Songs in Fox (Mesquakie) Texts. Linguistics and Philology

IVES GODDARD Smithsonian Institution

Two kinds of songs are encountered in Fox textual materials, ceremonial songs (which are sung in the performance of ceremonies) and story songs (which are sungby characters in traditional oral narratives). This paper briefly exemplifies some of the features of these songs as texts. Songs present problems of editing, presentation, and translation, but they also have lin­ guistic features that differ from those of ordinary spoken language. Some of these features can be shown to be archaic, while others may be the peculiar characterists of songs as a special speech register. This paper does not deal with the musical aspects of the songs discussed, for which no recordings are available.

I. Songs from the Legend of the Owl Sacred Pack (Alfred Kiyana) Alfred Kiyana's legend of the Owl Sacred Pack (Kiyana 1914; abbreviated in textual references as O) contains a number of songs that were used in conjunction with the pack, both in the pack ceremony itself (which was no longer performed when he wrote) and in war and curing activities that made use of the pack. The pack was war medicine, especially indicated to be for the treatment of bones broken by gunshot. These songs are given first in the phonetic transcription of the sung versions obtained by Truman Michelson (1921). These transcriptions have been slightly modernized as regards the choice of phonetic symbols and have been checked against Kiyana's manuscript. In the center are the spoken- word equivalents written phonemically, with a dagger marking those not actually used in everyday language. On the right is a translation, generally following Michelson's. Fuller word glosses are given in some cases below each song, and a discussion follows. It will be evident that a major decision faced by any editor of materials of this kind is what transcription to use. The phonetic transcription ob­ scures the identity of the words, while the phonemic transcription distorts

212 IVES GODDARD 213 normalizes, and even omits features of the song texts that have no ordi­ nary spoken-language equivalent and which may, therefore, be of particular interest. Any solution seems to require multiple presentations of some sort. The metrical structure of Fox songs is determined by syllable counting, but the exact rules and repertoire of verse types have not been determined. For example, the first song has the structure 10-6-10, with the third line chiastically repeating the first. The second song is 9-4-13, with the third line repeating the first. The third song is 7-7-8, with the firsttw o lines identical. In some cases one can suspect that the structure is different from the way Michelson presents it, and a few of these have been noted. The significance of such songs typically goes beyond the direct meaning of the text and involves allusions to the blessing of the founder of the cere­ mony, to the ceremony itself, or to the use of the medicine, often couched in more or less conventional metaphors and other kinds of indirect language. In the case of the Owl Sacred Pack the founders were Black Rainbow and his niece Deer Horn. They were jointly blessed by an owl manitou during conventional puberty fasting. The owl appeared to them as a man, gave them instructions, and left them the sacred bundle, except for the wooden flute which they were to make.1 The songs will be presented in the order in which they occur in the text, with commentary following each one. Superscript numbers in the texts and translations indicate the number of repetitions of a word.

(1) Stay-at-Home Song (nesapiwi-nakamo-ni; 016D-F [Michelson 1921:18.35-37] ).

[wi'na' wi- -f- na' wvna* He does have the nature wi'teko'wi'pani' +] witeko'wipani of an owl,

[mehtoseneniha- +] mehtose' neniwa a person

[wi'teko'wi'pani' + wi teko' wi pani does have the nature of wi'na wi'na'l an owl, he does.

(wina 'he (emphatic)'; wi teko-wi pani 'he surely is an owl'; mehtose'neniwa 'person'.)

JThe bundle itself was purchased by Michelson in 1914 for the Museum fur Volkerkunde in Berlin, where it is today. The authenticity of the bundle has been questioned (Skinner 1924, 1925:341; McTaggart 1976:36-37, 41), but this should not reflect on the authenticity of the legendary account that Kiyana wrote, giving his source as his father's brother Anawowata (see also Michelson 1926:575-576). In particular, the fact that there are places in the songs that Kiyana evidently did not understand (see especially songs 5.3, 6.2. 8.3, and 8.4, below) argues that the songs were not his invention. 214 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

This song was sung every noon by the guardian of the red-stone (catlinite) pipe while the sacred pack was on the warpath. Its esoteric meaning is: The man sings about how, being blessed by the owl, he has the spirit of an owl (Michelson 1921:19). The form witeko'wipani 'he is an owl' is what may be called the assertive mode of the independent order of (independent indicative) wi'teko'wiwa 'he is an owl'. While not an archaism, this mode is extremely rare in texts and is at present used only in the third person: we'pesi'hi'pani 'he surely is crazy', wepesvhvpaniki 'they surely are crazy' (cf. wepesvhiwa 'he is crazy'). These forms do not have a preterite meaning, unlike the cognate modes in other languages (Goddard 1979:146-148).2

(2) [Departure Song] (017G-I [Michelson 1921:20.6-8]). [he'ya'ya'ni' + he'yaya'ni'hi +] e'ya'ya'ni? Where I am going,2 [meno'htani'] ^meno'tani against the foe is [he'ya'ya'ni'hi he'ya'ya'ni" he'ya'ya'ni'] e'ya'ya'ni3 where I am going.3 (e'ya'ya'ni 'where I go'; \meno'tani 'against the foe'.) This song, which is not named in the text, is sung just before depar­ ture by the one carrying the pack on the warpath. The archaic word meno'tani means something like 'the enemy side'; the phonemicization given was obtained in 1990 from a ritualist who knew it as an old word of uncertain meaning. A fuller expression, used synonymously, is a'sowi- meno'tane '(in, on) the opposite (i.e., enemy) side' (Michelson 1930:68.3 [phonetics thus]). Probably meno'tani has been extrapolated from a'sowi- meno'tane by back-formation, since the meaning it shares with the longer expression must originally have depended on the presence of a'sowi 'across, on the other (side)'. Another synonymous extrapolation is the ostensi­ ble plural form (asowimenotanani) (Michelson 1932:62.23 [unphonemicized song text]). The verb underlying the simplex was a cognate of Menominee meno'te'w 'he goes partners with someone' (< PA *men- 'grouped apart' + *(-)o-te- 'to dwell together as a group');3 hence the simplex noun would have originally meant only 'team, side, associated group'.

Very similar in use to the assertive mode is what may be called the conclusive mode: kehke'netamo'hapa 'he did have knowledge of it' (Michelson 1925:92.16 = B111E); ascmeko inohinowehapaniki '(I conclude that) they are just lying' (Michelson 1925:90.5 = B105E). The ending -hapa(n-) is cognate with the reflexes of apparent PA *-sa(pa)n- in other languages; these are variously used, including as emphatic modes with present reference (Goddard 1979:148-152). From PA *ote- are derived words for 'village' (Fox o'te'weni, Munsee o'ti'nay, etc.) and the possessed agent noun PA *neto'te'ma, originally presumably 'fellow member of my coresident group', with reflexes such as Fox neto'tcma 'my sibling (of same sex)', also used reciprocally between a man and his "clan tutelary" (Jones 1911:810; Michelson 1930:118.15, 119), and Ojibwa ninto'te'm 'my clan totem', the source of the English word totem. IVES GODDARD 215

(3) Clan-Feast Songs (kikenowi-nakamo-nani; 019B-0 [Michelson 1921:20.18- 31]). These songs are sung at the beginning of the clan feast, before'the dancing. 3.1 [tepehkwi' no'tama'ni'] tepehkwi Night is what I carry on my no'tama'ni back,

[tepehkwi| no'tama'ni'] tepehkwi night is what I carry on my no'tama'ni back,

[nahe'kayo- no'tama'ni' +] nahe'ka='yo what I carry on my back no' tama' ni gently.

