatting output-files FTESNEL CCLLECTIN0 LOO and operator interaction are its major tasks.

UDAR BATHYMETER RECEIVER

113 Figure 6 Figure 7

SCANNMG MECHAWSM HIGH DENSITY TAPE NAVIGATION & ATTITUDE SYSTEM \. A BERS MONITOR \\ A A

ey.P I , r KEYBOARD / ----- \ i LIDAR TRANSMISSION ■ ■ ' 1 ! ELECTRONICS i• ‘ \ / / UDAR RECEWER WAVEFORM \ ELECTROMCS DIGITIZER \ . // ... ... / ... Error CE BOTTOM ECHO RECORDING SYSTEM

—•—•— 3 Rea i3 e Fix

Fe Moorq

( 0 to 50 30 40 So m Memory Fix Error Scale

20 Km Position Stole

Figure 8 shows the geometric effects of The data - which includes extensive attitude changes on the position of the lidar header records detailing system parameter settings sounding (XL , X L ) for a simple single-axis as well as time, navigation data and the return mirror system. Figure 9 shows the growth of the pulse waveform-are recorded on a Kennedy 9800 CEP for various flying heights and scan angles for computer compatible tape (CCT) transport. a system with the error tolerances given there. 0 Again the 18m CEP is easily achievable for a 15 3.3 Navigation and Guidance system flying at 500m. The design of an appropriate navigation system is usually driven by the accuracy specifications Figure 8 which it must meet. In the case of the LAHEN system this has been defined to be 25m CEP . This figure has been derived to meet the Canadian Hydrogreic Service standards for a 1:25,000 survey. men(eme) ,ran(S...R.M.C.V1.0

The error budget can be split into two clow.simr.d sub-components, one to position the aircraft in an ( XaTO absolute (X,Y,Z) system such as UTM and the other component to position the lidar sounding relative to the aircraft. If the error dynamics of the two (0-(0-en1 =1.(reoll.Scen) positioning mechanisms are statistically independent then the two error budgets can be summed in quadrature. This implies a 18m CEP for each sub-component if the error budget is subdivided evenly. The independence assumption is justified by the fact that the airplane positioning is accomplished with a microwave ranging system and a radar altimeter and relative positioning controlled by an inertial attitude TRANSFORMATION OF CO - ORDINATES sensor aM shaft encoders on the mirror assembly .

Figure 7 shows CEP values plotted for various locations with respect to the 3 shore-based transponders at A,B and C. The 18m CEP is clearly achievable by employing a three range fix. Each range will be filtered to remove the spurious range spikes.

114 Figure 9 3.4 Data Processing System Figure 11 is a block diagram of the Lidar Echo Processing System (LEPS). This is a PDP 11-23 based system which takes the high density CCT from BERS and processes the data to the field sheet stage. The system is designed to generate data in a format compatible to that used on conventional (i.e. acoustic) hydrographic surveys.

FiHre 12 is a data processing block diagram . Because a reliable method for estimating the water depth from the aircraft has not yet been developed, the system hinges upon digitizing an analogue trace of the bottom oi=op=f profile. This procedure is in place and crywri= 2. working albeit slowly. We are seeking faster Uscan= methods for this analogue to digital conversion. Chr=2. Depth selection will follow traditional CHS practise of showing all the critical depths which are plottable.

The data processing system will be housed in a mobile container which will be moved to each airstrip.

Figure 11

VERSATEC PRINTER/PLOTTER Figure 10 is a block diagram showing the of the Navigation and Attitude various components HOUSTON System. Real time filters in the navigation from BERS CPS 30 computer will enable us to maintain quality PLOTTER DISC DRIVES control as well as interpolate unique navigation CCT vectors for each lidar shot. The guidance display aircraft avionics package 1 1 1 1 will use a standard PDP as position TAPE DRIVE 11/23 which showsrate ,of—closure as well LEPS relative to the desired track.

Figure 10 TEKTRONIX 4025 TERMINAL GRAPHICS TERMINAL

BERS MONITOR& TIME SYNC PILOT GUIDANCE LIDAR KEYBOARD DISPLAY ECHO PROCESSING SYSTEM

LASER HIGH SPEED(20 Hx) AMMETER RECORDING SYSTEM NAVIGATION (0 E R S) COMPUTER (t,r„,r,,r„R,RY,O) MICROWAVE RANGING SYSTEM - MINI RANGER LOW SPEED(2 Hz) TRISPONDER OUTPUT MRD1 (X,Y,Z,R,P,Y,0) 1 ATTITUDE SENSOR'

NAVIGATION AND ATTITUDE SYSTEM

115 If the lidar is deployed independently it Figure 12 becomes very effective as a sounder. Horizontal and vertical control networks can be established DATA PROCESSING BLOCK DIAGRAM and shoreline photography flown. The HIC of a conventional survey can therefore be presented with a field sheet complete with shoreline, foreshore detail control and all shallow water areas outlined and sounded. This would enable him to tailor his resources to the exact requirements of the task. For route planning purposes the /1 lidar can highlight suitable areas or„more ;7! 11 , -1 importantly,highlight unsuitable areas - so that a conventional survey need not be done. The drawback to this deployment scenario is that a dedicated surface team is required in the survey area and this might prove a difficult task in some situations.

SW. 1- 10( CZ.G.1,0•1 There are strong advantages and disadvantages to both strategies - the optimum one will vary

0.111 with location and conditions.

Summary

The scanning laser concept has arrived; its feasibility has been demonstrated. Equipment has undergone continuous refinement to improve upon its accuracy and efficiency. Hardware and software are being constantly re-worked and improved. Dozens of papers have been written 4.0 Deployment of a Scanning Lidar System turning have detailing the work progress and the design Deployment scenarios been outlined by points. Money continues to be poured into its 2 9e5guing development of scanning various agenqgs future. Yet to date no laser-based soundings have laser systems " found their way onto a field sheet or a chart. The time has come to push the system out into the The HALS (Hydrographie Airborne Laser Sounder) real world and to come to grips with real survey system achieves a flexibility in deployment over pressures. Major scientific and technical the Canadian and Australian systems since it is breakthroughs come when people and machinery are mounted in a helicopter as opposed to a fixed-wing pushed to their limite. Its time to put laser aircraft. Canadian and Australian survey planners bathymetry under stress and see what happens. must always be conscious of ferry time from the nearest airstrip to the survey ares. A fixed-wing Acknowledgement deployment therefore is considerably different from a helicopter-mounted one. The Aerial Hydrography Team would like to acknowledge and pay tribute to all the laser The Canadian plan is to have two deployment bathymetry researchers who have gone before us. strategies; one for a lidar survey in conjunction They have charted the route admirably, with a conventional launch or ship-based survey highlighting the shoals and foul grounds, showing and one for an independent, lidar-only survey. In clearly the safe passage way. We are indebted to both cases a surface team will be required to them. We hope that by our efforts we too establish the horizontal and vertical control. A contribute to those who will follow us. good communication link between the surface team and the airborne team is clearly a strong requirement. References In the "flying launch" mode the scanning 1. Houck, M.W., Bright, D.C., Byrnes, H.J., "The system would act as another survey tool available Hydrographic Airborne Laser Sounder (HALS) to the Hydrographer-in-Charge (HIC) of a Development Program", Proceedings of Fourth conventional survey. The shallow water areas Laser Hydrography Symposium, Defence would be allocmed to the lidar. A survey has Research Centre Salisbury, South Australia, been conducted to define the geographic areas 1980. where water clarity and depth enable the lidar to work effectively. The chief advantage of the 2. Calder, Captain M.; Penny, M.; "Australian "flying launch" concept is that the surface Overview". Fourth Laser Symposium, 1980. resources are already in place. On the other hand this places an extra logistic burden on the HIC 3. MacPhee, S.B.; Down, A.J., Anderson, N.M.; which is compounded by the shoreline-parallel Reid, D.B.; "Aerial Hydrography laser nature of the aircraft flight-lines and its bathymetry and air photo techniques for ability to forge far ahead of the acoustic survey obtaining inshore hydrography". The making new demands on horizontal and vertical Hydrographie Journal, No.22, October 1981. control.

116 4. Enabnit, D.; "The US National Ocean Surveys 19. O'Neil, R.A.; "Field Trials of a Lidar Airborne Laser Hydrography Development Bathymeter in the Magdalen Islands", Fourth Project"; Fourth Laser Symposium, 1980. Laser Symposium, 1980. Steinvall, O.; Klevebrant, H.; Lexander, J.; 5. 20. O'Neil, R.A.; "Coastal Hydrography using the Widen, A.; "Laser Depth Sounding in the CCRS Lidar Bathymeter"; Proceedings of Baltic Sea", Applied Optics, Vol. 20, NO. Offshore Goeteborg '83, March 1983. 19, 1 October 1981. 21. MONITEQ Ltd.; "Analysis of Pulse Shape and 6. Young, G.E.; Lott, J.; Phillippe, J.T.; Electronics Response Functions of Mark II "Laser Hydrography Analysis", NOAA, Contract CCRS Laser Bathymeter", Task C Report, 1982. 03-7-M01-35364. 22. Casey, M.J.; "Specifications for the D.B.; Goodman, L.R.; Young, 7. Enabnit, G.K.; Navigation Component of the Canadian "The Effectiveness Shaughnessy, W.J.; Scanning Laser Bathymetry System", of Airborne Laser Hydrography", NOAA Proceedings of the Institute of Navigation, Technical Memorandum NOS 26, December 1978. National Marine Meeting, Cambridge Mass., October 1982. 8. Shaughnessy, W.J.; Young, G.K.; "Cost Comparison and Effectiveness Study of 23. Canadian Hydrographie Service, Standing Orders Bathymetry Systems", DMA Airborne Optical 70-4 Section B. 3.a Contract MO-A01-78-4211, 1979. 24. Casey, M.J.; "A Navigation System for the M.J.; MacDougall, R.J.; 9. Monahan, D.; Casey, Scanning Lidar Bathymeter", Canadian "Comparisons between Acoustic and Active and Hydrographic Service Technical Report, Ocean Optical Depth Measuring Systems"; Passive Science and Surveys, Burlington, Ontario, Lighthouse, Journal of the Canadian November 1982. Hydrographers Association, Edition No. 26, November 1982. 25. Casey, M.J.; Monahan, D.; Malone, K.; "Data Processing and the Canadian Scanning Lidar 10. Guenther, G.C.; Thomas, R.W.L.; "Bias Bathymeter", Canadian Hydrographic Service Correction Procedures for Airborne Laser Internal Report, March, 1983. Hydrography"; NOAA Technical Report OTES 03, 1981. 26. Bourguin, L.B.; van Norden, M.F.; "The Hydrographic Airborne Laser Sounder: A Phase I 11. Sizgoric, S.; "Lidar Bathymetry - Planning and Operational Scenario (II)", prepared for Canada Final Report"; report Fourth Laser Symposium, 1980. Centre for Remote Sensing by Optech Inc.; April 1975. 27. Faulkner, D.W.; Gale, Leut. M.F.; "Wrelads Position Fixing and Navigation", Fourth G.C.; "Theoretical 12. Thomas, R.W.L.; Guenther, Laser Symposium, 1980. Characterization of Bottom Returns for Bathymetric Lidar", Proceedings of Lasers 28. Malone, A.K.; Casey, M.J.; Monahan, D.; Orlando, Florida, December '78 Conference, "Deployment Strategies for the Scanning 1978. Lidar Bathymeter", Lighthouse, Journal of the Canadian Hydrographers Association, Guenther, Thomas, R.W.L.; "Monte Carlo 13. G.C.; Edition No. 27, April 1983. Simulations of the Effects of Underwater Propagation on the Penetration and Depth 29. Woodward Clyde Ltd.; "Evaluation of the of an Airborne Laser Measurement Bias Applicability of Laser Depth Surveys to Bathymeter", NOAA Technical Memorandum OTES Canadian Nearshore Waters", report to the 01, March 1981. Canadian Hydrographic Service, Ottawa, March 1983. 14. MONITEQ Ltd.; "Feasibility Study on Water Optical Parameter Extraction From The Lidar Return Signal". Task G Report to Canada Centre for Remote Sensing.

15. Guenther, G.C.; "Accuracy and Penetration Measurements from Hydrographic Trials of the AOL System", Fourth Laser Symposium, 1980.

16. Guenther, G.C.; Personal communication, 1982.

17. MONITEQ Ltd.; "A Study of the Optical Impulse Response Function of Water Mass obtained from the EG&G Monte Carlo Simulation", Task A Report.

18. Watts, G.J.; "Signal Processing and Data Processing: WRELADS", Fourth Laser Symposium, 1980.

117 Rrsule.

BATHYMETRY AND ITS UTILIZATION L'importance du bassin supéri- TO DEFINE SHORT TERM EVENTS ON eur de l'Amazone, dans la croissance THE UPPER AMAZON économique à long terme des régions avoisinantes, a justifié le lancement d'un programme de collecte de données J.B. FitzPatrick hydrologiques. Ces données permettront Acres International Limited une utilisation plus efficace de cer- Niagara Falls, Ontario tains secteurs de ce système fluvial Canada qui subit des changements spectacu- laires.

C. Gamarra Directorate of Hydrography & Le port péruvien de Pucallpa Navigation - Peruvian Navy sur la rivière Ucayali est l'un des Callao, Peru trois ports qui ont été modernisés dans le cadre du projet de transport transandin financé par la Banque mondiale. Un alluvionnement s'étant produit à proximité du port comme on ABSTRACT l'avait prévu, la première phase du programme d'aménagement portuaire a The long term importance of porté entre autres sur une surveillance the Upper Amazon for the economic growth intensive du fond de la rivière. Grâce of the Amazon region has warranted the aux excellentes données bathymétriques initiation of a hydrological data collec- recueillies, les scientifiques ont pu tion program to allow more effective examiner chronologiquement les modifica- utilization of specific areas of this tions survenues récemment dans cette dramatically changing river system. partie de la rivière. Ils y oelt mesuré des débits de près de 20 000 re/s et The Peruvian Port of Pucallpa des charges de sédiments de près de on the Ucayali River is one of three 500 000 tonnes par jour. Le présent which have been upgraded as part of the document décrit la première phase de trans Andean transportation project ce programme permanent, financé par financed by the World Bank. Predicted la Banque mondiale et exécuté pour le siltation has occurred close to Pucallpa compte de la Direction générale du and concentrated monitoring of the river- transport par eau (DGTE) du ministère bed in this area was therefore included péruvien des Transports et des Communi- in the first phase of the port develop- cations. L'auteur canadien faisait fonc- ment program. Excellent bathymetry from tion de conseiller pour ce programme this monitoring gives an opportunity to et il a collaboré étroitement avec la examine recent events chronologically, Direction générale de l'hydrographie in this part of 3 the river. Flows of et de la navigation de la marine du nearly 20,000 m /sec and sediment loads Pérou, qui a effectué les levés, aux of nearly 500,000 tonnes/day were mea- termes d'un contrat signé avec la DGTE. sured. This paper describes the first phase of the ongoing monitoring project, which is being financed by the World Bank and carried out on behalf of the Directorate of Water Transport (DGTA) of the Peruvian Ministry of Transport and Communications. The Canadian author acted as advisor to the program and worked closely with the Directorate of Hydro graphy and Navigation (DHNM) of the Peru INTRODUCTION vian Navy, which was contracted by DGTA to carry out the field measurements. The flat slope (1:24,000) of the River Ucayali between Iquitos and Pucallpa offers an opportunity for considerable river navigation. The economic savings from waterborne KEY WORDS transportation encourages the establishment of industries in communities .AMAZON, RIVER, PORT, RIVER-PORT, along the river. Not only is protec- CROSSOVER-BAR, POINT-BAR, MEANDER tion for rapidly eroding riverbanks THALWEG, SEIMENTATION often required but a dependable channel is needed upon which the products and raw materials of these industries, together with the commodities used by the communities, can be shipped economically.

118 A literature search for for locating and analyzing specific information on the morphology of the areas inhibiting efficient utiliza- Upper Amazon reveals that the river tion of the river system. The data being collected and analyzed are Hydrological Unit is intended to the first to be obtained for that study the behavior of the river region. The author has examined maps regime generally as well as those of other river systems in the Upper specific sections which could be used Amazon and has concluded that there as models for future planning else- are other settlements similar to where on the Upper Amazon. Pucallpa, also without data, which undoubtedly will play an integral role If the changes in the river in future traffic navigation. For are to be predicted quantitatively as examples, in Peru on the Rivers Ucayali, well as qualitatively then the Maranon, Huallaga and Napo, there are significant characteristics including approximately 30 such sites. In river discharge pattern, the quantity Bolivia, there are sites on the Rivers and character of the sediment loads Mamore, Madre de Dios and Grande; in (both on the riverbed and in suspen- Western Brazil, on the Rivers Solimoes, sion) the natural bed formation Purus, Madeira and Negro. (dunes, sand, waves, etc) and the composition of the bank material have During 1977, the Director to be known. The Directorate of General of Water Transport (DGTA) of Hydrography and Navigation (DHNM) of the Peruvian Ministry of Transport & the Peruvian Navy in acknowledging the Communications contracted Acres importance of the program, expressed International Limited of Canada in interest in being associated with the association with CESEL SA of Peru work and subsequently contracted to (Acres/CESEL) to review designs and DGTA to implement the data collection supervise construction of port with Acres/CESEL as consultants. facilities at Iquitos, Yurimaguas and Pucallpa.

It was obvious from previous aerial photographs of the area that Pucallpa, taken from 1952 onwards, that the changes taking place in the river course were very significant. As there was little data available, it was difficult to predict quantitatively the channel movement and hence the best location and alignment for a dock.

Nevertheless, after examining carefully this limited information in conjunction with a geotechnical investigation and a bathymetric survey of the vicinity of the port area, the dock was located at what appeared to be a boundary between appreciable accretion PHOTO I on the upstream side and appreciable DEFINITION OF STUDY AREA erosion on the downstream side. The final design incorporated a floating The River Ucayali (Figure 1) dock as opposed to the fixed dock is a large river. It is the major arrangement which had been previously tributary of the Amazon, having a recommended. The dock which was length of over 1,800 km. The river completed in 1982 consists of three is migrating downstream through a vas t . basic elements; a cargo and passenger alluvial plain covered in dense jungle berth, floating access bridge and a and composed mainly of easily eroded shore abutment. During the low water sandy silt. It is similar to most period, the access bridge is designed other rivers in the Upper Amazon, with to rest on the bank with a maximum the typical characteristic of meander- slope of 12 percent. The intention is ing from one bank to the other (see that the floating dock can be reloca- Photo 2), and carrying large quanti- ted at intervals in accordance with ties of sediment. The study area is observed and predicted changes in the considered an ideal one for a micro- river. (see Photo 1). cosmic study of the Upper Amazon system as it includes both eroding con- As part of the Peru Ports cave banks, accreting convex bends, Project, Acres/CESEL were also con- sand bars and an important secondary tracted to initiate a hydrological tributary. There are outcrops of program which would eventually yield erosion resistant, silty clay known data for estimating pay loads and locally as "Capa Roja" which have been transit times of shipping through an important factor in affecting the parts of the river system as well as river regime.

119 photography. Nevertheless, a sound qualitative assessment can be made when comparing the general changes that have taken place between 1963 and 1980. Between 1963 and 1972, the main filament of flow in the upstream leg of the meander at Pucallpa had moved downstream and impinged on the northeast corner of one of the "Capa Roja" outcrop upon which the city is situated.

The following Tables 1(a) and (h) and Figure 4 show the changes that have taken place in these same sections since the base survey of July 1980.

The most significant changes have occurred between survey cross sections (4) to (13) and (16) to (21). During the latter half of 1981, the data from Sections 4 - 13 were examined closely because of the large movements that had taken place over the previous 12 months (see Figure 4).

During these 2 years, it appeared that the riverbank had moved the most at Sections (6) to (8) at the point where maximum curvature occurs in the meander. The rapid erosion and the banks lateral movement will probably continue. Because the erosive forces are now acting on a less resistant material in the vicinity of Section (9) where the harder "Capa Roja" zone previously limited erosion, FIGURE I MAP OF PERU it seems likely that erosion may now be more rapid and some modification in the The river discharge ranges channel may soon occur in this area. from about 3,000 m 3 /sec in the low water season to 15,000 m 3 /sec in the high water season.

The difference in elevation between the high water (January to March) and low water (July to September) periods has been between 9 and 10 m in recent years.

Pucallpa is situated on the south bank of the Ucayali approximately 5,000 km upstream from the Amazon River mouth on the Atlantic Coast of Brazil. The city, with a population of 100,000 people, lies at the eastern end of the only road across the Andes from Lima on the Pacific Coast, passing through Huanuco and Tingo Maria. PHOTO 2 CHANGES TO RIVER COURSE SINCE 1952

Figure 2 shows the configuration of the River Ucayali at the study Similarly, in the reach from area based on the aerial photography Sections (9) to (13), the right-hand surveys of 1952, 1963, and 1972. bank has been severely eroded at the Figure 3 is an outline of the river same time as the downstream growth of taken from the first complete bathy- the sand bar between Channel A and the metric survey. A direct overlay main channel. Erosion of the right comparison of the latter survey bank at Sections (10) and (11) has (July 1980), with the former surveys, been exceptionally rapid, as can be is not justified because of the lack seen from the information in the of ground control for the older Table. 120 LEGEND

1972

1952

P UC ALL PI LLO CHANNEL- El SECC ION ; MAE ST RA

\\. \

RIVER UCAYALI MOVEMENT IN RIVER COURSE 1952-1972

FIGURE 2 SCHEMATIC OUTLINE RIVER UCAYALI 1952-1972

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1111111‘ CAL L P IL LB , .. ce , 140

-11111 1 drill, RIVER UCAYALI RIVER COURSE 982

FIGURE 3 SCHEMATIC OUTLINE RIVER UCAYALI 1982

121

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FIGURE 4 CHANGE IN RIVER COURSE 1980-1982 122

At Section (18) there has BATHYMETRY IN THE PORT AREA also been erosion of the right bank, although the river width has not General changed significantly because of the accretion along the opposite left bank. The first bathymetry of the port area was carried out by ENAPU- TABLE 1(a) CONTROLAMAR (ENAPU - Empresa Nacional de Puertos) in 1977 and covered the MOVEMENT OF LEFT BANK (m) area from Section (h) to Section (12). The survey was not part of the hydro- 1980 to 1981 to Annual logical study, but was part of the Section 1981 1982 Rate field investigation prior to final (m/yr) design of the dock facility. The first bathymetry under the present 4 -100 0 - 50 study was carried out by DHNM in 5 -120 - 30 - 75 July 1980. It included in greater 6 -220 -180 -200 detail (Figure 4) 12 sections between 7 -200 -270 -235 (a) and (11), each approximately 8 -175 -120 -147 200 m apart. This detail allowed excellent comparisons with subsequent surveys to be made. Since the TABLE 1(b) study was initiated, a total of 12 surveys have been carried out. This MOVEMENT OF RIGHT BANK (m) section examines chronologically, the changes that have occurred in these 1980 to 1981 to Annual first 2 years of the study. Section 1981 1982 Rate (m/yr) Movement of Thalweg

9 + 20 -210 - 95 Using the initial survey of 10 -180 -180 -180 Controlamar (1977) and the DHNM 11 -140 -240 -190 (July 1980) survey, the two thalweg 12 - 80 -130 -105 positions were examined and a north- 13 - 15 - 25 - 20 ward (offshore) movement of about 200 m was measured. Although a movement of thalweg in this direction was expected, after a period of 2 1/2 years, it meant the main flow path

TABLE 2 - SUMMARY OF THALWEG MOVEMENT River Stage Thalweg Survey Rising/ OFF/ON* * Dist. D/h Nos. Period River Levels* h (m) Falling Movement D(m) OFF ON

2 - 3 Jul.80 - Nov.80 136.5 - 141.5 5 R ON 95 19 3 - 4 Nov.80 - Jan.81 141.5 - 144.5 3 R OFF 30 10

4 - 5 Jan.81 - Aug.81 144.5 - 137.5 7 F OFF 280 40

5 - 6 Aug.81 - Oct.81 137.5 - 139.5 2 R OFF 50 25

6 - 7 Oct.81 - Dec.81 139.5 - 144.5 5 R ON 175 35

7 - 8 Dec.81 - Jan.82 144.5 - 146.0 1.5 R ON 25 17

8 - 9 Jan.82 - Mar.82 146.0 - 146.5 0.5 R ON 85 170

9 - 10 Mar.82 - May 82 146.5 - 142.0 4.5 F OFF 190 42

10 - 11 May 82 - Jun 82 142.0 - 140.5 1.5 F OFF 35 23

11 - 12 Jun.82 - Aug.82 140.5 - 138.5 2 F OFF 40 20

12 - 13 Aug.82 - Sep.82 138.5 - 137.5 1 F OFF 45 45

* Figure 6 gives the river water levels as measured at the port of Pucallpa. **OFF - offshore (away from the left bank) ON - onshore (towards the left bank) 123

was moving downstream of the dock area overall comparison was made later of and consequently some small reductions Sections (a) to (11) there was a clear in water depth in the viclnity of the indication that a more general change dock site had resulted. was also taking place offshore. The availability of a reliable sequence of bathymetry has permitted Again, because of limited a closer examination of the movements hydrological equipment and instrumen- of the thalweg and a correlation has tation, the analysis is generally a been found between the onshore-offshore qualitative one and emphasizes the direction and the river stage. Figure urgency in obtaining the hydrological 5 shows the movement of the thalweg measurements needed to understand since 1977. In the 5-yr period from better the mechanism associated with 1977 to 1982, the thalweg has a net the serious changes to the morphology movement offshore of approximate -U-- of the Upper Amazon. 500 m. On occasions, however, the To obtain a better concept thalweg does move onshore particularly of the changes that can occur with approaching the high water season. time, accretion and erosion maps were lante 2 summarizes Lne prepared. These maps were drawn by observed thalweg movements over the laying one bathymetric chart over eleven periods since July 1980. The another and plotting the differences data show that when the river rises, as contours. Figure 7(a) to Figure the onshore movement is about 60 m 7(n) show the net changes in river for every 1 m rise in river level topography derived in this manner, and when the river falls, the off- for the twelve survey periods dis- shore movement of the thalweg is cussed previously. about 35 m for every 1 m fall in river level. July - November 1980 Accretion and Erosion Maps This was the first period compared in this manner and covered General the low to high water season. .From Figure 7(a) it can be seen that in an By mid-1981, after a further area approximately 100 m from the four surveys, it was clear that con- dock, there are net losses of up to siderable increases in the overall 3 m. About 800 m downstream of the elevation of the riverbed close to the dock, gains of up to 10 m were found dock were occurring. However, when an along the left bank side of the 9'034,000 ) > ., *t ) \ /

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552,000 553,000 554,000 FIGURE 5 MOVEMENT OF THALWEG 124 ? ? ? e e river. In the upstream area of the dock there were also other gains up to 6 m which were attributed to the confluence of Channel B and the tributary, the River Manantay.

November 1980 - January 1981

During this period, velocities are at their highest and, pre- dictably, significant erosion was recorded. In Figure 7(b), a large area with losses up to 3 m can be seen while on the left bank side of the river downstream of the dock, losses of up to 7 m were found.

January - August 1981 2 ‹ Figure 7(c) shows remarkable

i1r3 98 1 evidence of the instability of the - River Ucayali. Compared to the pre- ceding period when large areas of losses were measured, there were now

1980 equally large areas of accretion. 1 I I In fact, net gains of up to 11 m were mgi _j found approximately 100 m from the — forced the channel further towards

o October - December 1981 UJ OC As the river rose during this period, the thalweg moved on- CD shore (southward) approximately UL 175 m. With the higher velocities of the main filament of flow, erosion resulted with general losses of up to 5 m being measured. 8 Figure 7(e) shows the accretions, 92 between Sections (10) and (11), which can be attributed to the sediment laden Channels A and B meeting the resistance of the main river flow.

IMU: Detember 1981 - January 1982 TM rail By this time, it was evident from the study of Sections (4) to (8), the meander was migrating northwards at a rate of about 200 m/yr. The progressive movement northward of the main ri e thalweg for the same period supported the evidence of migration combined with 1111•N S Olti 130 13 AIN 125

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5t2.,Cuo 553,000 55. 00 FIGURE 7(1D) ACCRETION AND EROSION NOVEMBER 1980 - JANUARY 1981 126 9'076,000

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9'074,000 FIGURE 7(d) AEdRET1ON AND EROSION ÀUGUST TO OCTOBER 198'1" 127

the growth of a sand spit upstream of nearshore bank. The sand bar continued the dock. If we examine the contours to grow as further sediment was brought of the survey of January 1982 (Figure down from Channels A and B and deposited 7(f)), it can be seen that a consider- at the confluence. able area of riverbed would be above low water during the low water (137 m) period. The growth of the sand spit March to May 1982 began with the accumulation of sediment at the west point (downstream) This period follows high of the confluence of Channel A and the water and is classified as falling River Ucayali during the period stage. Figure 7(i) shows the October to December 1981 (previously resulting erosion that occurred on discussed). During the period the point bar covering an area of December 1981 to January 1982 (Figure about 1 1/2 km 2 . 7(g)), the increase in the same area was more significant and accretions Approximately 200 m from of up to 7 m were recorded. Further- the dock there was a small pocket more, a 7 m accretion was found on of erosion of up to 6 m. the upstream side of the confluence. The crossover bar shows January to March 1982 accretion of up to 5 m associated From the previous comparison, with small gains in the deeper water it was seen that large areas of near the left bank of the river. accretions on the upstream side of the port were causing the main filament of During this period, the flow to be contained within the bounds river no doubt contained less sedi- of the right riverbank and the newly ment in suspension because of lower formed sand bar. During the period now flows, but the velocities were still under discussion, the river discharge high enough to cause some erosion of was at its highest (Figure 6). Further up to 3 m in the area of confluence erosion of up to 6 m was recorded in with Channel A. the right bank (convex side of the meander (Figure 7(h)). Immediately The main bar appeared to be downstream of the main body of the sand advancing rapidly and further gains bar, however, the thalweg still made of up to 5 m in the same area were its way in a southerly direction to the causing some concern. 9'0 76.000

\k„) Oct. — Dic. 1981

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r--: ---) ___.------a---i--j------e'j-- "------;;---•"*-- 9073.000 ,_.1f *e-°-. er•-•----A.0 -C e. * • .‘:.:1 ,_3---1;--- .

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i I —J L E VENDA ti

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..': Eroslôn

9'074.000 551000 503 000 FIGURE 7(e) ACCRETION AND EROSION OCTOBER TO DECEMBER 1981 128

. . 28 Enero,I982 NIVEL DEL RIO 146.55m

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. I' d* Jell°, 1980 e3Ton, .. .....---

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- FIGURE 7(f) BATHVMETRY - JANUARY-I982

May to June 1982 August survey, there appeared to be a second spit forming with the 134 In the May survey (Figure to 138m contours, producing gains 7(j)) a 10-m deep zone approximately in this area of up to 2 m. 100 m from the dock was noted. This zone, of about 200 m diameter, had August to September 1982 side slopes of 1 in 10 and, according to the June comparison in Figure 5(k), acted as a sand trap with The bathymetry in Figure 7(m), accumulations of up to 7 m. Although obtained in early September 1982, con- during this period the net movement firms the sand spit discussed in the pre- of the river levels was in a falling vious period. At this time, the river stage, there was a 6-day period when was at its lowest level and the advancing the river rose nearly 3 m and probably sand bar was clearly evident. The rela- contributed to some erosion on the tively stable condition for this period right bank of the river. There was is clearly shown in Figure 7(n), with also erosion recorded in the areas of losses of only about 1 m being evident. confluence with Channels A and B. There are isolated small "pockets" of The sand bar had built up by about accretion. 2 m and migrated downstream.

June to August 1982 July 1980 - September 1982

The river level was at this In examining the net changes over time approaching low water. Figure the 2 years since the base survey of 7(1) shows a general accretion of July 1980, dramatic differences emerge in not only 1 to 2 m, although close to the dock the course of the river, as discussed in an it appeared that the deep zone earlier paragraph, but also in the mentioned in the previous comparison elevations of the riverbed as shown filled in further with accretions of in Figure 7(o). Maximum accre- up to 6 m. The flows from Channels tions of 15 m were found downstream at A and B appear to have been a Section (a) and reducing in the upstream dominant feature in producing a direction to gains of 2 or 3 m near the port. The bar, narrow passage of flow close to the which is now at an elevation of left bank upstream of the dock, between 137 and 139 m shows a general increase resulting in erosion for the second of approximately 6 m consecutive survey period. In the since 1980. 129 Diciembre 1981 — Enero 1982

PT-1 LEYENDA

--- 3- Cumas Diffefencia

«f» Acecunie. €E, 7011.et Erosrén

551 000 553 000 FIGURE 7(g) ACCRETION AND EROSION DECEMBER 1981 —JANUARY 1982

Enero- Marzo 1982

FIGURE 7(h) ACCRETION AND EROSION JANUARY TO MARCH 1982 130 MARZO-MAYO 1982

• ......

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13, 000 FIGURE 7(i) ACCRETION AND EROSION MARCH TO MAY 1982

15 Mayo,I982 NIVEL DEL RIO 141.71

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915 '114 004 53 5 000 FIGURE 7(j) BATHYMETRY - MAY 1982 131

• Mayo 1982 - Junio 1982 •

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557. 000 35 000 754 090 FIGURE 7(k) ACCRETION AND EROSION MAY TO JUNE 1982

Junio 1982 - Agosto1982

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000 335 000 FIGURE 7(1) ACCRETION AND EROSION JUNE TO AUGUST 1982 132

9 Septiembre, 1982 NIVEL DEL RIO 137.6 (PUCALLPILLO)

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...... "*... r•«:.ei'0719ao , ••••• ffl YanqUe 9 ■ 33 -- C10,413 de nive. Cr., / / •..... •. .000 FIGURE 7(m) BATHYMETRY — SEPTEMBER 1982

Agosto 1982- Septiembre 1982

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St 000 534 O. 337 000 FIGURE 7(n) ACCRETION AND E—R—OSION AUGUST TO SEPTEMBER 1982 133 Julio1980 — Septiembre 1982

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OM 555 000 332 OM 553 OM 354 TO SEPTEMBER 1982 FIGURE 7( 0) ACCRETION AND EROSION JULY 1980

Summary of Accretion/Erosion Maps

The following Table 3(a) Figure 8 shows the plot of energy index summarizes each of the eleven periods with stage value and shows very clearly examined and relates to the erosion and the correlation between stage and the accretion locations with the corre- location of the process. sponding river stage. For each of the survey periods a stage value The analysis, although con- has been derived from the product of taining only eleven sets of data, an energy "index" based on river stage (1 to 3 from low to high water strongly indicates that during low to rising stage, there is tendency for and 3 to 1 from high to low water) cross- and the duration of the period erosion to take place at the whereas on the high to between surveys (i.e., "dwell" at over bars, stage, there is an emphasis given stages). falling on accretion to the crossover bars and erosion at the point bars. This general observa- Table 3(b) summarizes a step is consistent with the tions by Pierce and Elliott, who further, the information given in Table 3(a) and places in ascending carried out studies on the lower order the "stage values" with rising Mississippi River in the USA. It appears, however, that Pierce and and falling stage. Immediate response have examined only high to this Table 3(b) is that there is Elliott may the transition evidence of correlation between stage and low water and not and location of process and an attempt between the extremes. Included in this analysis on the River Ucayali, was made to strengthen the probability however, are two such periods, i.e., of correlation by using energy index (product of energy and severity of the low water period of August to process) with stage and location. October 1981 and the high water period of January to March 1981. The process in each of these two periods, is in complete agreement with Pierce and Elliott's findings. 134 •• •

INTRODUCTION TO THEORETICAL APPROACH

-c N W N W te H,W, Regime Theory

4 0 H 0 Because the River Ucayali • 0 O U is a virgin river in the sense that › 0 00-L 41 40 041, PI H 01 01 r0 H N H there is virtually no morphological data available, it will require

ION several more years of good quality

ET 1, measurements before attempting to

CR correlate further hydraulic parameters

AC P P, P 0 0 0 0 with changes to the river regime.

