Teacher Eduction

,DOCOMENT'RESUME .1 ED 157 798 SE 024- 845

AUTHOR Renner, John W.; And Others TITLE, A Summary of Research in Science Education - 1976. INSTITUTION ERIC Information Analysis Center for Science,. Mathematics, and Environmental Education, Columbus, Ohio.; National Association for Research in Science Teaching. SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education ,(DREW), Washington, D.C. PUB DATE 77 NOTE 149p.; For 1975 edition, see ED 148 6024 Contains occasional light and broken type AVAILABLE FROM John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, New York 100,16($8.95)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.83 HC-$7.35 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS college Science; CurriCulum; *Educational Rese4rch;rr *Elementary School Science;",4nstruction; Learning;, Literature Reviews; *Research Reviews (Publications);, *Science Education; *Secondary School Science; Teacher Eduction

ABSTRACT This review for 1976 has been issuedto,analyze and synthesize research related to the teaching and learning of science completed during the year. The'review is intended to provide research information for development, personnel, ideas for future research, and an indication of trends in research in science education. Research has been listed in general categories of: (1) Learning and Deielopment; (2) Teaching Methods and Procedures;(3) The,Education of Teachers;(4) Evaluation in Science Education; (5)The' Use of Media in Science Education; (6) The Concepts, Processes and Content of Science; and (7) College Level Research. In all, 327 separate studies are cited in the bibliography and most are mentioned in the' text. Many intermediate 'summations and generalizations are included at the end of sections and subsections. ,(HM) . ,

*****************************************4-************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *

* from the original document. . * Age******************##*##*##***********************************#####*#* A SUMMARY OF RESEARCH IN 4. SCIENCE EDUCATION 1976

John W. Renner and Michael R. Abraham

University of Oklahoma

DonG. Stafford-

East Central Oklahoma State University and the University of Oklahoma

an Intersciencer Publication published by JOHN WHIT a SONS Now York Chichester Brisbane Toronto p ) O

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This publication was prepared pursuant to a contract with the National Institute of Education,armt Liniketi' States Department of Health. Education, and Welfare. Contractors undertaking such prOjecis under Government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their judgment inpro- fessional And technicalmattersPoints of view or opinions do not, therefore, necessarily represent National Instit6te of Education position or policy. , . VOI4p1CS prior to 1973 of the SCIENCE RESEARCH REVIEW SERIESare available from "the'SKEAC Information Refer.ence Center, The Ohio-State University, 1200 Chambers Road, Room 310,,Columbus, Ohio 43212. Volumes from 1873 on are available from John Wiley &.Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10016. !

Single copy pfice for this volume: $8.95

,L 117L.r.f....f.iffig22311221151111=111145112211555921;g1fflit.', Preface

Research Reviews are being issued*to-analyze and synthesize research related to the teaching arid learning of science completed during a oike:year period of time. These reviews are developed in cooperation with the NationalAssociation for Research in Science Teaching. Appointed NARST committees-work with staff of the ERIC Science, Mathematics, and Environmental _Education Information Analysis Center to evaluate, review, analyze, and report research results. It is hoped that these reviews will provide research information for development personnel, ideas for future research, and an indication of trends in research in science education. Your comments and suggestions for this series are invited. 4 STANLEY L. HELGESON PATRICIA E.,BLOSSER ERICISIMEAC f

I Foreword

When viewing the research done in science\education in a year, one is first nearly overwhelmed with its diversity. If one has agreed to prepare a cogent review of that research, its,diversity immediately becomes the first problem to.be solved, Briefly stated, that problem

is: How can flie important work being reviewed be organized into a useful, coherent, eaningfdl pattern?

To answer the foregoing question we employed a technique not unlike that used by Mendelyeev when he developed. the first periodic table of

the elements. In other words we read abstracts and ported them into groups that had common subject matter. When the abstract left any doubt regarding the subject matter of an item, the original source was consulted before a decision was made. TheNrganizatio'n of this report, therefore, is purely empirical.

Those persons who did the research fashioned this report's organization x into seven categories:

1. Learning and Development

2. Teaching Methods and Procedures

3. The Education of Teachers

4. Evaluation in Science Education

5. The Use of Media'in Science Education

6. The Concepts, Processes and Content of Science

7. College Level Research, While each of the foregoing categories constitutes a chapter in this volume, each chapter has an internal organization based upon that chapter's content.

Our intent in preparing this report was to'provide a general over view of the research in science education done.in 1976- and to state conclusions and questions arising from the research which might lead other researchers to continue and expand what has been done. A second intention of this report's authors was to ,include a review of those studies that could genuinely be called research. There are, however, other types of activity in science education which will be of intarest

ii to science education researchers and which'have been published in some

form. A rather complete bibliography of the activities taking place, in science education in 1976 follows the narrative of this report, That bibliography'contains many entries other than theresea h reviewed in a the narrative of the report.

The authors express their thanks to DrStanley Helgeson and his staff of Ohio State Universityfor their assistance and patience in searChirg.for and locating the data upon which this report is based. Our thanks are also extended to Donna Abraham who typed the reportts manuscript.