(tepehkwi 'night'; no'tama'ni 'what I carry on my back'; nahe'ka 'quietly, softly, slowly, carefully';--'yo 'for', or a vocable yo' tofill out the meter.) Michelson (1921:20) gives the esoteric meaning as: Late at night, the sacred pack. This interpretation takes no'tama'ni 'what I carry on my back' as 'my sacred pack', which is a common metaphor referring to the carrying of sacred packs in war. Against this, however, is the fact that tepehkwi is the noun meaning 'night', not the particle tepehki 'at night'. The literal meaning of each of the first two lines is thus 'night is what I carry on my back'. Since night would be desirable as concealment for the warriors relying on the medicine in the pack, it seems possible that the esoteric meaning could be: The owl brings night (as concealment for warriors). This would be consistent with the other songs in this set, which identify the owl, without naming him (3.3, 3.4), and allude to his assistance to warriors (3.2). Such an expression would have a striking parallel in a ritual designation of the owl in Navajo that literally meant 'he who brings Darkness back in his canoe', though the reference to canoe travel can only be deduced from cognate expressions in more northerly Athapaskan languages (Sapir 1949:222).

3.2 [wahkwi'ye] fwahkwi In the sky,

[wi'tamo'na'ni' + wi tamo'na'ni2 what I tell you, what I tell you, wi'tamo'na'ni' +] [wa'+so'ni- wa'-fso'ni'] \wa'so'ni2 they are bright, they are bright.

(\wahkwi 'sky'; witamo-na'ni '(what) I tell you'; ]wa'so'ni 'bright (?)'.)

The translation given follows Michelson (1921:20-21), who gives the esoteric meaning as: All members of the war party come back alive. The archaic wahkwi is a ritual term for 'sky', the ordinary word being kvsekwi. It reflects PA *waxkwi 'cloud' (> Cheyenne wo?e, No. Ojibwa wahkwi [Rogers 1963:154], Munsee wdhkonk 'up'). Michelson (1921:20) gives wa-so-m as an 216 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

obsolete "shortened word used infighting" meaning 'they are bright', but the implied inanimate intransitive verb *wa'swi (sg.) would be a unique and unlikely formation. Perhaps it is an old noun for 'light' (from an AI stem **wa'so-), which is a common metaphor for 'life'.

3.3 [naheka' -f kotowe' + no' +] nahe'ka Try to hoot gently, kotowe'no [kohkohkoho'wa' ko'hko'hkoho'wa''2 'Hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo-wa2' kohkohkoho'wa']

- [naheka" +vkotowe' + no +] nahe'ka try to hoot gently, kotowe' no [naheka' -(-^kotowe' + no' +] nahe'ka try to hoot gently. kotowe'no (nahe'ka 'quietly, softly, slowly, carefully' (cf. 3.1); kotowe'no 'try to hoot!'; ko'hko'hkoho'wa' ' (imitation of the hoot of the barred-owl).)

Michelson (1921:21) gives the esoteric meaning as: Sing slowly (but the song also refers to the owl).

3.4 [we'pisa'ta' + we'pisa'ta- +] we'pisa'ta2 The one who began to fly away,2

[wina' manetowa" +]| wina the manitou is maneto'wa [we'pisa'ta' + we'pisa'ta'] we'pisa'ta2 the one who began to fly away,2

[we'pisa'ta' we'pisa'ta'] || we'pisa'ta2 the one who began to fly away.2 (we'pisa'ta 'the one who began tofly'; wina 'he (emphatic)'; maneto'wa 'manitou'.)

Michelson (1921:21) gives the esoteric meaning as: After the owl blessed the man it flew away.

(4) Dancing Songs (nimihetiwi-nakamo-ni; 022A-23K [Michelson 1921:22.1- 27]). These songs are sung to accompany the dancing in the clan feast. 4.1 [ketoketono' + ketoketono' + ketoketono3 Keep hooting,3 ketoketono'] IVES GODDARD 217

[wi'tekowe' +] wi teko-we owl,

[ketoketono- ketoketono'] ketoketono2 keep hooting.2

(ketoketono 'keep hooting!'; witeko'we 'owl (vocative)'.)

According to Michelson (1921:22) the esoteric meaning of this song is: The owl is asked to hoot to show that it has blessed Black Rainbow.

4.2 [we'we'pesesa' + wewepesesa2 He would flap his ears,2 we'we'pesesa' +]|

[we'we'pesesa' + yo' +w we'we'pese'sa he would flap his ears nenekwikaneki- +] V0' nenekwikaneki on my arms, [we'we'pesesa' + we'we'pese'sa2 he would flap his ears.2 we'we'pesesa' +]

(we'we'pese'sa 'he would flap his ears'; yo' (vocable); nenekwikaneki 'my arm(s), wing(s) (loc.)'.)

Michelson (1921:20) prints this song as having six lines, with [yo" +] at the beginning of the fourth. He gives the esoteric meaning as: The owl would flap his ears and raise wind to save the one blessed from his enemies. This is thus an example of the kind of prayer a warrior would traditionally use to get the wind to come up and raise a storm that would cover his tracks (Michelson 1925:99, n. 19; also Shawnee, Voegelin 1938-1940:363).

4.3 [e'nehkwenama'ni' enehkwenamwni The way I face the wi'teko'howi'si witeko'w-owisi nina owl's head, ni'na] [e'nehkwe'nama'ni' e'nehkwenama'ni the way I face the wi'teko'howi'si^ni'na] witeko'w-owisi nina owl's head,

[e'nehkwe'nama'ni' e'nehkwenama'ni the way I face the wi'teko'howi'si^ni'na] witeko'w-owisi nina owl's head.

(e'nehkwenama'ni 'where I set it facing'; witeko'wi 'owl' (prenoun); owrsi 'head'; nina 'I (emphatic)'.)4

Michelson (1921:22) gives the esoteric meaning as: In whatever direction the man on the warpath turns the owl, he will triumph.

4In thefirst two lines syllabic (koowi), a writing of phonemic /ko'wowi'/. was read or sung as /ko'howr/. 218 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

4.4 [hanemimye'wi' anemi -myewi, A path going, it is hanemimyewiwiwi] anemi-mye' wiwi a path going,

[wi'na' yo' + mesi'kenahkwe]|wina-'yo snapping turtle's; ^mesihkena'hkwa [ha'nemimyewi'wi' nina- + anemi-mye wiwi mine is a path go­ ha'nemimyewi'] nina, ing, a path going, anemi-mye wi [ha'nemi'myewiwi^nrna- +] |anemi-mye wiwi mine is a path ni na going.

(anemi (translocative); myewi 'path'; myewiwi 'it's a path'; -\mesihkena'hkwa 'snapping turtle'; wina='yo 'for he'; nina 'I (emph.)'.)

This song was sung when a war party returned with no one killed (Michel­ son 1921:22). The word distortions make it unclear whether the words in the first and last lines should be taken as myewi 'path' or myewiwi 'it's a path'. The transcription of \mesihkena'hkwa is conjectural. Michel­ son wrote (me'cT'gena'kwe) and the word was familiar to one speaker as mesvhkena'hkwa. It seems clear that the second vowel must have origi­ nally been short, as in the modern term mesihkeha, which is a hypocoristic shortening of the longer form; but it is conceivable that the archaic variant survived in an altered shape. Other examples of this word in songs are given only in syllabic notation (Michelson 1932:150.15-16, 160.6-7; from Jim Pe­ ters). A shell of a snapping turtle and one of a "tortoise" (see song 4.5) are two of the items in the pack.

4.5 [ni"na" + ke + kocihene, nina kekocihene2 I am testing you, I am ni'na" +„ke+kocihene] testing you,

[wina' + wina2- 'yo it is the tortoise, wi'nayovmahkwahke] mahkwahke ha

[winayc mesihke +] wina='yo mesihkeha it is the snapping turtle,

[ni'na' +„kekocihe + ne,nina kekocihene2 I am testing you, I am ni'na' 4-^kekocihe + ne], testing you.

(nina T; kekocihene 'I test you'; wina--'yo 'for he'; mahkwahke ha 'tortoise'; mesihkeha 'snapping turtle'.)