0- Nevertheless a comparison was made '-4 with some empirical formulae for e m 0 01 10 (•1 01 N N 01— Hr-1 meander geometry derived by Inglis after several years of regime studies GY 1, VI on Indian rivers. H

e.( 34 0

ENER 4 0 O 0

0't-1 )4 dex 40 00 01 NHNN HNH H. In AND

GE LI ity ■ STA -1 tn 1/2 4040404040 mamma Sever Lm = Cl (Qmax) FOR ,§) O 00041,0 OLPLPLPLPL x

where on the Ucayali NS

00 lue Lm = meander length = 42,000 ft 0, 0

ATIO 0, H Qmax, based on a stage of 148 m = 44 r0 Ul r-1 (0 N

▪ va 0.1 > e 683,000 cfs which is approxi- LOC mately 20 percent above

o o Stag e e e o o .., ..-1 bank full

e . . . = ....1 a . H Cl = constant between 18 and 42 O o x ,o w w de

b) 't'' c e ,o rd In 3( ION/EROSION 1,1 Nt, IT 17, e then Cl = 42000 = 50 (maximum), e ootTb, 0, effiee 10

E 0 1 roeeeee -,-1 -.4-4

L IT HI HI HI H H H ..e H .--1 c since Q 0 o o tn 0 t, .4 IT H H (4' (683000) 1/2 could be TAB Energy ACCRET i/1 1 .C1 e e e g 1 g g e significantly higher)

and

4 H 1/2 1,0 00 Wm = Cw (Qmax) >17 where 1,1HrICINH NHN04 H Wm = meander width = 22,000 ft N LI Cw = a constant which is in the order of 0.5 Cl ro M 0IMUI40000 ACCRETIO 00.01:404 000000 then Cw = 22000 = 26.6 = 0.53 Cl › 12 4 (683000)

00 0 ›.0 WI Oe also NH H N N HHHHH 1/2 R = CrQ Z 0 H where 4 R = meander radius = 4,800 ft

IOD w 0 P, É'') Cr = a constant of approximately 6 PER

Y o 0 then oe Cr = 4800

VE 1/9 = 5 . 8 MD 0, (2,1 Cr. 10 10 04 10 H

UR (683000) "-

CH S 0. U, M

EA 1,0 • 0 Ord N N ri N N H Sa /a ee 0 CO '0 WH H ct es Pi H ‘■■ H

AT O 0 H NS II II II IO oe we. • H 0

LOCAT maw a a w a a (0 (0 ww IL,

N h II O 80 81 r7 / /

ROSIO tn4Ue310- eITP. >NH MUO0rtlid OWe 0 004, Nov Jan 4 0 W W t,44 44o • n H

- - O--Loi >, LI 0 0 WI H HNHNN 01.40

0 80 80

H / Q I II II l/ v etn4Uela>00, 00- MICUOM 'W '00W WM 4 0 ACCRETION/E Ju 0. No 0 000'4'4b Pq W 135 It should be mentioned here RISING STAGE that during 1976 and 1977, a US the leadership ACCRETION EROSION geological survey under -1- 20 of R. H. Meade carried out a sediment sampling program on the Lower Amazon x oe 0 from Iquitos, Peru, to the river's x mouth. From their analysis, a sus- X 0 x pended sediment transport rate of 0 0 1.7 x 10 6 t/d at Iquitos, some 1,000 STAGE VALUE 10 5 10 km downstream of Pucallpa, was X 0 iE.INDEX X DURATION) obtained. x o o x O

10 O CONCLUSIONS ; o Xr. 2 WS The information gained from • Z, good quality bathymetry on the River >Ft (DE Ucayali at Pucallpa has proved to be 30 CC. ACCRETION EROSION most valuable in defining the dramatic Zx changes that can occur to the bend of W. a meandering river with a highly mobile

A.90 bed. The meander at Pucallpa appears to be migrating northwards at an FALLING STAGE average rate of between 150 m and 200 m

LEGEND per year. CROSS OVER DAR o POINT BAR Despite the overall accretion GENERAL in the port area at Pucallpa, as a consequence of a major thalweg migration northwards from the dock, there still FIGURE 8 ENERGY INDEX VS STAGE VALUE appears to be an approach channel from downstream that is sufficiently deep for present requirements. The ability of the flow from Channels A and B to maintain a concentration of higher velocities near the dock through this channel, will be the key determinant of whether or not the sand bar Sediment Transport developing from upstream can encroach on the immediate dock area. Sediment load in the River Ucayali undoubtedly is the dominant The Peruvian government mechanism determining the behavior of should be commended for initiating this the riverbed and its boundaries. This important work in the Upper Amazon paper has described the qualitative region and it is necessary for other results that occur and although quan- countries concerned (namely Bolivia and titative knowledge of the sedimenta- Brazil) to realize now the need to tion processes on the Ucayali are obtain the hydrological information unknown at this time due to the lack necessary to ensure future safe and of sufficient observations, a brief economic river navigation and to locate attempt was made in 1982 to compare a and investigate specific areas which measured transport rate with a may inhibit efficient utilization of theoretical sediment load formula. their river systems.

In January 1982, when the If other agencies are carry- river was at its highest and there- ing out or intend to carry out similar fore probably when the suspended studies in the region, then it would be sediment transport rate was at its fruitful to consider a mutual exchange maximum, suspended sediment samples of data. were taken with a P.61 sampler in conjunction with velocity measurements using drogued floats. The resulting measured suspended load was approximately 0.45 x 106 t/day. To arrive at a calculated load, several formulae were used from studies carried out by du Boys for obtaining bed load and Albertson and Sarde to resolve the total sediment load, from which a calculated suspended sediment transport rate of about 1.5 x 10 6 t/d was determined.

136 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 10. Fenwick, G. B. State of Knowledge of Channel Stabilization in The author expresses special Major Alluvial Rivers. Corps thanks to DGTA in Lima for permitting of Engineers US Army, Technical their data to be released for use in Report No. 7, October 1969. this paper. 11. Livesey and Henderson. Estudio de The DHNM and in particular, la Ubicacion del Nuevo Commandante J. Brousset are to be Terminal Fluvial de Pucallpa, especially acknowledged for expressing November 1972. their interest in this important study. 12. Meade, R.H. et al. Suspended The valuable efforts of the Sediment and Velocity Data, 1st Lieutenant Carlos Gamarra and his Amazon River and its staff and the author's pleasure in Tributaries 1976 and 1977, working with them are very much US Dept of Interior Geologi- appreciated. cal Survey, Denver, 1979.

Thanks go to T. Lavender and 13. Morris, H. M. and J. M. Wiggert Dr. I. K. Hill, both specialist consul- Applied Hydraulics in tants, and R. G. Tanner, Project Engineering - Published by Manager in Canada, all with Acres Ronald Press Co., New York, International Limited, whose useful 1972. discussions were of considerable help. 14. Pierce, P. W. and C. M. Elliott REFERENCES Resume of Research Studies of Hydraulic Characteristics of 1. Acres/CESEL - Estudio y Diseno Mississippi River Channels - Preliminar Del Muelle Potamological Investigation Flotante Terminal De Pucallpa, Report 19-2, April 1967, December 1977. US Army Waterways Station

2. Acres/CESEL - Progress Report No. 15. Tsinker, G. P., E. Vernigora 25, November 1981. "Floating Piers". Proceedings of the Specialty Conference on 3. Acres/CESEL - Progress Report No. Ports '80, ASCE/May 19-20, 1980. 27, January 1982

4. Acres/CESEL - Hydrological Program Report on Summary of Activities, October 1981 - March 1982

5. Acres/CESEL - Hydrological Program Report on Summary of Activities, April 1982 - September 1982

6. Blench, T. Mobile Bed Fluviology, University of Alberta, Published by University of Alberta Press, Edmonton, Canada, 1969.

7. Delgado, R. Desarrollo Portuario en la Puertos de Iquitos, Pucallpa y Yurimaguas. El Ingeniero Civil 1982.

8. DHNM - Estudios Hidraulicos y Murfologicos Del Rio Ucayali - Informe Anual 1980 - 1981 y Informe Trimestral No. 7 Mayo - Agosto 1982.

9. Empresa Nacional de Puertos (ENAPU/ PERU) - Proyecto T. F. Pucallpa Mediciones y Observaciones, Mayo 1977.

137 accentuées par ordinateur de façon à mettre en relief des données hydrogra- REPORT ON DMA'S PROTOTYPE GRAPHICS FROM phiques comme les hauts-fonds, les zones ENHANCED LANDSAT IMAGERY FOR découvrantes, les limites terre-eau et APPLICATION TO HYDROGRAPHIC CHARTING les intervalles bathymétriques dans les eaux peu profondes. Ces images accentuées A.D. Naylor and W.H. LaFollette sont présentées dans divers formats, Defense Mapping Agency échelles et agencements de couleurs, cor- Hydrographic/Topographic Center respondant aux trois méthodes d'accen- Washington, D.C. tuation par ordinateur. U.S.A. Pour obtenir rapidement des reproductions graphiques, on se sert, pour ABSTRACT le mode d'accentuation ahalogique, d'un synthétiseur image/couleur et d'un pro- The Defence Mapping Agency (DMA) jecteur à différentes échelles pour is currently developing prototype gra- l'analyse des diapositives multispec- phics from remotely sensed imagery for trales/multitemporelles obtenues par Land- support to hydrographic survey planning sat. Le DMA a mis au point le système and DMA's nautical chart maintenance pro- graphique utilisant cette méthode, pour gram. The imagery for these prototypes is son programme de tenue à jour des cartes, Landsat scenes that are enhanced by dig- mais on pourrait aussi l'utiliser pour la ital image processing techniques, or pro- planification des levés dans les eaux peu cessed totally in an analog mode for profondes. quick response requirements. This paper discusses these processing approaches within the framework of the prototype efforts.

Landsat's multispectral scanner INTRODUCTION imagery in the Makassar Strait of Indon- esia is computer enhanced to highlight The Defence Mapping Agency (DMA) hydrographic information such as shoals, is charged with the responsibility of pro- uncover areas, land-water boundaries, and viding safe and adequate nautical chart shallow water depth intervals. These en- coverage for all areas of the world out- hancements are graphically presented in a side the U.S. territorial waters. New ves- variety of scales, formats, and color sels possessing greater speeds assignments representing three approaches and deeper drafts demand more accurate to computer enhancements. and timely charts to support an increasing traffic volume in unsurveyed or poorly surveyed To produce quick response gra- areas. Hydrographic survey phics, the analog approach to enhancement data used to produce the DMA charts are collected by involves the use of a color additive spe, cially equipped survey vessels of the viewer and multiscale projector/viewer U.S. Naval Oceanographic for analysis of multispectral/multitem- Office (NAVO- CEANO). At the poral Landsat film. The prototype gra- present collection rates, survey ships will require hundreds phics using this approach were developed of years to collect the needed to support DMA's chart maintenance pro- data to produce current and accurate charts. gram, but could be used as a tool for In addition to the high cost of hydrographic survey planning in shallow waters. surveying, the time from data collection to portrayal on a published, updated nautical chart is extensive. Electro-optical RESUME sensors such as the Landsat's multispectral scanner (MSS) can be used to augment La DMA est à mettre au point un the slow and expensive process of collect- prototype de système graphique, à partir ing hydrographic information; as well as d'images obtenues par télédétection, qui for an analysis tool used in the chart sera utilisé pour la planification des compilation process, resulting in a nau- levés hydrographiques et pour son pro- tical chart that is more responsive to gramme de tenue à jour des cartes mar- the needs of the maritime community. ines. Pour ce prototype, les scienti- The Multispectral Scanner (MSS) fiques utilisent des images de Landsat, onboard each of the Landsat 1, 2, and 3 accentuées à l'aide de techniques de systems contain detectors which are sensi- traitement numérique, ou traitées totale- tive to a narrow portion of the electro- ment en mode analogique pour obtenir magnetic radiation (EMR) spectrum. The rapidement des reproductions graphiques. wavelengths of the 4 bands on the MSS are L'auteur de la présente étude expose ces as follows: méthodes de traitement, dans le cadre des efforts déployés pour la mise au point du Band 4 0.5 - 0.6 micrometers prototype. Band 5 0.6 - 0.7 micrometers Band 6 0.7 - 0.8 micrometers Des images du détroit de Makas- Band 7 0.8 - 1.1 micrometers sar (Indonésie), obtenues par balayage multispectral à partir d'un Landsat, sont

138 Portions of the solar light Three distinctly different spectrum pass through a water column, approaches were pursued to enhance Landsat reflect off a seafloor or shoal and return imagery for the extraction of hydrographic to a detector where it creates a voltage information: signal, which is then transformed into a digital value. Propagation of light 1. Contract with Environmental through water depends upon environmental Research Institute of Michigan (ERIM) to conditions such as watér clarity and derive relative water depths, bottom reflectance, and on wavelength. For the MSS system, the portion of the EMR 2. Contract with Earth Satellite spectrum detected by band 4 penetrates the Corporation (Earthsat) to derive enhanced water column to a depth of 40 meters under depth penetration and shoal outline ideal conditions. Band 5 can detect to graphics, and about 8 meters, band 6 to 0.5 meter and band 7 (used for shoreline definition) has 3. Inhouse processing on the no subsurface detection capability. Digital Image Processing System (DIPS) to create interpreted graphics. A radiometric problem in the first 3 Landsat MSS systems is known as All three processing approaches "striping". The six detectors for each were completed in April 1982. During band do not respond to the same ground April-September 1982, DMA created a set of stimulus with equal intensity. This potential survey planning graphics from results in a pattern which repeats every the combined set of enhanced Landsat six scan lines of a band thus producing a graphics produced in each of the three striping effect in the resultant image. approaches. This striping is not uniform across the scene and is particularly troublesome in As surveying in the Makassar the most sensitive portions of the dynamic Straits is completed, ground truth will be range of bands 4 and 5. Destriping used to refine the processing algorithms algorithms have been developed that and sequence. The intent of this intial reduce, but do not remove, this MSS set of graphics is to provide a start-up detector radiometric noise. processing capability which can be refined and improved as necesary. For several years, DMA and NAVOCEANO have been discussing the potential application of Landsat imagery to support the hydrographic survey program. In 1980, DMA launched a project DESCRIPTION OF PROTOTYPE AREA AND DATA SET to produce a set of graphics derived from enhanced Landsat imagery that could be ERIM and Earthsat processed the used for presurvey planning or field identical areas labeled Sites A/B and Site survey operations. Portions of the C, figures 1 and 2. Five Landsat scenes (2 southern Makassar Straits in Indonesia unique scene centers) were used and were selected for this project to acquire collected in 1972, 1973, and 1978. The ground truth from an ongoing NAVOCEANO earliest scenes had considerable system survey. noise. Landsat imagery tapes (CCT's) and - 8...* .110 711 1-. r - 1111 ebb ' LIUKANU TE •à

. à m CEPULWAII TENGAH t-z•* ,k..,.„, Itt

111 ' - 1.11 30. k1W. e àe› 1.11

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en> e 8111

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111 34 33• '.›Ne m m .113

dtm KJ _ _ " 0 4 r 0. 1

M. 119' ur 30 . ilr Indonesia, Southern Part of Makassar Straits, Site A/B Chart Scale - 1:750,000 Figure 1 139

131 a - . ■ '", .....-----i ' - •, NOTE , . ,.. re ...... eoe .., sIers 1 . . a. „. e “ ,, a. eel. id â lieu h''''' *D°.."°4'*—".' ,.* , ‘ Àqeq... , Wend. topared le lie 2 eek, eliV .a, MI •. 14 0114i/d...1,....g..m. w ere.. bun... 313 ,4.7p.,:.:Le m 2/0 1 ,,, us ' r Kee,e0.1.,..s.;, sn ,,, I . ei • ,% ‘,61....4 1: 1, Pt 111 " P.1 e m .1.0...e.ntuelnq 14 'n, 1.: 711 . 111 .' ..i, m CHART 71192 • s. m u . . . “ 4 ›. 114 '. “ I'...... 4...,.... .1 . en. lle.2...... „ I.,. . . : li ' .44 t ',....,

1. . , 9.1...oel ' 11, ". 10 n. .eerle•••■ ••,,aew ,...... ,. ,,/ , 111 /11 s, I 1.11 . 1. 4. n „/ . rod . .1' i, .1 ,, +. 70 /19 tl• 4' .1 ( 5-) 4 ,.... Kt "qe 11 ;;?.. e . ,.. . . LAAlgi ii. .. •. .. / .qt! 1 11 1 e...., f 37 , 41 ,,,, n la •1, / M „.... • „,, DAMES nt 0n 01 I ,_ . ■ 1, I” geà .C. . q0 7;0 . n 1” i : /7 .; . 5. ( ,!•..a..... 0 . "1.0""'" , ,.. ''''''.:•!. ''.' 5.' ' , ,'• : ,.:1 4.....1 ...... ; \ . ' ...... : 4"- • • , 1 . 1 1. 14 . 31,14 lc . .1.1 ■ :...... •0 1. 1" .11 . IL,f y. • Ii . 41 i .1.. ,,, 1.1 - e '(e.le 41 7 ;IC o e " ree"" 0/ o 1, •••.„1 M 7. .. ...- __._._ .■. --.-.... ....«. --- - 30' I 8 30' Indonesia, Southern Part of Makassar Straits, Site C Chart Scale - 1:750,000 Figure 2

o o Indonesia, Southern Part of Makassar Straits Chart Scale - 1:750,000 Figure 3

film were provided for each scene. DMA Chart 72007 (at a scale of 1:750.000), and a DMA control manuscript (at a scale of 1:300,000), were the source documents used. PROCESSING AND GRAPHICS PRODUCED ON The area processed by DMA on the THE DIPS DIPS (figure 3), was a few degrees below sites A/B and C in the straits of Lombok. In 1978 DMA began developing a This area was mostly deep water with digital image processing system which shallowing areas only near the major included software to extract hydrographic landforms of Bali and Lombok. DMA Charts information from remote sensing platforms 72222 (scale 1:200,000) and 72035 (scale such as landsat. The experience gained and 1:497,000) were used as the base the processing techniques developed in the documents. Only one Landsat image tape analysis of Landsat imagery of coastal (dated 21 June 1973) was used although areas will serve as the foundation for the Landsat analog images were also obtained digital production support to the nautical to provide some multitemporal analysis. chart compilation process. 140 The essential hardware components infrared imagery were produced using bands of the DIPS include the following: 4, 5, and 7 which produce a color scheme of vegetation -red, culture - grey, water - COMTAL Image processing station blue. The pseudo color graphics were (Vision 1) produced as a combination of bands 4 and 7 only. Band 4 was additionally enhanced by - Dual screen 512 by 512 displays a technique known as "density slicing" in - 3 planes each of 512 by 512 by 8 which pixel grey level ranges were bit refresh memory classified according to the hydrographic, (6.3 Megabits total) environmental, Or image "noise" - Trackball cursor, keyboard information they represented. These - 4 overlay planes classes were color coded and combined with - Firmware and image processor a land mask overlay developed from band 7. - Plotters The pseudo color and infrared derived graphics were used to develop an - Versatec interpreted graphic (figure 4). On this - Applicon, Ink jet graphic, "deep water" is defined as areas where the depth is approximately 18 meters -5 Tape drives (800/1600 BPI, or greater. Subsurface hydrographic 125 IPS) information depicted on this graphic is at depths less than 18 meters. This graphic Disk drives will be a standard final product to be used by cartographers as a source in the chart - 2 DEC RA60 compilation process. In Landsat scenes - 1 DEC RA81 used to derive these graphics, - 1 DEC RPO4 environmental noise masked large areas so that no useful hydrographic information - Terminals could be extracted. These areas are classified as "uninterpreted". This noise - 2 DEC VT100 is in the form of clouds and surface - 1 Tektronix 4014 turbidity. Also, system noise, mainly - 1 LA36 Decwriter from the striping (or "banding") problem, was rather severe on this scene. The - PDP 11/45 Minicomputer amount of hydrographic information extracted from this processing was reduced - 128K main core by a general lack of significant shallow - floating point processor water, reefs, shoaling areas and scene noise. The software components include: Over the next 2 years, additional - RSX 11M, Version 4.0 hardware and software will be added to the operating system DIPS. There remains several software - Menu driven application processing limitations which must be software for controlling addressed to make the most effective use of image processing the DIPS. Reference 4 contains a detailed operations description of these limitations. It is - Water depth algorithms the intention of DMA to eventually perform all image processing on the DIPS, rather Of the many presentations than contracting out some of this work as developed on the DIPS, the most useful sets in the Makassar project. of graphics were those derived from pseudo color processing and from infrared imagery. Reference 2 provides a full description of the processing performed CONTRACT WITH ERIM and scaled down versions of all the graphics produced. Pre-processing steps Since 1975 ERIM has been included: developing, under contract to DMA, techniques and algorithms for deriving a. Destriping (Constrained moving shallow water depths from multispectral window average), and imagery. These algorithms have been transferred to DMA and installed on the b. Contrast enhancement (look up DIPS. table to define subsurface detail and land/water interface) The calculation of water depth is based on the exponential attenuation of Both presentations were geometrically light with increasing water depth. • This corrected to a transverse mercator attenuation factor is dependent 'on projection (UTM grid) 1:80,000 scale. wavelength (Landsat's MSS 4 having the Sixteen subscenes (512 by 512 pixel) of the deepest penetration) and on numerous Landsat scene were separately processed environmental conditions (water quality, and plotted. The plots were bottom reflectance, etc.). Two adjacent photographically scaled to 1:200,000. bottom areas at the same depth but with distinctly different bottom types (grass The graphics derived from versus sand) have different reflectances. 141

I fr' mqr, / DEEP J ^1 WATER. \I WATER 2 // ( r /Lf \ r

UlICLASIIFIED

f"- 1 _ r - ' ■ GAUG7(. l ? \ DANGER ( ,/ ...., — t in—Pa”) 11..1 Ue j t.‘\ --rt 1 Au f \. ,...--- — ._, -N Ue--"'\ 0) ■ n e7 t ri I

»e

"\LIP RE cr

\ DEEP W.UER ,91

DEEP wArE R. teir 4=1

\(.0•" Overlay to Psuedo-Color Graphics

Figure 4

This results in different pixel grey shade values for these areas and subsequent The basic equations used in the difference in the depth calculations. In depth calculations were as follows: shallow water areas where both MSS 4 and 5 penetrate to the bottom, ratios of MSS 4 Single band (MSS 4) Method and 5 can be used to minimize the effects of changing bottom types. In deeper waters V = Vs -I- (Vo) -2eKZ (greater than 5-7 meters), MSS 5 attenuates completely so that only MSS 4 is Ratio (MSS 4/MSS 5) Method receiving any returh signal. In this case, since the water depth equations makes the V(4) - Vs(4) Vo (4) _2(K(5)-R(4))Z assumption that bottom types are uniform V(5) - Vs(5) - --7-Vôr5") e throughout, MSS 4 must be "modified" to account for these changing bottom where V = obs. signal (in band reflectances. Areas of four different but 4 or 5) uniform bottom types were estimated by DMA K = water attenuation coefficent and used to compute an offset in the (for band 4 or 5) calculation of depth. In tidal areas where Z = depth both bands 5 and 6 penetrated to the Vs = deep water threshold signal bottom, ratios of MSS 5 and 6 were also formed. Since all 4 Landsat bands contain Vo is coefficient dependent on noise, threshold values were determined the solar irradiance at the surface, the for each band below which the signal return bottom reflectance, the atmospheric was judged to have attenuated. transmission, and the sensor. 142 The processing sequence and the Each graphic is a composite of graphics to be produced by ERIM are the single band MSS 4 and the two ratio described in figure 5. The graphics for methods (MSS 4/MSS 5 and MSS 5/MSS 6). each of two test sites included water depth When both bands MSS 4 and MSS 5 penetrated prints and transparencies from 2 processes to the bottom, depths were computed only and displayed in three formats. from the ratio of MSS 4/MSS 5. In the very

(AL CET-A I (UUCORRECTED) ,

DESTRIPE

Remove sun glint and surface returns-use regression method irom non-penetrating bands on a pixel to pixel basis

Gray level enhancement Remove low Enhance each band for order geometric best portrayal of Radio- corrections hydrographic features metrically 1 Geometric (Contrast Stretch) corrected matcn-up to data (Bands,/ RCD LOW ORDER 4,5,6,7) GEOMETRIC COR \V V V Film & paper Film & paper Film & paper Band Ratio Composite land Single Print black Black & White Black & White Depths (Band 7) Band 4 and white Enhanced Enhanced Band 4 6 5 and tidal flat Depths Enhanced Band 5 Band 4 (Band 6) Band 7 I _I FILM ONLY Color Composite 'Depth Bands (4.5.7) File without DER+L Band 7 MASKING .+TF

\V BOTTOM COVER Reflectance Warp to map proj. Warp to map pro. Analysis SIAT Geometric SIAT Geometric ERIM & DMA control to any control to any available Geodetic available Geodetic control control

Prepare mylar outlay (interim product) to ERIM consisting of Bottom Reflectance Analysis Depth , Tape

+TF 0

Band Ratio Single Band GLOSSAE': OF ACRONYMS Depth Color Depth Color Graphic Graphic DBR - Depths from band ratio

TF - Tidal Flat

L - Land Mask

RCI) - Radiometrically corrected data

Processing Flow Diagram For ERIM Contract Figure 5 143 shallow water areas (e.g., uncovers) where MSS 6 penetrated also, only the ratio of b. Geometric Correction bands MSS 5/MSS 6 was used. In the deeper a 40 M waters where only band 4 receives The data was resampled to reflected energy from the bottom, graphics by 40 M grid using a nearest neighbor were developed for comparison using both technique. Resampling was done to a MSS 4 modified and unmodified for changing transverse mercator projection on a UTM bottom reflectance. grid. Control points were used to interactively adjust the Landsat ephemeris Each graphic is color coded for a (roll, pitch, yaw, etc.). depth range of 0.6 meter using a color Surface "look up" table described in table 1. c. Removal of Varying Scales of 1:167,000 and 1:300,000 were And Haze Effects used for final output. The variation in band 7 above its threshold signal in deep water was used to determine sun glint, surface turbulence, MSS 4/MIS 5 Ratio MSS 5/MSS.6 Ratio etc., in bands 4, 5, and 6.

Land 000 Land 000 These graphics provided estimates 460 0.0 - 1.0 460 0.0 - 0.4 of depth zones which were generalized and 477 1.0 - 1.6 477 0.4 - 0.6. collapsed into fewer depth zones at DMA. 377 product at DMA to 1.6 - 2.2 377 0.6 - 0.8 This will be a standard be used in presurvey planning, survey 2.2 - 2.5 277 manuscript in 077 operations, and as a source 2.8 - 3.4 the nautical chart compilation process. 3.4 - 4.0 044 4.0 - 4.6 033 4.6 - 5.2 073 CONTRACT WITH EARTH SATELLITE CORPORATION MSS. 4 14:reified MSS 4 .Alone The third approach was to enhance 010 - 1.0 073 the imagery to maximize the extraction of 1.0 - 1.6 777 hydrographic information from Landsat 0.0 - 1.6 777 666 imagery. This was specified in a contract 1.6 - 2.2 666 1.6 - 2.2 555 let to Earth Satellite Corporation in 2.2 - 2.8 555 2.2 - 2.8 Bethesda, 2.8 - 3.4 444 Maryland. The objective of this 2.8 - 3.4 444 contract was to obtain a 3.4 - 4.0 333 color enhanced 3.4 - 4.0 333 mosaic of three Landsat scenes in the 4.0 - 4.5 222 4.0 - 4.6 222 Makassar Straits. The graphics produced 4.6 - 5.2 111 4.6 - 5.2 111 were at a scale of 1:300,000 on a 5.2 - 5.8 744 5.2 - 5.8 744 transverse mercator projection and 5.8 - 6.4 733 5.8 6.4 733 emphasized portrayal of the submerged 6.4 - 7.0 722 6.4 - 7.0 722 features in the imagery. 7.0 - 1.6 ni 7.0 - 7.6 711 7.6 - 8.2 700 The Earth Satellite Corporation 7.6 - 8.2 700 8.2 - 8.8 474 performed all enhancements in a digital 8.2 - 8.8 474 8.8 - 9.4 272 mode on their Grinnell image processing 8.8 - 9.4 272 9.4 - 10.0 070 system, which contains the following 9.4 - 10.0 070 10.0 - 10.6 040 components: 10.0 - 10.6 040 10.6 - 11.2 030 10.6 - 11.2 030 H/W - GMR 270 image processing 11.2 - 11.2 747 11.2 - 11.8 747 subsystem 11.8 - 12.4 727 11.8 - 12.4 727 - 4 image channels 12.4 - 13.0 7 17 12.4 - 13.0 707 - 512 by 512 pixel refresh 13.0 - 13.6 404 13.0 - 13.6 404 memory/channel 13.6 - 14.2 303 13.6 - 14.2 303 - 4 graphic overlay planes 14.2 - 15.4 447 - 14.2 - 15.4 447 cursor controls (joysticks) 15.4 - 16.6 327 15.4 - 16.6 337 - Prime 750 minicomputer 16.6 - 17.8 227 16.6 - 17.8 227 17.8 - 19.0 ear S/W - GEOPIC 17.8 - 19.0 007 19.0 - 19.6 005 Deep Water 002 Deep Water 00 3 - menu driven interactive system Color Depth Table - Batch software Table 1 The description and -sequence of processing steps performed were as follows: Some details of the processing a. Destriping steps include: Performed radiometric recalibration a. Destriping to remove striping effects from the Landsat scene. This was done by a Using histogram normalization technique known as cumulative histogram 144 matching in which a point by point connection is applied to each pixel value for each of the 6 Landsat detectors per spectral band. b. Decorrelation Band 4' * Band 4 - 0.1 * Band 5 Band 5' = 0.9 * Band 5 - 0.1 * Band 4 c. Geometric Correction Correction for Landsat systematic errors Cubic convolution sampling to UTM Grid d. Contrast Stretch e. Color Composite Water area - decorrelated bands Makassar Strait 4 and 5 Original Landsat 1 Scene, July 1972 Land area - band 7 and de- Composite of Bands 4, 5, 7 correlated bands 4 and 5 Three Landsat scenes were Figure 6 processed digitally in this sequence. Output of each scene was an Optronics plotted film image. These films were photographically mosaicked and photo- graphed with a copy camera. B. Interpreted Overlays: (figure 7) Overlays containing interpreted areas - The final output product was a shoals, reefs, hazards, deep water, etc. - graphic which significantly improved the derived from enhanced Landsat imagery. definition of shoaling areas in the scene. These overlays will also identify the The color contrast between shallow water limits of penetration (areas where depths and deep water (completely attenuated are determined to be shallower than a light) areas was greatly enhanced determined value) as well as uninterpreted permitting descrimination of shoals from area due to cloud cover, haze, water environmental phenomena. This processing turbidity, etc. The total area of the technique will become a standard overlay will be labeled with descriptive enhancement for the DMA production system. identifiers.

COMBINED GRAPHICS OBTAINED FROM THE THREE APPROACHES All graphics produced by DMA's UNIDENTIFIED image processing system (DIPS) and by work DEEP WATER performed under contract with ERIM and ESC >30 were combined and generalized into 4 types METERS of presentations: DEEP WATER - Enhanced shoals >30 METERS • - Interpreted overlays - Residual overlays - Color coded water depth These presentation formats were determined to be most useful to DMA and NAVOCEANO in support of presurvey UNIDENTIFIED planning, survey operations, and they will be used as source documents in the chart compilation process. These graphics will be produced at the scale and projection of the base manuscript.

A. Enhanced Shoals: (figure 6) UNIDENT/FIED An enhanced Landsat graphic similar to jr_gres that produced by the Earth Satellite ;1r col Corporation that will depict shoals, Interpreted Graphic reefs, and other submerged hazards. This Derived From Enhanced Landsat Image graphic will supplement the "Interpreted Overlay" and the "Residual Overlay". Figure 7 145 C. Residual Overlay: (figure 8) This overlay will also be registered to the nautical chart. It will highlight only the differences between hydrographic information extracted from enhanced Landsat imagery and the existing nautical chart. As such, it will identify uncharted shoals, improperly charted soundings, and existence of hazards not identified on the chart.

e.) fa 5 ure"

kre' Lee s

oo 0 e

Legend (All Depths Approximate) e•gf Land Areas —r— n0 n Uncovers (0.5 meters) r---- i 0.5 meters to 5 meters Residual Graphie :=3 5 meters to 10 meters = 10 meters to 20 meters charted shoal Relative Water Depth Graphic c) misplotted sounding

perror in sounding Figure 9

Figure 8

DEVELOPMENT OF A PRODUCTION SYSTEm Production of graphics derived D. Color Coded Water Depth:(figure 9) from Landsat imagery will be done on the These graphics will be developed at scales Hydrographic Image Exploitation System from 1:50,000 to 1:200,000. At these (HIES), under development at DMA (figure scales Landsat derived depth manuscripts 10). The analog subsystem of the HIES will be used mainly when no other reliable the following: data exists. This data will be depicted on contains the chart as position approximate (P.A.). a. Color Additive Viewer (CAV) The graphics will consist of zones of relative depths computed from an algorithm This is used to superimpose 3 developed for DMA by ERIM. Constrasting spectral bands through red, blue, and colors will be assigned to each zone. A green color filters onto a common screen. typical graphic will contain the following Adjustments to color assignments and depth zones: intensity can be made to enhance selected details in the combined image. Features of Land this system include: Low tide (uncovers) to 5 meters 5 - 10 meters - 5 channels 10 - 20 meters 70 mm film format for each deep water, greater than 20 meters channel - individual potentiometers for This graphic will be developed only with each channel light processing and only when good digital and rotational controls quality landsat CCT's are available. A - X-Y - 3X lens on each channel gridded overlay will be registered, along options (red, blue, the appropriate - 4 filter with this graphic, to green, clear) chart. 146 of (NIL%) The analog/digital subsystem IISDROGRAINIC MMOCURMIM-i Image Manipulation MACE GILLS the HIES is the Analog mummies and Analysis System (AIMAS) which is a IN-DOUSE - LogE/ISI Views 200 System. Imagery can be scanned, digitized, enhanced, and output subsystem provides a means DIGITAL to film. This ANALOG. for rapid digital enhancement of analog Landsat imagery. Features include:

DIP

COLOR IRILTISCALE Atrium MGR - vidicon Camera ADDITIVE nialmitramm VIEWER ANAL,. IS PROCESSING SINISYSTIS - digitizing subsystem MASTS EN - CRT display with refresh memory - isometric projection subsystem _ _ _ - Matrix camera subsystem

, I STATION : The digital subsystem of the HIES has 1 already been described in section III. 1 M r uï/ivif:1 rEZe"isl OL171,R1rER I IV' Z' N' S.A' rEG" PR DIGITI ZER TENTRONI% I LINE STATION TAM Lo) (2) j L PRINTER L__ Four presentations (section VI) [I°APE DA IVIA developed from Landsat imagery will be end products of a production effort at DMA. Hydrographic Image Exploitation System However, as this program evolves, these Block Diagram graphics will expand and possibly change in format and content. As much processing as possible will be done at DMA on the Figure 10 HIES. However, some processing may be done under contractual arrangements until the HIES is fully developed. Routinely, these b. Multiscale Projection/Viewer graphics will be developed from Landsat (MSP/V) imagery using analog processes. However, where fine detail is needed and where This rear projection system Landsat computer compatible tapes (CCT's) provides a means for rapid comparison are available, these graphics will be between film imagery and an existing chart developed from digital processing which is or manuscript of the same area. Features more rigorous and accurate. In either of this system include: case, the largest scale routinely supportable is 1:100,000. A summary of the - film formats supported three image processing modes to be used at (35 mm & 70 mm both roll DMA and an estimate of relative processing & chip, 241 mm chip) times are given in figure 11. - backlighed, tetable table from 0 - 35 - rotation and magnification of film to match scale projection of chart mounted on table. - enlargement from 2X to 82X - metric accuracy to plus or minus 1 mm at chart scale

TABLE OF ESTIMATED RELATIVE PROCESSING PARAMETERS IN TIMEE ((ODES

Analog Mode Analog/Digital Mode Digital Mode Deliverables Deliverables Deliverables

1 2 I 3 I 4 1 2 1 j 4 1 2 1 3 1 4 Acquire imagery,analysis,quality, Acquire imagery,analysis,quality, Acquire CCT's,store on disk,determlne Preprocessing shallow water extent,film lob shallow water extent,film lab data . clean up . needed. ili3OTI. ._511111,Ort

Process 2 hours 2 hours 16 hours Tube 1-10 dope 1-10 days 2 weeks - 4 months

Main Processing CAV, 14SP/V CAV, MSP/V, AIMAS, Contract AIMS, DIPS, Contract

16 hrs 50 lies 50 hrs Pr 00055 20 hrs El hrs N/A 12 hrs 8 hrs / 2 wks Tube 4 days 2 days N/A N/A 7 days 3 days 2 deys 3 days qua ity 1 I N/A N/A 2 2 2 3 3

Deliverables Processing based on 1-1nterpreted Overlay (geometry, regist ation, level of deta I) 1 Iwndsat sorte 2-Residual Overlay 3-8est 1-Imagery (Earth Sot type) 2-Good 4-Color Coded Doter Depth 1-Acceptable *-Applicon plotter lwk/scene 512 x 512 - 40/scene - 10 min plot, 40 min create tape

CAV - Color Additive Viewer MSP/V - Multiscale Projector/Viewer AIMAS - Automated Image Manipulation/Analysis System DIPS - Digital Image Processing System Figure 11 147 CONCLUSION REFERENCES The major thrust of this 1. DMAHTC, "Graphics Derived from Landsat project was to demonstrate Landsat imagery Imagery as an Aid to Hydrographic enhancement techniques available in a Survey Planning", Code HYT, developed digital mode to extract hydrographic for a presentation to the U.S. Naval information in support of nautical Oceanographic Office, September charting and surveying operations. The 1982. combined set of graphics and the techniques used to create them should 2. Report on DIPS Makassar Processing, provide a firm framework for a standard set DMA,85 pages, July 1982. of processing parameters, enhancement techniques, and display formats to be 3. R. Reinhold, and B. Macrae, "Makassar developed for the production environment Straits Landsat Water Depth at DMA. Analysis", ERIM Report, April 1982. The thematic mapper (TM) in 4. DMAHTC, "Report on Status of Equipment Landsat 4 should be significantly more for Exploitation of Landsat Data", useful for hydrographic applications. The Code HYT, 30 pages, October 1981. spectral range and wavelength of the TM bands, which are better suited for shallow 5. DMAHTC, Statement of Work for contract water feature detection than MSS, combined award to Earth Satellite Corporation, with the improved spatial resolution of May 1981. Landsat 4 offer great promise to the DMA charting program. 6. DMAHTC, Statement of Work for contract award to the Environmental The application of remote Research Institute of Michigan, sensors, such as Landsat, airborne Februrary 1981. active/passive scanners and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), to hydrographic data collection represents a new and promising generation of technology that can and must be exploited to improve navigational safety for ocean travelers.

148 63° 48°

58°

48°

38°

63° 48°

FIGURE 2. Compilation of the free-air gravity anomaly off the east coast of Canada. Constructed from sea-surface data collected during multiparameter survey cruises 1964-1982. Contour interval: 20 mgal. Negative areas are stippled.