Norman, Oklahoma John W. Renner AUgust, 1977 Michael R. Abraham Don d. Stafford

iii Contents

FOreword ii 4

Learning and Develppment I ir Research \Vial the Ausu an Theory, ,, 1 Research With the Piagetian 'Paradigm-L.- ePheI:Nleasurome.nt 4 Research With the Piagetian Paradigm-- Phase II:CUrriculum 14

N 00 Teaching Methods and Procedures 18 Research in the Mcthod5 and Procedures'of 0 f s r Teaching Elementary' Sc-ho-ol Science ° e 18 Research in the MethOsand Procedures of .' TeachingXecondary School Science 25 . , The Education of Teacherg . . 34 Research in Elementary School Science Teacher Education ',3i. Research in Secondary School 'Science Teacher Education . 10 Research in Science Teacher Education in K-12 : 47 Research in inservice Teacher Education 49'

- Evaluation in Scienei: Education , , 51', Evaluation Surve s , 51- Curriculum Evaluation 4 54, v . , (.10 Affective Studies . 3 Li . Instrument De,elopment Evaluation Methodology 69

, . The Use of Media in Scienc6 Education L 74

The Concepts, Processes,' qnd COntent ofScience '81 ' Syllabi 81 Specific Content, Concept, and Processes . 83

College,LeIel Research 88 Component Comparisons 89. InMructors and Students 108

pefereaes 113

nil Summa y ofesearch in Sciem, Eau aeon 1976 -JOHN W. RENNERan MICHAEL R. ABRAHAM

University of Oklahoma . Norman, Oklahoma 73019 and DON G. STAFFORD East Central Oklahoma State University Ada, Oklahoma 7-182:0 -and University of Oklahoma . Norman, Oklahoma 73019, \ Leatiling'and Developmertt The research done in the category of "Learning and Development" during 1976 focused upon the thecicTes of David.Ausubel and Jean Piaget. One study was designed to compare the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Ausubel, four studies considered the work of Ausubel and a total .of 21 studies examined the paradigm proposed by Piaget. The four studies considering the Ausubefian theory tested the efficacy of the advance organizer concept. The workfocusing on the Piagetian theory considered the measurement of levels of intellectual development or the influence of the theory upon curriculum,

Research With the Ausubelian Theory

The four studies reported which considered the advance dtganizet technique were made at three different educational levels. Theseleveli are the ninth and twelfth grades, college level physical science for non-science majors, and college juniors in teacher education program. 0

Murchison (203)eeploredthe usefulness of the advance' organizer concept in thehing science to ninth graders. Four groups of students were formed and oach exposed to a different organizer: a pretest, a concrete organizer, an abstract organizer, and a control. The groups. were brought together_ immediately after ,experiencing the organiZer, given a lecture on sound waves and then administereda two-part test. The student groups were matched on IQ, sex,andteachei-determined motivation ranking.

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The pretest was the same as the test (od.sounCwaves) given after the lecture, and-the concrete and abstract organizers involved generalized . wave theo'ry. One part of the test involved rote material and all

questions, which had been answdted in the lecture. The second part of . the Test required abstract and/or problem solving ability.Murchison found that, when abstract material is to be learned, a pretest is they- best organizer for high IQ boys and for high motivation students. An abstract organizer is best for high motivation boys and a concrete organizer is preferable for high IQ girls and for low motivation students. When rote material is to be learned, a pretest is the best for low IQ

girls. Murchison concluded that multiple advance'organizers are important aides to learning. 0

West and Fensham (307) tested some predictions arising directly from Ausubel's theory concerning the subsuming role of advance organizers. Specifically, the basic question studied was'regarding whether the learner's existing knowledge plays a subsuming off: organizing role in subsequent

learning. The selected topic of "Principles of Equilibrium" was taught in twelfth grade chemistry; a period of one week (160) minutes was used

to teach the topics A total of 374 subjects vIvas involved. The researchers 'tated explicitly that they were not interested in whether or not an external organizer led to more effective learning. Rather, they were interested in whether the role played by an external organizer was equivalent to the role played by the learner's prior knowledge. The results of the study did not show that the ,role played by the learner's prior knowledge was an organizing or subsuming role. In other words, the results did not show that the role played by the learner's prior knowledge and the role pl yed by the advance organizers were the same. According to these researcherthis research did show that, at least for the topic taught, "there is an apparent equivalence in terms of learning outcome between whatever role is, played by the learner's relevant prior knowledge and the advance organizers."The conclusion was drawn that the research supported Ausubel's proposition that prfbr' 'knowledge structure plays a subsuming or organizing role in new learning.

