The Archaeological Signature of Stews Or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period Experimental Chopping of Long Bones and Small Fragment Sizes

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The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period Experimental Chopping of Long Bones and Small Fragment Sizes

Adam R. Heinrich

In published historic period faunal analyses, small ABSTRACT bone fragment sizes have often been construed as evidence of the chopping or smashing of bones for Small bone fragments have often been interpreted as the stew preparation or grease rendering. Small bone residues of stews or grease extraction. In international historical archaeological research, stew interpretations have fragments have been believed to have facilitated often focused on enslaved or underclass groups or on those the fitting of meat into pots or to have expedited who had limited access to sufficient amounts of food or faced nutritional deficiencies. These analyses have widely the extraction of valuable, fatty grease in boiling been uncritical, and the small fragment sizes can be better explained as the products of taphonomic processes such as water. The ability to identify stews or grease weathering, trampling, and carnivore scavenging. This work extraction through highly fragmented bones by presents results from experimentally chopped long bones from cows, sheep, goats, and pigs that identify butchery historic people of various socioeconomic groups and fracture patterns that can be used to evaluate past stew to cope with malnutrition, to manage a demanding interpretations and provide comparative models for future analyses. work regime, to maintain a traditional cuisine, or to Delivered by http://saa.metapress.com Society for American Archaeology - Full Access (966-81-809) IP Address: 72.211.147.137 Monday, April 07, 2014 10:07:07 AM identify industrial practices would allow significant Los fragmentos pequeños de huesos muchas veces se understanding of important historic processes. han interpretado como residuos de estofados o como producto de la remoción de grasas. En las investigaciones internacionales realizadas por la arqueología histórica, Influential interpretations in historical archaeology have often la interpretación de los estofados se ha sobre cargado attributed the practice of stew preparation and grease extrac- de imágenes relacionadas con grupos esclavizados o tion to underclass people such as enslaved laborers and their marginales, o con aquellos que tenían un acceso limitado e overseers, who had to rely on long-simmering stews in order insuficiente a ciertos alimentos, o que padecían deficiencias to attend to other work responsibilities (Colonial Williamsburg nutricionales. Estos análisis no han sido lo suficientemente Foundation 2002; Franklin 2001:97; Otto 1977:104, 1984:60, 111; críticos y el tamaño pequeño de los fragmentos óseos se Samford 1996:96). Small bone fragments, interpreted as residues puede explicar como el resultado de procesos tafonómicos, of stews and marrow extraction, have also been construed as tales como la intemperización, la compactación y la evidence of people trying to acquire as many nutrients as possi- depredación. Este trabajo presenta los resultados ble to make up for dietary deficiencies in times of stress (Arkush experimentales de los cortes realizados a los huesos largos 2011:80–82; Cheever 1983:72–73; Crader 1984:544, 546, 548–549, de vacas, borregos, cabras y puercos que evidencian destazamiento y patrones de fractura que pueden usarse 1989:230–231, 1990:710, 713; Dixon et al. 2010; Ellis et al. 2011; para evaluar las interpretaciones pasadas en torno a los Hall 1992:392, 395, 1990:3; Triggs 2004:170). Some of these estofados y que proveen, además, modelos comparativos stew interpretations have been in contexts involving enslaved para la realización de análisis futuros. laborers, where the small bone fragments may also illustrate a possible continuation of a Western African stew-based cuisine