151 instruments. Mobilization of these ships for survey use therefore required considerable planning and innovation, particularly in the design and construction of 64° 64° portable laboratory modules for the conversion of cargo holds into equipment and work spaces. MANPOWER

Hydrographic and geophysical per- 56° 56° sonnel collaborate extensively in the mobilization and execution of multiparameter surveys. Program planning is carried out jointly: hydrographic and geophysical priorities are considered, and the availability of resources to commit to specific projects is reviewed. In the field, geophysicists are outnumbered by 48° hydrographers, who assume responsibility 48° for the day to day running of the survey operation. This includes ship conning, the operation of navigation systems and most survey instrumentation, and routine data processing. Geophysicists are usually represented by a small staff charged with specialized tasks in maintenance, training, or the occasional operation of 40° 40° complex systems such as seismic reflection equipment. 64° 56° 48° NAVIGATION FIGURE 3. Loran-C coverage diagram. The shaded areas indicate where Loran-C sig- Precise positioning is a prere- nals are too weak for mapping operations, quisite for the accurate definition of sea or where estimated positioning errors in floor topography and marine potential the rho-rho mode exceed 200 m at the 68% fields. Point observations of water confidence level. These constraints apply depth, gravity, and magnetics must there- to the use of BIONAV in this region. fore be accompanied by reliable determina- Adapted from Grant, 1973. tions of the ship's coordinates on the surface of the earth. An additional requirement peculiar to the measurement of seagoing receiver is maintained by a pre- gravity at sea is to know the ship's cise atomic clock aboard ship. This clock course to within one half of a degree, and tends to drift, but drift rates can be the speed to within one tenth of a knot. derived from an analysis of NNSS fixes. These parameters are required to calculate corrections for the Eotvos effect, which The entire procedure is automated is an apparent change in gravity that is in BIONAV, an integrated system that com- sensed by a measuring device installed in bines input from a variety of navigation a moving vessel. sensors, including log and gyro, to produce the best possible fix (Wells and In the early years of the multi- Grant, 1981). As a computer controlled parameter survey program, ship positioning system, BIONAV stores fixes in digital was accomplished largely through use of form and can display ship's positions in a Low-Ambiguity Decca (Lambda) operating in variety of ways, depending on user needs. the range-range mode. With a well cali- On multiparameter surveys, fixes are writ- brated chain, Lambda yielded positional ten to a video display once a minute; accuracies in the order of 50-150 m, and these are plotted manually every ten min- ranges of up to 300 nautical miles were utes by hydrographic watchkeepers who try possible under good conditions. The Gulf to keep the ship on a pre-defined track, of St. Lawrence, the Grand Banks of New- and who must exercise considerable care in foundland, and the South Labrador Sea were calling for course and speed adjustments mapped with Lambda. that have minimal effect on underway gravity measurements. In 1974, the primary positioning method was switched from Lambda to a com- With the combined input of NNSS bination of Loran-C and the Navy Navi- and the North Atlantic Loran-C chain, it gation Satellite System (NNSS). Loran-C is estimated that BIONAV can yield ship's is used in the rho-rho mode, which is a positions to an accuracy of plus or minus triangulation technique based on measured 200 metres anywhere in most parts of the transmission times from two or more shore offshore area extending from the Bay of stations to the ship. Synchronization Fundy to Hudson Strait (Figure 3). From between the shore transmitters and the the northern part of the Labrador Sea 152 coque a été renforcée pour navigeur dans MULTIPARAMETER SURVEYS IN THE OFFSHORE: les glaces et qui est équipé d'un écho- BROADENING THE DIMENSIONS OF HYDROGRAPHY. sondeur d'appareils de navigation et de matériel informatique peut coûter jusqu'à Ron Macnab $25,000 par jour; pour un supplément d'à peine $2,000 par jour, on peut y ajouter Atlantic Geoscience Centre un gravimètre et un magnétomètre. Dartmouth, Nova Scotia Depuis le lancement du programme, un total de 31 expéditions ont permis de ABSTRACT recueillir des données hydrographiques et géophysiques sur près d'un demi-million de kilomètres. Ces données sont publiées For nearly two decades, the Cana- sous diverses formes et elles servent aux dian Hydrographic Service has collaborated études qui décrivent l'histoire et les with elements of the Department of Energy, caractéristiques de la partie immergée du Mines and Resources in the conduct of continent canadien et des fonds océaniques multiparameter surveys in offshore waters. adjacents. These surveys have expanded the hydrographer's traditional role of measuring water Les hydrographes et le géophysi- depth to include the measurement of marine ciens vot poursuivre leur collaboration gravity, magnetics and sediment thickness pendant quelque temps encore. Ils ont Combined operations have significantly en- prévu d'effectuer conjointement des levés hanced our capacity to gather information en vue d'accroître méthodiquement la with only a modest increase in cost. For densité des mesures au Sud de la Nouvelle- instance, a typical ice-reinforced vessel Ecosse et de Terre-Neuve; par ailleurs, equipped with echo sounder, navigation la baie Baffin sera cartographiée lorsque equipment, and computer facilities can des systèmes de navigation appropriés et cost upwards of $25,000 daily; the capa- abordables seront disponibles. En outre, city for measuring gravity and magnetics on peut escompter que la préparation de la can be added for as little as $2,000 per convention du droit de la mer aura de day. grandes répercussions pour ces activités, car il faudra réaliser des levés détaillés Since the inception of the pro- pour déterminer les frontières au large gram, a total of 31 survey cruises have des côtes. gathered hydrographic and geophysical data on nearly a half millon line kilometres. WHY COMBINED OPERATIONS? These data are published in a variety of forms, and contribute to studies that describe the history and characteristics of At least four costly components the submerged part of the Canadian land- are required in the mobilization of off- mass and of the adjacent sea floor. shore hydrographic surveys:ships, people, navigation systems, and data gathering in- Hydrographers and geophysicists strumentation. It is often feasible to in- will be collaborating for some time to crease the effectiveness of these expensive come. Future plans for joint surveys call resources by applying them to the collec- for the systematic densification of mea- tion of auxiliary data, particularly when surements south of Nova Scotia and New- compatible measurement techniques are in- foundland; Baffin Bay will be mapped when volved. Clearly, combined data gathering adequate and affordable navigation systems operations can be much cheaper than sepa- are available. In addition, a major im- rate operations; of perhaps greater impor- pact can be expected from the Draft Conven- tance, they often provide an opportunity tion of the Law of the Sea, which will im- to do work that might otherwise never be pose a need for extensive surveys aimed at contemplated. defining offshore boundaries. A good illustration of the bene , fits of combined operations is the multi- RÉSUMÉ parameter survey program off the Canadian east coast. The objective of this project, begun in 1964 at the Bedford Institute of Depuis près de 20 ans, le Service Oceanography (BIO), is the hydrographic hydrographique du Canada collabore avec des and geophysical mapping of the continental services du ministère de l'Energie, des shelves of Canada, and the adjacent deep- Mines et des Ressources à la réalisation sea basins. de levés multiparamétriques au large des côtes. Dans le cadre de ces levés, le The project started out under rôle traditionnel de l'hydrographe a été purely hydrographic auspices, i.e. to pro- élargi et il mesure non seulement la provide better charts of the sea floor in re- fondeur de l'eau, mais encore la pesan- gions of interest to Canada. However, it teur, le champ magnétique et l'épaisseur didn't take long for geophysicists at BIO des sédiments. Moyennant une faible hausse to recognize that this undertaking repre- des coûts, le Service est ainsi parvenu à sented an ideal opportunity to embark on augmenter considérablement sa capacité de a long-range program of measuring gravity collecte de données grâce à ce opérations and magnetics in the same regions. combinées. Par exemple, un navire dont la 149 Beginning with a small trial sur- survey vessel that is capable of extended vey in the Bay of Fundy, hydrographers and cruises in remote and often ice-infested geophysicists have been partners in a col- offshore areas. This pays for a ship that laboration that has yielded some impres- is staffed and equipped for accurate navi- sive results. To date, most of the region gation and depth sounding. (The cost only extending from the Gulf of Maine in the covers the use of readily-available posi- south to Davis Strait in the north has tioning systems, i.e. NNSS and Loran-C, been surveyed at line spacings that range and not of systems that have to be espe- from twenty nautical miles down to one cially deployed for particular surveys.) nautical mile (Figure 1). In all, some The capacity to measure gravity and mag- thirty-one cruises have collected bathy- netics can be added simply, by providing metric, gravimetric, and magnetic data extra equipment and support manpower cos- over close to a half million line kilo- ting in the order of two thousand dollars metres. This has resulted in the creation a day. Thus the vessel's capability as a of an enormous data base that has many survey platform has been enhanced by a applications in studies of the sea floor factor of three, with an increase in cost and the oceanic crust (Figure 2). of less than ten percent. In terms of manpower utilization, the multiparameter survey program has been 80° 720 640 560 48 0 400 320 particularly effective because it has emphasized teamwork between people with r.GREENLAND •• 64° complementary skills. The essence of hydrography is field work: the methodical, disciplined surveys that collect the data • which go into the production of reliable charts. The thrust of geophysics, on the other hand, is interpretation: the reduc- <5N.M. tion and analysis of data in order to extract information that confirms or refutes 1111111110111111101011 5 N.M. a theory. Working in concert, hydrogra- 56° 56° io N.M. phers and geophysicists have therefore brought specialized aptitudes to bear in 20 N.M. their respective areas of expertise; the outcome has been a balanced effort that has made efficient use of human resources. Thus it has not been necessary to commit scarce manpower resources for the purposes 1 k of training and developing a cadre of 48° 1 0 0111 48° specialist geophysical surveyors. Nor has it been necessary to divert hydrographic field expertise into the theoretical realms of geophysics. SHIPS

A mix of Government-owned and 40° 40° chartered vessels have been deployed as survey platforms. Of the BIO fleet, the two ships that have been most used are CSS 64° 56° 48° BAFFIN and CSS HUDSON. Both are icebreak- FIGURE 1. Extent and density of multipara- ers with displacements approaching 5000 meter survey coverage from 1964 to 1982. tonnes. They can carry a scientific and Data consist of bathymetry, magnetics, survey complement of up to 25 (though in and gravity for the most part, with shal- practice the usual survey team rarely low seismic reflection in some areas. approaches that size). A smaller BIO ship, the CSS DAWSON, has also been used on occasion; it displaces 2700 tonnes, and has room for a complement of 13. Significantly, the geophysical measurements have been carried out at a During 1972-78, two smaller fraction of the cost of doing them inde- charter vessels were engaged: M/V MINNA pendently: the primary requirements were and M/V MARTIN KARLSEN, owned by Karlsen to equip hydrographic survey vessels with Shipping of Halifax. Both were in the geophysical instrumentation, to train 2500-3000 tonne displacement range, with hydrographic personnel in the routine op- room for 12 to 15 survey personnel. De- eration of this equipment, and to provide signed and constructed as ice-reinforced specialized staff to handle repair and cargo vessels, these ships didn't feature maintenance. ready-made and suitable space for drawing offices and laboratories. Nor did they A look at today's prices illus- provide much in the way of specialized trates the economy of this approach. At facilities such as stable electrical BIO, it costs about twenty-five thousand power, antenna mounts, echo sounding dollars a day to operate a hydrographic transducers, and arrangements for towing

150 through Davis Strait and into Baffin Bay, positioning accuracy is reduced signifi- NOV I ECHO I GRAVI- MAGNETO- SEI HIC cantly by factors that affect Loran-C per- SENSORS I SOUNDER I METER METER REFLECTION formance: weak signals, skywave interfer- 'BIONAV' 'BIODAL. ence, INTEGRATED DATA and excessive landpath. NAVIGATION SYSTEM LOGGER

Satisfactory Loran-C coverage can POSITIONS • POSITIONS EDITED ANALOG AND PROCESSED AND RAW GEOPHYSICAL RECORDS be extended by the use of auxiliary trans- SOUNDINGS SOUNDINGS DATA FILES AND TAPES SHW mitter stations installed temporarily at SHORE POST- CRUISE POST-CRUISE selected locations along the coast. In VERIFICATION 1980 and 1981, Davis Strait was mapped VERIFICATION with the aid of Accufix transmitters loca- woRmunlic GEOPHYSICAL ted at Saglek Bay and Brevoort IslanH. nnoslinTs DATA BASE

This approach yielded good results, but NATURAL GSC NAUTICAL BATHTMETRIC RESOURCE OTHER the mobilization and support of these CHARTS CHARTS MAPS OPEN FILE sites were difficult and expensive undertakings. Moreover, the rigours of the FIGURE 4. Generalized diagram showing the northern climate took their toll: in 1980, flow of multiparameter survey data aboard a major two-ship operation in Davis Strait ship and ashore. had to be cut short when the transmitter tower at Saglek collapsed on account of icing. Short of establishing a string of The primary logger for geophysi- expensive and vulnerable transmitters cal data is BIODAL - a hard-wired appara- along the coast of Baffin Island, it is tus developed and constructed at BIO a few not clear yet how to achieve accurate po- years ago. Its main purpose now is the sitioning for surveys in Baffin Bay. It recording of magnetometer and gravimeter was thought at one time that the U.S. output onto 9-track magnetic tape. "Navstar" Global Positioning System (GPS) might eventually provide a navigational Bathymetric data are not now capability in the region, but full deploy- automatically logged in computer readable ment is not expected until later in the form, because of past difficulties in the decade. More importantly, it appears that real-time digitizing of deep soundings. non-military users may be denied access to Instead, the sounding display is scaled the precise GPS code that is required for manually, and the readings are entered the calculation of accurate fixes. through the BIONAV keyboard for merging with the navigational data. Field trials SURVEY INSTRUMENTATION are scheduled to investigate methods of further automating this process.

Most of this instrumentation con- All basic survey data i.e. water sists of standard products that are com- depth, total magnetic field, and gravi- mercially available. Water depth is nor- meter output, are displayed and saved on mally measured with a12 kHz hull- or ram- strip chart records. Auxiliary seismic mounted transducer connected to a trans- data are also displayed and saved on strip ceiver and recorder. Total magnetic field chart records, in addition to being recor- is measured with a proton precession mag- ded in analog form on magnetic tape. netometer connected to a sensor towed some 200 metres astern of the ship. Gravity Aboard ship, the bathymetric and data have for the most part been collected potential field data are processed on a with Graf-Askania model GSS-2 or standard minicomputer. The processing serves three LaCoste and Romberg sea gravimeters. purposes: initial quality control, data display for verification and survey plan- On some cruises, sediment thick- ning, and creation of digital files for ness has been mapped with the aid of a archiving and further processing ashore. simple seismic reflection system consisting of an airgun, a single-channel hydro- Separate software packages are phone streamer, and a mix of associated used to process hydrographic and geophysi- equipment that has been built or bought. cal data. The reasons for separate soft- Hull-mounted or towed 3.5 kHz sounding ware are partly historical and partly systems have been operated on a trial practical: computer programs for hydro- basis on some surveys, to evaluate their graphic and geophysical processing have potential for systematic mapping of shal- evolved independently and in modular fash- low sediments. Sidescan sonar and the ion to perform specialized data handling Huntec Deep Tow System have also been tasks; they have been implemented to be deployed on occasion. equally applicable to single-purpose missions, i.e. surveys that are exclusive- SHIPBOARD DATA LOGGING AND PRESSING ly hydrographic or geophysical. Under these circumstances, we have not considered it particularly worthwhile to homo- The upper part of Figure 4 shows genize our data processing operations into the general flow of data through the dif- one set of interlocking programs. However ferent stages of acquisition and proces- we are committed to the use of common sing in the field. software modules for all future applica- 153 tions development, particularly in the area of graphics display. We have also 80° 72° 64° 56° 48° 40° 32° attempted to facilitate the exchange of " • 64° reb,J 64° common information such as fixes and )110111. j • r.GREENLAND:.; — e • • . soundings by specifying formats that make ' id.. the data accessible to both sets of Kitte emus software. V elnaill11111111 For hydrographic purposes, bathy- trill«1111f111. metric data are corrected in the field for et" 111E11111111 sound velocity, transducer depth, and tide Wed MUM. where appropriate. This is in keeping 56° vellallMer 56° with the requirement to produce accurate 11111111M charts for navigation and for the precise um representation of seafloor topography. genignila PreegentMagi■a n Processing of potential field data at this stage consists of: conversion erso ma of gravimeter output to milligals, with fterefflear.-M1--w correction for Eotvos effect; derivation ,1118 48° &%11 ,„„,,,atelm 48° of magnetic anomalies with reference to exe«411111111rilanpsw the International Geomagnetic Reference 7111111111116MeA ‘•„ ''", Field; and merging with raw bathymetric .e4M/91111111112g1•4111..... Wallin data. Corrections for gravimeter drift eaniiillallimaiii101 and magnetic diurnal variation are only 011111111111111nab- mma applied during post-cruise processing, if 11111M3011 applied at all. ....- Bum trigiamime.einm The processed output for both 40° 1edisnamm 40° bathymetric and potential field data consists of listings, profile plots, track plots, postings, and digital files on 64° 56° 48° magnetic tape or disc. FIGURE 5. Arrangement of Natural Resource POST-PROCESSING AND DISPOSITION OF DATA Maps off the Canadian East Coast. Shaded areas indicate where geophysical data have been published. Adapted from Canadian When a survey cruise is over, Hydrographie Service, 1981. data are brought ashore for final processing and merging with previously collected data. As outlined in the lower part of Data released directly to the public may Figure 4, bathymetric and geophysical data appear in several different forms. Two are handled separately. formal map series - the Natural Resource Map (NRM) series and the National Earth Hydrographic data are further Science Series (NESS) - portray bathyme- verified for accuracy, and then are ma- try, gravity, and magnetics at scales of chine plotted to create final field 1:250,000, 1:1,000,000, and 1:2,000,000. sheets. These sheets are the primary Bathymetric data are also represented in input for the production of a variety of GEBCO sheets 5.04 and 5.08 at a scale of navigation and bathymetric charts. (Navi- 1:10,000,000. Special compilations exist gation charts are intended principally for in a number of non-series maps produced at mariners concerned with the plotting of various scales (Canadian Hydrographie routes and the safety of passage; bathy- Service, 1981). metric charts are intended for those interested in seafloor topography, such as All of the above maps are pub- fishermen, mining and oil companies, lished by various agencies of the Canadian dredging contractors, pipeline and cable- Government. Preliminary contour maps that laying engineers, etc.) depict hydrographie or geophysical data are periodically released through the open Geophysical data are turned over files of the Geological Survey of Canada to personnel of the Atlantic Geoscience (e.g. Hunter, Shih, and Macnab, 1982). Centre (A0C) for similar verification, Depending on the purpose for which they followed by entry to a computer-based were produced, these maps may not conform archival/retrieval system. Data can then to the format and scale conventions of the be extracted in a variety of forms, de- formally-published maps. pending on the use to which it will be put, be it in-house scientific interpre- Generally, geophysical data that tation or public release: contour maps, have been made public in the form of con- profile plots, digital files, etc. tour maps are also released in the form of digital files on magnetic tape, so that In reports on scientific inves- users may apply their own processing tigations, the geophysical data most often techniques. appear as part of regional compilation maps (e.g. Haworth and MacIntyre, 1975; Figures 5 and 6 outline the areas Keen and Hyndman, 1979; Srivastava, 1978). for which geophysical data have been pub- 154 shelf" of a coastal state which, for purposes of the Convention, also encompasses the continental slope and rise. The sea- ward limits of this "continental shelf", and hence of the coastal state, are specified by geological and morphological parameters, e.g. thickness of sedimentary rocks and change in sea floor gradient. The full implications of this Article have yet to unfold, and will probably require the efforts of a generation or so of maritime jurists to unravel. It is clear also that a lot of detailed mapping work will be necessary to justify territorial claims and to resolve contentious areas. We in Canada have already done some work. However, much remains to be done to attain the level of understanding that will be necessary to define our new offshore boundaries. The private sector will no doubt be called in to perform some of this work, because it will involve the use of resources (e.g. multi channel seismics, long-range side scan sonar) that are not presently available within Govern- ment circles. Even so, much of the burden of data validation and interpretation will land on the shoulders of hydrographers and geophysicists who have been involved in offshore multiparameter surveys. 64° 56° 48° Clearly, there is a lot of sur- FIGURE 6. Areas covered by multiparameter veying left to do in the offshore. Hy- survey data released through the Open File of Canada. drographers and geophysicists will no system of the Geological Survey doubt continue to pool their skills and talents in the mapping of this large and important region. lished as Natural Resource Maps or released through open file, respectively. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Clearly, not all survey results have been released (compare with Figure 1). The biggest problem area is the Labrador Sea A long-lasting and wide-ranging gravity data, which consist of numerous project such as the one described here data sets collected over a long period of must obviously draw on the contributions time on different datums. A major effort of many participants: the hydrographers is underway to resolve the inconsistencies who organize and run the surveys; the between different surveys through careful ships' captains and crews; the specialized review and adjustment of all the data. support personnel at sea and ashore; and the cartographers who prepare quality maps WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE? for publication. Darrell Beaver and Keh-Gong Shih A look at Figure 1 shows that we provided the information used in creating need more detailed mapping to flesh out Figures 1 and 2. Members of the BIO the regional surveys south of Newfoundland Drafting & Illustrations and Photography and Nova Scotia. Surveying in this area Sections produced the figures. poses few logistical or environmental problems; the job will probably be finished over the next few years through a succession of cruises scheduled near the end of each year's field season. Farther north, Baffin Bay is virtually unsurveyed to modern standards. As already mentioned, mapping in this region is not expected to get underway until a suitable - and affordable - navigation system is available. A new slant on offshore surveying has been provided by the recently promul- gated Draft Convention on the Law of the Sea. Article 76 of the Convention contains a definition of the "continental 155 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Canadian Hydrographic Service. 1981. Catalogue of geoscientific publications; Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa. Grant, S.T. 1973. Rho-rho Loran-C combined with satellite navigation for offshore surveys; International Hydrographic Review, v. 50, p. 35-54. Haworth, R.T., and MacIntyre, J.B. 1975. The gravity and magnetic field of Atlantic Offshore Canada; Canadian Hydrographic Service, Marine Sciences Paper 16/Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 75-9. Hunter, C., Shih, K.G., and Macnab, R. 1982. A compilation of marine magnetometer data from the Southwest Labrador Sea; Geological Survey of Canada,Open File 850. Keen, C.E., and Hyndman, R.D. 1979. Geophysical review of the continental margins of eastern and western Canada; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 16, p. 712-747. Srivastava, S.P. 1978. Evolution of the Labrador Sea and its bearing on the early evolution of the North Atlantic; Royal Astronomical Society, Geophysical Journal, v. 52, p. 313-357. Wells, D.E., and Grant, S.T. 1981. An adaptable integrated navigation system: BIONAV; Proceedings of Colloquium III on petroleum mapping and surveys in the 80's; The Canadian Petroleum Association, Banff, Alberta.

156 tissage. Les enfants se servent d'ordinateurs à l'école tous les jours, et l'ordinateur personnel devient de moins en moins l'exception mais plutôt chose AUTOMATION TODAY - courante. SCRATCHING THE TWENTY-ONE YEAR ITCH Cependant, pour l'hydrographe, George Macdonald l'ordinateur semble souvent encombrer la Canadian Hydrographic Service productivité. Les vilaines expériences Burlington, Ontario avec les premiers systèmes ont suscité CANADA un certain scepticisme et une répugnance à essayer les systèmes de la prochaine ABSTRACT génération. Les techniques d'analyse des données hydrographiques ont été relativement stables, mais après vingt-et-un ans For twenty-one years the Canadian d'essais moins de vingt pour cent des Hydrographic Service has used computers to collect or process hydrographic data. levés hydrographiques sont automatisés Early attempts to use computers in the au Canada. Pourquoi alors automatiser? field were not well accepted because logging methods were not dependable, sound- Cette communication tente d'ana- ing data contained errors, processing lyser la justification des efforts dé- methods were slow and cumbersome, and ployés en vue de l'automation de la equipment was large and heavy. Recent collecte et de l'analyse des données low-cost, mass-produced, small, easy- hydrographiques, tout en critiquant par- to-use computers have had an impact on fois les techniques présentes qui pour- automation from the space race to the raient être améliorées. La communication automotive industry, from banking to wea- traite également d'autres méthodes des- ving. Children use computers every day tinées à intégrer les systèmes automa- in schools, and a home computer is becom- tisés dans les levés hydrographiques ing less the exception and more the rule. actuels.

Still, for the hydrographer, the computer has often appeared to stand in INTRODUCTION the way of productivity. Experiences with early systems may have led to scep- Nothing worthwhile is ever easy. ticism and a reluctance to try the next From the moment someone has a vision to generation of hardware. Software process- the moment that vision is brought to ing techniques have been relatively sta- fruition, there is a long hard road to ble, but after twenty-one years of try- be travelled, involving many individuals ing, less than twenty per-cent of the and organizations, each with an idea or hydrographic surveys being conducted in ideal that varies from the others to Canada today are automated. So why auto- some degree. With luck and good planning mate? the final product will incorporate all the good ideas, eliminate the bad ones, This paper attempts to analyze and be useful to those it was designed the. rationale behind efforts to automate for in the first place. hydrographic data collecting and processing techniques, while taking a critical look at the existing automation scheme. Accepting a new idea does not Some thoughts on assimilating automated come easy either. When a hydrographer knows a system works, and it has systems into present hydrographic field been programs are offered. refined over the years and developed in- to an art, then why rock the boat? In the year of our Hydrographic Service 3 RÉSUM B.C. (Before Computers), Gregorian calen- dar year 1959, there were still harbour Depuis déjà vingt-et-un ans, le authorities in some parts of North Service hydrographique du Canada utilise America ttat would not accept depths re- l'ordinateur pour l'analyse des données corded on an echo sounder. Line and they reasoned, were the sure hydrographiques. Les premières utilisa- lead, only tions d'ordinateur sur le terrain ont way to prove that the recorded depth was été mal reçues parce que les méthodes the true one. Old ways and old ideas die d'acquisition n'étaient pas dignes de hard. confiance, les données de profondeur con- tenaient des erreurs, les méthodes It is now, in the year of our d'analyse des données étaient lentes et Hydrographic Service, 22 A.D. (After complexes, et l'équipement même était Digital). Twenty-one years ago the Cana- trop gros et lourd. Les quantités de dian Hydrographic Service first used a petits ordinateurs récents, qui sont fa- computer to plot depths. In those ciles à utiliser et qui coûtent peu, ont twenty-one years, there have been a lot exercé une influence sur l'automation, of good men with good ideas, who worked de la course spatiale à l'industrie auto- long and hard to adapt the computer to mobile, de l'industrie bancaire jusqu'au hydrog ,-aphic applications. The term

157 automation was introduced. That scared back was that the hydrographer was never some hydrographers because they thought sure that, when he tried to process the it meant the computer was going to take recorded data, there would be any data over their jobs. What would mortal man there to process. Even so, the system be left with? Could he stand being slave was used successfully on production to an electronic wizard and a row of surveys, thanks to a few hard-working, blinking lights? It took a while before single-minded hydrographers and elec- hydrographers realized that computer- tronics technicians, who's dedicated and assisted was a more appropriate term, . stubborn attitude made the system work. and that these assistants were under his However, it was never accepted as a via- control, not the other way around. ble alternative by most hydrographers.

Today, computers are part of A computer first made its way everyday life. Sons and daughters use on board a Canadian survey launch in them at school and come home to show 1974, where it was used to filter depths their parents how to program them. A and positions before they were recorded. computer prepares the bank statement and It also checked to make sure the data the charge card bill. Basic trades like were being recorded properly, and it weaving use computers to work out the provided a straight-line navigation and warp and weave of intricate patterns line-keeping capability. The equipment that often took years for an artisan to was still big and heavy and drew a lot design. A majority of hydrographers proof power. Cartridge tape recorders were bably have a microchip strapped to their not very dependable, but the system was wrist. Nearly every piece of electronic used to log hydrographic data until 1981 gear that is purchased today has a and to process data until 1982. microprocessor built in, from the stereo receivers and microwave ovens that sit In 1977 the first micro- on the shelf at home, to positioning processor was used to acquire data and systems, sounders and depth digitizers provide straight-line navigation on that are used at work. My motorcycle, board a survey launch. This reduced the about as basic a mode of motorized tran- size, weight and power requirements sport as there is, has two microchips. considerably and improved dependability One monitors the head light, tail light, significantly through solid-state tech- coolant level, battery level, gas level nology. This system and systems like it and oil pressure, and reports any mal- are still being used today, even on man- functions on a liquid crystal display. ual surveys, for the line-keeping feat- The other senses speed and steering axis ures alone. Hydrographers are beginning rotation and duration, just so it can to accept the computer assistant, when shut off the turn signal after complet- it provides obvious and immediate bene- ing a turn. fits.

In a world where robotics have It was not until 1981 that a taken over the auto industry in Japan breakthrough in field recorders was and space shuttle voyages are becoming made. Tape recorders have always worked an ordinary media event, why, for the fine on board the larger survey vessels average hydrographer, does the computer where the environment is somewhat con- assistant appear to stand in the way of trolled, but have never been dependable productivity? on small survey launches where shock, vibration, temperature and humidity cause problems. In 1981, hydrographie THE COMPUTER data were recorded on prototype bubble memory recorders. Bubble memory is a Early experiences with com- solid-state, non-volatile, recording puters in the field began in 1962 when medium that costs more than tape, but is an automatic plotting system was used on more dependable in two ways. The hard- board CSS BAFFIN. It was billed as the ware is reliable because there are no system to plot depth information direct- Moving parts, and data integrity is ly onto a chart, but it had many prob- virtually guaranteed. lems and never made it to the production stage. The total system weighed 1 1/2 Field processors are getting tons and the deck structure had to be physically smaller, with larger memories reinforced to support it. In 1969, dig- and larger data storage devices. They ital soundings were first recorded on are also a lot easier to use than the board a survey launch and processed by early versions. Just turn them on, enter computer back at base. A lot of work was time and date, and the computer is ready done towards selecting depths from re- to accept a command. This is a far cry corded data, for plotting at survey from the system used in 1969. On that scale, so that the final product closely computer, a program had to be toggled in resembled the traditional field sheet. from front panel switches, so that a Problems with this system included its second program could be read in from large size, its weight, its high power paper tape. Finally, after reading a requirement and its undependable hard- third set of instructions, control of ware characteristics. But the real draw- the computer was possible through the

158 keyboard. Often this process had to be at and say, 'Yes, the computer has pro- tried two or three times before it work- duced a field sheet.' But this is not an ed properly. All this in only two racks end in itself, and it is not enough to full of equipment. Today, for a modest stop there. investment, all the power of a PDP-11, with a quarter megabyte of memory, eight Only a small portion of the interfaces and thirty-one megabytes of surveys have been automated over the disc storage, is available in a video last twenty-one years. In 1982 less than terminal and 5 1/4 inches of rack space. one-quarter of the hydrographie surveys in Canada used computer-assisted techniques. THE SURVEYS

The surveys of any hydro- THE RATIONALE graphie organization are generally quite diversified. Large scale harbour plans, Some hydrographers see automa- medium scale nearshore surveys and small tion as a method of eliminating most, if scale offshore surveys are done in each not all, human participation. I can nev- region of the Canadian Hydrographic Ser- er see this taking place because there vice. Some factors may differ from re- are many decisions that require the gion to region, such as depth, bottom training and instinct of a hydrographer, roughness, tides, positioning needs or and these decisions should not be left even ice cover, that make regional sur- to a computer. There are many things a vey requirements unique. Survey vessels hydrographer can observe and note that a range from six metre open boats, to ale- computer could never monitor, let alone yen metre launches, to ships thirty met- record. One of the benefits of utilizing res to one hundred metres in length. a computer for data acquisition, data filtering and line-keeping, is that it For automation to be a reason- gives the hydrographer more time to look able alternative to present manual tech- around him and devote his time to the niques of collecting and processing hyd- other important aspects of the job. rographie data, an automated system must be useful on any survey. While automated This paper was originally systems may have been successful on titled 'Why Automate?', but it was board large survey vessels doing medium changed because it could possibly be and small-scale offshore surveys, they construed as having a negative conno- have yet to demonstrate enough versatil- tation. Once hydrographers understand ity to handle other regular jobs such as automation as the utilization of a inshore surveys and large scale harbour computer assistant, then the question surveys. Indeed, there was a time when asked in the original title is important it looked as though the survey might and the answers significant. What are have been chosen to fit the automated the advantages of automation? First of equipment, when the reverse should all, just admitting that there are ad- always be the case. Logging and pro- vantages does not mean that each attempt cessing systems must be versatile enough at automation will achieve the specified to be useful on large scale surveys goals. Proponents cite accuracy, effic- where one metre position accuracy and iency and quality as the basic improve- recorded fixes more often than once a ments. Time and money are saved, and second are imperative. The same system chart compilation is enhanced. Purport- should be useful on small scale surveys ed disadvantages of automated systems where depths every second are not nec- are that equipment may be expensive, essary, but positions from two position- equipment failures cost time, the final ing systems may be required. product as it stands today does not make the chart compilers task any easier and There are different levels of hydrographers seem to be doing just fine automation to consider as well. Are without automation. It would appear as hydrographers satisfied with producing a if the better is the enemy of the good. graphic product? Most of them are, and Well, nobody said it was going to be most cartographers prefer to use that easy. graphic, the field sheet, to produce the chart. The graphic may contain shore- The survey vessel must go out line, contours, bottom samples or even and collect data whether manual or depths that are manually added to a computer-assisted techniques are used. sheet of computer-selected and computer- So there does not appear to be an drawn soundings. This stage in the his- advantage to automation here. Or does tory of the field sheet serves a useful there? The computer can help keep the purpose. It introduces the hydrographer vessel on-line and help reduce the need to computer logging and processing tech- for interlines and restarting a line, it niques, while allowing him to produce a can help get the vessel to and from the product with which he is both familiar survey area, it can collect and store and secure. The challenge thirteen years depths and positions and it can check ago was to use the computer to produce a them to ensure they are valid. Clearly, document that a hydrographer could look there is an advantage to automation in

159 improved efficiency. Accuracy is also sheets. Although the hydrographer will improved. If each depth has a corres- be the primary user, other mapping agen- ponding position, and data are recorded cies, oil companies and construction automatically, estimates of straight engineers are all possible customers. lines and constant speeds between fixes The chart compiler will potentially reap are no longer necessary. the most benefit when he starts to integrate digitally recorded field data into What about cost? The equipment the navigation chart. As hydrographers required to log digital depth and pos- collect and process digital data they ition data may cost upwards of 25,000 must have these customers in mind. dollars per installation. Compared with the cost of depth sounders, positioning Computer-assisted cartography systems and survey vessels this is a is a reality. Although it is possible to small amount, but significant just the justify field loggers and processors same. Processing systems may cost 50,000 because of efficiency increases, cost dollars or more, but only one system is decreases and accuracy improvements, required for each survey. The potential hydrographers must always be aware that saving in man-hours of scaling, reduc- the chart, not the field sheet, is the ing and inking soundings over the years final product. Data collected and pro- is enormous. It is difficult to put a cessed digitally in the field should be price tag on these improvements. directly usable in the chart-making process. This may all seem repetitive. Other people besides myself have said it As it stands today, the pro- before. So the reader may wonder 'Why is cessed digital data are not useful to he saying it all again?' Well, as long the cartographer. The data consist of as people are still asking the quest- files containing depths and their ass- ions, they need to be answered. One ociated positions that, when plotted at question I have neglected to pose is, survey scale, do not make a lot of sense 'Does automation reduce the number of until contours, shoreline, bottom sam- personnel?' I think it has been shown ples and the rest are added to the plot that the number of personnel is not re- manually. The cartographer cannot use duced significantly, no matter what the this digital information directly. He original design engineers may have told uses a graphic document to compile his hydrographers. However, training needs, chart and then digitizes the compil- job duties, and work hours may be chang- ation. ing. There are efforts underway to The arguments for and against improve the situation, by producing a automation indicate that the question contour-format digital field sheet that 'Why automate?' is an important one. An can be used directly by the compiler in even more important question, once the the chart-making process. This will not decision to automate is made, is 'How only make the vision of a totally dig- should a hydrographie organization go ital field sheet a realistic one, but it about it?' will allow the cartographer to consider a new chart format using electronic It would be nice to buy an video displays instead of a paper chart. off-the-shelf system that has been de- The information needed to change the bugged and proven by other hydrographic display format will be available from agencies. If there is no system avail- the digital contour field sheet, and able that satisfies the requirement, will make adapting to the future that then it is a big task to put together a much easier. Once the needs of the workable system. Defining the require- cartographer have been met, accomm- ments of a system is a most important odating the needs of other potential fundamental task, and it cannot be left usera should be easy. to hardware engineers and software programmers. While they may develop the most unique, dep'endable and prettiest CONCLUSIONS box in the world, unless the hydrographer wants it and needs it, the Hydrography is a very special exercise has been futile. The hydro- case. It is difficult for a big company grapher must have a direct hand in the to develop and volume-produce field design, development and implementation logging and processing systems, with a of any system he will be expected to full range of software routines, for a use. If he feels he has a stake in it, small hydrographic market. This means he will work hard to make it a success. that hydrographic organizations may have to develop equipment and programs to meet a special need, in a field where THE FUTURE only hydrographers have the expertise to say what it is that needs to be develop- Digitally recorded depth and ed. That in itself is a 64,000 dollar position information is potentially use- question. To start with, in Canada alone ful for more than just making field there are four field offices, each deal- 160 ing with different needs due to a varia- produce a marketable product, which may tion of survey requirements. Compound be old technology by the time it gets that with the variety of equipment into the hands of the consumer. It will, available to do essentially the same however, satisfy an existing need and job; a multitude of computers, echo new systems will be developed in time to sounders, depth digitizers, data record- meet future demands. Development sec- ers, positioning systems and survey tions should not worry about producing platforms. On top of this, there are new equipment every time a new product slight philosophical differences that advancement is announced. A lot of time can mean different programming approach- must be spent in support of existing es to similar problems, resulting in a systems, including training, document- wide variety of programs and little ation and field trips to repair hardware control over how they work or what they or software and to offer advice or guid- do. Under these conditions a common ance. approach is difficult. This is a part, but only a small part, of the reason Management must actively, op- hydrographers have not fully accepted enly and enthusiastically support devel- the computer assistant. opment efforts. In particular, the use of automated systems on production sur- Developing specialized equip- veys should be encouraged as much as ment to meet a particular need is not possible. While automated equipment may difficult. It has been done many times not work perfectly the first time it is with HAAPS, INDAPS, PHAS and HYNAV. All used in a production environment, it of these systems have had their suce- should not interfer with production. esses and failures. Often the failures Hardware and software should already occurred because the hydrographer tried have undergone field tests prior to to use, or wanted to use, the equipment implementation. The hydrographer should to do something it was not designed to understand exactly what the software is do. There could be two reasons for this. doing, and he must be confident it is Either the equipment was not designed doing the job he wants it to do. Soft- properly to meet the needs of the user, ware may be sophisticated, but it should or the needs have changed. Sometimes it be easy to modify and simple to use. is a combination of both. Change is one of the most de- Ten years ago there was a ten- stabilizing elements of life, and auto- dency to use the computer in an attempt mation is one of the most feared words. to reproduce the manual product, and Failure to properly take into account this often caused more problems than it the human factor involved in implement- solved. If the product was not exactly ing and using new technology adversely like the hand-produced item, it was re- affects productivity. Hydrographers jected. Hardware and software designs should be encouraged to help make decis- were not always practical, partly be- ions concerning this implementation. As cause the state of the art equipment was the technology is demystified, fears are too heavy and drew too much power to use reduced and the chances of acceptance in a small launch, and partly because and success are increased. the hydrographer had very little input into the design. As size and power re- For twenty-one years the Can- quirements were reduced through advanced adian Hydrographie Service has been technology, systems became more prac- scratching the surface of automation, an tical for launch installations. Develop- itch that will not go away. Hydrograph- ment engineers were also giving hydro- ers have to face the fact that the com- graphers the opportunity to participate puter age is upon them. There is going in the design and implementation of to be some adjustment necessary, but it equipment and software that was, after should be as painless and productive as all, for their use. Attitudes towards possible. data processing have changed as well. Hydrographers are no longer trying to duplicate exactly with a new technology BIBLIOGRAPHY what is done so well with existing technology. This has led to a major innova- Canadian Hydrographie Service, Summary tion, the contour-format field sheet, of Proceedings of the Dominion which will tie the digital field product Hydrographers Second Conference, directly into the chart-making process, Ottawa, December 1962 and assist in making other innovative charting concepts a reality. Macdonald, G.,From A Cresting Wave To A Cresting Technology, International As time goes on, even succ- Hydrographie Review, July 1982 essful products become outdated. With the electronics field advancing the way Macdonald, G.,The Use of Microprocessors it is, there is no end in sight for for Track Control and Data Verifi- hydrographie development. There are cation on Hydrographie Surveys in development stages, though. Even big Canada, International Hydrographie companies have to stop developing and Review, January 1981

161 Macdonald, G.,Bubblebox, A Reliable Data Recorder For Hydrographic Surveys, LIGHTHOUSE, Special Edition, Pro- ceedings of the 20th Annual Can- adian Hydrographic Conference, April 1981

McClintock, G. and B. Fox,Is Bubble Mem- ory Getting Ready To Become The Storage Medium Of The 80's?, Canadian Datasystems, October 1982

Ritchie, G.S.,Hydrography, Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, LIGHTHOUSE, Special Edition, Proceedings of the 20th Annual Canadian Hydro- graphie Conference, April 1981

162 INTRODUCTION

Wars have a way of accelerat- ing the process of technological breakthrough, applications, and development. DR. DORSEY'S ELECTRONIC LEAD LINE - - It is a period when risk is endemic and THE U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY'S the risk taker has much to gain. Hydro- HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY ECHO SOUNDER graphy is one of the fields that has DEVELOPMENT 1924-1939 seen the benefits of just such periods.