According to Michelson (1921:22) the esoteric meaning is: Black Rainbow says he will test his blessing. IVES GODDARD 219

4.6

[ki'seso'ki' +wni'nayo' +] kisesoki In the sun am I, nina= 'yo [kiseso-ki- + kisesoki in the sun am I, am I; - ni'nayo' +vni'na +]| nina='yo, nina

[nema' + nema'tapi'no' +]| nemanematapino keep sitting upright,

[nema' + nema'tapi'no' +] nemanematapino keep sitting upright; [ki'seso'ki' -l-^nrnayo- +] kisesoki in the sun am I, nina- 'yo [ki'seso'ki' +| ni'nayo' +] kisesoki in the sun am I. nina= 'yo

(kisesoki 'sun (loc.)'; nina='yo 'for I'; nina T; nemanematapino 'keep sitting upright (imperative singular)'.)

Michelson (1921:23) gives the esoteric meaning as: Warriors who have been successful in killing their enemies are told to sit upright to be prominent; warriors sitting outside to avoid the smoke have to come in. Accepting that the reference is to successful warriors, however, the rest of this interpretation seems pedestrian. Ostensibly the warrior uttering the song says he is in the sun and tells himself to sit upright. This calls to mind the former practice of burying prominent men above ground, propped up in a sitting position inside an enclosure; the term for this was mehtapiha'pi 'he is buried out in the open in a sitting position' (Michelson 1925:382.39, 383). In the 20th century above-ground burial was discontinued but is reflected indirectly in the practice of interring hereditary lineage chiefs in a sitting position (citapiha'pi 'he is buried in a sitting position'). An 1856 description of an above-ground burial refers to the presence of scalps among the grave goods (Bushnell 1927:15-16), which suggests that this form of burial was also appropriate for warriors. Possibly this song is some sort of an allusion to this practice, with the implication that using the medicine in the pack will give its owner success in war that will eventually be commemorated in this form of burial.

(5) Eating Songs (wiseniwi-nakamo'nani; 024A-P [Michelson 1921:22.31- 46]). These are sung while the main food was eaten at the clan feast. 5.1 [ki'wi'seni'ta' +] kiwisenita He that goes about eating,

[ki'wi'seni'ta' +] kiwisenita he that goes about eating.

[yowi'na' + manetowa' +] yo', wina is a manitou, maneto'wa 220 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

[ki'wi'seni'ta' +] kiwisenita he that goes about eating,

[ki'wi'seni'ta'] kiwisenita he that goes about eating.

(kiwisenita 'he that goes about eating'; yo- (vocable); wina 'he (emphatic); maneto'wa 'manitou'.)

Michelson (1921:23) gives the esoteric meaning as: The owl gets the benefit of the feast that has been served.

5.2 [a + hkwikoma'ta' +„ a hkwikomata The one who has a sharp beak wi'na' +]| is he' [a' + hkwikoma'ta" + a'hkwikoma'ta the one who has a sharp beak wi'na' +] is he,

[yo manetowa' yo-, maneto-wa is the manitou who eats, wi'senitwahi' +] wisenita [a' -I- hkwikoma'ta' +] a-hkwikoma'ta the one who has a sharp beak,

[a' + hkwikoma'ta' +] a'hkwikoma'ta the one who has a sharp beak.

(a-hkwikoma'ta 'he who has a sharp beak'; yo' 5.1; maneto'wa 5.1; wisenita 'he who eats'.)

The esoteric meaning according to Michelson (1921:23) is: The owl is told to eat.

5.3 we'we'pi' + we' we pmehke hto- na- ni Waving my hand at nehkehto'na'ni' +] you, we'we'pi' we wepinehke hto' na- ni waving my hand at nehkehto'na'ni' +] you,

wina yo' + mani| wina, yo', mani now I am eating, wi'seni^ni' + na?]u ]wiseni nina

yo'jma'ni'^wrseni^ yo', mani \wiseni nina now I am eating, ni' -I- na] we'we'pi' + we we pinehke hto- na' ni waving my hand at nehkehto'na'ni] you,

we'we'pi'| we we pinehke hto- na- ni waving my hand at nehkehto'na'ni' +^nrna] nina you.

(we we pinehke hto-na-ni 'I wave my hand at you'; yo- 5.1; mani 'now'; wiseni- 'eat (intr.)'; other words as above.) IVES GODDARD 221

Michelson gives the esoteric meaning as: An attendant signals the guests to eat, and he himself eats. The form we we pinehke hto'na'ni is a plain conjunct, lacking the aorist proclitic preverb eh--. Plain conjuncts have very restricted uses in ordinary narrative style. They sometimes appear with the meaning of the potential in descriptions of how something would or should customarily be done. This usage is typically found in contexts that are overtly characterized as poten­ tial by the presence of some verbs in the potential mode, participles with the potential preverb a'mi, and plain conjunct verbs with the potential particle a'mihtahi (used after ini 'then' and o'ni 'and then'). The use of the plain conjunct as a potential with no a'mihtahi or other potential form anywhere in the preceding context is sometimes found, but only, it would seem, in a concise recipe or how-to style. In the present case interpretation of the plain conjunct as a potential seems not only inappropriate in sense but unlikely for linguistic reasons. Otherwise, plain conjuncts seem always to be collo­ quial variants of the aorist conjunct (Voorhis 1971:75; Goddard 1988a:197, 206); these are extremely rare in the texts written by Kiyana and other na­ tive speakers. Plain conjuncts appearing as main verbs in songs, as in the present case, are thus best regarded as a feature of song language, the partic­ ular linguistic register found in song texts.5 Curiously, Kiyana twice wrote we we pinehke hto'na'ni with an internal word divider (indicated by a space in the narrow transcription above), as if it were we we pi-nehkehto'na'ni 'I keep starting to loose my hearing of you'. The form wvseni in the third and fourth lines has the shape of the bare stem of the verb 'to eat'. Perhaps this could be a shortened version of newi'seni 'I eat' or nvh=wiseni 'I shall eat',6 but such a shortening would be unusual if not unique. A shortening of plain conjunct wi'seniya'ni '(as) I eat' is another possibility. Perhaps, however, the following nina T does not go with this word syntactically but is rather a line-end fillerantici ­ pating the extra nina at the end of the sixth line. This would raise the more interesting possibility that wi seni is an endingless imperative, for usual wisenino 'eat (sg.)'; this interpretation would fit the context and the reported esoteric meaning exactly. A few other forms in songs and the like seem to require interpretation as endingless imperatives. For ex­ ample Skunk sings to Possum: pena', wa'pata kesowa'nowi You'd better look at your tail' (Jones 1907:110.20, 111 [phonemicized] ); wa'pata has the

Some of these could formally be changed conjuncts, but the meaning and function of this mode generally seem inappropriate in the contexts. Cf. 3.1, 2. Michelson (1921:23) actually translates these lines: "I who am eating this." This cannot literally be correct, since the verb is intransitive, but his interpretation of the form as having a first person subject is retained in the translation given with the text above and is the central point considered here. 222 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY meaning of wa'patano 'look at it (sg.)'. As Wisahkeha plummets towards a hollow tree after being dropped by one of the Thunderers he urges himself: pa'picinihkisa 'fall in the hole!' (Kiyana 1913:1002); the usual imperative would be pi cinihkisa no.

(6) Medicine Songs (na'tawino'ni-nakamo'nani; 026C-27N [Michelson 1921:24. 10-33]). These are sung in the clan feast and when doctoring patients. 6.1 [kakanwi + peskonewihi kaka'nwi- A longflower am I ni'yawi" +] peskonewihi niyawi [kaka'nwi + | kaka' nwi- a long flower am I,

peskone"wi'hiwniyawi] peskonewihi niyawi ocehoce[hocehocepehkiwrwi pihkiwiwi many roots have I, ni'yawi +] niyawi [kaka'nwi + kaka'nwi- a long flower am I. peskone'wi'hi^niyawi' +] peskonewihi niyawi

(kaka'nwi 'long (pi)'; peskonewihi 'flower'; niyawi 'my body, myself, me'; ocehoce pihkiwiwi 'it has many roots'.)