(Franklin 2001:97; McKee 1987:36–38; Samford 1996:96; Single- Richard Gould (cited in Hodder 1979:449) suggests that, in ton 1995:125). Unfortunately, most of this literature falls short of times of nutritional stress, Indigenous Australians might highly explaining how processing for stews or grease extraction was fragment bones in order to extract the fullest amount of edible identified, especially when numerous taphonomic processes material. From other ethnoarchaeological accounts, the great could have led to confusing equifinalities in the recovered bone fragmentation of bones to extract grease has been a more rou- samples. Therefore, this research aims to develop a compara- tine historic behavior, particularly by Native Americans, to make tive model that can be used more confidently to demonstrate soup, to make a lard-like substance called pemmican, or to tan human butchery as the cause of assemblages characterized by hides (Vehik 1977:171). Leechman (1951:355) recorded how the high fragmentation. Old Crow in the Yukon smashed bones with hammerstones and, more recently, the back side of an axe until the bone fragments The assumption that small bone fragments are evidence of were the size of fingernails. The literature of several other Native stews or grease extraction is influenced by historical accounts American cultural groups who crushed a variety of bones in or ethnoarchaeological observations, though these are not well ways similar to that reported by Leechman in order to make cited in the historical archaeological literature. For example, soups and to extract grease is reviewed by Vehik (1977) and Otto (1977, 1984) working at Cannon’s Point Plantation and Church and Lyman (2003). Other ethnoarchaeological accounts Crader (1984, 1990) at Monticello both cited the testimony of ex- of the Hadza pastoralists of northern Tanzania show that bones slave Charles Ball (1859). Ball recorded having eaten a “dinner of could be chopped with a knife or axe in order to fit into pots, stewed pork” made from his provisioned rations after a Sunday but these may not be highly fragmented because smaller funeral, though he provided no additional information about animals and bones were not chopped into smaller pieces (Lupo how it was prepared (1859:195). Influential to many of the other 1995:291–292). Binford (1978:157–163) and Yellen (1977:291–293) studies cited earlier, Otto’s and Crader’s stew interpretations echo the historic and ethnoarchaeological accounts through were based on small fragment sizes, large numbers of unidentifi- observations of the Nunamiut and the !Kung, respectively. able bone fragments, and butchery through chopping. However, the rarely reported butchery traces aimed at fragmentation are Historical accounts also provide clues that bones could have minimal, with chop marks reported on only 2 percent of the been highly fragmented for some industries, such as fertilizer bones from Monticello’s Storehouse (Crader 1984:547). The and soap production. A nineteenth-century account from Eng- severe fragmentation at these sites has been better explained land records: through contextual evidence due to the bones having been predominately discarded in surface deposits where natural pro- After they are taken home men are employed with cesses such as weathering, carnivores, and trampling more likely short handled axes to chop them into small pieces caused the high degree of fragmentation and unidentifiability on a stock and pitch them into the boilers. When well (Heinrich 2012). boiled the fat is skimmed off and as the bone boiler is generally also a soap boiler part of it is used for soap In an interpretation of bone breakage and pulverization being and the coarser part for coach and cart grease [Halkett indicative of marrow and stewed grease extraction by Native 1840:344]. Americans at a California Spanish mission, Arkush (2011:80–82) provides some photographic illustrations of the bone fragments. The account further records very large piles of fragmented Arkush also cites comparative analyses from faunal reports that waste bone in these manufacturing centers, as well as industrial themselves proposed interpretations without historical refer- machines that can break up the bones into .5–2 cm sized pieces ences or critical investigations of butchery (i.e., Garlinghouse for field fertilizer (Halkett 1840:344). 2009:4). Arkush’s (2011:81) Figure 11 shows large mammal bone fragments that he argues were intentionally broken for marrow, Archaeological research into Roman and Medieval industrial

Delivered by http://saa.metapress.com Society for American Archaeology - Full Access (966-81-809) IP Address: 72.211.147.137 Monday, April 07, 2014 10:07:07 AM though a proportion of the illustrated bones demonstrate dry, sites has shown that severe fragmentation for grease extraction transverse breakage and longitudinal cracking, suggesting that has had a long tradition in Europe. Excavations at two Roman some fragmentation occurred after the bones had already been sites in Tongeren, Belgium, revealed pits full of small cattle bone deposited and weathered (Behrensmeyer 1978:151). Addition- fragments. Though not quantified in the publication, the bones ally, his Figure 12 illustrates what is proposed to be “com- from these pits demonstrate stronger support for industrial minuted faunal material typically associated with bone grease breakage due to sealed contexts, great proportions of fresh rendering” (Arkush 2011:82). Challenging this claim because of breakage, absence of charring, as well as common shearing transverse breakage patterns, the image shows, instead, that marks from butchery by a sharp implement (Vanderhoeven and the bones were largely broken after significant decomposi- Ervynck 2007:167–172, Plates VII A and VII B). The grease extraction when grease was no longer available in the bones. A large tion purpose of these fragments has been informed by experi- number of other fragments in the image were clearly burned mental work (Stokes 2000). In this experimentation, three long and fragmented after burning, which is not an expected result bones from a cattle forelimb were chopped according to pat- for bones that are kept in a broth-like liquid to extract grease terns observed in highly fragmented bone samples from several (Gifford-Gonzalez 1993:183–184). The expected results of severe Roman and Medieval sites. The results of the various products fragmentation for grease extraction can be better seen with the were not quantified, but Stokes (2000) concluded that high Nunamiut, where a photograph of post-boiled, comminuted car- degrees of fragmentation through chops at various places along ibou bones shows that they should be uncharred, demonstrate the long bone shafts can be accomplished with little physical oblique (fresh) breakage, and contain numerous bone flakes effort. This fragmentation would imply potential butchery marks (ECHO Space 2008:Figure 6). at different locales across the bone, along with fresh breakage.

2 Advances in Archaeological Practice: A Journal of the Society for American Archaeology • February 2014 The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period (cont.)