Capt. C. William Hayes, NOAA Prior to World War I, physi- National Ocean Service cists from several countries were propos- National Oceanograhic and Atmospheric ing underwater echo ranging as a means Administration of averting disasters such as the TI- Rockville, Maryland TANIC's collision with an iceberg in U.S.A. April 1912. Notable among these was Rich- ardson, a British physicist, who proposed a method for emitting a sonic beam ABSTRACT from a ship for the detection of icebergs. Richardson and the others were hindered, however, by the lack of a sat- The development of the hydro- isfactory sonic transmitter. The war and graphic survey echo sounder by the U.S. the German U-Boat threat brought forth Coast and Geodetic Survey (USC&GS) was just such a device in Langevin's inven- the outgrowth of antisubmarine warfare tion of a piezo-electric oscilator. Dif- technology developed during World War ficulties were encountered with horizon- I. Today, the echo sounder is the back- tal ranging, many aspects of which have bone of hydrographic survey operations not been fully resolved to this day. worldwide. This paper is based on a Vertical depth soundings were a simpler long-forgotten file spanning the years matter, however, and certainly of grea- from 1924 to 1939, and the official ter interest to the hydrographer at the journals and documents of the USC&GS. time. Excerpts from the file are often humorous and historically enlightening. The technology involved is for the most This new technology greatly in- part primative by today's standards and terested the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Sur- is described briefly in that context. A vey (USC&GS) in the early 1920's for it most significant aspect is the coopera- offered a means of improving accuracy, tive relationship between industry and coverage, and above all, production in government which‘ achieved the objective the execution of hydrographic surveys. with minimal paperwork, specifications, Although pole and lead line soundings and contract squabbles. Oh, for the go- could be obtained underway with a reason- od old days. able degree of accuracy and efficiency, deep-sea wire soundings were slow and laborious at best. USC&GS operations en- RÉSUMÉ tailed an increasing amount of sounding work beyond 100- fathom depths, particularly off Alaska, Hawaii, and the Philip- La mise au point, par la U.S. pine Islands. These areas required the Coast and Geodetic Survey (USC&GS), de lowering of a deep-sea sounding lead on l'écho-sondeur pour les levés hydrogra- a piano wire. Wire soundings could take phiques fut l'un des aboutissements des hours, and would result in questionable recherches menées pendant la Première depths along with even more questionable Guerre mondiale, dans le domaine de la positions. The Survey's first use of an lutte anti-sous-marine. Aujourd'hui, echo sounder was a U.S. Navy Sonic Depth l'écho-sondeur est, dans le monde en- Finder operated during a trip from Nor- tier, l'instrument de base pour ce qui folk, Virginia, to San Diego, Cali- est des levés hydrographiques. La pré- fornia, by the USC&GS Ship GUIDE in sente étude s'inspire d'un dossier, de- 1923. Although the Navy echo sounder was puis longtemps oublié, sur la USC&GS, considered inadequate for hydrographie des années 1924 à 1939. Les techniques surveys, there was sufficient interest elles-mêmes sont demeurées primitives, in the technique to consider the pur- pour la plupart, et elles y sont décrit- chase of a unit which could be modified es brièvement. L'aspect le plus impor- to support survey operations. Thus, on tant est probablement la collaboration October 31, 1924, the Survey issued a entre l'industrie et la gouvernement, Request for Proposal for a "sounding ap- qui a permis d'atteindre l'objectif paratus for use in ocean surveying in avec un minimum de paperasserie, de spé- depths of 15 to 1,000 fathoms". The suc- cifications et de querelles au sujet cessful bidder on November 14, 1924, was des contrats. C'est en somme une rétro- Submarine Signal Corporation of Boston, spective nostalgiques. Massachusetts. The price was $7,245 including installation.

163

THE SUBMARINE SIGNAL FATHOMETER Grove Dorsey, under whose patent. Sub- marine Signal manufactured the Fathom- The contract called for a 90- eter. day delivery, but it would be over a year before the first "apparatus" was Dr. Dorsey was initially accepted. The first Submarine Signal approached in June 1926 with a descrip- Fathometer was installed on the USC&GS tion of the task and a mention that some Steamer LYDONIA in 1925. Two other amount of sea time would be involved. units were ordered that year for the Dr. Dorsey replied that he had applied SURVEYOR and DISCOVERER (not to be con- to the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) fused with present vessels by that for a position which entailed little or name). During that period, a number of no sea duty as he was prone to seasick- modifications and improvements were made ness but would take the offered position which were incorporated into the later for $500 per month. After some hag- production models. The added costs of gling, Dr. Dorsey was appointed on the development were borne by the September 15, 1926, at $5,200 per annum manufacturer, partly, it may be assumed, although he pointed out in his reports because of reduced manufacturing costs and correspondence for sometime thereof the production models and the pros- after that the position at NRL was pects of future sales, and partly by $5,400 per annum. Thus began 13 years Captain W. E. Parker's acceptance letter of development culminating in a record- of December 15, 1925, which cautioned ing echo sounder which would be the that "any departure from the original Survey's workhorse for nearly a quarter contract creates a situation which it of a century. may be difficult to explain to the Comptroller General." THE DORSEY FATHOMETER The flurry of correspondence in the spring of 1926 indicated that Dr. Dorsey began his work in development of the Fathometer was just earnest, often dealing directly with beginning. A host of gremlins were at peers at Submarine Signal. Although the work in the initial unit, with repeated hierarchy at both the Survey and the failures centered around the governor. company was obviously delighted with the They were progressively attributed to a progress being made, in January 1927 the fault relay, the rheostat, or the Survey pointed out to Submarine Signal circuitry. Shunts, condensers, re- that the Government could not take wiring, and shielding collectively responsibility for the various pieces of solved the reliability problem but not equipment which Dr. Dorsey was testing the persistent 12- and 25-fathom stray on the LYDONIA but would be happy to soundings being reported. Needless to continue the testing. Submarine Signal say, beam forming and side lobe suppres- replied that they were equally pleased sion were not at a high stage of with the results, pointing out that they development at this time. were not concerned with liability and had used the loan agreement simply for This first Fathometer used an accounting purposes. Thus, having both oscillator as a sound source and a gone on record, about liability and separate valve mounted through-hull loss, the bureau and the company unoffi- hydrophone receiver. Soundings were cially encouraged the arrangement. read by means of a light flash in a neon Development proceeded at a healthy pace tube mounted on a circular scale. In with soundings obtained reliably to May 1926, Submarine Signal developed a 1,500 fathoms and frequently to 2,600 tank-mounted hydrophone internal to the fathoms, well beyond the original hull and water flooded. This unit, specification of 1,000 fathoms. Al- which reduced hull noise and stray though Submarine Signal and Dr. Dorsey soundings, was installed on all three continued to refine the original Fathom- vessels then equipped with Fathometers. eter, the real development effort was being directed at a shoal-water unit to be used in obtaining soundings under 100 Dr. Dorsey Employed fathoms for inshore work.

The Survey was not totally satisfied with the Fathometer's perfor- Striker Type Fathometer mance but was very impressed with its potential. A decision was made to Initial work on the shoal increase the in-house capability to water instrument centered around a sound continue development. It should be source created by a mechanical striker. noted that Radio Acoustic Ranging was Development progressed from ship person- under development for position fixing nel rhythmically beating the hull with a during this same period, thus underwater hammer to the construction of an acoustics was of considerable interest. electro-mechanical striker. The ships The search for a senior electrical NATOMA and RANGER were outfitted with engineer to head the development effort the first manufactured 'units in the led to the appointment of Dr. Herbert summer of 1928. The deepest soundings

164 obtained were less than 55 fathoms and features we now expect in an echo reliable soundings were generally sounder short of digitizing were obtained only in less than 35 fathoms. incorporated in the specifications. Invitations to bid were sent to five companies, three in the United States, Dorsey Fathometer one in England and one in Canada. After some negotiation, the successful bidder In the Survey's in-house was again Submarine Signal. development of a shoal water echo sounder, two major changes were made to The portable recording echo previous techniques. First was the sounder developed under the contract was replacement of the governor with a tested and accepted in November 1939. tuning fork to drive and control a Designated the 808 Fathometer, it had a synchronous motor. The second change range of 2 feet to 160 fathoms, easily was the use of a magnetostrictive meeting the 3-foot to 90-fathom specifi- transducer to replace the oscillator and cation. The 808 was the standard shoal hydrophone. Fabricated in-house, the water echo sounder for the Survey from Dorsey Fathometer prototype was field its introduction in 1940 until phased tested during 1934. These tests were out in the mid-1960's. extremely successful, giving reliable depths to 150 fathoms. Since Submarine Signal held the rights to basic patents HISTORICAL NOTES on several of the features of the prototype, a contract was issued for The file on which much of this them to place the prototype in produc- paper is based contains some noteworthy tion. The contract was approved by the historical items such as international Secretary of Commerce in February 1935 interest in the United States develop- after receiving the review from his ment of the echo sounder, the debate solicitor who advised that he thought over what sound velocity echo sounders the sole source could be justified should be calibrated for, communica- although he hesitated "to predict the tions, and Government contracting. reaction of the Comptroller General." Thus, with this standard legal advice, production of the Dorsey Fathometer International Developments began. The London "Journal of Com- merce" in its March 12, 1928, issue THE SHOAL WATER DEPTH RECORDER noted United States developments in echo sounding and encouraged widespread use By 1938 the Survey had 14 for merchant vessels. The article years of experience with echo sounding. concluded that, "The power of taking As a matter of fact, these instruments very rapid soundings is of great service had been so thoroughly accepted in the in checking position, and it is to be field as to prompt the Acting Director hoped that our own marketers will soon of the Survey to state that, "These be able to satisfy the most careful (Fathometers) are giving such good shipowners," and complimented the USC&GS results in precision depth measurements in stating, "The U.S. surveying service that some of the Commanding Officers deserves the very highest credit feel that they cannot do hydrographic for.. .the experiments and the full surveying without one." The hydrog- reports that they are publishing for the rapher in the field wanted to lay aside benefit of the seafaring world." his lead line and pole (although both remain today) and the Commanding Officer Submarine Signal Fathometers wanted a permanent record so that he were successfully used on several could check the work of his launch European survey vessels from 1929 to parties. The Dorsey Fathometer, al- 1931. The Danish Royal Navy conducted though very reliable, had two drawbacks. Fathometer surveys off Iceland and It was not portable for use in launches Greenland with great success during and it did not provide a permanent 1929. The German Navy Ship EUROPA was graphic record. Thus, in December 1938 equipped in 1930. The Norwegian Naval a set of detailed specifications were Vessel NANSEN not only reported success developed for a "portable automatic- in Arctic surveying but the use of the recording depth sounder for use in Fathometer as a navigation tool to hydrographic surveying, which is capable resolve disparate radio bearings on of producing clear, accurate, legible, return to home port in heavy fog. and permanent records of depth when operated in a motor launch or other small boat...." The specifications Sound Velocity Standard described operating conditions, transducer type, beam or cone width, sounding During this period of accep- intervals, depth range, paper size, tance of the echo sounder as a survey interval and scale marks, power limita- tool by international hydrographers, the tions, etc. In other words, all of the issue was raised as to what standard

165 should be used for sound velocity in REFERENCES seawater. The debate was not as disparate as one might assume given the possibilities. USC&GS maintained that 1. Kunze, Dr. W. "General Aspects of it should be 800 fathoms per second Application of Horizontal Echo which would mean that nearly all correc- Sounding Method to Shipping" tions to echo soundings would be addi- The International Hydrographic tive, thus reducing the chance of Review, Vol. XXXIV, No. 2, blunders. The Germans maintained that November 1957. The article 1,500 meters per second was more nearly discusses both the Richardson the average for open ocean surveys and echo ranging proposal and the thus more nearly correct for Naval and Langevin piezoelectric merchant vessels which did not make oscillator. corrections. More likely, the debate involved a metric issue and the ease of 2. Dorsey, H.R. "The Dorsey Fathometer" using a round number, as one can readily Journal of the Washington see that 800 fathoms per second is Academy of Science, Vol. 25, approximately 1,463 meters per second No. 11, November 15, 1935. and 1,500 meters per second is approximately 820 fathoms per second. The 3. Field Engineers Bulletin, U.S. Coast Survey has used both 800 fathoms per and Geodetic Survey, second and 820 fathoms per second at Nos. 1-13, June 1930 various times and has used both during December 1939. some model changes in echo sounders. The latest instruments being purchased 4. Fathometer is a registered trade are calibrated for 800 fathoms per name of Raytheon Ocean Systems second (4,800 feet per second), and Company. The name was origi- 1,500 meters per second depending on the nally registered by Submarine sounding units selected. Signal Corporation before that company became a part of Raytheon. Communications and Contracting

Throughout this 15-year period, the files show that difficulties were being reported and resolved by correspondence between Washington, D.C., and Boston, Massachusetts, dated 1 to 3 days apart. This is almost impossible today even using Rapidfax equipment or express delivery. Today, one could hardly get a letter approved overnight, let alone delivered.

Contracting is the other area which has become more complex and its evolution is seen in the files over the 15-year period. The 1924 proposal was one page. The 1935 Dorsey Fathometer was to be built by copying the Govern- ment-provided prototype. The 1938 specifications for the 808 Fathometer were three pages and the acceptance test report was two pages. The DSF6000N dual beam echo sounder, being built by Raytheon Ocean Systems Company for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- istration and presently undergoing acceptance testing and evaluation, has specifications nearly an inch thick, and test and evaluation reports will undoubtedly run into volumes. I leave to the reader the question of whether some things have really improved.

166 UNE APPROCHE MÉTHODOLOGIQUE AUX Cartographie communication theory can RECHERCHES SUR LA CONCEPTION GRAPHIQUE provide an organized framework to initi- DES CARTES MARINES ate studies on improved chart encoding.

Roland Perrotte In the past, cartographers' Service hydrographique du Canada personal impressions and experience have Dartmouth, Nouvelle—Ecosse led the way in nautical chart design. Canada Such indirect research methods were lacking in objectivity. Betier ways must now be sought and an approach relying on RtSUMÉ objective chart evaluation should lead the way. Thus, practical measurement of Le besoin d'améliorer la repré- the reliability of proposed chart designs sentation graphique de la carte marine a must be achieved through systematic test- récemment été identifié. L'addition ing with subjects. The normal chart use cumulative de données diverses et conditions are then investigated and l'encombrement visuel résultant sont des simulated to measure the perceptual reac- exemples typiques de problèmes néces- tions of the users on specific problems sitant des études au niveau de la repré- needing investigation. Adoption of an sentation. Comme le démontrent certaines adequate methodology, hence, following recherches menées sur les carte aérien- closely the successive steps of scien- nes, le choix de solutions graphiques tific experimentation, can also bring the appropriées permet une meilleure com- marine cartographer to the realm of munication des diverses informations scientific research. nécessaires à la navigation. Des recherches sur l'encodage graphique devraient ainsi permettre d'optimiser le INTRODUCTION transfert de l'information du cartographe aux navigateurs et autres usagers. La Au cours des décennies le théorie de la communication cartographi- Service hydrographique du Canada a pro- que fournit un cadre bien structuré pour gressivement amélioré la qualité graphi- entreprendre de telles recherches. que de la carte marine. Le produit actuellement diffusé est d'une facture Dans le passé, la conception de très soignée. Les améliorations se sont la carte marine reposait sur les impres- succédées au cours des années, jusqu'à sions personnelles et l'expérience du l'adoption des normes adoptées pour la cartographe. Ces méthodes de recherche "Carte Nouvelle". Le calibre du dessin indirectes manquent malheureusement et de l'impression classe notre produc- d'objectivité. Il est préférable de tion dans un groupe de file au niveau rechercher des méthodes plus fiables et mondial. Parallèlement, les recherches d'adopter une approche basée sur l'éva- plus récentes sur l'usage de la carto- luation objective. Ainsi, l'efficacité graphie assistée par ordinateur vont bon de la représentation graphique proposée train. Le système en usage a graduelle- devrait être testée systématiquement en ment été rendu meilleur, et les consultant un certain nombre de sujets. développements anticipés pour un futur à moyen terme permettent un optimisme L'adoption d'un cadre méthodo- justifié. logique qui suit de près les étapes suc- cessives de la démarche scientifique aide Il faut cependant mentionner alors à justifier les choix du carto- que les recherches sur l'efficacité de la graphe marin. Ce dernier doit désormais carte marine en tant qu'instrument de se préoccuper de questions telles que la communication sont plutôt rares. Le perception visuelle du lecteur et les Canada n'accuse pourtant pas de retard conditions d'utilisation de la carte sur les autres pays; cette lacune semble marine. généralisée à l'échelle mondiale. Hormis une thèse sur la représentation ponc- tuelle des mesures de profondeur ABSTRACT (Stanley, 1973), ce n'est qu'en 1982 qu'une étude préliminaire sur l'effica- The need for improved nautical cité de la carte marine était publiée chart design has recently been identi- (Castner and McGrath, 1982). Le cen- fied. Cumulative addition of various tenaire du Service hydrographique du data and the resulting visual clutter are Canada incite à marquer un temps d'arrêt examples of actual problems calling for afin de réfléchir aux réalisations carto- studies in this field. As has been graphiques du passé et à prévoir le demonstrated in studies of aeronautical futur. L'utilité des recherches rela- charting, effective communication of tives à l'évaluation de la carte marine navigational information can be achieved devrait nous motiver à porter celles-ci through the choice of appropriate graphic au tableau des activités à promouvoir au solutions. Research on effective graphic cours des prochaines années. encoding should permit optimization of information transfer from the cartographer to the navigator and other users.

167 LA CARTE MARINE: INSTRUMENT DE donnée de la carte marine. Conséquem- COMMUNICATION DE L'INFORMATION ment, l'auteur hésite souvent entre plusieurs solutions. Celui-ci peut sor- Le cartographe chercheur est tir de l'impasse en mesurant soigneuse- toujours en quête d'approches suscep- ment l'efficacité respective de chaque tibles de l'aider à comprendre comment design envisagé. Cette procédure est l'utilisateur exploite l'information de plus valable qu'une décision basée sur le ses cartes. Le but ultime est évidemment choix personnel de l'auteur. d'en améliorer l'efficacité. La théorie de la communication semble offrir un Le modèle de communication cadre approprié pour organiser les cartographique aide à comprendre les efforts consacrés à cette fin. mécanismes de transfert de l'information au moyen de cartes. Il fournit aussi une La fonction de la carte marine approche épistémologique appropriée aux est de fournir au navigateur l'informa- recherches sur l'efficacité de la carte tion nécessaire à la navigation d'un marine. Les préoccupations qu'il a point à un autre en toute sécurité. La généré au cours de la dernière décennie transmission efficace de cette informa- soulignent la nécessité d'adopter des tion déterminera le degré de succès de stratégies de recherche plus méthodiques cette activité. L'intérêt actuellement pour la conception des cartes. Il suscité par les études de communication devient ainsi pertinent d'analyser les cartographique croît constamment. C'est types de recherche actuellement répandus le schéma de la communication de l'in- en cartographie. formation d'abord mis au point par Shannon et Weaver qui inspira par la suite les nombreuses tentatives de créa- TYPOLOGIE DES RECHERCHES EN CONCEPTION tion d'un modèle cartographique (Shannon CARTOGRAPHIQUE and Weaver, 1949). La version proposée à la figure 1 intègre les principales Le cartographe peut emprunter caractéristiques des modèles que nous diverses approches afin de mener à terme avons analysé. une recherche de conception cartographique. La classification de Robinson (1977) repose sur deux grandes caté- "Une situation ,. du monde réel gories. L'approche indirecte est très à cartographier subjective alors que l'approche directe montre la plupart du temps un souci pour des choix basés sur l'objectivité, mettant de côté les goûts personnels et les choix arbitraires du chercheur. Partie de CARTE: la situation _ Conception observée et Transcription de Meeliée graphique l'utilisateur L'approche indirecte

L'approche indirecte est carac- térisée par l'absence d'interaction avec Encodage opérations cartographiques: a sélection et généralisation les utilisateurs de la carte. On ne de l'information . symbolisation et dessin vérifie pas si le produit final est

Décodage lecture et interprétation efficace. La "conception empirique" est la mise au point de solutions graphiques basées sur les opinions personnelles, l'expérience et le bagage théorique du FIGURE 1. Un modèle général de communication cartographique. cartographe. Celui-ci ne peut fournir aucune preuve de la validité de la solution retenue. Cette procédure parfois Le point de départ du schéma qualifiée d'essai et erreur a été la pra- est une situation précise du monde tique générale au Service hydrographique réel: une portion de la mer en région du Canada jusqu'à présent. C'est aussi côtière serait un exemple approprié. de très loin la plus commune et la moins L'information à transmettre est relevée objective en conception cartographique. et transmise au navigateur au moyen de la carte marine. Les opérations d'encodage Des idées nouvelles viennent et de décodage de l'information agissent parfois des "adaptations de découvertes comme des filtres causant une réduction d'autres disciplines". Les résultats ou perte d'information à mesure qu'on se d'expériences ou les principes élaborés déplace vers la droite du modèle. Il dans d'autres disciplines sont appliqués faut donc minimiser cette perte en au design de la carte. Ces recherches mettant au point des méthodes de repré- n'ayant pas été menées dans un contexte sentation (codage) appropriées au type de cartographique, il est souvent hasardeux carte considéré. d'en étendre les conclusions à la conception de la carte. Celle-ci est une image Il n'existe pas de symbole complexe dont le lecteur a des préoccupa- graphique unique pour traduire visuelle- tions souvent différentes de celles qui ment une caractéristique ou une variante prévalent dans les expériences de ces disciplines connexes (colorimétrie,

168 psychologie, etc.). Les concepteurs de fication de Robinson. Dépassant le cartes marines ne semblent pas avoir premier temps de lecture et la perception puisé de ce côté. Bien que potentielle- visuelle, ce type d'étude tente d'expli- ment utile, cette procédure devient quer comment le lecteur acquiert, valable si de nouvelles mesures sont emmagasine, mémorise, organise et utilise prises en reproduisant l'expérience en ensuite l'information brute acquise à contexte cartographique selon und partir des éléments graphiques de la approche plus directe. carte. Les mécanismes cognitifs vont ainsi beaucoup plus loin que le simple input sensoriel étudié dans les recher- L'approche directe ches psychophysiques. Ils incluent la réflexion ainsi que l'élaboration Les recherches menées selon d'images mentales ou de répartitions l'approche directe sont basées sur une spatiales. Leur étude peut aider à mieux consultation des utilisateurs en vue de comprendre la carte et en faciliter la justifier les choix effectués au niveau conception. de la représentation cartographique. Déjà plus objectif que les recherches Le cartographe-hydrographe indirectes précédemment exposées, le devrait dorénavant exploiter le potentiel "recensement des réactions des utilisa- de l'approche directe et surtout des teurs" analyse les opinions d'une clien- trois derniers champs de recherche pré- tèle envers un produit. Axées sur les cédemment exposés. La carte marine peut catégories d'information de la carte certainement bénéficier d'un programme plutôt que sur la symbolisation, ce type fondé sur ces trois types de recherche. de recherche est souvent biaisé par les Ceux-ci reposent non seulement sur une conventions en place et les convictions consultation objective des navigateurs personnelles du lecteur. De telles mais s'inscrivent aussi dans un cadre recherches ont été menées par le Service méthodologique bien plus scientifique que hydrographique du Canada dans le passé les travaux de conception cartographique (Smith, 1976). Constituant un premier antérieurs des services hydrographiques pas vers le désir de consulter l'usager, nationaux. ces recherches ne mesurent pas l'effica- cité réelle de la carte. L'effort était louable car les conclusions ne sont plus ADOPTION D'UN CADRE MÉTHODOLOGIQUE ET basées que sur les seules idées du carto- PROPOSITION D'UN CHEMINEMENT POUR LES graphe. Il faut néanmoins aller plus RECHERCHES SUR LA CONCEPTION GRAPHIQUE DE loin et franchir un autre pas vers LA CARTE MARINE l'objectivité en évitant ce simple vote. L'étude des cartes au travers Les trois types de recherche des trois méthodes qui nous intéressent suivants répondent à cet objectif. Ils peut conduire à une évaluation sérieuse sont basés sur la mesure de performances de l'efficacité des solutions graphiques de lecteurs lors d'une utilisation envisagées. Suite à la formulation des simulée de la carte. C'est la façon la hypothèses de la recherche, le carto- plus objective de procéder à une vérita- graphe reproduit expérimentalement cer- ble étude de communication cartographique taines conditions de la carte. Il re- et les futurs efforts d'évaluation de la cuelle des donnëes sur les performances carte marine devraient s'en inspirer. La et la perception des sujets de . l'échan- "recherche psychophysique", la "recherche tillon qu'il a constitué pour la cir- cognitive" et la "recherche orientée vers constance. Les statistiques recueillies les tâches de lecture" ne sont pas encore dans les études de communication carto- répandues dans les bureaux de cartographique sont analysées de façon graphie gouvernementaux. descriptive, graphique ou mathématique. Dans ce dernier cas, les méthodes La "recherche orientée vers les statistiques permettent de vérifier si tâches de lecture" se penche sur la façon les résultats de l'expérience sont si- dont le lecteur aborde visuellement les gnificatifs. En d'autre mots, est-il éléments de la carte. Le problème est de possible de généraliser les conclusions savoir comment et avec quelle efficacité de cette seule expérience avec une marge le navigateur utilise la carte. Quelles de sécurité scientifiquement acceptable? sont les stratégies de lecture adoptees Cette suite d'opérations suit par l'utilisateur? Dans un deuxième de très près les étapes de la démarche temps, avec quel succès exécute-t-il ces scientifique. Une approche méthodologi- tâches? Le laps de temps requis pour que semblable renforce la valeur accordée exécuter ces opérations visuelles et la aux conclusions et aux recommandations précision avec laquelle l'information est qui émanent de la recherche. On peut extraite permettent de répondre à cette dorénavant mettre de côté les études dernière question. La "recherche psycho- menées à tâtonnement. Un cadre méthodo- physique" étudie les relations stimulus- logique solide permet toujours de sauver réaction. Quelle est la perception du temps et de structurer logiquement le engendrée par un symbole cartographique déroulement d'un projet de recherche. donné? Finalement, la "recherche cognitive" devrait être ajoutée à la classi-

169 La cartographie thématique a intérêt spécial. Il en va de même pour souvent fait recours à cette approche. de nombreux autres aspects de la carte Plus récemment, la carte aéronautique a marine. Kerr et Anderson (1982) ont aussi emprunté cette voie avec des ré- suggéré que sa présentation actuelle est sultats intéressants (Hopkin and Taylor, un amalgame de ce que les cartographes 1979). Servant toutes deux à la naviga- pensent être les meilleurs éléments des tion, la carte aéronautique et la carte cartes de divers pays. Aucune forme marine ont des points communs. Il est d'évaluation cartographique ne peut temps de tirer le meilleur parti de la cependant confirmer ces choix. Les con- méthode scientifique et de s'en inspirer cepteurs de cartes marines n'ont proba- pour établir une stratégie de recherche blement pas exploité le potentiel des valable pour la cartographie marine. Le découvertes et des principes cartographi- cheminement suivant semble tenir compte ques. Il faut encourager de futurs de l'ensemble des préoccupations mention- efforts dans cette voie. Les directives nées jusqu'ici: de l'Organisation Hydrographique Interna- tionale en matière de standardisation de ÉTUDES PRÉLIMINAIRES: symboles ont des répercussions sur les - Identification des informations cartes de mombreux pays. Cet organisme requises par les utilisateurs devrait aborder objectivement les recom- - Établissement d'une hiérarchie des informations selon mandations que lui soumettront les leur importance cartographes-chercheurs dans le futur. - Ergonomie de l'utilisation de la carte marine Il faut des efforts considéra- bles pour parvenir à un design cartographique valable. Afin de simplifier la ÉTUDE DES PRINCIPES CARTOGRAPHIQUES tâche, le chercheur doit étudier les com- posantes de la carte séparément ou par j. sous-groupes. Toutefois, il faut mener ÉTUDE DES TACHES DE LECTURE chaque étude dans le contexte global de la carte marine en insérant les symboles considérés dans l'image d'ensemble de la FORMULATION D HYPOTHÈSES SUR LES SOLUTIONS GRAPHIQUES carte. Les prochaines lignes montrent comment on pourrait éventuellement examiner un aspect particulier de la MISE AU POINT DE PROTOTYPES carte marine selon l'approche proposée (CARTES EXPÉRIMENTALES) 4 ' précédemment.

Plusieurs méthodes permettent COLLECTE DE DONNÉES: de représenter graphiquement le fond - Échantillonnage marin. On dénombre entre autres: les - Tests sur les sondes ponctuelles, les isobathes, prototypes l'estompage, les teintes hypsométriques et la méthode de Tanaka qui combine l'isoligne et l'estompage. La question ANALYSE DES RÉSULTATS: étant de savoir laquelle de ces méthodes - Commentaire est la plus efficace dans un contexte de - Analyse graphique navigation, une évaluation comparative - Analyse statistique s'impose. Afin de déterminer laquelle des cinq méthodes citées convient le mieux à la carte marine, le chercheur pourrait soumettre les cinq versions de RÉSULTATS SATISFAISANTS RÉSULTATS la carte à certains tests. On pourrait NON SATISFA/SANTS poser certaines questions à des sujets et enregistrer la précision et la rapidité des réponses. Les questions doivent PRODUCTION évidemment se rapprocher des tâches ou activités visuelles qui prévalent lors d'une utilisation normale de la carte. FIGURE 2. Un cheminement adaptable aux recherches sur la conception graphique de la carte marine. Le navigateur cherche-t-il à visualiser la morphologie du fond marin ou plutôt à déterminer des profondeurs UN EXEMPLE PRATIQUE DE RECHERCHE EN CON- relatives ou absolues? Les travaux de CEPTION CARTOGRAPHIQUE: LA REPRÉSENTA- Phillips et al. (1975) montrent que TION DU FOND MARIN l'efficacité des méthodes de représenta- tion adaptables au relief sous-marin Que sait-on de l'efficacité des varie selon les objectifs de lecture du cartes marines modernes? Peut-on affir- navigateur. Les résultats qu'ils ont mer que leur design en général et les obtenus suggèrent que les teintes hyp- symboles conventionnels sont adéquats? sométriques conviennent à la visualisa- Il est évident que les cartes Loran-C tion globale des formes du terrain. sont très chargées et la recherche de Cette même méthode donne de piètres solutions à ce problème épineux revêt un • résultats pour la perception des

170 altitudes absolues. La représentation carte, etc. La qualité du produit final digitale (cotes d'altitude) convient peut gagner énormément en efficacité. Il alors davantage. Ces remarques montrent s'agit maintenant d'établir un programme non seulement comment on pourrait de recherche basé sur certaines priori- exécuter des expériences semblables dans tés. Ainsi, la structure d'ensemble de le contexte de la carte marine, mais la représentation devrait être examinée aussi la pertinence des études sur les avant les symboles ponctuels dont la fré- tâches de lecture et l'utilisation de la quence d'utilisation varie d'un feuillet carte marine. Une identification à l'autre. rigoureuse des tâches visuelles fournit des indices pour le choix de la méthode La carte marine est l'aboutis- de représentation. Ainsi, Castner et sement des opérations hydrographiques. McGrath suggèrent avec raison de pour- C'est aussi l'instrument qui nous permet suivre plus loin leurs travaux sur les d'acheminer à l'utilisateur la plupart activités et les tâches visuelles rela- des informations dont il aura besoin pour tives à la carte marine. la navigation. Considérant les ressources monétaires et les efforts La recherche de Phillips et al. investis chaque année dans les missions peut nous inspirer considérablement. hydrographiques et la production carto- Leurs découvertes amènent de nombreux graphique, les recherches sur l'effica- Indices sur la perception du relief cité de le la carte semblent pertinentes. terrestre. Cependant, d'autres re- La carte est le seul lien de communica- cherches s'imposent en raison des par- tion entre le cartographe qui a compilé ticularités de la carte marine. Une les données initiales et le lecteur. étude similaire pourrait indiquer si Notre devoir est de développer la meil- notre conception de la carte marine est leure version possible de ce chaînon adéquate ou non. La version actuelle de stratégique et il serait regrettable de la carte canadienne combine trois types perpétuer un produit dont on ne connaît de représentation: sondes, isobathes et pas l'efficacité. teintes hypsométriques. La réalité est souvent plus complexe que l'évaluation La recherche cartographique a indépendante de chacune de ces méthodes certainement ses limites mais il faut de représentation. La recherche expéri- tirer le meilleur parti des découvertes mentale doit tenir compte de l'interac- qui peuvent en résulter. La présentation tion visuelle de ces symboles. Ces des séries cartographiques gouvernemen- dernières considérations confirment le tales change rarement. Cette inertie est besoin de tester diverses combinaisons de parfois mentionnée en milieu académique. symboles afin de déterminer la meilleure. Il est vrai que la modification des Les recherches de Phillips et al. nous normes cartographiques d'une série montrent que les fonctions multiples de d'envergure ne se fait pas du jour au la carte marine (variété d'utilisateurs) lendemain. Quelques problèmes et impliquent nécessairement l'usage coûts supplémentaires peuvent en simultané de plus d'un type de symbole découler. Cependant, d'éventuelles pour la représentation du relief marin. améliorations ne peuvent indéfiniment être remises à plus tard. Le Service L'introduction de la nouvelle hydrographique du Canada a dejl fait présentation de la carte marine preuve de flexibilité en ce sens lors de canadienne remonte maintenant à quelques la création de la "Carte Nouvelle". Il années. La "Carte Nouvelle" amenait semble donc possible de donner suite aux alors des changementsliés à la représen- découvertes que pourrait prochainement tation du fond marin. La densité des amener un programme de recherche bien sondes diminuait au profit d'un nombre structuré. accrue d'isobathes. Les promoteurs de ce changement ne vérifièrent pas vraiment si l'innovation était "pour le meilleur ou RÉFERÉNCES pour le pire". Des travaux menés selon le cadre methodologique dont nous avons 1. Castner, Henry W. and McGrath, discuté permettraient de justifier plus Gerald (1982) Prelininary Study adéquatement de futurs changements dans of the Design of the Canadian la symbolisation. Nautical Chart in Relation to the Chart User's Needs. Dartmouth, Department of Fisheries and CONCLUSION Oceans, Canadian Hydrographic Service, Research performed under L'exemple de la représentation contract #0SC81-00060, 68 pp. du fond marin n'est qu'un des nombreux aspects de la carte qui pourraient béné- 2. Hopkin, V. David and Taylor, Robert ficier de recherches de conception gra- M. (1979) Human Factors in the phique. On peut citer le choix des sym- Design and Evaluation of Aviation boles figuratifs, la taille des symboles Maps. RAF Institute of Aviation ponctuels, la disposition du lettrage, la Medicine, AGARDograph No. 225, représentation des réseaux Loran-C en 249 pp. relation avec l'encombrement visuel de la

171 3. Kerr, Adam J. and Anderson, Neil M. (1982) Communication of the Nautical Chart. The Journal of Navigation, Vol. 34, pp. 439-450.

4. Phillips, Richard J., De Lucia, Alan and Skelton, Nicholas (1975) Some Objective Tests of the Legibility of Relief Maps. The Cartographic Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp 39-46.

5. Robinson, Arthur H. (1977) Research in Cartographic Design. The American Cartographer, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 163-169.

6. Shannon, Claude E. and Weaver, Warren (1949) The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 125 pp.

7. Smith, A,(1976) Chart User Survey. Lighthouse, No. 13, pp. 13-16.

8. Stanley, Gerald W. (1973) An Investigation into Certain Aspects of Spot Depth Numeral Nau tical University of Wisconsin-Madison, unpublished master's thesis, 78 pp.