The esoteric meaning is: The pack-owner describes the war medicine (Michel­ son 1921:24).

6.2 [he'nena'mani' + mani' + eh=nenama'ni mani When I recognize nemaskiski" + mi' +]| nemaskiski mi my medicine plant, [i'ni' + hisikenwi' +] ini isikenwi it is like that;

[he'nena'mani' -|-^mani" 4- eh-nenama'ni mani when I recognize my nemaskiski" + mi' +] nemaskiski mi medicine plant, [i'ni' +sikenwi" +] ini isikenwi it is like that;

[he'nena'mani' +| mani" +w eh-nenama'ni mani when I recognize my nemaskiski" + mi" +]„ nemaskiski mi medicine plant,

[i'ni" -l-sikenwi" +] \ ini isikenwi it is like that.

(eh=nenamani 'when I recognize it'; mani 'this'; nemaskiski-mi 'my medi­ cine plant';7 ini 'that'; isikenwi 'it is (so)'.)

Michelson (1921:24) gives the esoteric meaning as: When this is sung a wounded member of a war party may be cured with this plant. The

Michelson (1921) normalizes this word to nemaskihkimi; the form given cor- reponds to Kiyana's consistent spelling of this and related words. IVES GODDARD 223 interpretation of syllabic (enenamani) as eh-nenama'ni 'when I recognize it' gives the meaning that is most consistent with the general tenor of the songs in this set, the first ones of which allude to the recognition of the medicine plant in the wild. Michelson notes that the reading eh=nenamani 'you recognize' is possible, but a first person form seems highly preferable. Kiyana's interpretation was enenama'ni 'the way I hold it', which does not give very satisfactory sense.

6.3

[hwa?!wni' + na' + yo'] hwaP ' nina yo' Wah! It's me.

[hwa?!^ni' + na' yo' + ho" +] hwaP ' nina yo' Wah! It's me.

[sa'sako' -f^cepihka'ni" +] sa' sa' k-oce pihkaniThe roots are sticking out,

[sa"sa"ko" +wcepihka"ni" +] sa sa k-oce pihkani The roots are sticking out.

[hwa?!^ni"na" -I- yo-] hwaP' nina yo' Wah! It's me.

[hwa?!^ni-na- yo- + ho- +] hwaP ' ni'na yo' Wah! It's me.

(hwaP [interjection (according to Michelson, used when anyone is shot or killed; not confirmed)]; nina yo' cf. 4.4; sa'sak(i) 'protruding' (?); ocepihkani 'roots'.)

Michelson gives the esoteric meaning as: The war leader takes the blame for casualties and prays to the medicine for a cure. It seems, however, to be a further description of the medicine plant.

6.4 [ki-wiki-wi- +sina-ne- +]| ki wiki wisinane If you are lying around,

[ki-wiki-wi- +sinane- +] ki wiki wisinane if you are lying around,

[peskone- +wi-kr + \pe skone wiki the one with flowers am I, yo\,mani| ni- + yawi] yo' mani niyawi

[ki'wikiwi' -fsi'na'ne' +] ki wiki wisinane if you are lying around,

[ki'wiki'wi' -f-si'na'ne' +] ki wiki wisinane if you are lying around.

(ki wiki wisinane 'if you (sg.) are lying around'; \pe skonewiki 'that which is or has aflower'; yo- 5.1; mani 'this'; niyawi 6.1.)

Michelson gives the esoteric meaning as: The pack owner tells the wounded he will cure them with the medicine. 224 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

6.5 [hanemomoya" + ni] t anemo' moya ni As I go weeping,

[hanemo'moya' + ni'] | anemo'moyani as I go weeping,

[ki'wite + kowa'ki' •\ki-witeko-waki what I have to use is hwetayo" + weniyane we tayo' weniya ni what the owls use, hotayowenwa'wi?] otayowenwawi [hanemomoya' + ne'] f anemo' moya ni as I go weeping,

[hanemomoya- + ne'] | f anemo' moya ni as I go weeping.

(f anemo' moya ni 'I go (off) weeping'; \ki-witeko'waki 'going-about (?) owls'; we tayo'weniya ni 'what I have as my implement' <—otayo- weniwa 'he has (it as) an implement or useful item'; otayo'wenwa wi 'their imple­ ment' [ayo'weni 'implement, useful item' <—ayo'wa 'he uses it'].)

Michelson (1921:25), who unaccountably translates 'spirit' for 'implement, thing used', neverthless gives the esoteric meaning plausibly as: Many have been killed and wounded, but the pack owner goes about weeping and telling them that he has been blessed and will cure them. The reference is to the medicine in the pack. The archaic (and unique) verb anemo'moya'ni is a plain conjunct form apparently used for an aorist. The apparent form ki- wvteko'waki '[?] owls' looks like it contains a prenoun ki corresponding to the preverb ki 'around, going about', a doublet of kiwi.8 The same form in the obviative singular is in Kiyana's text (025E) but was edited out by Michelson (1921:24.4). This prenoun is reminiscent of the variant initial syllable in kiyamowewa 'cannibal monster' (beside archaic *a'yamowewa [cf. (I-am-oi) in Galland 1869:347-348]) and kiya'pa'hteha (beside usual a'ya'pa'hteha), the name of the Wisahkeha's younger brother, who is in charge of the land of the dead.

The preverb ki 'around, going about' is not a colloquial-register form but an archaism, directly continuing PA *ki; this is reflected as Cheyenne e (which appears before third-person forms in the independent order and fuses with the first and second person prefixes; it cannot reflect the pronominal prefix PA *we- [cf. Goddard 1988b:356-357] ) and as the (also semantically empty) bearer of inti- tial change appearing in Cree and Ojibwa as ka. In Ojibwa this ka, a marker of definite participles in some dialects, is followed by lax obstruents (Johns 1983:163), pointing to an oldfinal vowel. This contrasts with the ka' that is the changed form of the perfective preverb ki, which, in some dialects at least, is followed by tense obstruents (Nichols 1980:135); some dialects have perfective kip with a changed form kap (Johns 1982:163). The Ojibwa perfective ki (?) reflects the preverb PA *kih (> Fox kih). IVES GODDARD 225

(7) Redstone-Pipe Songs (meskohpwa kani-nakamo'ni; 028C-P [Michelson 1921:24.36-26.7] ). These were sung in the clan feast before the pipe was passed around to be smoked. 7.1 [hinayo- he-ne + hka]* ina yo- enehka He is the one who speaks to you, [hinayojiene + hka wi- + na?] ma yo- enehka he is the one who wina speaks to you, [hi-nayo-Jie-ne + hka^wi- + na?] ina yo- enehka he is the one who wina speaks to you, [yo- + manetowa- yo- + yo- maneto-wa2 the manitou, the manetowa] manitou [wi- + na? hi-nayo-| wina ina yo- he is the one who he-ne + hka]** enehka speaks to you, [hi-nayo-„he-ne + hehka| ina yo' enehka he is the one who wi- + na?l wina speaks to you. *Line added by Michelson; not in the manuscript. **Given as two lines by Michelson. (ina 'that one (animate)'; enehka 'he who speaks to you (sing.)' or [Michelson] 'who speaks of you'; yo', wina, maneto'wa [as before].)

Michelson (1921:25) gives the esoteric meaning as: The manitou is going to smoke, and all the people are to smoke who can.