Though the need to severely fragment bones has been shown rensmeyer et al. 1986; Dominguez-Rodrigo et al. 2009; Fiorillo experimentally to have no significant benefit over somewhat 1989; Olsen and Shipman 1988). larger fragments, the wide practice of highly fragmenting bones and the perpetuation of this idea in contemporary archaeo- So far, there has been little work to identify specific traces and logical interpretations probably stems from the belief that the patterns that could differentiate whether small bone fragments greater surface area to volume ratios of smaller fragments in an archaeological collection were created through human allowed grease to be extracted more efficiently (Church and or non-human agents. From the archaeological research, there Lyman 2003). From the various ethnoarchaeological inferences, has been no quantified explanation for what should be a small bones fragmented for stews or grease extraction during the fragment that is indicative of processing for stews or grease historic period could have been broken with a sharp iron tool, extraction. Church and Lyman (2003:1078), reviewing the litera- such as a heavy knife or axe, as well as with the blunt side of an ture, show that ethnoarchaeological examples report fragment axe. Archaeologists must also realize that it is very plausible that sizes that ranged from fingernail sized (one centimeter) to mean small fragments could be created by natural processes, such as lengths of about seven centimeters, though some fragment weathering, trampling, and carnivore scavenging, which are very sizes were dependent on the size of the animal processed. common actors on historic sites (Heinrich 2012). Therefore, infer- However, average fragment sizes or uniformity in fragment size ences about cultural behavior should not be based solely on a do not necessarily point to human agency alone. superficial assessment of small fragment sizes. Currently, the strongest comparative criteria that can serve as There has been a vast range of actualistic research into ways that models to identify bones processed for stews or grease extrac- bones could be fragmented in archaeological sites, though this tion in the historic period come from research into the Donner research has typically focused on prehistoric time periods, as Party starvation in California and a diasporic Chinese camp a result of which the literature has largely been overlooked by called China Gulch in Montana. Tool marks related to fragmen- historical archaeologists (Landon 2005:5–6). Assuming the prin- tation include those that resulted from chopping and sawing. At ciple of uniformitarianism concerning the biology and physics of the Donner Party camp, chop marks were exhibited on 9 percent bones, the effects of processes like dynamic butchery, tram- and saw marks were observed on 2 percent of the bone frag- pling, and carnivore chewing, and the effects of environmental ments (Dixon et al. 2010:641–642). At China Gulch, chop marks forces like weathering and diagenesis, have acted in the past as were exhibited on 6 percent and saw marks were observed on they do in the present. So, experimentation and observations 18 percent of the bone fragments (Ellis et al. 2011:107). Other of modern bones can serve as strong relational analogies for dynamic fragmentary forces were applied through other tools understanding past taphonomic processes (Binford 1981:21–42, creating percussion marks, with China Gulch showing these 1989:20–21; Gifford-Gonzalez 1991:219–226). marks on 25 percent of the fragments and the Donner Party site showing them on 16 percent of the fragments (Dixon et Most of the historic period faunal collections that have been al. 2010:642; Ellis et al. 2011:107). Both sites also exhibit high interpreted as stews have been recovered from surface mid- proportions of pieces with “pot polish” (Dixon et al. 2010:642; dens (e.g., Arkush 2011:82; Crader 1984:543, 1990:692, 700; Ellis et al. 2011:107), which may be more indicative of highly Otto 1984:45, 103, 136–138). These historic surface contexts are processed starvation scenarios and not routine on bones more prime settings for fragmenting post-depositional processes, simply processed in stews or boiled for grease extraction. particularly carnivore scavenging and trampling. Actualistic studies have demonstrated that carnivore involvement often As the Donner Party and China Gulch examples show, instead causes fragmentation, as well as the consumption of less dense of looking simply at severity and patterns of fragmentation, bones and epiphyseal ends, as a result deleting them from the an analyst should additionally seek out and quantify the marks archaeological record (Binford and Bertram 1977:82; Blumen- made by the tools responsible for fracturing the bones to better

Delivered by http://saa.metapress.com Society for American Archaeology - Full Access (966-81-809) IP Address: 72.211.147.137 Monday, April 07, 2014 10:07:07 AM schine and Marean 1993:282–289; Brain 1981:18–23; Marean and demonstrate human involvement in the fragmentation. As a Spencer 1991:651–652; Munson and Garniewicz 2003:411–415). primary tenet of the “New” Archaeology paradigm shift, Binford Carnivores also create diagnostic marks on bone surfaces with (1989:20) advocated middle-range research “as a means of their round cusped teeth, which leave shallow rounded tooth developing secure and intellectually independent interpretive pits, broad tooth scores, and sometimes punctures into trabecu- principles and of expanding our knowledge of phenomena of lar bone (Binford 1981:44–49; Lyman 1994:205–216; Potts and relevance to our interpretive task.” The tool marks, as well as the Shipman 1981:577–578). other post-depositional taphonomic traces identifiable on bone surfaces, help bridge the middle range between the recovered Trampling is also a common transformative agent at sites where static artifact and the dynamic historic behavior that created the bones are discarded around activity areas. Both animals and artifact. people walking on the fragments and sediment compaction can alter the originally deposited bones, where fragmentation is common and softer bones and bone portions like the epiphy- EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN seal ends are crushed and removed from the archaeological assemblage (Haynes 1991:379; Lyman 1994:377–382; Myers et al. In order to more solidly bridge the divide between the recov- 1980:487). If trampling had impact on the bones, the tapho- ered artifacts and the processes that created those artifacts, nomic process could be identified by the presence of subtle butchery experiments were performed to determine the faunal striations in patches of sub-parallel scratches and sometimes signature of bones that could have been fragmented for stews isolated scratches that could be confused with cut marks (Beh- and grease extraction. Fresh, defleshed long bones of goats (Capra hircus), sheep (Ovis aries), pigs (Sus scrofa), and cattle

February 2014 • Advances in Archaeological Practice: A Journal of the Society for American Archaeology 3 The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period (cont.)