172 TIDE MEASUREMENT BY ACOUSTIC TELEMETRY Moreover, the collection of good tidal data in PART 1: THE BOTTOM UNIT harsh environments is difficult because of problems caused by the weather, ice, and surf. Such prob- Salvatore D. Morgera t , Donald F. Dine, lems plague shore-mounted recording instruments. and Cedric Colet Development of an ocean bottom-mounted tide gauge tConcordia University at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography (BIO), Department of Electrical Engineering about six years ago partially solved these prob- 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd. West lems. The gauge provided reasonable accuracy in Montréal H3G 1M8 Québec, Canada depth measurements and could be moored at a number of locations in the ocean, making it possible to 4. Bedford Institute of Oceanography obtain information about tides in off-shore areas. Department of Fisheries and Oceans Sea trials indicated that the concept was a viable Dartmouth B2Y 4A2 Nova Scotia, Canada one, but that the next prototype system should possess a higher data rate and a lower error rate, in addition to certain features deemed useful.

ABSTRACT For this reason, a Concordia University research group specializing in acoustic signal pro- This paper describes the ocean bottom cessing was asked to design an electronic tele- unit of an underwater acoustic telemetry system metering device that could be used to reliably designed primarily to address the problems of transmit the tidal data gathered by the gauge to a tidal data gathering. The problems of tidal data ship within the vicinity of the mooring. The suc- collection are highlighted and the objectives of cess of this task required a good knowledge of the the acoustic telemetry system are stated. A shal- fading dispersive nature of the acoustic communica- low water environmental model is used to obtain tions channel, especially for shallow water areas accurate estimates of parameters such as propaga- of the ocean. tion loss, band level noise, frequency dispersion, and time dispersion. The environmental model in OBJECTIVES OF THE SYSTEM conjunction with in situ measurements dictate the guidelines used in the system design. A breakdown The acoustic telemetry system design was of the bottom unit into subsystemsis given and each implemented with the following general requirements subsystem is described. The results of tests per- in mind: formed on the system on June 12 and 13, 1982, in Bedford Basin, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, are (1) To access data produced by moored instruments. summarized. Finally, other potential applications (2) To operate in shallow water environmentswhere of the system are mentioned. severe multipath conditions exist. (3) To transmit encoded data at a rate of atleast RÉSUMÉ' 32 bits/sec. (4) To achieve bit error rates of between 10 -4 Le présent document décrit l'unité de and 10 -5 or better. fond d'un système sous-marin de télémétrie acous- (5) To communicate effectively over ranges of 1 km tique conçu principalement pour régler les pro- or more during sea state 5 weather conditions blèmes de la collecte des données sur les and relative ship-bottom unit motion of at marées. Ces problèmes sont décrits et les objec- least ±6 knots. tifs du système de télémétrie acoustique sont (6) To consume little standby power so that ordi- établis. Nous utilisons un modèle du milieu nary batteries could be used as the power d'eaux peu profondes en vue d'obtenir source for the bottom unit of the system for une estimation précise de'paramèters comme deployment periods in excess of 1 year. l'affaiblissement de propagation, le niveau du bruit de la bande, la dispersion des fréquences OVERVIEW OF THE OPERATION OF THE SYSTEM et la dispersion dans le temps. Nous nous sommes servis du modèle au milieu et de mesures The telemetry system consists of an ocean prises sur place pour établir les lignes direc- bottom unit and a deck unit placed on board a sur- trices utilisées pour la conception du système. vey ship. This arrangement is illustrated in Fig- Nous décomposons l'unité de fond en sous-sys- ure 1. The bottom unit is connected to a tide tèmes et décrivons chaque sous-système. Les ré- gauge via an interrupt-driven interface. It is sultats des tests effectués sur le système les moored on the ocean floor and left to collect data 12 et 13 juin 1982 dans le bassin Bedford à for a predetermined period of time. The data col- Dartmouth (Nouvelle-Écosse) sont résumés. Enfin, lected is conditioned and stored in a microcomputer nous mentionnons d'autres applications éven- memory. At present, the memory can accommodate tuelles du système. 512 16-bit words. A time tag is affixed to every third data word to enable the correct timesequence to be reconstructed on receipt of the data.

The survey ship carrying the deck unit INTRODUCTION comes within the vicinity of the mooring site and signals the bottom unit by transmitting an inter- Tidal measurement is an integral part of rogation command which the command receiver of the the process of charting the oceans. Traditionally, bottom unit recognizes. The interrogation command the tide has been measured along the shore with consists of a 250 ms encoded tone burst which con- simple recording instruments and the data obtained tains 5 tones spaced 400 Hz apart in a 2048 Hz has been used to correct the measured water depth bandwidth around 8192 Hz. The tones are down-con- to the low water datum. In practice, this method verted, filtered, and rectified in the command does not provide reliable data when the shoreline receiver and diversity combined to form a detec- is gently sloping or when the tidal range is large. tion statistic which is tested against a threshold. 173 When the threshold is exceeded, the bottom unit vehicle-current axial velocity of less than 6 knots transmits an encoded synchronization preamble to and a horizontal range approximation of about llun, the deck unit. This is followed by transmission when interrogation of the bottom unit is attempted. of the actual tidal information. Description of the Bottom Unit ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY A functional block schematic diagram of The design of the system was carried out the bottom unit of the telemetry system is shown in in accordance with the sonar equations. These Figure 2. The unit is divided into three subsys- , equations are based on the equality between signal tems. They are: level and noise level when sosie processor function (1) The command receiver subsystem, such as a detection decision is being evaluated. (2) The microcomputer and data gathering subsys- They provide the necessary relationship among the tem. system parameters and the major environmental para- (3) The frequency synthesizer subsystem. meters such as transmission loss and ambient noise. In a one-way communication link the sonar equation THE COMMAND RECEIVER SUBSYSTEM of relevance is given by, The command receiver is that portion of (S/N)- = the telemetry system which deals with the process- K L s 4- (N DI ) R T L L N (1) ing of incoming information so as to recognize the interrogation command issued by the deck unit. The where (S/N)R is the signal-to-noise ratio at the command receiver is designed to operate with a receiver, (NDI) p is the directivity index of the probability of false alarm PFA =10 -8 and a proba- loss, and L N is receiver, TL is the transmission bility of correct decision Pm =.99. Thisimplies the band level noise. that only 1 in every 100 interrogation attempts would not be recognized and only 1 false alarm Reliable communications in the ocean would occur in every 289 days of operation. These depends largely on the accuracy with which the are important considerations because of the severe environmental parameters such as transmission loss, power constraint imposed on the operation of the and time dispersion band level noise, frequency, system. can be estimated. In estimating transmission loss and band level noise, a shallow water environmental A block schematic diagram of the command model was used and calculations were carried out at receiver is illustrated in Figure 3. Its opera- two frequencies, 7 and 16 kHz; six sea states, sscp- tion is as follows. The five incoming interroga- ss5; and three different temperatures, -10°C, 0°C, tion command tonals are received by the transducer and +10°C. The frequency and time dispersion esti- and then passed to the pre-amplifier which con- mates were derived from sound velocity profile sists of a matching network amplifier and a band- studies of six shallow water locations off the pass filter centred on 8192 Hz and having a band- Canadian east coast. The results of the environ- width of 2048 Hz. The tonals are mixed with a mental studies provided the guidelines for the 7168 Hz reference signal and the difference fre- design of the telemetry system. They predicted quencies are amplified and passed through a bank following: the of five bandpass filters each 40 Hz wide and cen- (1) The worst case transmission loss at a range of tred at each of the five down-converted frequen- 1 KM would be 59.95 dB. Such a loss would cies. Further amplification is applied followed occur at a temperature of -10°C on a muddy by envelope detection. The output of the detectors ocean bottomduring ss5 weather conditions. are sampled and multiplexed into an 8-bit A/D con- (2) The band level noise at 7 kHz during ss5 in verter. The samples are then transferred to the the open ocean would be -35 dB. RCA CDP 1802 microprocessor subsystem where the (3) .Frequency dispersion (doppler spread B) would signal processing continues, by performing the fol- be approximately 4 Hz at a range of 1 km lowing functions: (4) Time dispersion (multipath spread 0 would be (a) Formation of the long term average (LTA) of approximately 100 ms at a range of 1 km the noise energy on each of the five diversity channels over K(125)ms periods. The LTA noise Based on the frequency and time disper- estimate for the ith channel is given as, sion estimates of 4 Hz and 100 ms,respectively; actual data; and on practical considerations from 1 an implementation point-of-view, the optimum trans- 11.(nA) = L(tA) mit pulse duration (T p ) was set at 125 ms. The deck unit receiver frequency resolution was then where A is the sampling period and is equal calculated as (8+ 7 -) =12 Hz and the total received to 125 ms. The LTA is done as a "sliding- window" average, The integer K=480. tonal duration was established to be (T +0=225 ms. (b) Production of a weighting rule for each chan- As a result, a 125 ms dead time between Ptransmis- nel by normalizing the STA estimate by the LTA sions was allowed for multipath decay. The envi- estimate. The weighting rule is given as, ronmental study indicated that the system should transmit at 7 kHz with a bandwidth of 2 kHz, based on the modulation scheme chosen, since for a given = transmitter power and directivity index, the signal- The weighting rule is similar to automatic to-noise ratio was better at 7 kHz than at 16 kHz gain control circuitry, and used inlieuofit. Consequently, the transmission band was established (c) Frequency diversity combining by summing the as 8192 Hz ±2 kHz. Data encoding and 5-fold fre- normalized outputs of all 5 diversity channels quency diversity were used to combat fading which every 125 ms to partially form the detection could occur because of the dispersive nature of the statistic. The summation is given as, medium. It was also recommended that the ship on which the deck unit is placed should observe a 174 5 conditions were far from ideal the system performed y(n) = Yi(nA) very well. Error-free transmission was obtained i=1 ' at a range as far as 1.5 km with 6 watts of power. In instances when errors did occur, there seemed (d) Temporal combining by summing two consecutive to be quite plausible explanations. A summary of values produced through frequency combining test results is given in [3]. to form the detection statistic, denoted by, CONCLUSION Y ' T(nA) (e) Testing y against a threshold A. If the The acoustic telemetry system described threshold is exceeded, the microcomputer was designed primarily to address the problems of instructs the frequency synthesizer subsys- tidal data gathering in the ocean. Its flexibility tem to commence data transmission. and potential, however, allow it to be marketed in a much broader sense. It can be viewed as a tele- Data Gathering Subsystem metry communication system capable of collecting and telemetering any type of data that can be The data gathering subsystem consists of easily converted to electrical signals. To accom- the gauge interface unit and the microcomputer. plish this would require only the redesign of the The microcomputer is comprised of the RCA CDP 1802 gauge interface unit to suit the interface require- microprocessor, a 262144 Hz clock, and 3 k-bytes ments of the new system. In this respect, the sys- of memory. Its functions are: tem can be used for many other applications such (1) To store data received and conditioned by the as: gauge interface unit. (1) Pollution monitoring in the ocean, lakes, (2) To complete the signal processing functions rivers, and water supplies. of the command receiver. (2) Water level monitoring in water supplies. (3) To do the data encoding function of the syn- (3) Control of underwater submersibles in ocean thesizer subsystem. bottom resource mining and oil rig drilling (4) To control the entire functioning of the bot- maintenance. tom unit. (4) Military surveillance.

FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER SUBSYSTEM REFERENCES

The frequency synthesizer is that portion [1] Groski-Popiel, Jerzy, Frequency synthesis: of the bottom unit that converts the digital data Techniques and Applications. IEEE Press: stored in memory into tonals and prepares these New York, 1975. tonals for transmission. [2] Urick, R.J., Principles of Underwater Sound. McGraw Hill: New York, 1967. The synthesizer uses a dense MFSK modula- [3] Cole, C.K., "Design and implementation of an tion scheme in which M=4 and the number of fre- ocean bottom unit for an undersea acoustic quency diversity channels, D=5. In this scheme telemetry system", M.Eng. Thesis, Concordia each 16 bit data word is conveyed using a subset of University, Montreal, March 1983. 40 tones from a set of 160. Four pilot tones are [4] Morgera, S.D., "Optimum Underwater Acoustic interleaved between the 5 diversity channels to Telemetry Techniques", prepared for Canadian make 44 tones overall. The pilot tones are used by Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Contract the deck unit for doppler and synchronization cor- 07SC.KF806-8-E330, 28th February 1979. rections. The tones are created digitally using [5] Morgera, S.D., "A Conceptual Design of an the accumulator overflow technique of frequency Underwater Acoustic Telemetry System, Phase II synthesis [1]. Quadrature outputs are produced, Study", prepared for Canadian Department of with all 44 in-phase and quadrature components Fisheries and Oceans, Contract 0SC76-00268, independently summed to form two composite wave- 20th February 1980. forms. Summation of this large number of tones requires that their phases be randomized in order ir to minimize the peak-to-average ratio of the composite waveform. This is accomplished by using a quadratic phase set to initialize the phases of the tones. The tones are created in the range of ±1 kHz and up-converted to the band 7168 Hz to 9216 Hz through modulation with an 8192 Hz carrier. The tones are then windowed, power amplified, and transmitted.

Performance predictions indicate that for a bit error rate of 1.25x10 -5 , reliable communication between the bottom and deck units over a range of 1 km during ss5, could be maintained with an amplifier output power of between .72 to 7.2 watts. Thus, the output of the power amplifier was made variable in fixed steps over the range .25 to 6 watts.

SEA TEST

The system was tested on June 12 and 13 1982 in the Bedford Basin, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. Figure 1 Interrogation arrangement between The results indicated that even though the test the bottom and deck units. 175 ANALOG DATA IN

ACQUISITION LIA A/D ANALOG TONE NOISE NO:M. 8 DIT 1 SU FILTER DET. ALGS. DAn4

COMM() RECEIVER SUDSYSTEM SENSOR slf5SYSTEM FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER SUSEYSTEM sENSOR DATA IN 1 \ SENSOR DATA DATA DENSE HFSK Li STORAGE ENCODING ' TE'OL INTERFACE MODULATOR 1 CO'N' iCTKIRY QC (16.32)1' o

POvER DAL. D/A ANALOG DATA AMP. MOD. 8 DIT OUT

Figure 2. Functional block schematic diagram of the bottom unit of the acoustic telemetry system.

DPP r—l>=4° HI — f=224 Hz

E2 (na)

SPI. ,.=40 Hz f=1024Hz

E4 fridl

fre ,(7168 Hz/

(nS) 5=1,2,..5 ElPF micrecceputez w.=40 Hz 1C.? Envelope E s (nA) f=182411n- 18:22dB I 0 detector PC.25ms(STA)

Figure 3. Block schematic diagram of command rece ( ver.

176 TIDE MEASURMENT BY ACOUSTIC TELEMETRY while correcting for frequency and temporal dis- PART II: THE DECK UNIT persion of the underwater environment.

Salvatore D. Morgera , Keith Reuben , THE ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT and Donald F. Dinn** The sea is far from the ideal sound- propagation medium. Sound waves, apart from Concordia University being concepted by noise, also suffer from time Department of Electrical Engineering and frequency dispersion. Time dispersion or 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd. West multipath is due to reflections of rays by the Montréal H3G 1M8 Québec, Canada surface and bottom before reaching the receiver. ** Sound signals transmitted take different paths, Bedford Institute of Oceanography and as a result, arrive at different instants at Department of Fisheries and Oceans the receiver. Since higher order rays make Dartmouth B2Y 4A2 Nova Scotia, Canada steeper angles with the boundary surfaces, they ABSTRACT travel longer distances and suffer greater attenuation, however, their energy is relatively weak This paper describes the receiver of an and can be neglected. The time difference in acoustic telemetry System. It begins with a brief multipath arrival relative to direct path arrival description of the dispersion problems associated is computed for an average sound speed of 1478.3m with underwater communication, followed by a de- /s and shown in Table (1) 1,2 . tailed explanation of the hardware developed to overcome these problems. The hardware description From Table 1 we see that the worst case includes a detailed look at the Fast Fourier dispersion, occurring when both the transmitter Transform processor and the time synchroniser. and receiver are at a relatively shallow depth is Software algorithms for doppler shift estimation on the order of 30-100ms. Intensity fluctuation doppler shift correction, time estimation, tone of the various paths may be as much as 20 dB. demodulation, and error correction are described. Finally, some test results obtained in Bedford A second form of dispersion, frequency Basin, Halifax, are presented. dispersion, is caused by reflection from the ocean surface. Grazing angles of 3 ° and 60 were felt to be reasonable values for low order multi- RESUME paths, considering placement of the transmitter and receiver. The frequency dispersion caused by Le présent document décrit le récepteur reflection from the ocean surface was calculated d'un système de télémétrie acoustique. Il comme- using the Bifrequency Function. Table 2 shows nce par une brève description des problèmes de the results of frequency spread calculations at dispersion liés à la communication sous-marine, two frequencies of 7 kHz and 17 kHz and three sea qui est suivie d'une explication détaillée du ma- states (SS). A linear spreading mechanism was tériel mis au point pour régler ces problèmes. La assumed with a surface spectrum width of 0.2 Hz description du matériel comprend un examen appro- 1,2 . fondi du processeur Fast Fourier Transform et du synchronisateur temporel. Nous décrivons des Since there was considerably less fre- algorithmes de logiciel pour l'estimation de la quency spread (3 Hz vs 6.8 Hz) for the lower fre- variation de fréquence (effet Doppler), la corre- quency carrier, the transmitter was designed with ction de la variation de fréquence, l'estimation a carrier of 8192 Hz and a carrier frequency-to- du temps, la démodulation des tonalités et la bandwidth ratio of 4. correction des erreurs. Pour terminer, certains résultats des tests effectués dans le bassin Bed- The two parameters, doppler spread B ford, à Halifax, sont présentés. and multipath spread L, determine the communication tonal transmit time duration and the receiv- INTRODUCTION er frequency resolution. Thus, if a tone of length top with a bandwidth of top were transmitted A significant disadvantage of measuring it would be received as a signal of length (Tp+L) tides with bottom-mounted tide gauges is that and bandwidth (wp+B). The estimates of doppler tidal information can be obtained only upon re- spread B and multipath spread L at 7 kHz are tak- covery of the instrument at the completion of the en to be 4 Hz and 100 ms, respectively. The op- survey. This disadvantage may be overcome by the timum pulse duration Tp is set at 125 ms. Thus, use of a bottom-mounted tide gauge which can at the receiver, a frequency resolution of (B+1/ transmit to the survey ship, on demand, the Tp) or 12 Hz is required. The duration of the tidal information gathered over a period ranging received tone would, however, be (Tp+L) seconds from days to several weeks. A device of this or approximately 225 ms. The transmitter tones type allows the hydrographer to maintain an up- are spaced 12 Hz apart with 125 ms dead time fol- to-date account of corrected soundings and grea- lowing each 125 ms transmission. tly expedites the progress of a hydrographic survey, especially in the Arctic. To this end, HARDWARE DESCRIPTION a prototype acoustic telemetry-system has been developed and tested by Concordia University for The analog and digital hardware employ- the Bedford Institute of Oceanography 1,2 . ed to receive and demodulate the tidal data is The system consists of two parts: The bottom- shown in Figure 2. An 8086 16-bit microprocessor mounted unit which collects tidal data and trans- provides all the control and processing required. mits it to the Deck Unit upon request, and the A 512-point comples FFT processor is used to de- Deck Unit, described in this paper, which is res- modulate the MFSK tones to bits. Time synchroni- ponsible for receiving and demodulating the in- zation is provided by the synchroniser module. formation transmitted from the Bottom Unit, Other hardware consists of data storage memory, 177 analog hardware in the preprocessor for automatic 0=5-fold frequency diversity; thus, 40 data tones gain control (AGC), and a voltage controlled osci- are transmitted per baud; interleaved in the band llator (VCO) for doppler correction as shown in are 4-pilot tones used for time synchronization. Figure 2. As described above, the synchronizer provides the time markers for the start of the data batch sam- TIME SYNCHRONIZER pling for the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) processor. The FFT processor then forms the 160 (MxNxD) Tidal data is coded into tones before it narrow band filters needed for the MFSK tone de- is transmitted by the bottom unit. These tones tection. which represent 16 bits of data are transmitted for 125 ms followed by 125 ms of dead time (no Once the start of the data batch has been transmission), to provide word frame synchroniza- determined, the CPU samples the data at 3072 Hz tion and to allow for multipath decay. Inter- a period of 160 ms, resulting in 512 complex sam- leaved at frequencies ±1020 Hz and ±216 Hz from ples. For the FFT algorithm, a constant geometry the carrier, four pilot tones are transmitted. See decimation in frequency radix - 2 method was sel- Figure 3. ected. The hardware for the FFT processor is described in the next section. The hardware for the time synchronization consists of a mixer for frequency transla- FFT PROCESSOR tion, four bandpass filters, four rectifier-inte- grators and an 8-bit A/D converter. See Figure 4. The FFT processor employed in this unit operates as a stand-alone system, only relying on For frequency translation the incoming the CPU for input data and start commands. In this signal is multiplied with the 6144 Hz local car- way, the CPU is free to continue processing data rier; this process moves the pilot tones to 1028 from the previous batch or calculate the start of Hz, 1832 Hz, 2264 Hz and 3068 Hz. To achieve some the next batch. The FFT hardware employed a high immunity from doppler shift and the adjacent data speed arthimetic logic unit (ALU) and a TRW TDC tones, the bandpass filters used to capture the 1010 3 16-bit multiply-accumulator for the FFT but- pilot tones were designed with a bandwidth of 36 terfly calculations. The coefficients necessary Hz, since the maximum doppler shift envisaged was were stored in EPROM tables which were made avail- +16 Hz and the nearest data tone was located 24 Hz able by the address indexing circuitry. The whole away. Chebyshev filters were chosen for their FFT process is controlled by a microprogram which high roll-off and relative simplicity in design. is resident in PROM memory, thus facilitating The outputs of the filters are then rectified and changes. Two 1 K x 16 buffers were used to pro- integrated for 125 ms. The outputs of all the in- vide temporary storage of data during the FFT pro- tegrators are summed and then sampled and conver- cess. Some pipelining is employed to increase the ted at the rate of 256 Hz by the A/D converter. speed of the calculation. However, in order to See Figure 5. keep the implementation simple, most operations The 8-bit data is then differentiated occur sequentially. The time taken for a 512 using a 7-point finite impulse response (FIR) fil- point complex FFT is 30 ms. ter; the acquisition timing marker is derived from The 512 narrow band bins of the FFT are the differentiator output after appropriate thres- 6 Hz wide. However, the tones transmitted from hold tests are applied. A Chebyshev-derived 7- the bottom unit are 8 Hz wide and 12 Hz apart. point filter, with coefficients truncated to 8- The medium, however, adds another 4 Hz to the bits and internal arithmetic carried out to 16-bits width of the tones due to doppler spread. There- achieved an accuracy of ±5 ms ±3 . The algorithm fore, after the FFT has produced the 6 Hz wide used in the software implementation is shown in bins, energy from the adjacent bins must be added Figure 6. Threshold tests are performed both on to the centre bin. Once bin combination is accom- the differentiator output and on the amplitude of plished, linear detection is performed to demodu- the input into the differentiator, before any time late the signal. At this point the five diversity estimate is made. Furthermore, to provide some bands are lined up and summed. This reduces the noise immunity, both thresholds must be exceeded original 160 bins to 32 bins. Every four consecu- for five successive times before the start of the tive bins are compared to ascertain the weight of next data batch is predicted. each of the two bits in the 16 bit data word. See A 256 Hz clock serves as the main time Figure 7. The 6 Hz to 12 Hz bin combination, the base for the synchronizer. This clock, which is linear detection, diversity combination, and tone- derived from the CPU master clock, provides inter- to-bit conversion are all implemented in software rupts to the CPU every 1/256 second. The CPU then by the CPU. samples the diversity combined output and imple- ments the 7-point Chebyshev differentiator algor- DOPPLER CORRECTION from the bottom unit ithm. Since transmission The pilot tones used for time synchroni- lasts 125 ms followed by 125 ms of dead time, the zation are also detected by the FFT processor, as transmission-to-transmission cycle is 250 ms. they fall into the FFT band which is ±1536 Hz. During this period, the CPU is interrupted 64 The pilot tones as noted earlier are located 24 Hz times, therefore the time base for the synchonizer away from the nearest data tones. See Figure 3. is 64. When the thresholds have been satisfied, For doppler correction, the pilot tone bins and the CPU corrects the time base to some predeter- the two bins on either side of them are examined for the total delay mined value which is corrected for the energy they contain. First, diversity com- of the synchronizer. bination is performed by adding the four pilot tone bins and the adjacent bins. The resulting DEMODULATION OF TIDAL DATA three bins are then compared with templates stored In the dense incoherent MFSK system em- in tables to determine the frequency shift that ployed in the bottom unit, the number of m-ary al- has occurred. Nineteen templates corresponding to ternatives M=4, there are N=8 m-ary symbols/baud 0 Hz and 2 Hz doppler shifts are stored in EPROM. for a total of 16 bits/baud, and the system uses The CPU makes a comparison with each of these tem- 178 plates and the combined pilot tone bins to deter- REFERENCES mine the closeness of fit. Once a template has been chosen, the CPU issues a command to changes [1] Morgera, S.D., "Optimum Underwater Acoustic the VCO, thus correcting the doppler shift. Telemetry Techniques", prepared for the Depart- Changes are affected only once every two batches ment of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada, contract to maintain the same correction for both the data 07SC.KF 806-8-E330, 28th February 1979. word and the codeword. [2] Morgera, S.D., "A Conceptual Design of an Underwater Acoustic Telemetry System, Phase II AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL Study", prepared for the Department of Fish- eries and Oceans, Canada, contract 07SC.KF The gain of the programmable amplifier 806-8-E330, 20th February 1980. used in the preprocessor is set by the CPU. Ini- [3] Morgera, S.D., "Digital Filtering and Pre- tial gain is decided upon by the CPU depending on diction for Communications Systems Time Syn- the noise in the environment. A maximum of 62 dB chronization", IEEE Journal of Oceanic gain change is possible. To determine the amount Engineering, vol. 0E-7, No. 3, July 1982. of gain required, the CPU examines the amplitude output of the synchronizer. Gain is controlled by two algorithms in software. One, the fast-attack algorithm, reduces the gain in steps of 6 dB to TABLE 1. WORST CASE TIME DISPERSION (S =SURFACE prevent saturation. The other algorithm, called REFLECTION, B =BOTTOM REFLECTION). the slow attack, ajusts the gain ±2 dB, also opti- R =PROPAGATION DISTANCE. e =PROPAGA- mizing the gain to keep the signal in the top quar- n n ter of the 8 bit A/D convertor. The algorithm in- TION LENGTH cludes safeguards to protect against extreme changes, but when such conditions occur, as in the DIFFERENCES .Q N =GRAZING ANGLES. case of too low or too high a signal, a warning light informs the operator. Multipath order nl Description R(on) I aR0 (m) I Ar (es) o n (deg)

ERROR CORRECTION 0 direct path 1.8288 0 0 0 1 0.3 0.2 1 Tidal data transmitted from the bottom 5 1.8291 unit is encoded before transmission. Each 16 bit 2 S-B 1.8654 36.6 24.8 11 data transmission is followed by 16 bits of code 3 S-B-S 1.8745 45.7 30.9 12 information. A quasi-cyclic, rate 112 code is 4 S-B-S-B 1.9660 137.2 92.8 22 employed. This code has the ability to correct -1 B 1.8593 30.5 20.6 10 for 3 errors in every 32 bit transmission. Decod- - 2 B-S 1.8654 36.6 24.8 11 ing in the deck unit is performed off-line. After -3 B-S-B 1.9658 137.0 92.7 21 the transmission is complete, the 8086 CPU per- - 4 B-S-B-S 1.9660 137.2 92.8 22 forms the decoding algorithm and notes those occasions where error correction was inadequate.

OUTPUT INTERFACE TABLE 2. FREQUENCY DISPERSION (Hz).

The system comes equipped with an RS232 0 serial line with baud rates from 150 to 9600. f(KHz) SS 2-3, e = 3 SS 4, e = 6 ° Once requested by the operator, the CPU provides 7 0.9 3.0 all the decoded data and also lists an uncor- rected table data, in addition to also providing 16 1.9 6.8 data concerning doppler correction, gain correction, and time estimation.

CONCLUSION The acoustic telemetry system was tested in Bedford Basin, on July 12th and 13th, 1982. The basin, having closed boundaries and a muddy bottom, introduced severe multipath and attenuation of the signal. Despite these conditions, error-free transmission was achieved at distances up to 1.5 km. Industrial and shipping noise was much higher and did cause some errors. These were corrected for the most part, except in some extreme cases.

The concepts designed into the equipment readily lend themselves to applications other than hydrographic surveying and oceanography. Because of the high data quality possible, the system can be adapted to a number of civil and military uses. These include the control of seafloor instruments associated with oil exploration and extraction, Fig. 1. Acoustic telemetry system communications protocols. submarine cable performance monitoring, pollution or water quality monitoring, and the control of submersible vehicles used in ocean exploration and defense.

179 FILTER AGC VCO 12 BIT 8086 6K-RAM AMP ADC CPU 4K-PROM

POWER t AMP TIME r SYNC 8,BIT FFT MOD, ADC PROC,

FIG , 2: BLOCK DIAGRAM DECK UNIT

PILOT TONES

i ri 171 ••• ri TH n P .» i IT ••• [1 M ... n LOWER - ------ 1 BAND ----- UPPER BAND (8) 4-ARY DIVERSITY 2 CENTER • • • DIVERSITY 5 BAND EDGE CHARACTERS, 8.192 KHz EDGE 7.168 KHz DIVERSITY 1 9.216 KHz FIG.3: PILOT TONE AND DATA SPECTRAL ALLOCATIONS

4-BPF Fc =1028Hz FOUR FOUR F c =1832Hz PRECISION INT. RECTIFIEM T=25ms F c =2264Hz

Fc =3068Hz

FIG.4: BLOCK DIAGRAM TIME SYNCHRONIZER

180 wain 111111h. n 1111111h 111111111111:11 H11111111 . 1111119 1111 H H Ill 111111' , II:1111111 H I 11111111111111 JU 11111 !1 J 11111111e1111 1.111 1111E11 eigfidh! H.Lmiiiimup 4111111 1111/P11 I IIIIIIIU 111111 14.111 ,11111111111111 1 IIIIHIJIH11111111111î 11111111 '11 II 1111111111111, 111111111W 1 1 1111111i H !PPihllIllllllIullhIIIIll ÏJiUIllIIIHHIPhM111111,11111112i IIIII.P1H11 1 111111:111111 I 1111111111161R1 CHANNEL A 111 11911' WM I 111 11111 9J1hr I ' F 111 11 IN 111111111 1111111111 E".I II I II I H IIH Ill ' IL III 1111111111111 1111111M11111 1 mil h 11.11.1.1h1 I. IH 111111 H111111111111111111111511 I IHIHII 111111111111 1 rill 111111 11" '11,11i11111111 ,1 I 11111111 1111111111

1111 :11111111111111111111111111111111 iiii111111111iiii11111111111111111ii II IIIIII.mllIIIIIIH1111111111111111 111111111 1111111111111m11111i111111111111H111111111111H Illruill1M1111111111111HH11111/11 llIi 1111 11111111 1 11 11 111111PH9dMIIHiii111111H111111111111H111 CHANNEL B 111 1111111111111111 111111H111111111111Hil HRH:hill@ 11111111111111111111111111 1 I 11111111111111111H111111 111111111111 ;1111111111111L1111111111111 11111 FIG.5: CHANNEL A: PILOT TONE DIVERSITY COMBINER OUTPUT WAVEFORM. CHANNEL B: TIMING MARKER INDICATING BAUD ONSET TIME,

FIR DIFFERENTIATOR THRESHOLD ALGORITHMS

ni=7 points

xcna;--I r' 1 r' 1 z - ' 1 z. , r'l FROM CONTINUE INCOHERENT ILL] N DIFFERENTIATOR DIVERSITY CALCULATIONS COMBINER • LLC): ,•-•: • .- n-n•I 1 • 0

h(2) h(3) •••••• 0 0 T (n G)

CORRECT ESTIMATE FOR (N- I/2 • 5 SAMPLES AND n21) REFERENCE TO ONSET OF NEXT FOR TIMING TIMING ACOUISITION BAUD AND TO LINEAR PREDICTOR FIG.6: DIGITAL FIR DIFFERENTIATOR AND THRESHOLD ALGORITHMS. Z 1 DENOTES UNIT DELAY, à = 2n/w s , T IS BAUD TIME DURATION 1D(<0) IS DIFFERENTIATOR OUTPUT THRESHOLD, YA(>0) IS DIVERSITY COMBINER OUTPUT THRESHOLD.

TRANSM I TTED TONE Hz

RECE I VED TONE Hz k-12 I 12

FFT BINS Hz

COMBINED FFT BINS

FIG, 7: SPECTRAL RESOLUTION (Hz)

181 l'échelle de 1/200 000, en ayant recours aux résultats obtenu d'un levé géo- désique par satellite.

COMMON DATUM CHARTS OF BACKGROUND THE MALACCA AND SINGAPORE STRAITS The Straits of Malacca and Singa- Kunio Yashima pore provide an important shipping route Hydrographie Department connecting Europe and the Middle East Tokyo Japan with the Far East. The recent increase both in size of tankers and in volume of maritime traffic has caused the necessity of reviewing nautical charts in use and ABSTRACT introducing traffic separation schemes in the Straits. The nautical charts The Malacca and Singapore were mainly produced from the surveys Straits provide an important route for before World War II. maritime traffic. On the existing nautical charts, however, discrepancies have been found in geographical positions due At the 4th Session of the IMCO to the different geodetic systems being Sub-committee on Safety of Navigation used on the Peninsular Malaysia-Singapore Singapore submitted of the in 1967, Japan and side and the Indonesian side a proposal to establish traffic separa- Straits. tion schemes in the Straits. This proposal was, however, rejected as it was In 1977, Indonesia, Japan, Malay- considered necessary to carry out a sia and Singapore agreed to produce precise hydrographic survey and to pro- jointly charts of the Straits based on a vide more aids to navigation there be- common datum point to eliminate such dis- fore establishing such schemes. crepancies. The project comprised Phase I and Phase II. In Phase I from 1977 to 1979, three sheets of the Common Datum Under such circumstances, Japan Charts, two on a scale of 1:50,000 and proposed, in 1968, a precise hydrogra- one on 1:75,000 were produced to cover phie survey be carried out in the the Singapore Strait. In Phase II from Straits jointly with Indonesia, Malay- 1980 to 1982, three other sheets each on sia and Singapore. This project was a scale of 1:200,000 covering both of accepted by the three coastal countries, the Straits were produced by utilizing and in 1969, a preliminary survey was the results of a satellite geodetic sur- conducted in the Straits, which was fol- vey carried out by a joint team. lowed by a series of joint hydrographic surveys from 1970 to 1975.

Based on the results of these RÉSUMÉ surveys, the existing nautical charts have been duly corrected. However, the Les détroits de Malacca et de topographic features including coastlines, Singapour sont situés sur une impor- landmarks, etc., charted on those nautical tante route de navigation. Cependant, on charts are those surveyed independ- a découvert des lacunes dans les posi- ently on different geodetic datums. The tions géographiques sur les cartes charts with such topographic information marines existantes, en raison des diffé- have caused inconsistency in ship's position fixing in case of using landmarks rents systèmes géodésiques utilisés entre on la partie des détroits que longe la both shores of the Straits. Accord- presqu'Ille malaise et celle que longe ingly, it has become a serious concern l'Indonésie. to produce nautical charts that will eliminate such discrepancies, not only to meet navigational requirements but En 1977, des experts de l'Indon- also to establish IMCO's routing. ésie, du Japon, de la Malaisie et de Sing- apour convenaient de produire des cartes des deux détroits en adoptant un élément Such being the case, represent- de base cummun pour combler ces lacunes. atives of the four countries met in Ce projet comportait deux phases. Au Tokyo from 22 to 26 March, 1977, and cours de la Phase I, de 1977 à 1979, agreed to produce jointly a series of trois feuilles des cartes à zéro commun, charts (Common Datum Charts or CDC) based soit deux à l'échelle de 1/50 000 et une upon a common datum point to rectify such au 1/75 000, ont été réalisées pour en- discrepancy. In April 1977, Memoranda of glober le détroit de Singapour. Durant la Understanding were signed between Japan Phase II, de 1980 à 1982, une équipe con- and each of the coastal countries, and jointe a préparé trois autres feuilles thus the project started. sur les deux détroits, chacune à

182 CHARACTERISTICS OF CDC - For charts covering the Singapore Strait: The CDC itself is not a nautical chart but is a master sheet of a The relationship between the common nautical chart to be published by each datum point (WGS-72) and the Revised participating country. The purpose of Kertau Datum or the Bangka Datum. the project was to produce such master sheets. Accordingly, updating of the - For chart covering the Malacca Strait: CDC will be made by each country bv means of updating its nautical chart proauced The relationship between the common from the CDC. datum point (WGS-72) and the Revised Kertau Datum or each of control points at the astronomical observation spots. GEODETIC SYSTEMS ALONG THE STRAITS Fortunately, the coordinate The relative discrepancy of values of the common datum point on WGS- topographic features on the existing 72 as well as the relationship between charts between the Peninsular Malaysia- the common datum point and the Revised Singapore side and the Indonesian side Kertau and the Bangka Datums are already is derived from the different geodetic known. Hence, production of the CDC systems based on which respective topog- covering the Singapore Strait can be raphic feature representations are made, made by compilation of existing source as shown in Fig.l. materials. Namely, the Peninsular Malaysia- In case of the CDC covering Singapore side is covered by the Revised the Malacca Strait, on the other hand, Kertau Datum while the islands of the relationship between the common datum Indonesia facing the Singapore Strait point and each of the control points are covered by the Bangka Datum and on on the east coast of Sumatera are unknown the east coast of Sumatera are scattered so that it is first necessary to clarify only such control points independently such relationship. fixed by astronomical observations. Therefore, it is necessary OVERALL PLANNING FOR PHASE I AND PHASE II to clarify the following geodetic rela- tionships for production of the CDC based For executing the production on WGS-72 using the Fundamental Point work, a technical meeting was held in at Pulau Pisang as common datum point Singapore from 10 to 12 May 1977 to work as mentioned in the Memorandum of Proce- out specifications of CDC and the working dure which will be described later.