7.2 [wi- + hi- manetowiki- +] wi h-maneto'wiki The thing that will have manitou power, [wi- + hi- manetowiki- + ni- +] wih=maneto' wikmi the things that will have manitou power, [yo- +„nana- + kwiwi-neya' +] nanakwiwme are in between the ears, [yo- +„nanakwiwi-neya-] nanakwiwine are in between the ears,

- - [wrhi + manetowiki +ni]w wi h-maneto'wikini the things that will have manitou power. [wi'hi- + manetowiki'ni] wvh-maneto-wikmi the things that will have manitou power. 226 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

(wi·hi· + manetowiki·ni] 11 wi· h=maneto· wikini the things that will have manitou power. ( wi·h=maneto·wiki 'that which will be manitou'; wi·h=maneto·wikini 'those which will be manitou '; nanakwiwine 'between the horns' or possibly for e· h=nanakwiwine· ya· ni 'between my horns'.)

This song is sung after the people have smoked; then the owl is given a smoke, and the pipe is put away (Michelson 1921:26). There seems to be something special about the "horns" or ear tufts of owls; in tales in which Owl is a character he carries large quantities of meat in his ears. It is not clear which species is intended.

(8) (Sweet-Food Songs] (30A-31H (Michelson 1921:26.14-33] ). The text gives no name for these songs, but they were sung when the sweet food was eaten at the clan feast. The fact that these songs presumably refer to eating 4as prompted some interpretations that differ from Michelson's. Mich, 8.1 batH (wi· maneto· wi·h=maneto·wiwi ni·yawi My body will have + + the fl wi·wi ni·ya· + wi] manitou power,

I . [wi· + maneto· + wi·h=maneto·wiwi ni·yawi my body will have wi·wil ni·ya· + wi] manitou power, [wi· + maneto· + wi·h=maneto·wiwi ni:yawi my body will have wi·wi ni·ya· + wi] manitou power, [wi· + maneto· + wi·h=maneto·wiwi ni·yawi my body will have wi·wivni·ya· + wi] manitou power.

( wi·h=maneto·wiwi 'it will be manitou'; ni·yawi 'my body' 6.1.)

The esoteric meaning given for this song by Michelson (1921:26) is colourless and generic: Black Rainbow shows that he has been blessed. A conjectural meaning that refers to the eating that is going on when it is sung would be: When the guests eat, the manitou eats spiritually (as also when a warrior kills enemies). Mic] am 8.2 equi [wi· + ma·wiwe·pe + tono·ki·] wi·h=mawi­ They will go and The we· petono· ki move their mouths, not whi1 yo· maneto· waki the manitous, forn wi·h=mawi­ they will go and una we· petono· ki move their mouths, [19~ siti' IVES GODDARD 227

[yo- + manetoha-ki-] ya maneto- waki the manitous;

[nana-kwi- + wahkwiye- + \nanakwi-wahkwe they flash their tanetonoki] tanetono'ki mouths in mid-sky,

[yo-„manetoha-ki] ya maneto'waki the manitous,

[wi- +„ma-wi we-pe+tono-ki-] wih^mawi- they will go and wepetono'ki move their mouths,

[yomanetoha'ki-] | yo' maneto'waki the manitous.

(wih-mawi-wepetono'ki 'they will go and move their mouths'; maneto'waki 'manitous'; \nanakwi-wahkwe 'in the middle of the sky' (see 3.2); tanetono'ki 'they have, work their mouths (there)' [idiom for 'the Thunderers flash (there)'].)

Michelson gives the esoteric meaning as: Raptors are eating those slain in battle; they are praying to the owl. The eating of raptors is compared to the flashing of the Thunderers.

8.3 [sasa-hkwe-no- +, \sasakwenoi Chew, chew, chew, sa'sa-hkwe-no- +, chew, sa-sahkwe-no- +, sa-sa-hkwe-no- + no- + ho-] [maniyoho- + mani^'yo for this manitou a-ya-hkwi-po-hkwa-ki- + mani- ayahkwihpokwahki power has a strong manetowi-] .mani maneto'wi taste,

[sasa-hkweno- +,| ]s'asakweno2 chew, chew. sasa-hkwe-no- + no- + ho-]

(jsasakweno 'chew!'; mani 'this'; --'yo 'for'; ay a hkwihpokwahki 'that which has a strong taste'; maneto'wi '(manitou) power'.)

Michelson translates this song as: "You soul [4x] are half the nature of a manitou," taking [sa-sa-hkwe-no- +] as 'soul' and [po-hkwa-ki-] as the equivalent of po'hkwi 'half. He gives the esoteric meaning of the song as: The soul is a spirit and could make itself seen. These interpretations are not at all convincing. The presence of the word a-ya'hkwihpokwahki 'that which has a strong taste' makes it clear that the reference is to eating. The form \sa'sa'kweno has the shape of the imperative singular of an otherwise unattested verb \sa'sa'kwewa AI, which would mean 'he chews' (Bloomfield [1984:27] reached the same conclusion). The existence of such an intran­ sitive verb beside the transitive pair sa'sa'kwamewa, sa'sa'kwatamwa "he 228 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY chews him, it up' would exactly parallel PA *tanke·wa 'he hits' (> Maliseet­ the f1 Passamaquoddy take AI) beside *tankame·wa, *tankantamwa 'he hits him, and J it' and the nearly synonymous *pake·wa (> Shawnee pake AI 'he pounds, (- e h ~ breaks nuts')9 beside *pakame·wa, *pakantamwa. Thus the esoteric mean­ ing would be: The guests imitate the eating of the owls. (9)

8.4 [ki·wi· + senipani· + netawe· + ki·wi· seni·pani He does go about pemaki·] tnetawe·pemaki eating, my men do,

[e·ya·ya·ni· +vni· + na] where I myself go;

[maneto· + ki he·no·se· +] maneto·ki like a manitou is e· nose· ( ya· ni} how (I) walk, [maneto·ki· + he·no·se· +] maneto·ki like a manitou is e·nose· (ya·ni} how (I) walk; [ki·wi·seni·paniki· +I netawe· + ki-wi· seni·paniki my men surely do go pemaki·] tnetawe· pemaki about eating.

( ki· wi· seni· pani 'he surely does go about eating', perhaps a truncated form of ki·wi·seni·paniki 'they surely do go about eating'; tnetawe·pemaki 'my men(= my war party)'; e·ya·ya·ni 'where I go'; ni·na 'I'; maneto·ki 'like a manitou'; e·nose· (ya·ni) 'the way (I) walk'.) Mic: Michelson (1921:27) translates: "We shall eat, my people." This implies tak­ bee1 ing (kiwisenipani) and (kiwisenipaniki) as the equivalent of ki· h= wi· senipena 'we shall eat' and taking the noun as a vocative. These interpre­ tations are surely to be excluded. He gives the esoteric meaning as: "When the people go to war, they can always find game and things to eat, be­ cause Black-Rainbow was blessed." This seems weak. More likely the song uses eating as the conventional metaphor for -killing enemies. The esoteric meaning would then be: The men I lead on my war expedition surely kill the enemy, as my journey is that of a manitou. The form tnetawe·pemaki 'my men' is an interesting archaism, also attested as totawe·pemahi 'his people' (Kiyana 1913-1914:431 (phonemics conjectural]). The unpossessed form would potentially be Fox *awe·pa 'person'(< PA *awe·Hma lawe·­ Hm-ai), beside the forms like Unami and Munsee awe·n 'person; someone; who?', Fox we·ne·ha 'who?' ( < PA *awe·na lawe·-en-ai). 10 Compare for

9 Perhaps the meaning of PA *pake·wa was already specialized to refer to crack­ ing nuts by pounding; cf. the derived noun PA *paka·ni, *paka·na 'nut'. 1°Fox we·ne·ha 'who?' has lost the initial vowel of PA *awe·na by assimila­ tive contamination with the corresponding inanimate form, we·kone·hi 'what?'; the diminutive suffix -e· h- has been added purely formally, that is as a formal derivational process with no diminutive semantics. IVES GODDARD 229 the formation: Fox nvca'pa 'doll' (< '*child') beside nenica'nesa 'my child' and forms in other languages reflecting apparently dependent PA *-nicywn (-ehs)-a («— PA *nicyewa 'she gives birth').