(Bos taurus) were fractured to represent the types of animals 2. Fracture edges will be fresh/oblique breaks because frequently found at historical archaeological sites. Goats, pigs, fresh bones would have been used for food, and they and sheep represent medium sized (size 2) mammals, while the should not exhibit transverse breakage of weathered cattle represent a large (size 3) mammal to study how relative bone. bone size might affect results. These two butchery experiments were performed to simulate the possible methods of fractur- 3. Bone flakes will be numerous due to the dynamic loading with an 816.5 grams weight steel hand axe, sometimes also ing forces imparted upon the bones by chopping or known as a hatchet. One experimental method used the sharp, smashing tools. Bone flakes are defined as products chopping edge of the steel hand axe. The second method of conchoidal fracture in the dense cortical long bone involved smashing bones using the blunt end of the steel hand diaphyses. Flakes are considered those fragments that axe. Strikes were made perpendicular to the long axis of the are fully cortical and exhibiting only one or no original bone along the length of the bone’s diaphysis. bone surface.

No historical faunal analysis where small bone fragments were 3a. Bone flakes will be more frequent from size 3 bones interpreted as evidence of stews has provided quantifiable data due to the thicker cortical bone of the diaphyses. about the sizes of the bone fragments recovered. The Granary site within the Castle of Good Hope, Cape Town, South Africa, was initially interpreted as providing evidence of slave diet 3b. Bone flakes will be more frequent in blunt smashing residues due to patterns of fragmentation and skeletal part trials due to the impact from the broad surface of the representations comparable to sites like those along Mulberry hand axe. Row at Monticello (Hall 1992:392, 395, 1990:3; Thackeray 1989:2). In 2005, an opportunity to reanalyze the Granary collection origi- 3c. Bone flakes produced from the blunt smash trials nally attributed to slaves instead demonstrated that taphonomic will be longer than the flakes produced by the sharp processes such as trampling and carnivore scavenging heav- chopping trials. The hypothesis is that the broad ily contributed to the fragmentation (Heinrich 2010:159–180, surface of the blunt side of the axe will produce lon- 2012:19–34). The opportunity to reanalyze the collection also ger flakes (in their maximum dimension) analogous provided the chance to determine mean fragment sizes for to those created by the broad impact of a round medium (size 2) mammals and large (size 3) mammals. The mean hammerstone (Capaldo and Blumenschine 1994:736; bone fragments length for the Granary long bone samples for Galan et al. 2009:782). size 2 mammals is 33.1 mm, while the mean width is 14.2 mm. For the size 3 mammals, the mean length is 49.4 mm and the mean width is 21.1 mm. These measurements are similar to SHARP CHOPPING other sites and contexts with comparable taphonomic histories. Therefore, these measurements were considered target average EXPERIMENT RESULTS fragment sizes during the butchery experiments. The sharp-edged chopping experiment consisted of 18 size 2 After each bone was fragmented with the steel hand axe on a bone trials and seven size 3 bone trials (Table 1). Using the sharp wooden platform, all fragments were collected, cleaned, and edge of the hand axe was a relatively effective method to frac- dried. Each fragment was then measured and all bone surfaces ture long bones. Size 2 bones produced 2.6 to 6.4 fragments per were examined for tool marks. Investigations of bone surface chop (Figure 1). Fewer fragments were produced per chop for marks were performed using a 10x power hand lens under the size 3 bones with ratios from 2.1 to 3.8. Repeated strikes were raking angled light from a lamp (Blumenschine et al. 1996). Bone needed to chop into and fragment the more robust long bone near-epiphyseal ends, particularly for size 3 bones. Qualitatively, Delivered by http://saa.metapress.com Society for American Archaeology - Full Access (966-81-809) IP Address: 72.211.147.137 Monday, April 07, 2014 10:07:07 AM fragment edge breakage patterns were also recorded to identify oblique or transverse breakage types. chopping with the sharp edge caused a wide scatter of bone fragments during butchery. HYPOTHESES TESTED Chop marks are generally conspicuous, and 99.5 percent of the chop marks are located at a fracture edge at all portions of the Because fragmentation can be caused by human as well as bones. When chops went through cortical bone, the marks usu- by post-depositional taphonomic agents, criteria that can be ally left striations parallel to the direction of strike that reflected securely attributed to human action need to be isolatable and imperfections of the blade edge (Lynn and Fairgrieve 2009; definable. The following hypotheses were tested through the Tucker et al. 2001). Less conspicuous chop marks are observed experimental trials: on thin cortical fracture edges, such as those on bone flakes. These less conspicuous marks appear as areas of roughened, crushed bone on the fracture edge, often in locations that would 1. Human-made, dynamic loading butchery marks (chop correspond to the platform of a flake (Figure 2). Importantly, the or impact marks) will be numerous and located across proportion of fragments with chop marks is very high for both different parts of the bones (i.e., at proximal, distal, and relative animal sizes and all bone types. Chop marks are identi- midshaft portions of the long bones, instead of just at fied regularly on over 42 percent of bone fragments, regardless joints typical of carcass dismemberment or at the mid- of relative bone size. shafts of radii and tibiae where feet are often removed during skinning).