100' 101° 102 103° 104° 105°

III M Revised *Control point for survey Kertau Datum by simultaneous satellite 1 11 „ Sheet4(1:200,000 °KUALA LUM PUR Bangka Datum geodesy

C p „. Ke m g Astronomical 43' Observ. Spot Li Chart coverage (Phase I) Ell Chart coverage (Phase II) 111111 Sheet 5(1:200.000) AS19 0,. --Me k ,

42'

Sheet 6(1:200,000, Du ma

SU MATERA 4 1'

100' 101' 102' 1153° 164' 105'

Fig. 1.

183 schedule. At the meeting, Memorandum - Standard parallel : 01 0 15'. of Procedure (MOP) was prepared and signed by the representatives of the four - Language : English. countries. - Unit of measurement : Metric system. According to the MOP, it was defined that the joint work would be - Projection : Mercator. carried out to produce the CDC covering the area from the eastern entrance of - Symbols and abbreviations : In accord- the Singapore Strait to the northern ance with the Standard Symbols entrance of the Malacca Strait. In Phase and Abbreviations adopted by I, the main items of work were: to col- the IHO. For those symbols and lect and verify all the source materials abbreviations on the IHO Stand- required for the whole objective area, ard List for which no technical to produce three sheets of CDC covering resolutions has been adopted, the Singapore Strait (two on a scale of those appearing in Japanese 1:50,000 and one on 1:75,000), and to Chart No.6011 would be used. carry out reconnaissance for execution of the work in the subsequent phase. - Colour : In four colours. For execution of the work in Production of CDC in Phase I Phase II, another technical meeting was held in Kuala Lumpur from 17 to 19 June Collection of source materials 1980, and MOP was prepared and signed. According to this MOP, the principal work Each participating country to be done were the satellite geodetic collected all its national and foreign survey for connecting the astronomical source materials as much as possible and observation spots on the east coast of sent them to the Hydrographic Department Sumatera with the common datum point, of Japan. These source materials were and production of three sheets of CDC then sorted out according to the locality (each on a scale of 1:200,000) covering to facilitate the ensuing work. Addition- the Malacca and Singapore Straits. al source materials were furnished mainly from Singapore at later stages of the work. WORK OF PHASE I Verification of source materials and Principal specifications of preparation of detailed specifications the CDC and work carried out in Phase I are described below. Technical personnel of the four countries met in Tokyo from 10 to 30 Principal specifications of CDC in Phase I March 1978 and verified and graded all source materials, and prepared detailed - Common datum point : Fundamental Point specifications for production of CDC. at Pulau Pisang with transit The collected source materials included satellite derived coordinates some of old dated ones originated from 01 ° 28'08".1158N, 103°15'22".- the U.K. and the Netherlands. All the 6890E as its geodetic coordi- source materials were graded according to nates. their dates of survey, geodetic datums and accuracies. Then, planning sheets - Spheroid to be used : World Geodetic for the CDC were prepared on which those System 1972 (WGS-72) with a= source materials to be used were indicat- 6,378,135.00m and f=1/298.26. ed. - Scale and coverage (see Fig.1) : Detailed specifications not included in the MOP were discussed, and Sheet 1 a manual and a standard list for symbols and abbreviations for the production of Scale 1:50,000 CDC were prepared. Coverage 00°57.8'N-- 01°16.5'N 103°21.0'E-103°47.0'E Discussions were also made on how to adjust the geographical coordinates Sheet 2 on CDC of Phase I. It was agreed that a convenient method would be to apply the Scale 1:50,000 difference of geographical coordinates Coverage 01°02.0'N-- 01°20.0'N of the Fundamental Point at Pulau Pisang 103 ° 36.0'E--104°03.0'E in WGS-72 and the Revised Kertau or Bangka Datum (Fig.2) by parallel shifting, which Sheet 3 was confirmed to offer no problem cartographically. Scale 1:75,000 Coverage 01°04.0'N-- 01°32.0'N 103°58.0'E-104°37.0'E

184 is it possible to carry out satellite Bangka geodesy nearby those stations or not. X 2".20 {I} 1".81 Kertau (Revised) The reconnaissance was carried X } about 0".39 out in succession to the investigation 6".76 WGS 72 6' 7.41 I of landmarks above, from 23 January to 21 February 1979, by a joint team of the 137'.17 four countries using Indonesian survey vessel KRI JALANIDHI. As the result, eight out of 11 control point marker Fig.2. Relationship between geodetic stones were confirmed existent, and datums at Fundamental point accordingly it was concluded that the (Pulau Pisang). satellite geodetic survey would be feasible at these control points. Chart compilation Preparation of repromats The joint team of the four countries met in Tokyo from 4 July to 29 The joint team of the four November 1978, to carry out the compila- countries carried out the work in Tokyo tion of the CDC. The objective of this from 10 April to 10 August 1979, to pre- work was to compile a number of smooth pare and proofread repromats of the CDC sheets and other source materials into according to the compilation manuscripts. compilation manuscripts which contain Three different sheets were prepared instructions for drawing detailed items for the original manuscripts of each CDC, on the CDC. Some technical problems either by drawing manually or by sticking encountered during the course of compila- up phototypeset letters and symbols. tion, i.e. conversion method of fathoms into metres, limits of bathymetric repre- Finalization of repromats sentation, etc. which were not covered by the manual, were solved jointly by The representatives of the discussion. four participating countries met in Tokyo from 19 to 21 September 1979, and fina- The titles of the three sheets lized the repromats of Sheets 1, 2 and 3 of CDC in Phase I were as follows: of the CDC and the report on the work thereof. - Sheet 1: Singapore Strait - Western Portion WORK OF PHASE II - Sheet 2: Singapore Strait - Central Portion Principal specifications of CDC in Phase II - Sheet 3: Singapore Strait - Eastern Portion The common datum point, spheroid to be used, language, unit of measurement, Investigation of landmarks projection, symbols and abbreviations and the number of colours to be used were the The investigation was to check same as those in Phase I. and update the compilation manuscripts by collating the charted landmarks such - Scale and coverage (see Fig.1) : as conspicuous trees, towers, lighthouses and other topographic features with the Sheet 4 actual ones in the field. Scale 1:200,000 The field work was carried out Coverage 02°00'N-- 03°12'N by the joint team of four countries using 100°25 1 E--102°10'E the Indonesian survey vessel KRI JALANIDHI from 8 to 28 January 1979. Based on the Sheet 5 findings, the compilation manuscripts were duly amended by the joint team in Scale 1:200,000 Singapore upon completion of the field Coverage 01 ° 06'N-- 02 ° 18'N work. 101°42'E--103°27'E Reconnaissance for subsequent phase Sheet 6 In the subsequent phase, it was Scale 1:200,000 planned to produce CDC covering the Coverage 00°40'N-- 01°50'N Malacca Strait. In this case, it was 103 ° 05'E--104 ° 50'E necessary to connect, as stated before, the common datum point and the control - Standard parallel : 02°00'. points fixed by astronomical observations on the east coast of Sumatera. Since these control points were established a long time ago, it was necessary to confirm whether these points are in existence and 185

Production of CDC in Phase II (X AS Satellite geodetic survey 0".71-4".12 X WGS 72 Out of ten marker stones of 4".85-8".10 control points, i.e. eight confirmed in existence during Phase I and two in Phase II, seven were selected as indis- Fig.3. Relationship between Bessel 1841 pensable ones for construction of the and WGS-72 (astronomical observa- CDC. Satellite geodetic survey was tion spots). jointly carried out at these seven control points as well as at Cape Rachado Chart compilation lighthouse in Peninsular Malaysia and at Pulau Pisang (Fig.1). The chart càmpilation was carried out by the joint team of four The survey was carried out by countries in Tokyo from 25 May to 23 the joint team of four countries for August 1981 in the same way as in Phase 107 days from 25 August to 9 December 1980. Continuous satellite observation The adjustment of geographical of Doppler shifts at the Fundamental coordinates on CDC in Phase II was made Point at Pulau Pisang and simultaneous as follows: observation at each of control points in turn were carried out with NNSS re- As for the smooth sheets and land maps ceivers of the same type. based on the Revised Kertau or Bangka Datum, the relationship in Fig.2 was The number of passes received applied to all over the area covered at the common datum point was 252 and by the CDC as in the Phase I, and the that at each observation station was geographical coordinates were shifted around 40. Based on these observations, parallelly. geodetic coordinates of each control point on WGS-72 were obtained by the As for the smooth sheets and land maps Translocation Method (Fig.3, Table 1). based on the astronomical observation To support the survey team in the field, control points, their geographical coor- Indonesian survey vessel KRI BURUJULASAD dinates were shifted parallelly according and Singapore survey vessel M.V. MATA to the relationship shown in Table 1. IRAN were used. Thus, the charts based on WGS- The final data processing and 72 were constructed. It was also con- preparation of the survey report were firmed that such parallel shifting would carried out in Jakarta from 19 to 25 offer no problem cartographically. April 1981.

Table 1. Coordinates on Bessel 1841 and WGS-72.

Station name AS No. Astronomical WGS 72 Correction

Tg. Medang AS 190 02° 07' 06" .50N 02° 07' 05".789N -0" .71 101 0 38' 40" .19E 101 ° 38' 46" .704E +6" .51 Muara Kubu AS 107 02° 04' 12".40N 02° 04' 08".279N -4"j2 1000 38' 19" .29E 1000 38' 25" .779E +6" .49 Tg. Ketam AS 193 02° 00' 01" .80N (02 ° 00' 01" .653N) (-0" .15) 101° 19' 08".59E (101° 19' 14".188E) (+5" .60) Bengkalis AS 121 01° 27' 57".20N 01° 27' 55".488N -1".71 102° 06' 37".89E 102° 06' 42".736E +4".85 Tg. Sekudi AS 122 01° 15' 36" .00N 01° 15' 33".723N -2".28 102° 29' 30" .19E 102° 29' 35" .969E +5" .78 Tg. Kedabu AS 180 01° 05' 38" ION 01 ° 05' 34".810N -3".29 102° 58' 15".99E 102° 58' 24".087E +8" .10 Tg. Bakau AS 182 000 49' 44" .50N 00 0 49' 40 .650N -3" .85 103° 06' 39" .59E 1030 06' 45" .149E +5" .56

Note: The values in ( ) were obtained by Point Positioning.

186 The titles of the three sheets Finalization of repromats of CDC in Phase II were decided as follows: The representatives of four participating countries met in Tokyo - Sheet 4: Malacca Strait - One Fathom from 25 to 27 May 1982, and finalized Bank to Tanjung Keling the repromats of Sheets 4, 5 and 6 of the CDC and the report on the work there- - Sheet 5: Malacca Strait - Tanjung of. Keling to Western Entrance of Singapore Strait CONCLUSION - Sheet 6: Singapore Strait After completion of the whole Investigation of landmarks work in Phase I, Japan published charts Nos.751, 750 and 749 based on CDC Sheets With the same purpose and me- 1, 2 and 3, respectively, in February thod as in Phase I, the investigation 1980. The chart representation was so was carried out by using the Malaysian modified as to become in line with the vessel M.V. PEDOMAN from 19 September Japanese chart style. to 18 October 1981. Corrections to compilation manuscripts were made in Similarly, after completion Singapore as in the same way in Phase I. of Phase II, Japanese charts Nos.621, 622A and 622B were published in September Preparation of repromats 1982, based on CDC Sheets 4, 5 and 6, respectively. The work was carried out in Tokyo from 5 January to 31 March 1982 Thus, the Common Datum Charts as in the same way in Phase I. of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore will be maintained up-to-date in the form of nautical charts published by the participating countries.

COMMON DATIYM_CIIAKt

Common Datum Chart Sheet 6

187 numériques aux fins de la production des cartes. Jusqu'ici, le processus THE ELECTRONIC CHART global est resté axé sur la production de la carte marine classique. Bien en- R. M. Eaton, N.M. Anderson, tendu, on a reconnu la valeur des don- T.V. Evangelatos nées numériques pour la mise à jour des cartes et, en fin de compte, pour un Canadian Hydrographic Service usage probable sur la passerelle.

(For presentation at the Canadian Aujourd'hui, le progrès technique se Hydrographic Service Centennial traduit par une utilisation de plus en Conference, Ottawa, 6-8 April 1983) plus grande du microprocesseur dans les groupes d'instruments. 'Les systèmes de positionnement électroniques facilitent The Electronic Chart le traitement informatique des données aux fins de l'obtention de renseigne- ABSTRACT ments sur la navigation en temps réel. La technique d'affichage, notamment l'é- The Canadian Hydrographic Service began cran vidéo, permet maintenant de repré- its involvement in collecting and pro- senter graphiquement les données emmaga- cessing digital hydrographic data in sinées dans une case de données numér- the late 60's. During the intervening iques. Dans le même temps, le tratic years the Service has been actively in- maritime ne cesse d'augmenter de même volved in the development, testing and que le coût des catastrophes maritimes. implementation of digital data acquisi- Par conséquent, nous pouvons supposer à tion systems for the recording and pro- juste titre que les navigateurs demande- cessing of hydrographic data and the ront à ce que les données relatives aux processing of digital data in the chart radars de positionnement et anti-abor- production process. So far the orienta- dage soient intégrées aux renseigne- tion of the overall process has re- ments sur la navigation fournis par la mained towards the eventual production carte marine. Dans le présent document, of the conventional nautical chart. The nous examinons cette technique et envi- value of the digital data itself for sageons le rôle futur des données four- the maintenance of the charts and pos- nies par la carte marine dans la mesure sibly its eventual use on the bridge où elles seront utilisées dans les sys- was of course recognized. tèmes électroniques sur la passerelle. Today the technological push is towards the increase of microprocessor tech- PREFACE - A Navigation Day-Dream nology in the instrumentation packages. Electronic positioning systems facili- Imagine the scene on the bri- tate computer processing for real time dge shortly after the year 2000. Newfou- navigation information. Display technol- ndland and the federal government have ogy, particularly video displays now recently reached agreement on offshore make possible the graphic presentation resource ownership, and the tanker, of data stored within a digital data- "Concord Yemani", light out of Bahrejn, base. Coincidentally marine traffic is is crossing the Grand Banks en route to increasing and the costs of marine dis- Come-By-Chance. At 2200 that night the asters are escalating. Therefore it is second mate is on the bridge getting reasonable to assume that there will be the consolidated Notices to Mariners a demand to integrate positioning and for the Atlantic coast by telex from collision avoidance radars with navi- St. John's radio; he records them on a gational information contained on the discette which he loads into the Elec- nautical chart. This paper will review tronic Chart Storage Controller, and this technology and consider the future thus automatically updates the chart role of information contained on the data in storage. The Captain comes out nautical chart as it will be used in of his sea cabin, and notes that on the the electronic systems on the bridge. real time chart video display there is a strobe flashing on the Virgin Rocks, with a warning that on the present cour- La carte électronique se and speed made good the ship will pass within 2 miles of the 30 m contour Sommaire in 18 minutes time. The mate on watch assures him he is keeping an eye on Le Service hydrographique du Canada a this while he manoeuvres to clear a commencé à recueillir et à traiter des group of draggers, and as has become données hydrographiques numériques à la quite a habit with him, he again com- fin des années 1960. Depuis lors, le ments on how useful it is to have the Service a participé activement à l'éla- NAVSTAR/LORAN driven electronic chart boration, à l'essai et à la mise en look after position plotting, leaving place de systèmes d'acquisition des don- him free to concentrate on avoiding col- nées numériques qui permettent d'enre- lision. The Captain is satisfied, and gistrer et de traiter les données hydro- goes to the auxiliary video display and graphiques et de traiter les données calls for the ephemeris to display to-

188 morrow's time of sunrise and sun's true collect data and present it to the mari- bearing (for a gyro check), followed by ner; it is equally of interest and of tides for the day computed from harmon- value to look ahead to where we are ic constituents included in his Atlan- going. The nautical chart has evolved tic coast chart disc. He also checks from a map showing the shoreline and "S.D." for details of reporting and prominent features and depths along traffic regulations for Come-By-Chance. navigation tracks, to the depth con- Then he calls up the Chart at 1:5,000,- tour, more shoreline information, and 000 and zooms the scale until Placen- then the cultural features as settle- tia Bay fills the screen. He superim- ments developed. Today, the nautical poses fishing areas in green and traf- chart is a comprehensive document show- fic control zones in purple, then era- ing not only detailed depth contours, ses them to have a clearer look at the the shoreline and the foreshore informa- depths. As he scans over the chart up tion, but also considerable additional to Come-By-Chance, enlarging the scale navigational aid information which may as he goes, he finds he cannot go above be relevant to navigation, notes about 1:24,000 for the outer approaches as the tides and currents, harbour informa- that was the scale of the original sur- tion, etc. As the chart has evolved it vey. The Captain uses the "track-plan" has become more cluttered with informa- routine to put on his courses for the tion; consequently the challenge to the next day. He selects a 10m keel clear- cartographer is to show more and more ance and 5 cables lateral clearance; and more information on a document flashing danger strobes come up on a which is limited in scale and size. couple of points where these are not This necessarily means that at some satisfied. Once he is happy with his point information has to be dropped to planned track he transfers it to the make space for other higher priority chart controller so that it will appear information. It means that colours need on the real time plot when the ship to be used, symbols need to be deve- reaches that area. loped to graphically show more information in a small space, and that eventually special purpose charts are re- As the ship rounds Cape St. quired. Charts for offshore navigation, Mary's next morning and approaches recreational charts, fisheries charts Argentia traffic control, the mate on are examples. watch superimposes the digital radar output in green on the chart video dis- On the bridge of a ship the play, and by radar joystick he matches nautical chart today is an important the radar coastline to the chart coast- document for navigation, for recording line, thus removing a small residual the tracks of the ship, and to carry ASF correction in the Loran-C that is the additional notes that a mariner or driving the ship position. He confirms fisherman may add to his chart relevant at a glance that there are no islands to his particular mission. The nautical three miles ahead up the coast, so chart as it is now will continue to be these radar echoes must be fishing used for many years into the future. We boats. As the ship nears Argentia they are not suggesting that the nautical pick up the shore radar re-broadcast, chart will cease to exist in the near and superimpose that video image on the future. However, it does have limita- chart in orange to keep track of other tions, and current technical develop- ships in the vicinity not yet on their ments can possibly be applied to miti- own radar. At the same time the captain gate these. puts the "track profile" on the auxiliary display; this shows a graph of the under-keel clearance along his plan- Television today is an impor- ned track, with the ship's sounder tant form of information transfer, and graph superimposed. along with television a whole array of new developments are occurring showing An hour later, in preparation the direction of the future in terms of for berthing at the loading dolphins, using the electronic technology to show the Captain locks on the differential visual information. For example, you do Loran-C monitor for maximum accuracy not go very far today without seeing an with respect to the dock, and switches arcade with video games. Well, there the real time display to docking mode. are other applications, less profitable At a scale of 1:1,000, (no soundings) perhaps but nevertheless more prac- this shows the ship 15 cm long, making tical, of the same video technology. it easy to judge her orientation and For example, Ford Motor Company is now distance from her berth. demonstrating a video map which is placed in the car and keeps track of Mr. Smallwood is first aboard the car's position relative to the map the ship when the gangway goes down. and shows the driver where he is within the streets of the city. Texas Instru- THE ELECTRONIC CHART IS COMING ments have developed simulators and are as we celebrate the 100th Anniversary in the process of developing equipment of the Canadian Hydrographic Service for the video display of digital ter- and look back to the beginning of the rain models of the earth so that the Service and the ways and means used to pilot in the cockpit, if he loses his 189 view of the ground, has a digital ver- specific information, select certain in- sion of the terrain shown to him on the formation, integrate computations from video display within the cockpit. several sensors, compare measured depths to the depths in the digital A year ago we field tested a data base or project and identify pos- Japanese video plotter attached to a sible hazards, etc. Its development Loran-C receiver onboard C.S.S.. "Daw- will depend on the pace of technolog- son". It had a 30 cm screen, and dis- ical advances, on the introduction of played the ship's track from Loran-C on Navstar GPS as a universal, precise nav- mercator projection at any scale from aid, and on shipowners and legislators 1:10,000 to 1:1,000,000 adjustable in- being convinced that it will make navi- stantly by zoom control. Way points en- gation safer and more efficient. In tered in the Loran-C receiver micro- this paper we would like to show how processor were displayed on the plot- the electronic chart can help the mari- ter, and the operator could tag points ner and to discuss the impact of advanc- on the plot by various symbols posi- ing technology on the electronic chart. tioned by a cursor. The plotter stored We do this with the idea of generating several hours of track in its own mem- discussion rather than laying down a ories, and these could be backed off cut and dried program. onto a casette recorder to be stored for replaying onto the plotter at a FEATURES OF THE ELECTRONIC later date. The most impressive demon- CHART No one supposes the Electronic stration of its usefulness came when Chart will simply arrive in 1990, fully the release of a seabed transponder developed and with every imaginable fea- failed, and the ship had to drag for ture. Instead it will evolve from the the mooring. The ship's track when lay- present limited starts, and at anytime, ing the transponder and its 600 m different versions will have as much ground line was replayed onto the plot- variety in features as there are in ter at 1:10,000 scale, and with this it automobiles. However there are some was childs' play to con the ship in basic features which will be common to dragging for the ground line and when all electronic charts, and we will con- that parted, successfully grappling the sider those after making a general com- mooring itself. It was successful be- parison with paper charts. cause the Captain had an immediate, continuous, complete record of the ship's In concept at least, the elec- track, without plotting a single fix. tronic chart has advantages over paper He had plenty of time to manoeuvre the charts. One is flexibility - the abil- ship, keep an eye on the work on deck, ity to move from one part of the ocean and watch the radar for other traffic, to another by slewing a joystick, or because he did not have to dive for the automatically following the ship, and plotting sheet every minute to update to zoom the scale by press-button con- the ship's position. trol. Perhaps the most important is the ability to display the ship's position The concept of a video chart on the chart, and to maintain a contin- is not a new idea. Some years ago uous plot with the full accuracy of Sperry (Tiblin 1977) added chart infor- whatever navaids are being used. The mation to collision avoidance radar. navigator can see at a glance where he The U.S. Coast Guard are evaluating vi- is, without putting his head over the deo charts now. (Puckett H. 1978, Erick- chart table and plotting a fix, and he son 1982). Companies such as Texas In- will be able to compare the radar di- struments and Navigation Sciences Inc., rectly with Loran-C/Decca/Navstar of Washington D.C. have done contract G.P.S., and so solve positioning incon- and in-house research on electronic sistencies. Another difference is that charting (figure 1.) the video display can be animated, to put a red flasher on a navigation haz- What is the electronic chart? ard; to show a pulsing blue wave on a Is there a firm definition of the elec- tide rip; to show the track of bergs tronic chart at this time? No, it is and growlers. It can be programmed to too early to see what the end product display notes at appropriate times; for will be. The term is used for discus- example that "strong tidal streams oc- sion purposes only. At its most ele- curs three hours after high water i.e. mentary level it could be envisioned to at 1997/03/0400Z". be that information which is used on a video display where the Loran-C posi- The video display also tion and the radar are integrated and has drawbacks. The some shoreline information is added to resolution is not as good as on the display, possibly also containing paper (but it is arguable that the display should be kept bold navigational way points. At its most and comprehensive level, it can be envi- uncluttered so that it can be as- similated quickly). All chartwork at sioned as a digital data base of the present done by pencil bathymetry, other navigational informa- and parallel rule will have to be done electroni- tion, shoreline, sailing directions, cally on the display (but that should nautical publications and Notice to cause the new generation Mari ners with a data manipulation no trouble). sys- If a component fails you lose the chart tem that has the ability to zoom in or 190 be cor- (but you can also lose radar and the paper chart, Loran-C fixes must ship's steering gear). Perhaps the rected for land - path errors. greatest problem will be that flexi- bearings bility has an inevitable twin-com- A visual fix by cross plexity; it will be vitally important (or range and bearing) could be plotted and to make the electronic chart by putting a cursor onto the object bearing on the user-friendly, and to have some interna- entering the range and this would display a tional set of uniform standards and pro- control panel; cedures. range arc and bearing LOP on the video. important The electronic chart system It is fundamentally comprises a great many features. Here that the electronic chart is integrated display, preferably by are some of them, starting with the with the radar video display: superimposing a digitized radar image (with brightness control) on the chart video. This will help to identify radar shoreline The Video Display of the Chart targets, especially when the ice, and will The projection can be a choice. The is low or masked by sea echoes from computer will generate rhumb lines or distinguish between radar great circles, so Mercator or Gnomonic buoys and from other ships. By joystick are not essential. control, the radar image (and the ship's position that goes with it) can The scale can be varied from then be moved to correspond with the very small (which requires that the com- shoreline, thus eliminating residual er- puter generalize the data) to very rons in the radio navaid, which will the radar on large. However the scale of the orig- thereafter serve to keep the ship inal survey must not be exceeded, or if the target by dead-reckoning at a there is good reason to exceed it, this along the track. The 00W can check fact must be flagged, perhaps by glance that this is in fact happening. pecking or blurring the lines. Evi- The dently the data base for such a chart Making Chart Corrections has to cover the area of the smallest basic chant data must be on a pro- scale chart and yet have the detail of tected, read only, memory; this will be just the largest scale - a formidable prob- revised when major changes occur, lem in data storage and manipulation. as a paper chant is reprinted. Auto- matic chart corrections will be applied Because the resolution is less from a temporary correction memory than that of the paper chart, less data which the mariner replaces each time he can be displayed and some selection obtains a fresh set of corrections. will be necessary. But critical features such as shoreline and conspicuous Planning a Passage Instead of objects, shoals, critical depth con- using a pencil, parallel ruler, di- tours, fixed and floating aids, power viders, and a whole chant folio, the cables in anchorages, etc., must always mariner will plan a passage by first be shown. zooming down to a scale small enough to show both the port of departure and the Optional data should be avail- destination, and run the track cursor able on demand. A minimum set for a along the proposed passage in order to complete electronic chart is everything read out total distance and given on the paper chart, grouped under clas- speed, the time on passage. Then he sifications such as "depth contour," will increase scale and ne -frame the "type of bottom", "tides and currents", chant to cover the first leg of the "traffic control", etc. Other features voyage and put a cursor at each end of not always on the paper chart, such as the first leg. The computer will draw a "special fishery information", "main line between, and in a sophisticated shipping routes", "distribution of ice- model chart, it will flash any hazards bergs for the month of June", could be within a selected distance of the added for display one at a time. track. After displaying and checking auxiliary information such as tidal Survey data recorded on NAD 27 streams and fishing vessel concentra- datum should be transformed to WGS '72, tions for that time of year, the mari- if necessary by the electronic chart ner presses "hour" to generate ticks at itself. one hour intervals along track, and then "store", which records the track Displaying the Ship's Position on the passage discette, which can then Video plotters are already driven from be filed until the ship sails. Once TRANSIT SATNAV plus log and gyro, or by that route has been proved satis- LORAN-C, etc. The continuous track they factory, the passage discette can be generate is a great advance over occa- ne -used indefinitely. sional hand-plotted positions in de- sophisti- tecting gross errors, or the effect of Ephemerides In a currents, etc. cated model, navigation programs can be selected from a wide range, and an an- To equal the accuracy of the nual ephemeris tape will update sight 191

reduction calculations; compute time all computer system cost. and the sun's true bearing at sunrise and sunset; compute tides from stored Memory The striking decrease tidal constituents; etc. Similar pro- in cost of the hardware for storing grams will provide magnetic variation; digital data over the past decade has Omega diurnal correction; geoid height been a significant factor in creating for Transit Satnav corrections; geo- the microprocessor revolution. For some graphic datum transformation, etc. types of memory storage the costs have dropped by a factor of 100 and this Track Record In addition to a trend is expected to continue for the continuous record of ship's position, forseeable future. the electronic chart logger could record the scale used and class of infor- The electronic chart will em- mation being displayed at any time, ploy different types of storage; These plus a digitised radar picture at inter- are illustrated in Figure 1. The pri- vals. Stored in a sealed unit "black mary memory, packaged with the CPU, con- box" this would be a more reliable re- sists of a main memory and a cache. cord than a pencil track on a paper Main memory will contain the program chart plus pencil entries in the ship's and data currently being processed. log. Faster memory costs more, and the use of a high speed cache memory between The Hardware Technology The the slower and cheaper main memory and hardware that could be used to build an the CPU is a way of speeding things up electronic chart is more or less avail- in an economical fashion. As memory able now. The cost of the hardware gets faster and cheaper, the cache may alone is probably still too high to not be required. At present primary make such systems attractive to many memory is constructed from semi-con- users. The cost of developing general ductor arrays which are still too expen- purpose software is also very high at sive for storage of very large amounts this time, but with current and pred- of data; this creates the need for the icted reduction in hardware prices of secondary, mass storage, memory. over 20% per year, it should not take very long for the cost of the hardware The mass storage memory could components to reach a reasonable level. probably be a magnetic disc, but in the The foundation of the software is being future the optical disc may be more laid through the construction of spec- attractive due to its greater capacity. ial purpose systems and from the pro- It may be feasible to store all the gress being made in computer-assisted hydrographic charts of Canada on one cartography and hydrography. 30 cm diameter disc!

The major components of the Auxiliary or archival memory electronic chart as currently visual- is used for data that is not accessed ized are: very often. It must be reliable and relatively low cost. Although magnetic -Microprocessor central processing unit tape is typically used, this medium (CPU) might not be suitable for shipboard -Data storage medium use. A potential application of the ar- -Electronic display chived memory might be to automatically -Radar and positioning systems log the vessel's track and any other important activity that can be moni- Microprocessors Today's tored. In the event of an accident or low-cost computer is typically an 8 bit other mishap the record would be avail- microprocessor with a capability of able for analysis. executing around 1/2 million instructions per second. Such a chip sells for Electronic Displays The speci- about $5.00. Chips that can run up to fication, design and selection of the 10 times faster are now available at display and the operator's console will slightly higher cost. By 1985 it is be a crucial element in the design of predicted that the 8 bit microprocessor the electronic chart. A high resolution will have been supplanted by the 16 bit colour display is mandatory for a chip or 32 bit. The major obstacle in general purpose system, although single moving to the larger chip is not the colour, medium resolution displays may extra cost of the hardware but the very be adequate for special purpose sys- large variety of existing and rela- tems. High resolution means at least tively inexpensive (often free) soft- 1000 line elements in each axis. Our ware for the 8 bit units. Current 32 work in computer-assisted cartography bit microprocessor chips range from suggests a minimum dimension of 40cm $400 up and we expect the electronic square. With current technology these charts will be based on this technol- requirements can only be met with a ogy. Of course to the cost of the chip cathode-ray tube (CRT) type of display. must be added memory and hardware to Liquid crystal and plasma displays are control the various peripherals and per- being developed but it will be some form other functions; the cost of the time before they can compete with the chip is only a small part of the over- CRT in terms of size and resolution.

192 Liquid crystal and plasma displays are the field. Currently the software is flat, operate at lower voltages, con- being developed to handle the automated sume less power and are more compact contouring of the digital hydrographic than the CRT display. data. Charts are compiled and the compiled information is digitized, inter- Radar The mariner's first re- actively edited, and automatically action uTIFIF—Ilearing about the proposed drawn so that the colour negatives used electronic chart is that it must show in the chart printing processes now are the radar information. Two choices automatically drawn on high resolution exist: attempt to overlay the radar plotters such as the Gerber 32 and the ' picture' on the electronic chart dis- Kongsburg plotters. The Canadian Hydro- play, or alternately add the chart data graphic Service is in the process of to radar display; the latter would re- developing a digital hydrographic data quire a major redesign of the radar base and a digital chart data base as a system, and therefore it is felt that result of these ongoing production pro- the first method would be easier and cesses. The question to be addressed is less costly. whether these data bases will be appropriate for the custoder who doesn't Two techniques to add the ra- want the hard copy version of the data, dar information to the electronic chart but the digital data itself for an inte- display have been suggested. The radar grated navigation system on the bridge. returns could be digitized, processed to match the scale of the electronic The data base used for the chart display and then added to the electronic chart may just be a cata- display. The second technique would use loguing system which simply accesses a scan converter to convert the radar digital versions of our existing charts picture to a raster display, which with their overlapping scales and lim- would also be scanned and added to the ited coverage. But since the electronic electronic chart display. Both of these chart will be more flexible than the approaches require investigation. paper chart, both in scale and in selecting certain classes of data, it is THE CHS TECHNOLOGY BASE In capable of containing much more informa- the 1950's the CHS introduced elec- tion than the paper chart does. In prin- tronic navigation and positioning to ciple it is possible to provide a com- the field surveys and in the 1960's the pletely general data base, conceivably computer was added to the field survey containing all available hydrographic operations. From those meagre beginn- information. Whether this is practical ings the use of the computer has in- is another matter. The choice between a creased to where today it is used exten- paper chart oriented system and a gen- sively for survey computations, data eral system is an important question logging, processing and plotting. The since many years will be needed to result is an ever increasing accumula- build up the digital data base. tion of digital hydrographic data. It is not the CHS's responsi- In the late 1960's, automated bility to research and develop the elec- plotting was introduced in CHS chart tronic chart for use by mariners. How- production to handle the mathematical ever, if we are to have a data base functions such as navigation lattices, which will meet the needs of the fu- borders and grids for the nautical ture, we need lead time to begin its chart. The digitizing was developed so development and to bring it into place that graphic data could be converted when the technology becomes available into computer compatible form. The for the mariner. Therefore, there are equipment that the CHS now has is flexi- certain areas in which we will conduct ble, interactive and is effectively research, in order to give direction to used for chart production. The introduc- our data base development. We need to tion of interactive graphics in the know what will be required of the data late '70's was an important innovation base. We need to develop the procedures in the chart production process because for selection and generalizing the da- this put into the hands of the cartog- ta. We need to know what kind of sym- rapher the same decision-making power bols will be used on a video display; that he had before in compiling the they will not necessarily be the same charts manually. Interactive chart com- symbols used on the traditional naut- pilation is possible provided the carto- ical chart. We need to plan the produc- grapher has available to him the data tion, maintenance and distribution of in digital form to work with. One of the digital chart data base. Although the holdbacks in this process is that we do not see the electronic chart com- most of the hydrographic data base re- ing into full use for many years, we quired for chart production is still in recognize that it is important to start graphic form. to plan for it today.

Today we see the automated log- Hydrographers and cartograph- ging of digital hydrographic field sur- ers have only begun to use and be com- veys where the position and depth and fortable with computerized systems. The time are recorded and processed and the expertise and experience established in field sheet automatically plotted in applying automation to hydrography and 193 cartography will be an asset in the and computer technology. Like other in- development of the electronic chart. We formation sciences it has and still is will be conducting a study to review experiencing a technologi cal and infor- the state of the art at determining mation explosion. It is inevitable that what is happening in other offices and the limits of scale and size of the companies around the world, in develop- nautical chart will be overcome by coming and applying the technology. We puterized information bases. The stud- will also be conducting pilot projects ies and seminars over the past year are to provide more specific information re- only a beginning, but we hope they will levant to the development and specifica- stimulate ideas and further work in tion of the data base. A prototype elec- this new and exciting frontier of hydro- tronic chart is now being planned to graphy. simulate the use of a commercial electronic chart. The objectives of this project are to develop:

1. data base specifications 2. minimum standards for the use of the hydrographic data base 3. standard video symbols and conventions

INTERNATIONAL IMPLICATIONS As versions of the electronic chart evolve over the next decade, the world's hydrographic offices will face new situations, and some new challenges. Their chart production monopoly, based on selling charts as a government service at less than cost, will disappear as industry begins to produce electronic charts. Industry will ask for a logi- cally organised, complete, data base. If there are no guidelines, each manufacturer will make his own selection of which chart features should be shown, and his own selection of which chart features should not be shown, and his own choice of con-Urs to identify them and symbols to portray them. In an extreme example he may eliminate everything except the shoreline, and blow up a 1:50,000 scale survey to a 1:5,000 scale display.

Issues that the world hydrographic offices need to recognize include base format; minimum standards for the use of hydrographic data; colour code conventions for various features; and standard symbols. These matters cannot be finally settled until electronic charts have been produced and used, and even then regulations that are too strict are undesirable as they tend to stifle development. But general guidelines need to be established before bad practices become en- trenched, and difficult to undo. The air industry is ahead on this, with, for example, specifications for a computer readable IFR cockpit display (ARINC 1980). We cannot establish standards before we know a fair amount about how an electronic chart will work.

CONCLUSION The present generation of hydrographers and cartographers have participated in the development of hydrography and cartography from a manual operation using optical and mechanical instruments to one that which today makes extensive use of electronic 194 MEMORY HIERARCHY

CONTROL t INPUT C.P.U. OUTPUT

C CACHE ) FAST PRIMARY { MEMORY MAIN MEMORY

SECONDARY 1 i MASS STORAGE MEMORY 1 AUXILIARY I ARCHIVAL LARGE Et MEMORY MEMORY CHEAP

Figure 1

195 THE USE OF LORAN-C navigation intégrés, dans un proche IN THE avenir. L'auteur examine la répercus- CANADIAN FISHING FLEET sion possible de ces perfectionnements pour les cadres SHC (numériques ou aut- Fred Kolls res). L'auteur termine en s'efforçant IGM Services Ltd. de préciser le maximum des montants Mouth of Keswick, N.B. que les propriétaires de bateaux sera- Canada EOH 1NO ient disposés à investir pour moder- niser leurs systèmes Loran C.