(9) Wailing Songs (meyo'wisekini nakamo'nani; 033B-34G [Michelson 1921:26.43- 28.12] ). These are sung last in the clan feast, and also "when anyone dies" and by fasting children. 9.1 [ise=kohi- + ise=kohi Just for fun we make - - kemayoha pena +] kemayo' hapena them cry,

[mehtose; neni -ha- mehtose neniwa we make the people - - kemayo+ha pena ] kemayo' hapena cry;

[wina-| yo- +, wrna^yo- +] wina yo .2 them, them;

[mehtose-neni"ha- mehtose neniwa we make the people - - - - kemayoha pena wi na ] kemayo'hapena wina cry, them.

- - - [ise=kohi wkemayoha pena ] ise=kohi just for fun we make kemayo' hapena them cry. (ise 'just'; =kohi 'certainly'; kemayo'hapena 'we (inc.) made him cry'; mehtose neniwa 'person' (representative singular); wina 'he'.)

Michelson gives the esoteric meaning as: A large number of the enemy has been killed.

9.2 - - - - [wi na , wi na + wvna* He, he, he surely is wi'teko- + wi'pani] wi'teko'wi'pani an owl,

[mehtose-neni-ha wi'na-, wi'na- +] mehtose neniwa the person is, he is, wina2 he is;

[witekowi-pani-] wi'teko'wi'pani he surely is an owl,

[mehtose-neni-ha- wi'na-, wi-na-] mehtose neniwa the person is, he is. wina2 (Michelson divides the lines differently; cf. the Stay-At-Home Song, no. 1.)

9.3 [ca-ki mayowaki-| manetowaki- +] caki-mayo'waki All the manitous maneto'waki wept

[kiwetama'ni-, ki-wetama-ni-] ki we tama ni when I went about wailing, 230 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

[ca- + ki mayowaki- manetowaki- +] caki-mayo'waki all the manitous maneto'waki wept.

(caki 'all'; mayo'waki 'they weep, wept'; manetowaki 'manitous'; kiwetamani 'when I went around weeping'.)

Michelson translates kiwetama'ni as "because I go around weeping," a meaning that would ordinarily require a somewhat more complex construc­ tion. In any event it is probably a plain conjunct rather than a changed conjunct. Bloomneld (1984:51) assumed kiwehtama'ni 'what I heard as I went about', but this verb is only accepted in the meaning 'hear one's prayer come back answered'. Michelson (1921:28) simply says: "The children use this song to obtain a blessing." On its face the song makes generic reference to any successful fast that elicits the blessings of manitous. Perhaps there is also an allusion to the story of Wisahkeha, who slew the manitous that murdered his brother.

9.4 [wahkwi- + f wahkwi The sky is weeping - mayomayowi ni]w fmayomayo'wi='ni then,

[wahkwrye +-wi-na-]| fwahkwi wina the sky;

[a- + hkwa- + ahkwahkamikahki-'ni at the end of the earth, hkamikaki-ni-]„ then,

[mayowi- i- -f ni| fmayo'wi ini the sky weeps then. wa- hkwiye hihiye + na'] fwahkwi

(fwahkwi 'sky' [now kisekwi; see 3.2]; fmayo'wi 'it weeps'; ini 'that; then'; =wina 'but' (?); ahkwahkamikahki 'as far as the earth goes' [plain conjunct]; [hihiye + na'] a vocable [?].)

The form mayo'wi II 'it weeps' is based on mayo'wa AI 'he weeps', a stem that in ordinary language is strictly restricted to use with animate subjects. This use of an AI verb with inanimate inflection is a feature of song language. Normally, to use such a verb with an inanimate subject a derivative is made with the suffix -(')mikat: mayo'mikatwi II 'it weeps'. Michelson (1921:28) translates this song in the future tense and says: "It was impossible to obtain the inner meaning of this song." The striking apocalyptic metaphor seems clear enough. A free English translation might be ventured:

At earth's end, the welkin weeps. IVES GODDARD 231

Another set of problems is presented by the songs in the traditional narratives of Fox oral literature. The examples given here involve cases where there are variants in different versions of the same stories. Although these variants sometimes mutually confirm each other, they just as often conflict with each other. There is evidence, particularly in the more recent versions, that incomprehensible archaisms have been reinterpreted as more familiar words. One has the feeling that, if only one could understand what was really going on in these songs, they would be extremely interesting. As it is they tantalize us with the refracted glimpses of ancient language and ideas.

II. Wisahkeha's revenge songs After the manitous of the earth murder Wisahkeha's younger brother Aya- pahteha, Wisahkeha is consumed by fury and grief.

(1) First Song. 1.1 William Jones (1907:344.3-5, and repeated 3 times): (neslma, neslma, nesima3 'My younger brother3 neslma! (is) omaca capwiganagi [?]-ihkanaki on the [?]-path

aftAnarkyahinigwahini, etanahkyehinikwehini whoever (obv.) grazes (dim.) papakatamawatahina!) papakatamawata ina the one you clubbed (him) to death for.'

(The basic forms of the clearest words are: nesima 'my younger sibling' [Goddard 1992:251, 253]; tanahkyewa 'he grazes'; papakamewa 'he clubs him to death'.)

Jones's free translation is: "Oh my younger brother [3x]! If by chance along the open trail in the forest some one should [there] be wandering about, Pound that one to death with a club for the sake of him!" This would correspond to a literal translation: 'My younger brother is the one for whose sake you club to death whoever grazes on the [?]-path.' The expression (omaca capwiganagi) appears in the manuscript version (Jones 1905, 2:62) as one word (omacacapwTganagi). Jones (1907:344, n. 1) offers the following explanation: "Omaca, a word not used in the language of conversation, and conveying no definite sense in itself, but necessary in sacred recitation to lend dignity and the feeling of awe." Evidently neither he nor his father Henry Clay Jones, who helped him translate the texts (Michelson 1912:409), completely understood this line, and they merely guessed that it had sa'pw- 'through' combined with the noun final -ihkanaw 232 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

'road, trail' (locative -ihkana'ki). In any event the guilty manitous are ostensibly referred to as 'whoever (obviative singular diminutive) grazes on the path (of some sort)'; this seems an oddly vague and in fact inappropriate expression for these creatures. The form (papakatamawatahina) is repeated by the manitous who hear this song as (papAkatamawatahina) (Jones 1907:344.7). It seems evident that this is a form of the verb pa'pakatamawe wa 'he clubs (him, them) to death for him', but the latter portion is unclear. The interpretation as pa'pakatamawata ina 'the one you clubbed (him, obviative) to death for' corresponds to Jones's translation. Also formally possible would be pa'pakatamawa'ta ina 'the one who clubs (him) to death for him.' These translations fail to recognize any indication of the required future or desider- ative meaning, leave the identity of the avenger unclear, and require the weak and philologically strained interpretation of (-ahina) as -a ina.