4 Advances in Archaeological Practice: A Journal of the Society for American Archaeology • February 2014 The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period (cont.) Delivered by http://saa.metapress.com Society for American Archaeology - Full Access (966-81-809) IP Address: 72.211.147.137 Monday, April 07, 2014 10:07:07 AM

FIGURE 1. Specimen g-1b goat tibia fractured by 10 sharp chops. Note the high proportion of less-diagnostic midshaft fragments and small-sized fragments. Many of the smallest fragments are flakes. Fracture edges are predominately oblique, indicating that BLUNT SMASHING the bones were broken fresh before organic decomposition. Oblique fractures can be identified only on fragments that retain EXPERIMENT RESULTS cortical bone. Non-oblique breakage is classified as indetermi- nate, meaning that the bone fragments contained only trabecu- The blunt smashing experiment consisted of 17 size 2 bone trials lar bone that lacked any cortical portion. and eight size 3 bone trials (Table 2). Using the blunt edge of the hand axe produced some mixed results regarding fragmentation efficiency. Size 2 bones created 1.7 to 8.8 fragments per

February 2014 • Advances in Archaeological Practice: A Journal of the Society for American Archaeology 5 The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period (cont.)

FIGURE 3. Distribution of fragment lengths for size 2 bones.

contain subtle striations associated with the pit (e.g. Blumen- schine and Selvaggio 1988; Galan et al. 2009:782; Pickering and Egeland 2006) (Figure 5). Predominantly, evidence for blunt smashing is found at the fracture edge, and these marks looked FIGURE 2. The internal roughened texture of a chop mark similar to chop marks, usually without the clear striations of the on a goat tibia. The strike did not fully remove a series of chopping blade. These marks appear as roughened, crushed bone flakes on the interior shaft. A paperclip propping the bone created as the hand axe passed into the bone surface. fragment can be used as scale. It is important to note that many of these crushing marks are relatively inconspicuous, especially on smaller bone flakes, and strike. Tibiae produced the two lowest strike-to-fragment ratios, they require slight magnification and a raking light angle to see. which seems to be related to their resilient distal shaft cylinders, Blunt smashing marks are regularly observed on 20.5 percent to which required extra strikes to fragment. Blunt smashing of size 40.0 percent of the bone fragments, except for one cattle femur 3 bones was somewhat more efficient, with the strikes producing for which only 13.0 percent of the fragments show marks. ratios mostly between 3.2 to 11.9 fragments per strike, though one femur produced a very low ratio of 1.7. Differences in Mirroring the sharp chop experiments, all fragments with cortical strike-to-fragment ratios are not statistically significant between bone have fresh/oblique fracture edges showing the butchery the two experimental methods for each bone size. In contrast of fresh bones. All non-oblique breaks were on fragments that to the sharp chopping trials, blunt smashing did not create as consist only of trabecular bone. There are fewer of these fully much bone fragment scatter away from the butchery spot, which trabecular bone fragments from the blunt smash trials because would have made it a more effective technique if there were it is far more difficult to fragment the robust epiphyseal ends of historic concern about retrieving all the pieces without the use long bones with the blunt side of the hand axe. of a wide platform to see where the fragments spread.

The distributions of fragment sizes are comparable between BONE FLAKES CREATED the two different fracturing methods, showing no significant THROUGH FRAGMENTATION

Delivered by http://saa.metapress.com Society for American Archaeology - Full Access (966-81-809) IP Address: 72.211.147.137 Monday, April 07, 2014 10:07:07 AM differences for either relative bone size. For size 2 bone fragments, they are modally very small, where 49.7 percent of those As shown in Table 1 and Table 2, bone flakes are common from the sharp chop and 45.2 percent from the blunt smash are products of fragmenting the dense cortical bone of long bone shorter than 20.0 mm in length (Figure 3). A similar distribution diaphyses with the dynamic loading forces from chopping and is produced by the size 3 fragments from both methods (Figure smashing. Sharp chops produced flakes from 9.1 percent to 52.4 4). Size 3 fragments are also modally less than 20.0 mm in length percent in the size 2 bone experiment. Within the size 2 chop with 41.2 percent of those from the sharp chop and 48.2 percent experiment, pigs (30.0–52.4 percent) produced significantly of those from the blunt smash fitting within this measurement more flakes than sheep (9.1–38.1 percent) or goats (27.6–38.1 interval. The high proportions of small fragments from the size 3 percent). Size 3 bones produced significantly greater propor- bones are results of the great numbers of flakes produced from tions of flakes (41.9–78.6 percent) than the size 2 bones in the these bones. sharp chop trials (Mann-Whitney U = 121.0; p < .001).

Marks left by blunt smashing are often less conspicuous than The blunt smash experiments did not produce significantly those left by sharp chops, as blunt chopping fractures bones greater proportions of flakes than the sharp chop experiments by dissipating dynamic forces into the bones while sharp chops when bone size subsamples are compared between the tests. more directly penetrate into the bone. Blunt smashing marks are This calls for the rejection of hypothesis 3b. Similar to the sharp at fracture edges in 95.0 percent of the observations. The blunt chop experiments, size 3 bones (47.8–85.3 percent) did produce smashing marks are identified in two general forms. A small a highly significantly greater proportion of flakes than their size 2 proportion of marks resemble hammerstone percussion marks, counterparts (18.2–57.7 percent) in the blunt smash experiment in which a shallow pit is found and a small number of these also (Mann-Whitney U = 133.0; p < .001).

6 Advances in Archaeological Practice: A Journal of the Society for American Archaeology • February 2014 The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period (cont.)