David E. Wells University of New Brunswick Department of Surveying Engineering P.O. Box 4400 Fredericton, N.B. INTRODUCTION Canada E3B 5A3

LORAN-C is provided for users in Canadian Hydrographic Waters through a cooperative arrangement between ABSTRACT the U.S. Coast Guard and the Canadian Coast Guard (who operate the transmit- Since its production, LORAN-C ters), and the Canadian Hydrographic has played an increasingly important Service (who provides calibrated LOR- role within the Canadian fishing fle- AN-C lattices on Canadian Hydrographic et. Four different economic factors charts). have been responsible for this changing role: diminishing catches, and more effective sonar systems. The num- Figure 1 shows the present ber of fishing vessels using LORAN-C LORAN-C coverage in Canadian waters. is estimated, based on licensing data On the west coast the 5990 chain was available on the Canadian fleet. Equ- commissioned in August 1977, with the ivalent estimates are made for the Port Hardy transmitter being added in U.S. fishing fleet. Features now avail- November 1980. On the east coast the able on the newest LORAN-C receivers 9960 chain (which provides good cover- provide a hint of what can be expected age in the Bay of Fundy and the south- in integrated navigation systems in ern half of the Scotia Shelf) was com- the future. The constraints affecting missioned in September 1978. The 5930 the amount that vessel owners would be chain (which extended good coverage willing to invest in upgrading their over the Bay of Fundy, all of Scotia LORAN-C systems is outlined. Finally, Shelf, Cabot Strait and most of the the possible impact this may have on Gulf of St. Lawrence) was commissioned the Canadian Hydrographic Service is in April 1980. Some coverage south of discussed. Greenland is presently available from the 7930 chain. A new transmitter at Fox Harbour, Labrador, scheduled to be operational within the next few years, will be used to extend the coverage of the 9960 chain, and to form a new RÉSUMÉ Labrador Sea chain (with Cape Race and Angissoq), which together will extend Depuis sa création, le réseau LORAN-C coverage over all of the Gulf Loran C joue un rôle de plus en plus of St. Lawrence, The Grand Banks of important au sein de la flotille de Newfoundland, and north over much of pêche canadienne. Cette évolution est the Labrador Sea, as shown in Figure 2. due à quatre facteurs économiques dif- férents; la baisse du prix des récep- Who are the users of LORAN-C teurs, la hausse du côut d'exploita- in Canadian waters? In this paper we tion et du prix d'achat des bateaux, look at one class of user - the fisher- la baisse des prises et l'apparition, man. We have taken two approaches. Fir- sur le marché, de systèmes sonar moins st we develop a user profile, based on chers et plus efficaces. L'auteur de Canadian fishing fleet statistics, and la présente étude évalue le nombre de place this in a North American context bateaux de pêche utilisant le réseau by considering U.S. fishing fleet stat- Loran C, sur la base des données rela- istics as well. Secondly, we look at tives à la délivrance des permis aux LORAN-C receivers, and enhancements to pêcheurs canadiens et fournit des esti- them which may occur in the near fut- mations équivalentes pour la flottille ure. Based on these two considerations de pêche des États-Unis. Les carac- we suggest some implications for the téristiques des récepteurs Loran C les role of the Canadian Hydrographic Ser- plus récents donnent une idée de ce vice in providing appropriate LORAN-C qu'on peut attendre des systèmes de information to its users. 196

the name of the ship, the owner, the port of registry, the type of ship, it's length, gross tons, and net tons. Gross tonnage is defined as the capacity in cubic feet of the space within the hull and the enclosed space above deck available for cargo, stores, fuel, passengers and crew, all divided by 100, — where 100 cubic feet is defined as equal to 1 gross ton. Net tons are defined as

t e gross tonnage less the space consumed by Poi! NAACO, crew and machinery. peg ,, \ Files on annual fishing vessel licenses are maintained by the Newfoundland [Russel, 1982,] Scotia Fundy [Jones, 1982], Quebec [Berube, 1982], and British Columbia [Hsu, 1982; Carson, 1982] regional licensing boards of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans. A copy of the licensing form is shown in the appendix. The Newfoundland, Scotia Fundy, and Quebec files are being maintained annually, whereas since 1979 the British Columbia files have not been maintalned for every element on the form. It is from these Present Canadian files that our profile of the LORAN-C Coverage distribution of electronic equipment on FIG 1 the vessels was derived.

Table 1 shows a distribution of vessels by province for Atlantic Canada, by tonnage and by electronic equipment ,..)..CSO4S■72, on board for 1979-1980. This indicates that of the 33,530 vessels found in the Atlantic fleet, LORAN-C was the third most used electronic device, superseded only by depth recorders and RADAR. For British Columbia this breakdown of electronic equipment by tonnage is not tWe available--only the totals for all - ,,U2141e'KW4P tonnage. These values are shown in brackets at the bottom of Table 2. However, from discussions with staff ■ ; from the B.C. fisheries region [Carson, 1982,] it is reasonatyle to use the 996q3 / Scotia Fundy region / as a model to ..... nw estimate the breakdown of electronic ABLE 1 Electronic Equipment Atlantic Canada Fleet. Depth Direct- el Gross No. of Record- Auto ion Region Tonnage Vessels er RADAR LORAN DECCA Pilot SONAR Finder

N•fld 0- 9 18.197 292 67 9 13 4 24 33 (19801 10- 25 1,034 770 628 69 61 36 77 53 26- 49 267 171 177 59 36 42 40 23 50- 99 89 82 85 47 24 47 41 30 100-149 8 6 8 s 5 3 4 3 Future Canadian 150. 89 88 89 83 88 52 13 12 Scotia 0- 9 6,700 1,796 331 79 15 30 24 116 Fundy 10- 25 3,680 3,063 1,569 818 40 193 94 225 LORAN-C Coverage (19801 26- 49 372 397 426 374 37 184 33 17 50- 99 203 258 291 251 88 139 39 22 FIG2 100-149 56 68 78 67 38 48 9 7 150. 172 241 279 270 149 160 67 35 THE CANADIAN COMMERCIAL Ouebee 0- 9 2,254 325 72 1 1 - 2 - FISHING FLEET (1979 ) 10- 25 259 220 125 10 2 2 9 - 26- 49 84 81 77 50 1 -- 4 50- 99 40 37 39 24 2 3 2 2 In Canada, data on our fleet of 100-149 17 17 17 14 4 9 1 2 fishing vessels is available from 1500 9 9 9 9 7 5 6 - regional Transport Canada, and from the Summary for licensing boards of the Department of Atlantic Canada Fisheries and Oceans. 0- 9 27,151 2,413 470 89 29 34 50 149 10- 25 4,973 4,053 2,322 897 103 231 180 278 26- 49 723 649 680 483 74 226 73 44 Transport Canada 50- 99 332 377 415 322 114 189 82 54 produces an 100-149 81 91 103 86 47 59 14 12 annual inventory of all registered 150. 270 338 377 362 244 217 86 47 vessels in Canada, called the List of Totals 33,530 7,921 4.367 2.239 611 959 485 584 Shipping (MOT, 1982). This inventory is Sources: Newfoundland data Russel [19823 divided into two categories: fishing Scotia Fundy data Jones [1982] vessels, and others. The data include Quebec data Berube [1982] 197

equipment by tonnage on commercial 4 that fishing vessels in B.C. The B.C. fleet It is obvious from Table gross have a is considered to be more modernized and vessels over 25 tons the estimates should therefore be substantial amount of navigational slightly low. This is verified by equipment on board. It also appears must have more comparing the totals so estimated with evident that some vessels the known totals shown on Table 2. Here than one piece of the same equipment. again, LORAN-C is ranked third most TABLE 4 Percentage of Onboard Electronic Equipment on important after depth recorders and Canadian Fishing Vessels. RADAR, but the proportion of electronic Gross Depth Auto equipment to the size of the fleet is Tons Recorder RADAR LORAN DECCA Pilot SONAR DF much higher. 0- 9 11.1 2.2 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.7 TABLE? Estimated Registered Commercial Fishing Vessels in B.C. 10- 25 82.1 45.4 19.4 1.8 4.8 2.7 5.8 (1979 ) by Tonnage, Electronic Equipment. 26- 49 96.5 98.3 80.3 10.1 38.6 9.6 6.1 50- 99 119.6. 133.0* 108.8* 38.3 62.1 22.3 13.8 Gross N Depth Auto 100-149 116.6* 133.1. 112.9. 62.0 79.1 16.6 13.5 Tons Vessels Recorder RADAR LORAN Pilot SONAR DF 150* 127.3. 143.0. 137.6. 89.7 82.4 32,9 17.9

0- 9 4,458 1,195 220 53 20 16 77 10- 24 2,400 1,998 1,023 533 126 61 147 NOTE: * indicates duplication of equipment. 25- 49 483 515 566 485 239 43 29 50 - 99 261 332 374 323 179 50 28 Source: Derived from Table 3. 100-149 82 99 114 98 70 13 10 - 1500 49 68 79 77 46 19 10 Estimated To test the validity of these Totals 7,733 4,207 2,376 1,560 680 202 301 statistics, we conducted our own Known selective assessment of electronic Totals 7,733 (5,809) (3,655) (1,923) ( 2,709) (295) (544) equipment used in Atlantic Canada. We Source: Hsu (1982] and Carson ( 19822. discussed the reporting mechanisms with the staff of the Scotia Fundy Licensing Table 3 and Figure 3 describe Board [Russel, 1982] and discovered that the entire Canadian fishing fleet using equipment added to an already registered the estimated values for B.C. and the vessel might not show in the statistics. known data for the Atlantic region As a result we conducted some equipment indicating that nearly 10% of the ships surveys of our own at several randomly recorded use LORAN-C. Table 4 breaks selected harbours in the Scotia Fundy down the distribution of electronic region. We found that the proportion of equipment as a percentage of the number vessels carrying each type of equipment of vessels by tonnage categories. was always higher than the official statistics indicated. Since we were TABLE 3 Canadian Commercial Fishing Vessels 1979 - 1980 by Tonnage and Electronic Equipment. primarily concerned with LORAN-C use, we concentrated on verifying those Gross Depth Auto Tons VeSSels Recorder RADAR LORAN DECCA Pilot SONAR DF statistics. Our sampling indicates that in the 10 to 50 ton category the 0- 9 31,609 3,508 690 142 39 54 66 226 frequency of LORAN-C use is about twice 10- 25 7,373 6,051 3,345 1,430 129 357 196 425 26- 49 1,206 1,164 1,186 968 122 465 116 73 that shown in the available records. 50- 99 593 709 789 645 227 368 132 82 This would imply that there are up to 100-149 163 190 217 184 101 129 27 22 150+ 319 406 456 435 286 263 105 57 6800 LORAN-C receivers in use in the Canadian commercial fishery or up to 16% Totals 42,263 12,028 6,6.83 3,808 904 1,636 642 885 of all vessels are equipped with at least one receiver. If we omit vessels Source: Derived from Tables 1 and 2. less than 10 tons, then up to 62% of the remainder of the fleet uses LORAN-C. These estimates are based on 1979 statistics. While the fleet expanded by about 3% per year between 1974 and 1979 - - ' .,-----;,-- Canadian Fishing ;"' --ï,- ' ----- (see Table s), LORAN-C use increased by Fleet mrsamAr r% : %----- 1979-80 more than that (e.g., by 13% from 1979 -r 4.dirdr AIM e.:ÀF, .BLE 5 Canadian Fisheries Number of Vessels by Tonnage (for those Provinces Reporting by Tonnage). d GROSS % ,..;tragdorm0 F,, TONNAGE 1973 1974 1975 1976 1978 1979 1980

10 29,640 28,851 31,151 29,758 29,777 25,008 25,520 10- 25 4,255 4,411 4,551 4,610 6,314 4,606 5,054 Il 26- 49 859 928 974 942 981 523 574 -, ..0000 100-10 ‹,0\ 50- 99 377 415 431 415 480 264 287 100-149 124 143 137 114 140 58 66 ,a 150-499 273 289 292 273 259 225 222 - ' IlrulAde 4'.. e 500, - 35 32 38 ee Z1:, IlledirArdir417.-,, Source: Canadian Fisheries Annual Statistical Review 1973-1980 .i. (e.g., DFO (1980]). . attarauvrAmr, DISTRIBUTION OF to 1980). This indicates an incomplete ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT market penetration of LORAN-C receivers, /10 3 BY TONNAGE even considering the Canadian LORAN-C coverage improvements of 1977, 1978 and 1980.

198

THE UNITED STATES FISHING FLEET Table 6 shows the distribution of fishing vessels by region for 1974 Since LORAN-C has been [NMFS, 1974]. The number of vessels available longer and more uniformly in registered with the Coast Guard for 1980 the U.S. than in Canada, it is useful to by length is shown in Table 7, and the place these Canadian statistics in a total vessels for the years 1970 to 1980 continental context. Statistical data in Table 8 [Crawford, 1983]. It must be on the U.S. fishing fleet is far more noted that in the U.S., only vessels difficult to acquire than that for over 5 net tons are catalogued by the Canada, due to a different management USCG and the NMFS. The NMFS estimates regime. The National Marine Fisheries that in 1981, 18,900 vessels over 5 net Service (NMFS) of the National Oceanic tons were actively involved in and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) commercial fishing, and that 92,800 compiles various statistical reviews motor boats under 5 net tons were also (e.g., NMFS [1974]; NMFS [1981]). The operating [NMF-S71981]. number of registered fishing vessels is not determined on an annual basis. The A tabulation of the vessels last year for which an inventory was indicating the use of electronic made was 1976. Since that period, only equipment is unavailable. However an estimates are available. These estimate based on an economic planning estimates are based on accurate study [Dick, 1982] shows 25,980 vessels knowledge of the number of vessels involved in commercial fishing, of which operating within conservation zones, 16,700 are estimated to carry LORAN-C augmented by selected surveys at key (see Table 9 and Figure 4). This agrees harbours. These are probably the best closely with the upper limit estimates estimates of operating commercial made above for Canadian vessels over 10 fishing vessels and will always be less tons (62%). than the number of registered fishing TABLE 9 Marine Users of Radionavigation Systems vessels reflected by U.S. Coast Guard (U.S. Owned Vessels, 1980). data, as of the vessels in OMEGA (USCG) some TRANSIT TRANSIT the USCG register are no longer Type of Operation LORAN LORAN TRANSIT LORAN operating. Recreation/sport fishing 115,000 Commercial fishing 16,700 300 TABLE 6 Fishery Statistics of United States NOAA Summary Oil (crew, supply, tau) 1,400 of Operating Units 1974, Tonnage by Area. Passenger 1,100 Other 600 NET NEW MIDDLE CHESA- SOUTH GREAT Freighter/tanker UT 1600 ton 1,(m TONNAGE ENG. ATLANTIC PEAKE ATLANTIC GULF PACIFIC LAKES TOTAL Other Research/training 200 5- 9 28 37 1,258 222 261 1,177 29 3,012 10- 29 224 167 486 464 1,534 3,707 171 6,753 Totals 134,800 1,200 300 200 30- 49 154 97 42 383 614 935 38 2,263 50- 99 176 108 47 414 1,543 4912 2,781 100-149 84 34 24 29 615 121 - 907 Source: Dick [19E12]. 1500 65 17 41 11 113 273 - 520 Presuming the estimates and Total 731 460 1,898 1,523 4,680 6,704 240 16,236 extrapolations we have made so far are

New England • HE, NH, HA, RI, CT. all correct, the commercial fishing Middle Atlantic v NY, NJ, OE. represented (see Figure Chesapeake Bay MD, VA. sector in 1980 South Atlantic • NC, SC, GA, FL (east coast). 5) Gulf . FL (west coast), AL, 715, LA, TX. Pacific • WA, OR, CA, AK. approximately 10,000 vessels over Great (a) Lakes • NY, HN, WI, HI, IL, IN, OH, ND. 10 tons in Canada, Source: NHFS [19747. (h) approximately 20,000 vessels over TABLE 7 Registered Fishing Vessels 10 tons in the United States, in the United States as for Shown on USCG Files 1980. (c) a total of 23,500 LORAN-C users those Canadian regions Length Na. of the U.S. and (f t) Vessels presently covered by LORAN-C, (d) a growth of about 13% (3000 new 0- 29 5,171 30- 44 16,062 units) in LORAN-C users per year. 45- 64 6,618 65- 99 4,165 100-149 377 404293 150* 265

Total 32,658

Source: Crawford [1983]. 4e U3.000-, eO 5. TABLE 8 Registered Fishing Vessels e • es cP e cP in the United States as 1000's Shown on USCG Files 1970-1979. e e Total No. dee Registered Year Vessels 30 !al Vessels 1970 19,589 1971 20,263 LORAN-C 1972 20,632 30 1973 20,140 Transit-LORAN -C 1974 23,442 20 1975 24,155 rancit 1976 24,965 1977 26,374 1978 28,434 1979 30,567

1'1 Source: Crawford (1983]. U.S. VESSELS (1980)

199

262K-1

65K- 1

1 6K-

41(

Small Medium /, Large Scale 2 1K-I A Integration

it 256-4

î 6.H 0. ESTIMATED 16 U.S.-CANADIAN FISHING VESSELS OVER 10 TONS .•' (1980) 19-.9

n o 1 1 059 1964 1969 1974 1979

Number Of Components VESSEL COSTS vs LORAN-C COSTS Per Circuit In Computer

In common with most commercial Memories. MUKM(20C0977) activities where manpower and energy are fIG 6 significant cost factors, the cost of ship construction, maintenance, and operation has increased annually at greater than the rate of inflation (see Table 10).

TABLE 10 Average Value of Canadian Fishing Vessels ts) per Vessels by Tonnage ($1000/.

Average cen Annual Gross Tonnage 1973 1974 1975 1976 1978 1979 1980 Change it ( B

10 2.0 3.1 2.9 3.3 4.8 2.6 3.0 7.3 10- 25 16.0 25.9 25.3 28.2 30.3 19.1 24.3 7.4 Per

26- 49 39.7 66.8 68.9 76.2 100.5 76.6 98.7 21.2 t

50- 99 72.0 117.8 130.0 151.2 199.9 191.6 261.4 37.6 s 100-149 145.2 183.1 198.0 224.7 319.7 324.2 418.9 26.9

150-499 464.0 524.5 533.9 575.6 799.1 1086.2 1114.4 20.0 Co 500. 2340.0 2776.7 3305.3 20.6

Average 20.1

Source: Canadian Fisheries Annual Statistical Review 1973-1980 (e.g., 0F0 [1980]). Cost Per Bit Of In contrast, the microelectronics revolution is resulting Computer Memory in drastic reductions in manufacturing AFTE R NOTCE (1977) FIG 7 costs, as well as major improvements in the reliability and capability of electronic equipment. Figures 6 and 7 These two tendencies mean that show two aspects of this ship replacement and operating costs microelectronics revolution (component will continue to rise, while the cost, density and memory cost) which reliability and capability (see next illustrate just how much improvement has section) of onboard electronic been realized over the past decade. It equipment, such as LORAN-C receivers, is likely that these improvements will will continue to improve. Hence such continue at a similar rate for some electronics will represent a smaller years yet. There is a time lag between fraction of the total vessel equipment the development of a denser chip, for and operating costs. Figure 8 is a plot example, and its implementation in of the annual percentage change of commercial equipment, such as a LORAN-C vessel value (defined as in DFO [1980], receiver. Therefore even the not including fishing gear), operating microelectronic advances made today will a-s•ts and selected electronic equipment take some years to percolate down to the costs. The cost of navigational shelves of the marine electronics equipment (i.e., LORAN and RADAR) is supplier. seen to have decreased while all the other items increased. This difference should become accentuated as the microelectronics revolution continues. 200

lower cost microprocessors with larger cheaper memories will make it possible Change in Selected to incorporate better ASF modelling in Expense Items receivers with coordinate converters. Canada 1974-82 / One possible future trend could be toward integrated bridge systems in which all electronic equipment on board is integrated into a unified system. If reaMeM the cost trends seen in Figures 6, 7 and 8 continue, eventually such integrated Valu e rz- systems may become common in Pilot new fishing vessel construction and in vessel equipment upgrading programes. AffloLeMeil Another issue concerning the e future of LORAN-C is its relationship to der-- the adoption of GPS as the prime 77 n n/n nno Wu navigational system for the future. The Dick [1982] radionavigation economic -10 planning model suggests that if LORAN-C is dismantled in favour of the Global Positioning System (GPS), then the total CURRENT AND FUTURE LORAN-C RECEIVERS user navigation equipment costs (purchase plus operating) over the 25 Until 1980 most LORAN-C year period from 1980 to 2005 will be receivers provided just time difference 22% higher than if LORAN-C is kept (TD) measurements. Since then newer operating, even after GPS is available. models have offered additional Presumably, this information will not be capabilities, such as coordinate ignored by current LORAN-C users and conversion from TD measurements to will have to be considered by both the latitude and longitude, a clock giving U.S. and Canadian governments during the date and time, limited waypoint GPS/LORAN-C decision process. navigation, such as range and bearing to destination. Currently it is also CANADIAN FISHERIES MARKET FOR LORAN-C possible to add either a paper or video course plotter to some LORAN receivers. We have seen that in regions A few provide the option for cassette where LORAN-C has been available for a storage of the navigation data (time and number of years, about 60% of the position), and options are available for fishing vessels over 10 tons used it in integrating LORAN-C systems with 1980. Presumably this percentage will autopilot and sonar systems. Current tend toward 100% (or beyond, as some typical prices for such LORAN-C systems vessels carry more than one set) as are shown below. LORAN-C costs decline and capabilities increase. New markets should develop as LORAN-C receiver $ 2,400 the new Fox Harbour transmitter extends Receiver with coordinate LORAN-C coverage, and as users begin to conversion 3,700 replace their early, simpler receivers Receiver, coordinate converter with new enhanced models. However, let and paper plotter 8,200 us look at the factors influencing the Receiver, coordinate converter Canadian fisherman's decision on whether and video plotter 12,000 to purchase LORAN-C, and with what Receiver, coordinate converter, enhancements. video plotter and cassette The possible advantages to the recorder 14,000 fisherman of LORAN-C and its As the effects of the enhancements are increased catches, and microelectronics revolution permeate reduced costs. The Canadian fishing through to enhance LORAN-C equipment we industry is a regulated one, and is can expect these costs to come down, and likely to continue as such [Kirby, improved capabilities to emerge. For 1983]. In such an environment, example, during 1983 at least one regulated catch quotas, not navigational prototype system should become performance, is the limiting factor on operational, which integrates a productivity. Two ways in which LORAN-C differential LORAN-C receiver, an may reduce costs are through reduced electronic chart, and RADAR, with the fuel consumption due to better LORAN-C track, the chart, and the RADAR navigation (mainly to and from the return all superimposed on the same fishing ground), and lower insurance video plotter [Rogoff, 1983]. (The premiums, if insurance companies can be impact of electronic charts is discussed convinced that LORAN-C (probably with by Anderson and Eaton [1983].) Another several of the above enhancements) can example is the limitation of currently reduce the risk of collision and available coordinate converters to groundings. This latter factor may in adequately model the LORAN-C overland the end turn out to be the most phaselag (additional secondary factor, influential one. or ASF). The advent of more powerful,

201 IMPACT ON THE CANADIAN HYDROGRAPHIC REFERENCES SERVICE Anderson, N.M. and R.M. Eaton (1983). The electronic chart. Canadian Hy- We have shown that LORAN-C use drographic Service Centennial Con- is becoming widespread within the Cana- ference. dian fishing fleet, and have suggested Berube, Z. (1982). Personal communica- that LORAN-C receivers with enhancements, tion and computer listing. Licen- such as coordinate conversion, waypoint sing Unit, Department of Fisheries navigation, video plotting, track stor- & Oceans, Quebec City. age, electronic charts, and integration with other sensors, will become less ex- Carson, R. (1982). Personal communica- pensive, increasingly reliable, and more tion. Licensing and Registration widely available. Section, Department of Fisheries & Oceans, Vancouver. We conclude by suggesting some Crawford, J. (1983). Personal communica- implications for the Canadian Hydrogra- tion. Documentation Section, Mar- phic Service of the widespread use of ine Investigation Division, U.S. such enhanced LORAN-C receivers. We will Coast Guard. avoid consideration of the profound chan- Department of Fisheries & Oceans (1980)- ges which may result from the use of Canadian fisheries annual statist- electronic charts, as they are considered ical review. Vol. 13, Communicat- elsewhere (Anderson and Eaton, 1983). ions Board, DFO, Catalogue No. DFO- /648 1982/8E. (Similarly for earl- If we speculate that the day ier volumes). may come when every vessel carrying LOR- Dick, W. (1982). DoT radionavigation ec- AN-C will have a coordinate converter onomic planning model, marine ap- with a good ASF predictor, what then will plications. Transportation Systems be the role of LORAN-C lattices on CHS Center, U.S. Department of Trans- charts? The present role of primary coor- portation, Cambridge, MA. dination from TD readings may then be replaced by calibration of the receiver Hsu, T. (1982). Personal communication. coordinate converter. What changes might Statistics and Computer Services. this imply as to the nature of lattices? Department of Fisheries & Oceans, Ottawa. Once a significant portion of Jones, C.H. (1982). Personal communica- the fishing fleet uses LORAN-C receivers tion and computer listing. Licen- enhanced with track recorders, and inter- sing Unit, Department of Fisheries faced to sonar systems, it then becomes & Oceans, Ottawa. possible to collect and use the combined sonar and navigational data gathered on Kirby, M.J.R. (1983). Navigating trou- such vessels, for improved evaluation of bled waters - a new policy for At- existing fish stocks. This could add grea- lantic fisheries. Report of the tly to the fish stock data base, which Task Force on Atlantic fisheries. would be of advantage to both commercial Department of Supply and Services fishermen as well as to government popula- Catalogue no. CP32-43/1983 1E. tion dynamics groups concened with fisheries management. Questions of trust and re- Ministry of Transport (1982). List of liability between the sectors would have shipping. Department of Supply and to be addressed, but this is consistent Services catalogue no. T-34-1/82. with the recent emphasis placed on the necessity for cooperation between govern- National Marine Fisheries Service ment and commercial fisheries interests (1974).Statistical Digest No. 68. (Kirby, 1983). While not directly invol- Fishery Statistics of the U.S., ved in such population studies, it may be U.S. Department of Commerce. that the CHS would play an interface role, concerned with assessment of the National Marine Fisheries Service quality of the navigational data involved. (1981). Fisheries of the United States. U.S. Department of Com- merce, Current Fishery Statistics ACKNOWLEDGEMENT No. 8200.

Rogoff, M. (1983). Personal communica- This work was supported in part tion, Navigational Science Inc., by a strategic grant from the Natural Washington, D.C. Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We wish to thank Zeth Berube, Russel, R. (1982). Personal communica- Dick Carson, Jack Crawford, Mike Elling- tion and computer listing. Licen- wood, Tim Hsu, Chuck Jones, Mort Rogoff stng Unit, Department of Fisheries and Ray Russel for their advice and co- Rhkeans, St. John's. operation.

202 APPENDIX

• Government of Canada Gouvernement du Canada FEE I' Fisheries and Oceans Pêches et Océans $20 DROIT

1982 COMMERCIAL FISHING VESSEL REGISTRATION DEMANDE D'IMMATRICULATION D'UN BATEAU APPLICATION DE PÈCHE COMMERCIALE 1982

PART A — VESSEL/OWNER IDENTIFICATION: PARTIE A — IDENTIFICATION DU BATEAU/PROPRIÉTAIRE: Please Indicate which of the twp official languages you want to receive correspondence in ri English n French Veuillez Indiquer dans laquelle des deux langues officielles vous préférez qu'on vous écrive 1--/ Anglais L-1 Français

1. Commercial Fishing Vessel (CFV) No. No de bateau de pèche commercial (BPC)

2. Vessel Nam. Nom de I II t 1 I I I I I I I II I 1 I t bateau 3. Social Insurance No of Owner No d'assurance sociale du propriétaire I II II I I If 4. FAMILY NAME OF OWNER G lyEN NAMES NOM DU PROPRIETAIRE PRENOMS

I li I t 1111 1 1 III!, I 5, MAILING ADDRESS/ADRESSE POSTALE

Postal Code' COcle postai I t

Office Lm only PART B — VESSEL STAT1STICS: PARTIE B — STATISTIQUES DU BATEAU: Réservé à rime* du bureau 6. Home Port Port d'attache I I I

7. Usual Port of Landing Port habituel de débarquement I Il I

8. Usuel Number In Crew 9. Year Built 10. Where Bulit Country/Province Nombre habituel Année de Lieu de construction de membres t'équipage construction (pays ou province)

11. Hull Wood Steel Aluminum Fibergiass Other Coque Boit Acier Aluminum Fibre de verre Autre 12. Refrigeration RSW Plate Ice None RefrIgératière EM R PulvérisSapt[oaX . ■•■■ Plaque Glace Néant 13. Propulsion Gas Marine Diesel Marine Outboard Converted Car Row or Sall Moteur marin .1■•• Moteur marin Hors-bord Moteur Avirons ou à essence diesel d'automobile voiles 14. Electronic Equipment Radio Telephone Radar 1 1 Auto Pilot /Show number of each) Radio-téléphone Pilote automatique Appareils electronlque Depth Recorder Loran I 1 Direction Finder (Indiquer le nombre de chacun) Sondeur acoustique ^ Radiogoniomètre Decca Sonar L Other (Specify ) Autre (Préciser) Type of 15. For Trawlers and Draggers ri Trawl Gear Chalutage et dragage Par le côté Par i' erterne TYcg:,?,1 I 11

16. ProPeller Type Fixed Variable Pitch 17, Englne Horse Power (B.H.P.) Helice Fixé Pas variable Puissance du moteur (P R F) I I

18. Ministry of Transport Registration Number 19. Radlo Call Letters N° d'immatriculation du Ministère des Transports I indicatif radio

20. Gross Tons 21. Registered Net Tons 22. Length Overall Jauge brute Jauge nette officielle Longueur hors tout

23. Total weight of fish (in pounds) your vessel will carry when full Quantité totale de poisson (en livres) que peut transporter votre bateau lorsqu'il contient un plain chargement

24. For vessels 35' and over hold capacity (length X width X height) in cubic feet Réservé aux bateau 35' et plus- capacité de cale (longueur X largeur X hauteur) en pieds cubes

25. How much Is your vassal worth, including auxillary boats but not fishIng gear A combien évaluez-vous votre bateau, en Incluant les embarcations auxiliaires, mals non les engins de pèche 26. How much was your vassal worth, including auxIllary boats but not fishing saur, when you purchased lt Quelle était la valeur de votre bateau en Incluant les embarcations auxiliaires mals non les engins de pèche, quand vous l'avez acheté II

27. NAFO areas usually fished Région de l'OPANO habituellement péchéeS L_1 1_1 1 I I I 1__1

PLEASE ENCLOSE CORRECT FEE (S201; MAKE CHEQUE OR MONEY I HEREBY CERTIFY THAT THE INFORMATION GIVEN IN THIS APPLI- ORDER PAYABLE TO: RECEIVER GENERAL FOR CANADA AND MAIL CATION IS TRUE, CORRECT AND COMPLETE IN EVERY RESPECT. TO J'ATTESTE QUE LES RENSEIGNEMENTS QUI FIGURENT DANS LA PRIÈRE DE JOINDRE LA SOMME APPROPRIÉE POUR PAYER LE DROIT PRÉSENTE DEMANDE SONT VÉRIDIQUES, CORRECTS ET COMPLETS À ACQUITTER; VEUILLEZ FAIRE UN CHÈQUE OU UN MANDAT SOUS TOUS LES RAPPORTS. L'ORDRE DU RECEVEUR GÉNÉRAL DU CANADA ET LE FAIRE PAR- VENIR AU REGIONAL DIRECTOR DtRECTEUR GéNÉRAL GENERAL REGIONAL GOVERNMENT OF CANADA GOUVERNEMENT DU CANADA FISHERIES AND OCEANS PÊCHES ET OCÉANS P.O. BOX 350 B.P. 330 HALIFAX. N.S. 133J 257 HALIFAX (N..E.) U3J 257 ATTNI LICENSING UNIT À L'ATTENTION DE LA SOUS. SECTION DES PERMIS Signature Date

FP 1471

203 INTRODUCTION

AUTOMATION OF THE DMA LIST OF LIGHTS The Defence Mapping Agency AND (DMA) has completed the software dev- RADIO NAVIGATIONAL AIDS PUBLICATIONS elopment required to automate the compilation, publication and maintenance By: of seven volumes of the DMA List of Lights and two volumes of the DMA Radio Morris F. Glenn Navigational Aids. The List of Lights Navigation Department has been published by the United States Hydrographic/Topographic Center Government since 1871 and the Radio Defense Mapping Agency Aids since 1925. Presently, both of Washington, D.C. 20315 these publications are completely produced by the use of manual methods and files. Each of these publications has a ABSTRACT long history of service to the fleet and is considered an important naviga- The Defence Mapping Agency tional aid for all mariners. The statu- (DMA) has completed the software dev- tory basis for these publications can elopment required to automate the combe found in the U.S. Code, Title 10, pilation, publication and maintenance Section 2791 (Public Law 97.295, Oct. of seven volumes of the DMA List of 12, 1982) and Title 44, Section 1336. Lights and two volumes of the DMA Radio Navigational Aids. This paper provides Corrections to the List of Li- a detailed overview of the software sub- ghts and Radio Aids, which are pub- system necessary to load, process and lished in the weekly Notice to Mar- publish the List of Lights and Radio iners, were the initial data set sched- Aid data on the Automated Notice to Mar- uled for inclusion in the Automated Not- iners System (ANMS) computer. The List ice to Mariners System (ANMS). Once the of Lights software will share all of weekly corrections were automated, the the ANMS hardware and communications additional software required to auto- capabilities. It will provide remote mate the annual List of Lights and query capabilities for mariners at sea, Radio Aids data and produce them on the digital data transmission potential for ANMS was minimal. Therefore, the entire computer applications and, most impor- manual production operation was inclu- tant, the potential to produce an up- ded in the initial software development to-date edition of any annual volume at project. Inclusion of the entire manual any time. production process on the ANMS computer was a very cost effective project allowing a new flexibility which has never been possible before. The ANMS computer RÉSUMÉ will provide remote query capabilities for mariners at sea, digital data trans- La Defense Mapping Agency mission potential for computer applicat- (DMA) a terminé l'élaboration d'un logi- ions, and most important, the potential ciel qui permettra d'automatiser la com- to produce an up-to-date edition of any pilation, la publication et la tenue à annual volume at any time. jour de sept livres des feux et de deux volumes des aides 'radios à la naviga- This brief paper is outlined tion de la DMA. Le présent document and arranged in such a • manner as to fournit un examen descriptif du sous- support an overview of the List of système de logiciel utilisé pour Lights automation project. Since com- charger, traiter et publier le livre puters have become ubiquitous in modern des feux et les données sur les aides navigation, no attempt has been made to radios à l'aide de l'ordinateur pour le define usage of the most commonly système automatisé d'Avis aux naviga- used computer terms. This concept was teurs (Automated Notice to Mariners succinctly presented by O. L. Martin System - ANMS). Le logiciel pour le in his paper entitled "Automation of livre des feux partagera toutes les DMA Nautical Information Products" pre- capacités de matériel et de communica- sented at a symposium called "Man and tion de l'ANMS. Il permettra d'effec- Navigation :An International Congre? tuer à distance des demandes d'informa- (Sussex, Brighton, England, Sept. 10- tion pour les navigateurs en mer, de 14, 1979). If there was ever a doubt transmettre des données numériques pour that computers had become an integral des applications informatiques et, plus part of DMA's support for mariners, Mr. important encore, de fournir à tout Martin's illuminating presentation re- moment une édition à jour de tout vo- moved it and further defined DMA's lume annuel. future navigational automation goals. The combined materials in his paper have also helped to narrow the penumbra

204 which had been allowed to grow in prior Chart Corrections Subsystem software years between the separate fields of took over four years to develop and it computers and navigation. Today, the consists of about 45 individual merger of computers and navigation is programs. They operate under the Prime obvious in practical application aboard system software, PRIMOS, and are ship and in all of its supportive written in COBAL. A further adjuncts. complicating factor is that the applications software had to be developed to allow data entry on an THE AUTOMATED NOTICE TO MARINERS SYSTEM intelligent terminal (written in assembly language). The data entry There are several published software is also divided between the articles which will provide readers Prime Computer disk file and Imlac with details concerning the 'ANMS fixed disk storage (respectively hardware specifications and the identified as PSEE and ISEE). Each capabilities of the initial Chart Imlac terminal has a 10 mb. disk Corrections Subsystem. In particular, storage capacity (5mb. fixed and 5mb. refer to a paper by Morris F. Glenn removable). This allows the specially presented at the 12th. International designed Imlac software to be stored Hydrographic Symposium in Monaco, on-line and a number of character sets France in April, 1982 entitled "Chart to be stored for output upon a Corrections via Global Communications." printer/plotter (Versatec 1200A). The This paper and several others are intelligent terminal is connected to reprinted in a DMA Navigation the Prime computer via a 9600 baud line Department pamphlet entitled "Automated and is in continuous communications with Notice to Mariners System" dated 5 the ANMS data files which are stored on March, 1982. (Available from DMA upon the Prime Disk. application). The Broadcast Warning Subsystem The present ANMS hardware is a was the second software system to be combination of three commercially installed on the ANMS. The first Daily available systems: Prime 400 computer Memorandum produced by the Navigation and peripherals, Imlac PDS-4 Department completely on the ANMS intelligent terminals and peripherals, computer was No. 20 of February 1, and a Photon Pacesetter Mark III 1982. The Broadcast Warning Subsystem typesetting machine. The intelligent shares the overall design concept of terminals provide the man/machine the Chart Corrections Subsystem (i.e., interface to load data into the ANMS data is loaded to Prime disk files via computer controlled and managed files. the Imlac terminal and a print tape is Intelligent terminals were selected for created by the computer to drive the several reasons. The ANMS data entry Photon typesetter). Additionally, the procedure required the availibility of data base containing all active several different screen character sets broadcast warnings is maintained by the of varying font sizes and types with Prime System and query software allows several data entry screen templates, a access over global communications links capability to plot hard copy of the in the same manner as chart information which is shown on the corrections. screen display, and a simplified data entry procedure which could be aided by When the List of Lights Subsystem pre-programmed computer function keys. is added to the Prime computer, the The Prime computer is the heart of the demand upon all peripherals as well ANMS and manages all data files, data upon the CPU will be extensive. The processing and data communications (See Prime now supports up to 64 interactive Figure 1). It also creates the print time shared users, but unfortunately, tape in a special format to drive a as the numbers of on-line users Photon typesetter. The resultant hard increases, the response time for all copy is formatted into sequential pages users will decrease. Another major which are camera-ready for making press system consideration, in view of the plates. Once the data base is built, or importance of meeting extremely strict corrected via an Intlac terminal, the Navigation Department daily and weekly computer can generate a whole volume of production schedules, is to insure the List of Lights information within existence of some reasonable back-up minutes and the contents will be capability. Although there are many completely up-to-date. The three important reasons to maximize response hardware units are combined to form a time (i.e., remote users may be paying powerful publications management system long distance communications rates for collectively called the ANMS. their connect time and data entry personnel need rapid response time to Although the hardware is of effectively utilize the Imlac importance, one might say that the real terminals), the most important system heart of the ANMS is the specially planning consideration is to provide a developed applications software. The back-up production capability for vital