1.2 Alfred Kiyana (1913:771-772, following James A. Geary's manu­ script edition [Geary 1939-1949] ): [nesima, nesima, nesi-ma, 'my younger brother'4 nesima ana-sa-sapihka-naki 'on the [?]-path' e-tanehkyehinikwehiii, 'whoever grazes (there) (?)'

necakihata^ima (cakihewa 'he kills all of them') awe'nakenoci, ni-h=keteminamawata| i-na.] (keteminamawe wa 'he blesses him for him')

Geary's (1939-1949) free translation is: "Those who pick herbs on the open trail (of the forest), I wound them in the heart, indeed, especially (?) the one who takes pity on that one." This follows Jones for the second and third lines, assuming tanahkyewa 'he grazes (there)'; but the words in the last two lines are obscure. Jones's (omacacapwlganagi) and Kiyana's (anasasapikanaki) call to mind the compound particle ana-sasa'pwi 'as the only one'; if this or a related form could combine with the noun final for 'road, trail' it might give an appropriate meaning like 'on the lonely path', but this is speculative. Kiyana's (necakiataina) and (niketeminamawata|ina)n appear to con­ firm the latter part of Jones's (papakatamawatahina) but have first-person prefixes (the second one future) as well as different lexical items. Kiyana

11 No internal word dividers are marked. The text is given with ina 'that one (animate)' preceded by a word boundary, following Geary; the link (J and line-end marker | are editorial indications of the lack of dividers. IVES GODDARD 233 uses the same formation in another text: m-/i=(matanataina)=meA;o ma'hiyeka peminehkawakiki, a wish or prayer that must mean something like: 'I pray that I will catch up with these ones I'm chasing' (Kiyana 1915:23; same sentence without ma'hiyeka on p. 28). The form (nimatana- taina) (from matanewa 'he overtakes him, catches up with him') cannot contain the singular demonstrative ina (since a plural demonstrative and participle follow). Thus we must have to do in all these forms with a TA verbal inflection (-ataina), used with a first-personprefi x by Kiyana and without a prefix in the song given by Jones; in this the first (a) must be the direct theme sign -a--. The syllabic spelling (-taina) (Jones (-tahina)) could represent -taina (with indeterminate nonfinal vowel lengths); compare nanaihta, nanarhta'wi 'as the only one', which Kiyana writes (nanaita) and (nanaitawi).12 Jones's (h) is not conclusive, since he some­ times writes spurious (h) between phonetic vowels, especially in forms he does not understand.13 When Jones's (papakatamawatahina) is set beside Kiyana's forms, it seems likely that it, too, has the force of a wish or prayer, either T pray that I may club them (the murderers) to death for him' or the corresponding passive. These forms can be compared to the Massachusett first singular imperative in (-ti) /-tay/: (wadchanonti) 'let me keep him, them' (Goddard and Bragdon 1988:568-573). Kiyana's (etanekyeinikweiii) represents the lectio difficilior beside Jones's (a'tAna'kyahinigwahini), which reflects an interpretation as the ordi­ nary and in the context rather unsatisfactory verb tanahkyewa 'he (animal) feeds, grazes (there), is grazing, feeding'. Kiyana's form could be an obvia­ tive plural interrogative participle f e tanehkyehinikwehihi with the final vowel repeated for metrical reasons. An appropriate meaning in the con­ text would be something like 'whoever (they were that) committed murder (there)', referring to the "lonely (?) path" where the manitous contrived to get Ayapahteha far enough away from Wisahkeha so they could kill him. Although it seems possible that this word contains the indefinite-object (de- transitiving) final -ehkye,li material to further elucidate it is not at hand.

Presumably these words can be phonemicized as having the sequence ayi, but no [y] is present phonetically and spellings with (yi) are not accepted. For example hearing pemamotawe 'Let's flee!' in what must have been its colloquial-register pronunciation [pemamutae] he wrote (pemamutahe) (Jones 1905, 3:59); not understanding this form, he further altered it to (pemamute'e), which he interpreted as containing the third-singular conjunct preterite (Bloom- field: unreal) ending -tehe (Jones 1907:286). Another example is in section IV, song 1.1, below: (ka'kahamanaguha) for ka hka wamenakoha 'he who used to crunch and eat us up' (Jones 1907:134.5). 14Cf. kosewa 'he fears him' —* kosehkyewa 'he is, becomes afraid (of someone)'. 234 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

(2) Second Song. After Wisahkeha has killed and wounded many of the manitous, he dis­ guises himself as an old woman and comes to them as if to doctor them. He sings this second song as he stealthily slays them while pretending to minister to their wounds. 2.1 William Jones (JT356.21):15 (Wlsa'katcagwa fwrsahkecakwa (?) "Wlsa'katcagwa

cacapAtanawawa fsasapatenawewa (?) pierced ugimawa'1) okima wahi the chiefs through and through."

2.2 Alfred Kiyana (1913:773, 776, following the edition of Geary [1939- 1949]): [wi-sahkehcahkwa, 'Wisahkeha2 (says?), wi-sahke-hca-hkwa, wih=sa-sapotenawaki "I will shoot them through (?), okima-waki, okima-waki, [p. 773: one the chiefs2, okima waki] ayapo-so, ayapo-so.] (O) Ayapahteha2." '

Geary's free translation is: 'Wisahkeha2, I wish to pierce the chiefs through the heart (purge . . . with drastic medicine), the ruler of the dead2'; he assumes a double entendre, indicated by the parenthesized variant. What Geary gives as [wi-sa-hke-hca-hkwa] was recorded from one speaker as wi'sahkeca'hkwa (with definite short e);16 this is the name of Wisahkeha (wisahkeha) among the manitous; the shift of s to 5 in Kiyana's version probably imitates old women's speech. wih=sasa'po'tenawaki 'for me to shoot them through' was recorded for Geary's [wi-h=sa-sa-pote-nawaki]. The medial portion of this and of Jones's (cacapAtanawawa) is unclear. The form faya'po'so has the shape of a vocative and is apparently addressed to Wisahkeha's slain brother, Ayapahteha; it evokes cipaya'po'swa, the name of Ayapahteha among the manitous (Jones 1907:382.9; Michelson 1925:376, 392.4). Kiyana's version of the song has a more appealing structure, what­ ever the details may be.

15The spelling (Wisa'katcagwa) is from Jones (1905, 2:77); (WTsa'ka'tcagwa) appears in Jones (1907:356.21). 16 Cf. Plains Cree wisahkecahk. IVES GODDARD 235

III. The Father-in-Law's song from the tale of the Apayashihaki

(1) This song is sung by the father-in-law as he prepares to slay and eat the mother of the Apayashihaki (apayasihaki), who are the Lodge Boy and Thrown Away heroes in Fox oral literature. 2.1 Alfred Kiyana (1913:20): (nesemye nesemye Daughter-in-law, nawenawa [p. 26: (nawanawe)] nah=wena go ahead, kipateno) kih=pahteno offer yourself (?). (nesemye 'daughter-in-law (voc.)'; nah=wena 'go ahead!' [before an enclitic: nah=we-}; kih=pahteno [?] 'you will give yourself up, offer your­ self [?]'.)

The interpretation of the otherwise unattested word (kipateno) as kih=pa'hteno 'you should offer yourself may have been influenced by wa'htenikewa 'he sacrifices', but it fitsth e context.

1.2 Shapochiwa (1913:1): (nesemye nesemye Daughter-in-law, nawekipateno nah-we-kih-pahteno go ahead and offer yourself (?), patapataskweno) patapataskwe no (?).

This was translated for Michelson as: "Daughter-in-law, kill yourself." It ob­ viously confirms Kiyana's version, and adds another unique form: patapataskwe no.

IV. The Crawfish songs from the Raccoon cycle These songs are attested in three versions, from Jones (1907), a manuscript by OH. Chuck (1913), and a singer interviewed in 1992. In is notable that Jones's versions are sparer than Chuck's; compare Jones's Wisahkeha songs.