FIGURE 4. Distribution of fragment lengths for size 3 bones.

It was hypothesized that flakes created by blunt smashing would be longer than those created by sharp chops. For size 2 bones, FIGURE 5. A relatively rare percussion pit created by blunt flakes from the blunt smashing trials are significantly longer than impact on a size 3 bone fragment. Note the striations within those created from sharp chopping (Mann-Whitney U = 15162.0, the pit. Scale is in millimeters. p < .05) (Figure 6). There is also a highly statistical difference in flake widths between the two experimental methods Mann-( Whitney U = 16952.0; p < .001). For size 3 bones, there is no (Heinrich 2011). Crucially, the one stew interpretation that pro- statistical difference in flake lengths between the two experi- vides some insight into how many chop marks were identified is ments (Mann-Whitney U = 25940.5; p > .05) (Figure 7). A highly the Storehouse slave quarter site at Monticello. There, Crader significant difference is noted for size 3 bone flake widthsMann- ( (1984:547; Heinrich 2012:17) identified chop marks on about only Whitney U = 32370.0; p < .001). This allows for the acceptance 2 percent of the bone fragments. of hypothesis 3c for the size 2 flakes. It also requires an amend- ment for flakes from size 3 bones, for which flakes created by The experimental chopping and smashing presented here have sharp chopping are wider than those created by blunt smashing. been directed only at long bones. Hypothetically, if all skeletal elements were the focus of high fragmentation for stews or grease, it is proposed that the frequencies of marks could be DISCUSSION even greater than those reported for just long bones. As an example to illustrate this idea, the ca.1730–1750 farmstead con- The two experimental methods produced results that can be text at Elsenburg in the Western Cape, South Africa, shows chop used as comparative models when analyzing historic period marks on 10.9 percent of the total bone sample of 10,032 speci- archaeological faunal collections, and even collections from mens (Heinrich 2010:209). The site was a place where the inhab- the broader Iron Age. A high degree of fragmentation caused itants slaughtered and consumed full animals, which were likely by people engaged in breaking bones through highly dynamic from their own herds, as they were not obtaining their meat as loading forces with chopping or crushing implements should selected cuts from a market. This proportion also includes bones leave evidence of the tool used on the bones. The experiments from small mammals, birds, and reptiles. At Elsenburg, the size show that if the fragmentation was aimed at creating small bone 2 bone subsample shows chop marks on 10.9 percent, while the Delivered by http://saa.metapress.com Society for American Archaeology - Full Access (966-81-809) IP Address: 72.211.147.137 Monday, April 07, 2014 10:07:07 AM pieces, the proportions of marks left by these tools should be size 2 long bones show chop marks on 6.5 percent of the speci- significantly high, as the experiments also show that there is rel- mens. For the size 3 bones, chop marks are on 13.3 percent of ative redundancy in the proportions of these marks. The findings the bones and on 10.9 percent of the long bones. Making these presented here are quite disparate from archaeological faunal distinctions by bone size and bone type helps suggest that the samples that represent human butchery with iron chopping tools butchery marks would be even more greatly represented in a aimed at basic carcass dismemberment. These reports show low faunal collection if other skeletal elements such as crania, verte- to moderate frequencies of these marks when proportions were brae, and pelves were targeted for stew or grease extraction. reported for entire samples. For example, three temporal contexts in urban colonial Charleston, South Carolina, show chop Creating small fragments from long bones through chopping or marks to be 3.4–6.8 percent of the total bone samples (Zierden smashing produces high proportions of fragments that are less and Rietz 2009:345–346). At Fort Montgomery, New York, three than 20.0 mm in length. These very small, sharp fragments could eighteenth-century sites of different military classes show chop have been inhibitive to historic people if they were severely frac- marks on 2.1–4.6 percent of the fragments (Horton 2004:153). turing bones for stews that were likely mixed with meat, grains, Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century sites at the Cape of Good and vegetables (i.e., Covey and Eisnach 2009:85, 104, 125). As Hope, where slight magnification was employed to observe inferred from ethnographic accounts, the high proportion of taphonomic marks on bone surfaces, show chop marks range very small fragments could be more feasible for grease extrac- from 8.0–13.9 percent in faunal samples interpreted as post- tion, during the process of which the bone fragments could be kitchen refuse (Heinrich 2010:143, 163, 209). An early nineteenth- strained out of the oily broth. century Bound Brook, New Jersey site also shows chop marks on 10.5 percent of the fragments using slight magnification

February 2014 • Advances in Archaeological Practice: A Journal of the Society for American Archaeology 7 The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period (cont.)