205 DMA publications and ANMS master data redundancy concept of computer files. operations and this capability is now offered by most modern computer The solution to the overall system manufacturers. Also, by use of problem of improving response time, widespread international standards such providing production back-up, and back- as the CCITT X.25 which supports up for on-line files, is to network the computer to computer or computer to present ANMS CPU with a second CPU (this terminal communications via packet item is in the DMA 1984 equipment switching software, computers marketed procurement program). This final by many vendors may be connected into a hardware acquisition, which is planned single computer network. This is an to complete the ANMS hardware important design concept when one configuration, will provide two CPU's considers the global 'nature and impact operating in a computer network to of the Chart Corrections, Broadcast share on-line data files, split Warnings and List of Lights data. In processing workload, and provide addition to a worldwide geographic essentially a complete back-up distribution of users, DMA'has numerous capability for all system hardware, cooperative agreements with U.S. files and software. In addition to agencies and foreign governments for copies of all master files (resident on the exchange of hydrographic data. a separate disk device), this Without such exchanges, DMA would be configuration will make it immaterial unable to produce its navigational which disk contains the master file (a publications in a timely, accurate and benefit of a networked system). If one comprehensive manner. Conceptually, CPU becomes inoperative, the second CPU the new hardware configuration of the can be used to complete the query or ANMS advances the time when computers data processing task. Even if the on- will perform a major role in the line disk is disabled, the task can be exchange and dissemination of easily completed by use of back-up international hydrographic information. files. Presently, the ANMS automation LIST OF LIGHTS AND RADIO AIDS DATA plan assumes a two processor environment which will allocate the DMA has been tasked with producing data processing tasks as follows: the List of Lights and Radio Aids present CPU will handle routine publications on a worldwide basis, production input/output, manage on-line except for the continental United Chart Corrections, support Broadcast States (CONUS). In CONUS, the U.S. Warnings and List of Lights weekly Coast Guard produces the Light Lists, workfiles and automatically schedule however DMA publishes the weekly ancillary tasks to support production; corrections to the Coast Guard's Light the second CPU will handle remote data Lists in the Notice to Mariners. base queries that can be generated from Presently, there are about 59,000 anywhere on the globe on a 24-hour lights and 3,000 radio aids listed and basis. The second CPU will also handle the weekly Notice to Mariners contains all batch processing necessary to an average or about 80 information produce: changes to these aids. A. Annual volumes of List of Each volume of DMA's List of Lights Lights (Pub. numbers 110 thru 116) covers a particular geographic area of B. Periodic Summary of Correc- the world. Each volume contains a tions Volumes written description (in columnar form) of lighted navigational aids and fog C. Daily back-up of work files signals (except secondary buoys) in use throughout the world (except CONUS). D. Periodic back-up of master Storm signals, signal stations and files radio aids operated in conjunction with light stations are also included in E. New navigation publications these volumes. These seven volumes are which are planned for addi- the only complete single source of tion to ANMS identifying information for navigational aids during day and night F. Future projects such as or inclement weather published in the processing graphics. United States. Cartographic chart symbols and light legends located on The increased computer capability is nautical charts are not sufficient to not considered an optional feature when describe the ranges, shapes, colors, so many important and highly time light characteristics, structure, oriented publications are involved. height of the light above water, Banks, airlines and other business sectors, stand-by or emergency establishments have pioneered the apparatus, seasonal notes, fog signal

206 characteristics/appliances or other The present manual production text oriented details which are process utilizes several outdated, necessary for "all weather" Van-typer Model 900 machines. These identification. The radio navigational machines allow the operator to select a aids are presently published in DMA choice of fonts and type sizes for use Pubs. 117A and 117B. After this in each field of the photo-list card. automation effort is complete, the The resultant line-of-type produces a numbered radio aids will be removed clean, sharp image which is used as from these volumes and merged camera ready copy. For generating the geographically in the new automated annûal publication, a manual paging volumes of the List of Lights. The process is required to count and remaining text in the two Radio Aids arrange the large file of cards into a publications will be combined into a publication format. This is a long and single volume published occasionally. tedious task because the color coded Thus, the resultant volumes of List of cards, arranged in a vertical Lights will provide mariners with a overlapping manner, must be positioned comprehensive sequential guide to for photographing exactly as their navigational aids. content would appear in the final volume of the List of Lights. In other words, even a blank line must be MANUAL COMPILATION METHODS manually input by use of a "spacer card" and every line accounted for by use of a DMA's List of Lights data are now counting device to ensure exact page stored and produced by use of specially lay out. The addition or deletion of a designed photo-list cards (which are light thus substantially affects the not to be confused with the machine card file, and each new printing of an readable IBM type card format). The annual volume requires a manual cards are filed in the order of their readjustment of the entire file system respective geographic area. A Marine before paging. The advantages and Information Specialist (MIS) evaluates savings involved in automating such a all new light and radio aid information repetitive manual procedure were and determines the appropriate obvious from the beginning of the ANMS. disposition of this new data by considering: LIST OF LIGHTS AUTOMATION PLAN A. Source of the information In addition to automating the B. Consistency with existing processing and publication system just information described, the new digital List of Lights data base was planned so that it C. Impact upon shipping could provide many new capabilites for maintaining, extracting and D. Degree of urgency disseminating data pertaining to lights and radio aids. Automation also E. International commitments includes the capability to utilize new digital techniques and to incorporate F. Relevant operational U.S. Navy communications systems as requirements they become availible. This supports future ANMS goals to interface the Depending upon the reliability of the system with all new global source and importance assigned to communications systems and new dissemination of a reported change in international hydrographic reporting the status of a light, a correction will methods which may be developed (between be written for publication in the national hydrographic offices and major Weekly Notice to Mariners. Upon shipping companies). receipt of the Notice to Mariners, the mariner will apply the correction to The List of Lights Subsystem was his copy of the List of Lights. The essentially modeled after the original photo-list cards used to print these Chart Corrections Subsystem of the corrections will also be used to ANMS. As noted earlier in relation to physically replace the former data card the development of the Broadcast in the appropriate file drawer for Warning Subsystem, the initial software subsequent inclusion in the next effort was in the nature of a research printing of the annual volume. and development effort, because there Noncritical or editorial corrections were no other comparable systems are not published in the weekly Notice. available which DMA could use to These are processed and applied only to develop specific designs. In addition the file copy of photo-list cards. The to the existing Chart Corrections new information will appear in the next Subsystem software, all ANMS start-up annual volume. hardware was already installed and its operational capability was well established and clearly demonstrated.

207 Thus, the design constraints around via the Data Entry Program, the "Clear which the List of Lights was developed Text" Mode is executed and a copy of the compared to most other software data set in its published form is efforts, was exceedingly specific. displayed on the screen. The "Plot Key" Fortunately, the need for a phased is then hit to output hard copy on the development plan which allowed the Versatec to serve as the editor's proof addition of other publications to the copy (hard copy which can be attached to system was anticipated during the the data entry card). The MIS edits the original ANMS system design. input data and, if it has been properly Therefore, all hardware and software loaded, the MIS will initial the proof specifications were written plot. The edit initials are a vital accordingly. For example, the Screen record in this part of the entire Entry Editor (SEE) for the Imlac processing procedure and are loaded intelligent terminal was written in into the data base. Input which does modules which could be easily changed not have an entry in the field for to reconfigure the screen template editor's initials will be omitted from (format). Since Chart Corrections data all subsequent processing and were only the first of several data sets publication. Only edited data to be automated on the ANMS, use of the published because of the important uses software to allow input of data for to which the List of Lights data is other publications was an important subjected. If the editor's stepping stone in ANMS development. verification reveals that a change or Even though the fields, fonts and type correction to the original input of text to be input were subject to transaction is needed, the entire data change, the operational parameters entry process will be repeated (from required to load the other publications input of light/radio aid number onward were presumed to remain the same. to modify the items in error). The List of Lights has been Once each week, depending upon the divided into three separate areas for official "cut-off" date of the weekly discussion purposes in this paper: Notice to Mariners, the Weekly Print Weekly Production Cycle, Annual Processor (hereafter referred to as a Production Cycle, and Communications Proc) is executed. This is a control Capabilities. The List of Lights mechanism which is written to call and Subsystem is referred to as LOLS in this execute a series of software programs. text for purposes of brevity. It allows the operator to start a complicated ANMS computer operation, and except for mounting tapes, the DESCRIPTION OF WEEKLY PRODUCTION CYCLE operator is free to perform other tasks. The Proc consists of the The production sequence begins following: when a Marine Information Specialist (MIS) sends a printed form containing A. Daily Work File Backup. A the text of light/radio aid change file copy is written as a information to the ANMS to promulgate a safety precaution. change in the data on the Light Master file. The operator utilizes one of the B. Weekly Photocomposition. A Imlac data entry terminals and the LOLS Photon print tape is created data entry program. First, the LOLS which contains a series of data entry program requires the typesetting commands operator to load the light/radio aid necessary to drive a Photon number and then it searches the Daily Typesetter and data to be Work file and Light Master file for a typeset. The computer also record of any prior entries for this paginates the data, lines up number. The program will display any the data, inserts the available information on the screen necessary column and page within the proper fields of the LOLS heading, inserts applicable screen entry template. If the number footnotes, controls line entered by the operator represents a length and page length, and new entry, all fields must be loaded if necessary, applies the with the required data in order to logic for line splitting and complete the data entry. If data is other accounting steps returned for an existing light, only necessary to maintain the fields which are to be changed must continuity within a multi- be entered. Once the data is entered, page, printed publication. the operator strikes the "Store Key" and the data is written to the daily C. Master/History Files Update. work file (completing the data entry The master file is updated to operation). reflect all changes in the Weekly Work File. If there After the operator has entered a is an existing light/radio new light or correction into the file aid record on the master

208 file, one more processing on disk and is sorted with the Index step is performed. The "old" Print file to show general names. The master file record must be output is printed and recorded on a moved to the history file to Photon tape. keep an accurate historical record. This allows the Next, the U.S. International Cross complete history of all Reference Program is run (independent automated light/radio aids to of Annual Print Run). Two Photon tapes be automatically researched are output: one to print the U.S. - by the computer. vs - International Light Number conversion table, and a second tape to D. Master File Backup. This print the International - vs - U.S. provides a separate copy of Light Number table. Processing the master file in case of sequence is not important, hence both loss by man made disasters or of these tables may be run at any time. "electronic gnomes". Each of the above programs may be COMMUNICATION CAPABILITIES invoked separately in order to handle unexpected occurrences and/or error The initial query capabilities of conditions. The Weekly Proc will first the List of Lights software for public ask the operator for publication use have been limited to two queries. information such as the Notice Number The Query by Heading is the most and Year pertaining to this weekly run extensive data base search tool (as NN/YY). The weekly program also available providing access to all checks for editor's initials, as noted light/radio aid entries under a earlier, before any data from the Daily particular heading in the annual Workfile will be processed further. vOlumes (i.e. by heading, sub-heading, or, light name). The query by number of a light/radio aid is obviously the ANNUAL PRODUCTION CYCLE fastest method as the computer search will be much more specific. At present, The Annual Production Cycle runs the automation plan will allow remote under the control of the Annual Proc, or users to query for the latest the operator may elect to run light/radio aid information for up to separately any individual program which 10 numbered aids. Programs are: is normally under control of the Annual Proc. Since the computer time for an A. Query by Heading (Enter annual volume of the List of Lights will program LQMO2). The program be much longer than the computer time then prompts the user to for the weekly notice, a check point input the required data procedure is utilized to allow the specifics. operator to restart the incomplete part of a long computer run in case a failure B. Light/Radio Aid Query (Enter or problem is experienced in a program. program LQM01). Entries will This saves a great amount of CPU time be the volume number of when recovery procedures do not involve Annual List of Lights of rerunning the entire program. The requested light(s) and then operation of the print program is the numbers of Light/Radio Aids same as that previously described for needed. Other queries may be the Weekly Print run, except that an added to the LOLS software if Index Print file is created. The Index a need is demonstrated by a Print is a simultaneous operation and significant number of remote is written temporarily to disk during ANMS Users for more the Annual Print run. The disk file information. Changes may contains the name of the light/radio also be made to achieve a aid on the Master File (stored in front more efficient query of the "Key Ended" symbol which the procedure. Long distance operator entered into the name and communications are expensive location field of the data line). For and most users will want to the Index, along with the name, a page maximize their use of the number and a light number is also LOLS query system. The query recorded. The Index entries for sub system is not envisioned as a headings will not only print the name of substitute for the annual the geographic area as it will appear, volumes. It is meant to but also the number of the first aid to serve as an additional follow it. The index print program is computer navigational tool then invoked by the Proc and this file for mariners to ascertain the is checked against a "See Proper Name" latest changes to the file to insure that proper reference is lights/radio aids on DMA made to each light. The "See Proper charts. In many cases, there Name" file is a sequential file stored are several particular

209 sequential aids of its type light/radio aids upon which available. mariners place reliance for safe ship navigation. The To provide mariners with an specific procedure to facil- C. on-line data base of the itate a remote query will be most up-to-date light/radio published in the next edi- aid information via global tion of the Automated Notice communications links. to Mariners Communica- tions Users Manual (present edi- D. To provide rapid digital dation is May 1982). A System ta management tools to re- Users Identification Number place antiquated Van-type may be obtained from this equipment, extensive space office by submission of a consuming manual files and written request at any time. slow manual publications set- up methods. SUMMARY The software developed by this effort is a major advance toward DMA's long- The automation of the List of term goal of achieving a totally Lights has involved more than computer automated weekly Notice to Mariners. specialists and programmers. There has Although it builds upon earlier been an inte:Isive effort to include software, the new List of Lights Marine Information Specialists to software will make the remaining insure the user orientation of the automation steps easier and less costly final software. Readers familiar with so we must give some credit to the the present format in the Radio synergistic effect of each of our Navigational Aid publications can completed ANMS Phases. Phase Three appreciate the magnitude of the task to will complete the text oriented, data reformat information into the eight entry capabilities. Research and columns which are utilized in the development efforts which are planned annual List of Lights. This requires but are not now programmed, will the continuing participation of address graphics. List of Lights Maritime Safety Division personnel automation adds two very important during the initial data base loading publications to the ANMS and its impact phase. During this same time period, will extend beyond the actual DMA List operators will be loading the annual of Lights publications themselves. The volumes of the List of Lights on a resultant automated subsystem will be a multiple shift basis. They will be model for later automation efforts using a specially tailored data entry concerning other national List of program because of a lack of a weekly Lights publications which are now notice number, year or other ancillary produced by every major maritime nation files to interact with (i.e. history in the world. file, etc.) which will be associated with the "initial input" as taken directly from the annual volumes. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Also, multiple light numbers will be loaded, exactly as they appear in the I would especially like to printed volumes; howe/er, after the acknowledge the Illinois Institute of master file is loaded, the need for this Technology Research Institute (IITRI) software option will be infrequent and personnel who were instrumental in the changes to the Light Master file will development of the List of Lights usually be processed one at a time. software. They are: The goals of the List of Lights Sabina L. Wu Automation effort which we have — Project Manager developed in this paper can be summarized as follows: Barbara D. Napjus — Associate Programmer A. To automate the production and publication of the cor- Other IITRI personnel have been rections to the annual List associated with software development of Lights as well as produc- and their work has also been of tion of the annual volumes importance in the delivery of a fully of these publications. operational software system. Mr. V. Edward Leudtke of the General Services Administration was instrumental in the B. To merge the List of Lights development of the initial system with radio aids into one pub- design. Mr. Steve Choy of the Harry lication, which will provide Diamond Laboratory wrote the initial mariners with the most com- Screen Entry Editor (SEE) software. plete navigation listing of

210 LIJ ohtRoAl TAPE

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7ÉRM/AIE -T MODEM TERAIWET 2 MODEM 2 7-62A/it/VET 3 A/10DEM 3 MoveM 4

FIGURE 1. FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF AUTOMATED NOTICE TO MARINERS SYSTEM. (NOTE: LIST OF LIGHTS DATA ARE LOADED VIA ONE OF THE TWO IMLAC TERMINALS. ALL DATA ARE STORED ON DISK FILES UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE PRIME 400 COMPUTER. A MAGNETIC TAPE IS OUTPUT TO DRIVE A TYPESETTING MACHINE FOR PRINTING THE WEEKLY CORRECTIONS AND ANNUAL VOLUMES. PROOF PLOTS ARE OUTPUT ON TWO PRINTER/PLOTTERS ATTACHED TO THE IMLAC DATA IMPUT STATIONS OR ON A HIGH SPEED LINE PRINTER CONTROLLED BY THE COMPUTER. TWX, TELEX AND A VARIETY OF

MODEMS ALLOW REMOTE ACCESS TO THE LIST OF LIGHTS DATA FILES.)

211 CONFERENCE PHOTOGRAPHY

PHOTOGRAPHIES DE LA CONFÉRENCE

212 213 214 215 am

216 '

217 218 IMFerleaMinaffe2

Of'.1 LEADLINE TO LASER -

'et• n1.•? 1983

LIGNE DE SONDE AU LASER"

219 REGISTRANTS

ACHESON, S., CHS Ottawa BROWN, E., CHS Central ADAMS, W., Raytheon Ocean Systems Co., BRUCE, J., CHS Ottawa East Providence, R.I. BURGESS, F.H., CHS Atlantic ADJADU-AMPONSAH, V.E., CHS Ottawa BURKE, B., CHS Atlantic AHMED, I., Student, Pakistan Navy CAIN, J.D., Racal-Decca Survey, Inc., ANDERSON, B., W.D. Usher & Associates Houston, Texas Ltd., Whitehorse, Yukon CAMPBELL, N.J., Fisheries & Oceans, ANDERSON, B., Davis Canada, Thornhill, Ottawa Ontario CARDINAL, L., Public Archives of Canada, ANDERSON, N., CHS Ottawa Ottawa AMYOT, J., Fisheries & Oceans, Ottawa CASEY, M., CHS Ottawa ANSTEY, T.H., Nepean, Ontario CASHEN, R.W., CHS Ottawa ARNOLD, G., Nepean, Ontario CASSIDY, T.A., CHS Ottawa ARSENAULT, S.P., Moncton University, CHAMP, C., CHS Ottawa Moncton, N.B. CHANTIGNY, C., CHS Québec ASHER, H.J., Cansite Surveys Limited, CHARLES, D.H., CHS Ottawa (Retired) Calgary, Alberta CHARLES, F., Dept. of Lands & Surveys, AUSTIN, N.C., NOS, NOAA, Seattle, WA Trinidad, West Indies AYRES, J., Int'l Hydrographic Bureau, CHARREYRON, J., CHS Québec Monte Carlo CHAULK, C.G., Dept. of National Defence, BACLE, J.P., Toronto, Ont. Richmond, Ontario BAKKER, D., Rykswaterstaat, Netherlands CLARK, A., Toronto, Ont. BAKSI, W., M.S.E. Engineering CLARKE, B., Toronto, Ont. BALLINGER, D., Humber College CLEARY, N., CHS Ottawa BARRY, J.N., Philip Lapp Ltd., Kanata, CLIFFORD, K., R.C.A./C.E.S., Calgary, Ontario Alberta BASS, G., NOAA, NOS, Rockville, MD COMEAU, H., CHS Ottawa BASSETT, C.H., Capt., U.S. Navy, COOKSON, J., CHS Ottawa Bay St. Louis, Mississippi CORP, D., Raytheon Ocean Systems, East BAUER, M., Canadian Engineering Surveys, Providence, R.I. Edmonton, Alberta CROSS, C.M., CHS (Retired) BEALE, B., CHS Central CROWLEY, J.V., CHS Pacific BEATON, R., U.S. Defense Mapping Agency, CROWTHER, W.S., CHS Pacific Upper Marlboro, MD CRUTCHLOW, M., CHS Central BELL, R., CHS Pacific CURRAN, T.A., CHS Pacific BELL, C.P., CHS Ottawa CUTTS, J.M., Fisheries & Oceans, Ottawa BELLEMARE, P., CHS Québec CZARTORYSKI, J., CHS Ottawa BENNER, L., Canada Centre for Inland CZIFFRAY, L., Canadian Superior Oil Ltd., Waters, Grimsby, Ontario Calgary, Alberta BENWARE, E., Kenting Earth Sciences Ltd. DANIELS, W., Dept. of Public Works, Tor- Kars, Ontario onto, Ont. BERRY, J., Metro Toronto and Region Con- DAVIS, R., Humber College servation Authority, Toronto, Ont. DAWSON, E., Dept. of National Defence, BLACK, D., CHS Ottawa Ottawa BLANDFORD, H.R., CHS Ottawa DAWSON, G., Humber College BLANEY, D.A., CHS Atlantic DEE, S., CHS Ottawa BLUNDEN, G., Sercel Electronics, Calgary DEFOE, R.M., Dept. of Energy, Mines & Alberta Resources, Ottawa BIBEAU, R.P., Eaux Interieurers - Envir- DE HEERING, P., Ottawa onment Canada, Québec DE JONG, D., Gentian Electronics, Stitts- BISHOP, B., Bishop Surveys, Sherwood ville, Ontario Park, Alta DEL AGUILA, J., Direccion de Hidrografia BLONDIN, M.J.M., CHS Ottawa y Navegacion, Peru BODIE, J., Headquarters Defense Mapping DEREN, G., Shell Canada Resources Ltd., Agency, Washington, DC Calgary, Alberta BOLAND, K., Boland & Boland Consultants DESBARATS, A., University of Ottawa International, Bethesda, MD DESPAROIS, J., CHS Ottawa BOLDUC, P.A., Fisheries & Oceans, Ottawa DOHLER, G., UNESCO, Hawaii, U.S.A. BOLTON, M., CHS Pacific DOIRON, G., CHS Ottawa BOONE, L., CHS Ottawa DONEGAN, M., CHS Central BOSZORMENY, G., C-Tech Ltd., Cornwall, DOUCET, N., CHS Québec Ontario DOUGLAS, G.R., CHS Central BOTTRIELL, R., CHS Ottawa DREWRY, J.M.L., Fisheries & Oceans,Ottawa BOUCHARD, Y., CHS Ottawa DUNHAM, S., Humber College BOURGOIN, J., Marine Nationale, Paris, EATON, R.M., CHS Atlantic France EIDSFORTH, B., CHS Central BOWYER, B., Humber College, Islington, EMOND, M., Ministry of Transport, Ontario Montréal, Québec BRASSARD, P., Marinav Can Inc., Ottawa ERWIN, D.M., CHS Ottawa BRISSETTE, S., CHS Ottawa ESTEVEZ, J., CHS Ottawa BROUSE, B., CHS Ottawa EVANGELATOS, T.V., CHS Ottawa BROUSSET BARRIOS, J. Peru EWING, G.M., Fisheries & Oceans, Ottawa FARMER, R.P., CHS Ottawa 220 FICKENSCHER, D.B., US Defense Mapping HUGGETT, W.S., CHS Pacific Agency, Washington, DC HULTSTRAND, V., US Naval Ocean Research FIELDS, E.J., NOAA, Norfolk, VA & Development, Bay St. Louis, MS FISHER, C.R., CHS Central HUTCHINSON, I., Humber College FITZPATRICK, J.B., Acres International INGLIS, B., Northway Gestalt Corp., Tor- Ltd., Niagara Falls onto, Ontario FORGET, G., St. Lawrence Seaway Author- JAIN, S.C. Moniteq Limited, Concord, Ont. ity, Candiac, Québec JOLICOEUR, T., CHS Ottawa FORRESTER, W., CHS (Retired) JONES, H., Dept. of Energy, Mines & Re- FORTIER, A., Insitut de Marine, Rimouski, sources, Ottawa Québec JOHNSTON, K.F., Humber College FRANCO, A.S., Brasil JONES, R.N., CHS Atlantic FRANZEN, N.S., Klein Associates, Inc., KEAN, J., CHS Ottawa Salem, NH KERR, A.J., CHS Atlantic FREDERICK, M., CHS Central KETCH, D., CHS Ottawa FULFORD, C.W., CHS Ottawa KHANGURA, K., CHS Ottawa FURUYA, H., CHS Ottawa KIDD, B., Public Archives of Canada, FYFE, J., C-Tech Ltd, Cornwall, Ontario Ottawa GABEL, G.S., AANDERAA INSTRUMENTS LTD., KIENINGER, K.W., NOS, Norfolk, VA Victoria, B.C. KIM M.S., Hydrographic Office, Korea GALE, T., McElhanney Surveying Engineer- KIRK, A., Humber College ing Ltd., Vancouver, B.C. KLINGER, G., Racal-Decca Survey, Inc., GAMARRA, E.G. Peru Houston, Texas GERVAIS, C., Algonquin College, Ottawa KORHONEN, R.K., CHS Pacific GERVAIS, J.M., CHS Québec KOLLS, F., IGM Services Ltd., GERVAIS, R.F.J., CHS Ottawa New Brunswick GILBERT, G., Terra Surveys, Ottawa KOSOWAN, G., CHS Ottawa GILBERT, M., Fisheries & Oceans, Ottawa LACHAPELLE, G., Nortech Surveys, Cal- GLENNON, T.A. SR., Raytheon Ocean Systems gary, Alberta East Providence, R.I. LAJEUNESSE, M., Dept. of Energy, Mines GODARD, L., Geoterrex Ltd., Ottawa & Resources, Ottawa GOULD, W., CHS Ottawa LAMERTON, G., West Hill, Ontario GRANT, S., CHS Atlantic LAMIRANDE, R., CHS Ottawa GRAY, D., CHS Ottawa LANCE, G., CHS Ottawa GRAY, H., McElhanney Surveying Engineer- LANDRIAULT, R., CHS Ottawa ing Ltd, Vancouver, B.C. LANG, J., Motorola, Willowdale, Ontario GRAY, N.G., CHS (Retired) LASNIER, Z.R., CEGEP LIMOIZOU, Lac Beau GREGSON, D., Meteor Communications Port, P.Q. (Canada) Corp., Victoria, B.C. LAWSON, J., Canadian Power Squadrons, GRIS, A., CHS Central North Vancouver, B.C. GUIBORD, P., CHS Ottawa LAWSON, K., Interocean Systems, San HAAS, R.H., CHS Ottawa Diego, CA HABERSTOCK, B., Esso Resources Canada LEAKE, D., Racal-Decca Survey, Inc., Hou- Ltd., Calgary, Alberta ston, Texas HALL, J., Jayhall Consultants, Nepean, LEENHOUTS, P.P., Canadian Coast Guard, Ontario Ottawa HALLBJORNER, F., Norrkoping, Sweden LEJEUNE, G., Service Hydrographique HALLY, P., CHS Québec Belge, Antwerpen-Belgie HAMILTON, R.C., CHS Ottawa LEMIEUX, R., CHS Ottawa HAMMER,(III) J.L., US Hydrographic Soc- LEWIS, R., CHS Atlantic iety, Bethesda, MD LIPPOLD, H.R. Jr., NOS-NOAA, Rock- HANCOCK, R., Humber College ville, Md HANRAHAN, E.H., Canadian Coast Guard, LOCHHEAD, K., Cartographic Research Ser- Ottawa vices, Aylmer, Québec HANRAHAN, J.T., CHS Ottawa LOGAN, R., CHS Ottawa HARRISON, P., Canadian Engineering Sur- LONGHURST, A., Fisheries & Oceans, veys, Edmonton, Alta Atlantic HARRON, R., Humber College LORD, G., Hull, Québec HASLAM, D., Taunton, UK LYALL, S., Humber College HAYES, C.W., NOS-NOAA, Silver Spring, Md MACDONALD, G., CHS Central HEINRICHS, P., CHS Ottawa MACDONALD, H.B., CHS Central HENDERSON, G.W., CHS Atlantic MACDOUGALL, J., CGEC, Ottawa HEPWORTH, D.L., CHS Atlantic MACGOWAN, B.W., CHS Atlantic HILBERT-MULLEN, I., CHS Ottawa MACKAY, P., Humber College HIPKIN, K., CHS Central MACKENZIE, R.J.D., CHS Ottawa HOLMAN, K.R., CHS Pacific MACMILLAN, P., CHS Ottawa HODGINS, D.R., Humber College MACNAB, R., Geological Survey of Canada, HOLROYD, P.N., CHS Ottawa Dartmouth, H.S. HOOPER, W., Cubic Western Data, San MACPHEE, S.B., CHS Ottawa Diego, California MARSHALL, R., CHS Central HOUDE, A., HYDROMAR INC., Trois-Rivières MARTIN, C., CHS (Retired) Ouest, P.Q. MASON, T., Marinav Canada, Inc., Ottawa HUBBARD, M.J., Canadian Coast Guard, MAYNAGASHEN, B.S., Moscow, USSR Ottawa MCBRIDE, G., C-Tech Ltd, Cornwall, Ont MCCOLL, R., CHS Ottawa 221 MCCULLOCH, T.D.W., Fisheries & Oceans, POPELAR, J., Canadian Govt. Expositions Burlington, Ont. Centre, Ottawa MCDONALD, A., CHS Québec POSEY, L.L., NOS-NOAA, Rockville, Md MCDOUGALL, J.F., Supply & Services Can- POUDRIER, J.Y., CHS Québec ada (Science Branch) Ottawa PRAIRIE, B., Nortech Surveys, Calgary, MCGUINNESS, E., CHS Central Alberta MCLARTY, D.W., Canadian Association of PREST, C.A., CHS Ottawa Aerial Surveyors, Ottawa PRIEUR, M., Algonquin College MCLINTOCK, G., Targa Electronics, Ottawa PRIOR, W., Klein Associates Inc., MCMILLAN, G.I., JMR-CANADA, Calgary, Alta Salem, New Hampshire MCVEIGH, K., Fisheries & Oceans, Ottawa PROVOST, C., Geophysique G.P.R., Mon- MEDYNSKI, G., CHS Ottawa tréal, P.Q. MELBOURNE, D.R., CHS Atlantic PULLEN, T.C. Canadian Coast Guard MILLER, F., CHS Atlantic Ottawa (Retired) MILLETTE, P., CHS Central PULKKINSON, H.W., Fisheries & Oceans, MITCHELL, D.G., Marine Data Service, Ottawa Ottawa PYEFINCH, G., CHS Ottawa MONAHAN, D., CHS Ottawa RACETTE, J.P., CHS Québec MONTEITH, W.J. NOS-NOAA, Rockville, Md RAPATZ, W., CHS Pacific MORGERA, S.D. (Dr.), Concordia Univer- RAWLINSON, S., Toronto, Ont. sity, Montreal, Quebec READ, A., CHS Ottawa MORTIMER, T., CHS Pacific REID, R., Geophysics GPR International MOSHER, B.K., Public Works Canada, Hal- Inc., Longueuil, P.Q. ifax, N.S. RENAUD, R., CHS Ottawa MOULTON, B., Humber College RENFROE, D., AANDERAA INSTRUMENTS LTD., MULLEN, E., Canadian Coast Guard, Ottawa Victoria, B.C. MUKHERJEE, P.K., CHS Ottawa REUBEN, K., Concordia University, MUNRO, M., Dept. of Energy, Mines & Re- Montréal, Québec sources, Ottawa RICHARD, R., Hydrographic Survey Co., MURDOCK, L., CHS (Retired) Chicago, Illinois MURDOCK, P., Ottawa, Ontario RICHARDS, B.E., CHS Central MURPHY, R.W., CHS Ottawa RICHARDS, P., CHS Ottawa MYERS, L., Vineland, Ontario RICHARDS, T.W., NOAA, Rockville, Md NAGATANI, M., Japan Hydrographic Associ- RICHARDSON, B., CHS Ottawa ation, Japan RICHMOND, K., Key Tec Associates, NAYLOR, A., US Defense Mapping Agency, Bolton, Ontario Springfield, VA RITCHIE, G.S., Hydrographic Society, NESBITT, D.L., Kenting Earth Sciences Taunton, Somerset, UK Ltd., Ottawa ROBERTS, D.T., East Can Group of Survey NEWSOME, J.W., Del Norte Technology, Inc. Consultants, Parrsboro, N.S. Euless, TX ROBICHAUD, J.I., CHS Ottawa NIELSON, E.B., Navitronic As., Denmark ROCHON, A., CHS Ottawa NIELSON, A.L.B., Navitronic As, Denmark ROGERS, A.R., CHS (Retired) O'BYRNE, I., Ganges, B.C. ROMERO, G.J., Direccion de Hidrografia O'NEIL, R., Dept. of Energy, Mines & Re- y Navegacion, Venezuela sources, Ottawa ROMESBURG, D.J., NOS-NOAA, Centre- O'REILLY, C., CHS Atlantic ville, VA O'SHEA, J., CHS Ottawa ROSS, A., Fisheries & Oceans, Ottawa ORLOWSKI, T., NOAA, Virginia Beach, VA ROSS, W., Ross Laboratories Inc., PALMER, R.W., CHS Atlantic Seattle, Washington PALMER, W., US Defense Mapping Agency, ROSSI, F., NOAA, Stony Brook, NY Fairfax, VA ROZON, C., CHS Atlantic PANTALONE, D., CHS Ottawa RUXTON, M., CHS Atlantic PAPINEAU, J., CHS Ottawa SAID, N., CHS Ottawa PARKINSON, R.W., CHS Pacific SAMPSON, S., Cubic Western Data, San PARSONS, A., CHS Atlantic Diego, CA PAYNE, T., Kenting Earth Sciences, SANDILANDS, R.W., CHS Pacific Carp, Ontario SANOCKI, R.D., NOS, Norfolk, VA PEARCE, F.J.S., F.J.S. Pearce Ltd., SCALE, S., Fisheries & Oceans, Ottawa Stratford, Ontario SCHIPILOW, C.M., CHS Atlantic PELLETIER, B.R., Geological Survey of SEGUIN, J.P., CHS Ottawa Canada, Ottawa SELLERS, T., Oceaneering International PERESYPKIN, Moscow, USSR Inc., Houston, Texas PERRIN, K., Norfolk, VA SENECHAL, M., Internav Ltd, Sydney, N.S. PERROTTE, R., CHS Atlantic SETTLE, F., Racal-Decca Survey, Inc., PESKETT, K., CHS Ottawa Houston, Texas PETERS, C., Humber College SHAEFER, G., Interocean Systems Inc., PETERS, S., Canadian Engineering Sur- San Diego, CA veys, Edmonton, Alta SHAFFER, V., NOAA, Norfolk, VA PETERSON, D., NOAA, Derwood, Md SHAW, J., CHS Central PETIT, R.J., CHS Ottawa SHEARD, S., Motorola, Willowdale, Ont. PITTMAN, A., CHS (Retired) SMITH, J., Krupp-Atlas Electronic, PIUZE, J., Fisheries & Oceans, Québec Rahway, NJ POPEJOY, R.D., CHS Pacific SPENCER, J.E., KODAK, Ottawa, Ontario 222 STANICH, C., Daedalus Enterprises Inc., WIGEN, S.O., Fisheries & Oceans, Pacific Ann Arbor, MI WILLIAMS, R.K., CHS Québec STANZEL, A., CHS Ottawa WILSON, D., CHS Ottawa STATHAM, J., Marshall Macklin Monaghan WILSON, J.H., CHS Central Ltd., Don Mills, Ontario WILSON, P., Marinav Canada Inc., Ottawa ST-GERMAIN, L., CHS Ottawa FOTHERGILL-WOELFLE, A., CHS Ottawa ST. JACQUES, D., CHS Central WOELFLE, W.E., CHS Ottawa STEEVES, D., Fentronics-N.S.I. Ltd., WOLFE, M., CHS Ottawa Dartmouth, N.S. WONG, K.S., Humber College STEGALL, J.G., Del Norte Technology, Inc. WRIGHT, B., CHS Central Euless, TX YASHIMA, K., Maritime Safety Agency, STEPHENSON, C., Canadian Coast Guard, Tokyo, Japan Ottawa YEATON, G.M., CHS Ottawa STEPHENSON, F.E., CHS Pacific ZENTNER, T., Humber College STEVENS, H., Public Archives of Canada, Ottawa STOLTE, M.G., Humber College STOPANI-THOMSON, H., CHS Ottawa SULLIVAN, J.I., Yarmouth Co., Nova Scotia SULOFF, D., NOAA, Rockville, Md SWAYZE, J.G., CHS Ottawa SWEENEY, O., National Board for Science & Technology, Ireland TAIT, B., CHS Ottawa TAPLEY, T., Humber College TAYLOR, R., CHS Ottawa TERRELL, C., National Maritime Museum, London, England TESSIER, G., CHS Québec THORSON, B., CHS Central TINNEY, B., CHS Central TITUS, S.R., CHS (Retired) TODHUNTER, J., Humber College TOLTON, H., Marinav, Ottawa TOPPLE, C.E., Canadian Coast Guard, Dart- mouth, Nova Scotia TOWNSEND, C., NOAA, Seattle, WA TREMBLAY, T., CHS Ottawa TROOP, P.M., Dept. of Justice, Ottawa TUMILTY, T., Humber College TURGEON, M.E.H., CHS Ottawa VACHON, D.H., CHS Ottawa VAN DER REE, A., Voorhout, Holland VANDOROS, E., Canadian Coast Guard,Ottawa VAN DYCK, S., CHS Ottawa VAN OPSTAL, L.H., Hydrographic Service, Netherlands VAN RUSKENVELD, Y., Energy, Mines & Re- sources, Ottawa VAN WEELDE, H.H., Ottawa, Ontario VARONEN, J., Finnish Board of Navigation, Finland VON BUCHKA, W., Krupp Atlas - Elektronik, Bremen, Germany VOSBURGH, J., CHS Pacific WADE, R.L., Nortech Surveys, Calgary, Alberta WALLACE, J., NOAA, Rockville, Md WALKER, E., Environment Canada, Cale- donia, Ontario WARKENTIN, M., Humber College WARREN, J., CHS Ottawa WATKINS, M.S., CHS Ottawa WELLS, D., University of New Brunswick WELMERS, A., CHS Central WESTON, M., Humber College WHITE, B.F., CHS Central WHITING, G.A., US Navy, Washington, DC WHITEMAN, D.A., Moniteg Ltd., Concord, Ontario WHITEMAN, H.H., Canadian Coast Guard, Ottawa WIDYARATNE, T., DFO Communications Branch, Ottawa

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NLR 178 Fisheries Pêches 14, and Oceans el Océans Canact4