(1) The song sung by the crawfishes as they dance over what they suppose is the dead body of Raccoon. 1.1 William Jones (1907:134.4-5): (Tye panate1 iye fpenate "Away last summer he nepuhigwane1, nepo'hikweni must have died,

ka kahamanaguha!) kahka wamenakoha He who used to crunch and eat us up." 236 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

1.2 C.H. Chuck (1913:6L-P): [i-ye^pena'te rye fpenate 'Back in summer he must nepo'hikweni nepo'hikweni have died, wih=sasakwamenakoha=nihka. wi h=sa' sa kwamenakoha-ni hka the one who wanted to chew us up.

a-sokayane^po-hkwi,^ a' so' ka yane If you dance across halfway, nesimetik=metik. po'hkwi my brothers and sisters.' nesimetike asokayane^pohkwi,^ nesi-metik=metik. aso-kayane„pohkwi,_ nesi-metik=metik.l

1.3 Contemporary singer (1992): [ni-peena-ta nepo'hikweni] nipewenata "The hunter died." nepo'hikweni

Jones and Chuck agree exactly on the first line. The word fpena'te, which Jones gives as both (penate) and (panate) in the preceding text, is not in use but was accepted by one speaker as a song word (cf. pena'wiwi 'it is summer, the warm part of the year', exocentric-compound final -pena'we, prenoun and preverb pena'ni). Chuck's song has identical syllable counts in the first two lines, giving the structure 10-10; Chuck's triply repeated last line is written with syllable-final consonants, a phonetic feature nor­ mally unwritable in the syllabary, and the syllable count is thus uncertain. The verb a'so'ka'yane 'if you dance across' is singular, while the vocative nesimetike 'my younger siblings' is plural. Jones's version seems to be shortened, roughly paralleling Chuck's second line and lacking anything corresponding to the third line. The contemporary version shows the re­ placement of the now meaningless archaism iye pena'te by nipewena'ta (sung as [ni-peena-ta]), the participle of nipewenewa 'he hunts all night with his dogs'.

(2) The warning song of the suspicious crawfish. 1.1 William Jones (1907:134.9-12):

(tusklgwa, to'skikwewa 'He peeps with one eye.' tusklgwa — tusklgwa; tusklgwa, tusklgwa — tusklgwa.) IVES GODDARD 237

2.2 C.H. Chuck (1913:7Q-X): [napayenekwe (?) (?) - - - - 2 to ski kwe vtoskikwe . to'ski kwe wa 'He peeps with one eye.' nepayenekwe toikitoskikwe-. to'skito'skikwewa 'He keeps peeping.' napayenekwe to-skito-ski-kwe-. napayenekwe to-skito-ski-kwe-.]

2.3 Contemporary singer (1992): [nepa e-ne-kwa 'nepwa,' enekwa 'The one you call dead to-ski-kwa, to-ski-kwa.] to'skikwewa2 is peeping.'

The situation with the second crawfish song is similar. Chuck's (napayene­ kwe) is lacking from Jones's version, but it must be an archaism. It is indirectly confirmed by the contemporary version, which, as in the previous song, replaces it with a phonetically similar phrase (nepwa 'he is dead', enekwa 'the one of whom you (pi.) say (thus)'). It may be speculated that this word began as an equivalent of asikaninr kwe '(with) one eye', perhaps containing the otherwise unattested Fox cognate of Ojibwa napane- 'on one side only, one of the two only'.

REFERENCES Bloomfield, Leonard 1984 Fox-English Lexicon. New Haven: Human Relations Area Files. Bushnell, David I., Jr. 1927 Burials of the Algonquian, Siouan and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 83. Washington. Chuck, C.H. 1913 esepanaenepwakacieacimoci. ['When Raccoon Said He Was Smart.'] 34 pp. Manuscript 2794.5, NAA, Smithsonian Institution, Washing­ ton, D.C. Galland, Isaac 1869 The Indian Tribes of the West — Their Language, Religion and Tra­ ditions. Annals of Iowa 7:347-366. Geary, James A. 1939- [Edition of Kiyana 1913.] Manuscript 4860, NAA, Smithsonian In­ stitution, Washington, D.C. [1939-1949.] 238 LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

Goddard, Ives 1979 Delaware Verbal Morphology: A Descriptive and Comparative Study. New York: Garland. 1988a Stylistic Dialects in Fox Linguistic Change. Pp. 193-209 in Historical Dialectology. Jacek Fisiak, ed. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 1988b Pre-Cheyenne *y. Pp. 345-60 in In Honor of Mary Haas: From the Haas Festival Conference on Native American Linguistics. William Shipley, ed. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 1992 Fox (Mesquakie) Kinship Terminology. Pp. 244-262 in Papers of the Twenty-Third Algonquian Conference. William Cowan, ed. Ottawa: Carleton University. Goddard, Ives, and Kathleen J. Bragdon 1988 Native Writings in Massachusett. 2 vols. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society 185. Philadelphia. Johns, Alana, 1982 A Unified Analysis of Relative Clauses and Questions in Rainy River Ojibwa. Pp. 161-168 in Papers of the Thirteenth Algonquian Con­ ference. William Cowan, ed. Ottawa: Carleton University. Jones, William 1905 [Manuscript version of parts of Jones 1907; date conjectural.] 3 vols. Manuscript 3022, NAA, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 1907 Fox Texts. Publications of the American Ethnological Society 1. Lei­ den: E.J. Brill for the American Ethnological Society. 1911 Algonquian (Fox). Pp. 735-873 in Handbook of American Indian Languages, Part 1. Franz Boas, ed. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 40. Washington. Kiyana, Alfred 1912 apayasiaki. ['The Apayashihaki.'] 101pp. Manuscript 2671.1, NAA, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 1913 wisakea osani okyeni osimehani okomeseani. ['Wisahkeha and his fa­ ther, mother, younger brother, and grandmother.'] 1,110 pp. Manu­ script 2958a in NAA, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 1913- wakoisociki eketeminawesiwaci esawiwaci. ['The story of when the Fox Clan was blessed.'] 814 pp. Date conjectural. Manuscript 2957, NAA, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. [1913-1914.] 1914 [The Legend of the Owl Sacred Pack.] 163 pp. Manuscript 2693, NAA, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 1915 anipi okakeki sakenika. ['The man who had an elm tree growing out of his chest.'] 38 pp. Date conjectural. Manuscript 2720.6, NAA, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. McTaggart, Fred 1976 Wolf That I Am: In Search of the Red Earth People. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Michelson, Truman 1912 Death of Henry Jones. American Anthropologist 14:408-409. IVES GODDARD 239

1921 The Owl Sacred Pack of the Fox Indians. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 72. Washington. 1925 Accompanying Papers. Pp. 21-658 in Smithsonian Institution, Bu­ reau of American Ethnology Annual Report 40. Washington. 1926 Final Notes on the Central Algonquian Dream Dance. American Anthropologist 28:573-576. 1930 Contributions to Fox Ethnology — II. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 95. Washington. 1932 Notes on the Fox Wapanowiweni. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 105. Washington. Nichols, John D. 1980 Ojibwe Morphology. PhD thesis, Harvard University. Rogers, Jean H. 1963 Survey of Round Lake Ojibwa Phonology and Morphology. Pp. 91- 154 in National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 194, Contributions to Anthropology, 1961-62, Part II. Sapir, Edward 1949 Internal Linguistic Evidence Suggestive of the Northern Origin of the Navaho. Pp. 213-224 in Selected Writings of Edward Sapir in Lan­ guage, Culture and Personality. David G. Mandelbaum, ed. Berke­ ley: University of California Press. Shapochiwa 1912 apayasiaki. ['The Apayashihaki.'] 45 pp. Manuscript 2671.3, NAA, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Skinner, Alanson B. 1924 [Carbon copy of a letter to George Bird Grinnell dated October 29, 1924.] A.B. Skinner papers, Southwest Museum, Los Angeles, California. • 1925 Final Observations on the Central Algonquian Dream Dance. Amer­ ican Anthropologist 27:340-343. Voegelin, Carl F. 1938- Shawnee Stems and the Jacob P. Dunn Miami Dictionary. Indiana Historical Society Prehistory Research Series, vol. 1:63-108, 135-67, 289-341, 345-89, 409-78. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society. [1938-1940.] Voorhis, Paul H. 1971 New Notes on the Mesquakie (Fox) Language. International Journal of American Linguistics 37:63-75.