TABLE 1. Data Summary of the Sharp Chop Experimental Trials. Specimen ID and No. No. No. chop % chop No. % oblique bone type strikes frags marked marked flakes breakage Size 2 bones s-1 Ovis femur 6 26 12 46.2 3 96.2 s-2a Ovis femur 4 11 8 72.7 1 90.9 s-2b Ovis tibia 7 21 15 71.4 8 100.0 s-3 Ovis femur 11 29 16 55.2 8 96.6 s-4 Ovis femur 9 24 11 45.8 5 100.0 g-1a Capra femur 6 29 13 44.8 9 100.0 g-1b Capra tibia 10 47 22 46.8 14 100.0 g-1c Capra femur 7 40 20 50.0 13 85.0 g-1d Capra tibia 8 33 16 48.5 11 97.0 g-1e Capra radius 7 23 18 78.3 8 100.0 g-1f Capra humerus 6 20 9 45.0 7 95.0 g-1g Capra radius 7 29 18 62.1 8 89.7 g-1h Capra 5 21 9 42.9 8 85.7 humerus p-1a Sus humerus 8 40 17 42.5 18 97.5 p-1b Sus tibia 8 51 23 45.1 23 100.0 p-1d Sus radius 9 42 23 54.8 22 95.2 p-2 Sus femur 7 32 17 53.1 13 100.0 p-3 Sus femur 6 20 9 45.0 7 94.7

Size 3 bones c-1 Bos tibia 15 45 22 48.9 22 91.1 c-2 Bos femur 19 56 34 60.7 26 71.4 c-3 Bos femur 14 31 17 54.8 13 87.1 c-4 Bos femur 16 34 19 55.9 25 100.0 c-6 Bos humerus 16 38 22 57.9 21 100.0 c-8 Bos tibia 15 35 16 45.7 22 100.0 c-15 Bos femur 11 42 24 57.1 33 92.9 Delivered by http://saa.metapress.com Society for American Archaeology - Full Access (966-81-809) IP Address: 72.211.147.137 Monday, April 07, 2014 10:07:07 AM

What do bones from stew preparation look like at historical record any process of highly fragmenting bones (Covey and archaeological sites? With the exceptions of starvation situa- Eisnach 2009:104, 123, 125, 129). tions, historic accounts suggest that they were likely not significantly smashed or pulverized like the indigenous American, Afri- Diasporic African cuisine has made significant contributions can, and Australian ethnographies suggest. Likely, past people to modern cuisine, though any dishes that might have incor- cut meat off the bone before putting it into pots, whether the porated small bone fragments have not been maintained, as bones were included or not. Cookery books and food histories suggested by their invisibility in historic cookery books and revealing heritage recipes from ethnicities such as English, West ethnographic accounts. An exception comes in the form of curry African, South African, and Malay regularly suggest that meat goat, a Jamaican dish. Curry goat involves stewed meat that such as pork, mutton/lamb, and beef was removed from the incorporates bones broken into small fragments from various bones prior to stewing (e.g., Coetzee 1977; Harris 1998, 2012; portions of the skeleton, including vertebrae, ribs, and long Stokes 2000). It should be noted that these cookery books bones. The recipe does not derive from a diasporic African often modernized the recipes for present tastes and aversions cuisine, but instead originates and still maintains similarities to to certain parts of the animals. Slave accounts recorded by the goat meat dishes from Indian and other south Asian cultures. Works Progress Administration (WPA) also suggest this removal Modern curry goat served in local Jamaican restaurants, though of meat from the bone, with the exception of small animals, in now made with a saw instead of chopping implements, shows the case of which deboning may have been less effective. WPA patterns supporting the experimental results. Fresh bones are accounts indicate that stews made from turtle, fish, rabbits, and used, broken edges are oblique, and 100 percent of the frag- fowl sometimes included the bones, but these accounts do not ments exhibit saw marks. Projected chopping implements used

8 Advances in Archaeological Practice: A Journal of the Society for American Archaeology • February 2014 The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period (cont.)

TABLE 2. Data Summary of Blunt Smashing Experimental Trials. Specimen ID and No. No. No. chop % chop No. % oblique bone type strikes frags marked marked flakes breakage Size 2 bones s-5 Ovis femur 8 30 8 26.7 13 100.0 s-6a Ovis femur 7 28 7 25.0 12 96.4 s-6b Ovis tibia 8 14 4 28.6 3 100.0 s-7a Ovis femur 8 22 5 22.7 7 100.0 s-7b Ovis tibia 7 22 6 27.3 9 95.5 s-8 Ovis femur 8 15 4 26.7 5 100.0 s-9a Ovis femur 8 22 6 27.3 4 100.0 s-9b Ovis tibia 11 19 6 31.6 7 100.0 s-10 Ovis femur 5 25 10 40.0 10 100.0 s-11 Ovis femur 5 32 8 25.0 18 100.0 s-12 Ovis femur 6 21 6 28.6 8 100.0 s-13 Ovis femur 6 28 8 28.6 13 100.0 p-1c Sus femur 5 44 9 20.5 10 95.5 p-1e Sus tibia 6 26 6 23.1 15 100.0 p-4 Sus femur 6 17 5 29.4 6 100.0 p-5a Sus femur 5 22 6 27.3 11 100.0 p-5b Sus tibia 4 18 5 27.8 5 100.0

Size 3 bones c-5 Bos femur 8 46 6 13.0 22 100.0 c-7 Bos tibia 9 75 18 24.0 61 98.7 c-9 Bos femur 16 27 8 29.6 20 100.0 c-10 Bos femur 8 95 24 26.3 81 99.0 c-11 Bos femur 8 47 15 31.9 32 100.0 c-12 Bos femur 10 32 12 37.5 21 100.0 c-13 Bos femur 8 57 13 22.8 37 94.7 c-14 Bos tibia 7 48 15 31.3 35 100.0 Delivered by http://saa.metapress.com Society for American Archaeology - Full Access (966-81-809) IP Address: 72.211.147.137 Monday, April 07, 2014 10:07:07 AM

to prepare a dish like curry goat would also have high propor- of fragmentation, the studies are able to provide more confident tions of butchery marks and fresh breakage. support for the sequences of events and human behavior that resulted in the bone samples. The key to accurately interpreting historical faunal samples is to integrate the multiple lines of evidence available to an analyst. Accuracy requires more than just tool marks, or fragment sizes, CONCLUSION or even breakage patterns. For stews or grease extraction, the numerous dynamic loading tool marks need to be located A motivation behind these experiments is the need to avoid on wide ranges of the bones, and it needs to be shown that equifinality in historic period zooarchaeology. Numerous inter- fragmentation did not significantly result from carnivores or from pretations have used superficial assessments of severe fragmen- trampling. So far, few historical faunal analyses have sufficiently tation as evidence of historic behaviors to make stew or extract integrated the various lines of evidence to justify the interpreta- grease from bones. A range of density-mediated attritional tion that severe fragmentation was used as a means of coping processes and environmental taphonomic agents often play with weighty conditions such as starvation, underclass situations, major roles in fragmenting bones on historical archaeological transplanted diasporic cuisines, or grease product industries. sites. In this literature, contextual evidence and analytical results Out of this literature, the studies on starvation from the Don- often point to non-butchery taphonomic agency in the creation ner Party camp and China Gulch are examples to strive toward of the small fragments recovered. This experimentation sought and on which to build (Dixon et al. 2010; Ellis et al. 2011). Using to identify traces and patterns that can be more confidently frequencies of tool marks and pot polish, along with measures attributed to human agency in the fragmentation of the bones.

February 2014 • Advances in Archaeological Practice: A Journal of the Society for American Archaeology 9 The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period (cont.)

FIGURE 6. Scatter chart plotting the mean lengths and FIGURE 7. Scatter chart plotting the mean lengths and widths of size 2 bone flakes (FEM = femur, TIB = tibia, HUM widths of size 3 bone flakes. = humerus, RAD = radius).

Both the sharp chopping and blunt smashing experiments Historically, archaeological sites were places where people, provide traces and patterns that can model human involvement scavengers, rodents, and weathering were active, so it is very in the creation of the archaeological record. If a high degree of likely that any human-created faunal assemblage has been fragmentation was caused by human butchery in order to create modified after being deposited. It is the duty and challenge small fragments for hypothesized stews or grease extraction, the of a faunal analyst to identify the various traces to reconstruct following criteria should be represented: the sequence of events that led to the final appearance of the recovered sample. By closely investigating, identifying, and 1. Chop or smashing traces will be represented in high quantifying the traces of these processes, an analyst may better proportions. Sharp chopping will show some diagnostic understand why the sample looks the way it does and also be marks with striations, and frequencies of these traces will better able to peel away the layers of obscuration to reconstruct be very high. the human behavior represented by the bones. The clues to these processes often lie in small, inconspicuous traces best identified under a slight 10x magnification, as well as breakage 2. People take meat and grease from fresh bones, so patterns that can clarify the timing of fragmentation. Hopefully, fragments with cortical bone will fully exhibit oblique this experimentation shows how actualistic research can allow breakage. for more confident interpretations of historic faunal collections in which high degrees of fragmentation are observed. 3. Bone flakes will be represented in high proportions due to the dynamic loading force of fragmentation by an iron tool through the dense cortical diaphyses of long bones. Acknowledgments I am grateful to Clint Burgher, manager of the Rutgers University Delivered by http://saa.metapress.com Society for American Archaeology - Full Access (966-81-809) IP Address: 72.211.147.137 Monday, April 07, 2014 10:07:07 AM 4. All portions of the bones will be represented. The diag- Research Farm, for providing a number of goat and pig speci- nostic epiphyseal ends are not obliterated by chopping mens. I am also appreciative of the three anonymous reviewers or smashing. who provided advice to improve this work.

5. Fragmentation marks by chopping or smashing will Data Availability Statement be frequently observed on all segments of all the long The artifacts created during the experimentation are stored at bones that could provide stew or grease materials. the Archaeology Lab, Monmouth University’s Department of His- tory and Anthropology, 400 Cedar Avenue, West Long Branch, It is equally likely that non-butchery taphonomic processes can NJ (732-571-3440). The digital data are provided on the author’s cause oblique breakage, as non-human carnivores also want academia.edu page: https://www.academia.edu/5509876/ meat and grease from fresh bones, and a fresh bone can be Stew_grease_rendering_experimental_research_measurements fragmented from trampling or other abrasive forces. So, the oblique breakage patterns need to be considered, along with the great proportion of flakes, the tool marks aimed at fragmen- References Cited tation, the locations of those tool marks, and the presence of all Arkush, Brooke S. bone parts often targeted by carnivores, crushed underfoot, or 2011 Native Responses to European Intrusion: Cultural Persistence and decayed through other attritional processes. Agency among Mission Neophytes in Spanish Colonial Northern California. Historical Archaeology 45(4):62–90. Ball, Charles

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