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Baylis (21) utilized two classes of advance cognitive organizers- (expository and comparative) to'-study their effects on learner ability to Conceptualize and modify cognitive structure as a readiness process prior to'interacting with science contenE. 'The data were collected through a pretest-posttest multiple treatment design and the_use of the "Ward Association" instrument and a "Curri,culum Embedded Questionnaire." The former measured the conceptualization of cognitive structure (defined as "meaningfulness of individual' concepts and relatedness among concepts ") and the latter measured the perception of the process (defined as con-7. ceptualization and valuing of the instructional process), This researcher concluded th444,4he two subsets of advance cognitive organizers can provide a theoretical basetfor designing readiness instruction. The processes used were shown to facilitate both conceptualization and modification of 'a cognitive structure relevant to a specific science content area. Finally, the investigator believes the data showed that the learners both conceptualized and valued the process; in other words, theprocess itself was learned.

A laboratory inquiry-oriented course in college physical science

for non-science majors was selected by Tavares (291) touse in evalipating

the effects using advance organizer . Tavares' sample was,diYided into eightgroups: high and low academia ability, high and low degree of previous knowledge, existence and noel- existence of advance organtr'g

before studying the content. The null hypothesis tested was: The treatment, does not introduce any statistically significant difference for any of the groups. The- quantitative data necessary to test that hypothesis were obtained from t (1) Test on Understanding Science, (2) Wisconsin Inventory of Sci Processes, (3) an investigator-con- etructea content achievement test',and (4) an investigator-constructed student attitude inventory. The null Hypothesis was accepted for any of th'e variables with all of the groups.

The research reported here neither confirmsnor denies the value

and/or_efficacy of Ausubel's advance organizer concept. There apifears 'to be a need to approach the problem ina mere systematic manner than was evident in the research reported here. Those persons conducting research in this area should, we believe,,agreeon a'set of priorities and procedures 10 to use in researching this question,Pprhaps one or more Position papers could be Used to focus the researcher's attention on how the Ausubelian paradigm pOssibly could influence science teaching and possibly from those positions a series of research, studies could be charted. Our feeling is that this particular paradigm needs an organizing structure from which research could be Conducted...

ResearchWith thePiagetian Paradigm PhaseI: Measurement

Most assuredly the intellectja-1;development model of Jean Piaget has been recognized as researchable by science edUcation.' The research reported during 1976 centered around (1) the measurement of intellectual ability as described by Piaget and (2) the value of the Piagetian model to thetgeneral area of science curriculum.

In establishing his now famous four stages of cognitive cevelopment, Piaget utilized various tasks to determine a persOn's thinking patterns. Each of these tasks is individually administered and a,substantial amount of time is required to admiflister tasks to determine a learner's reasoning patterns.' For several years researchers have been interested in developing procedures and materials which. will allow the reasoning levels of an entire class or-group to,be determined at one time. Such an undertaking suggests the use of some type of paper-and=pencil evaluation tool as a possible procedure.There remains, however, much work still being done with the clinical-interview technique designed by Piaget; that technique preseives'the one-to-one task administration.

Hooper, Brainerd, and Sipple (128)ciducteda four-year longitudinal analysis of concept development and, as part of that study, designed a series of 1,ogical concept tasks based. upon Piagetian theory. These tasks were individually administered to students fOe years of age and older.. The tasks were focused upon studying groupings associated with concrete operational reasoning. A sample of 180 children in kindergarten and grades three and six was used; equal' numbers of males and femaleg were included. :These researchers concluded that their "concept task series" provided a. generally reliable assessment 'of logical reasoning fbr this age group. 5

Using six Piagetian-styled tasks that,correspond to'the six major loglc4 groupings of concrete operational thkght, Camp (43) asked whether or not the score on those six tasks formed a unidimensional o scale. He used 102 children equally divided among giades one, two and and three, and studied erences in performances for the three grade levels, relationships between perfOrmance on each of the six tasks and IQ, and differences in performances of males and females. Camp fOund: (1) the tasks did form a unidimensional scale, (2) titre was a q3gOlficant increase in difficulty between grade levels on four of the'six tasks, (3) a significant degree of association existed between IQ and only one of the six asK:-.1 and (4) there was no 'significant difference between V. performanc Isof /pales arid females on the six tasks. Based upon the data,

Camp made several recommendations, among which was the recommendation i that early curricu''"1.1 a should focus upon experiences with ollirts rather than relying on verbal transmissions about objects.

Working in Thailand, Pungah (237) studied the developmental sequence of the conservations of number, mass, eight, and volume with 80boy and 80 girls ranging in age from 4 to 11.3 years. The results of this"''

, ,. study support Plaget's findings that conservation reasoning with theSe Crfour tasks occurs in the sequence: number, mass, weight, and volume. oai children conserve number between 6 a 7 years, mass between 7 and 8 years, and 14o after 11 years. The conclusion was also drawn that sex and socioeconltis level were "unlikely to be contributing variables" in the development of conservation reasoning by Thai children.

Michael Shayer; working at Chefa, England, (265) studied development in thinking of middle school and early secondary,school students. He used children between, the ages of 9 to 14 years. Each participating child

(the exact number Shayer used was nottavailable, he did say that there' eN, was a need "to test about 2,000 childfen in each year of age" for his purposes) completed a spatial concepts task, a volume and hebviness task, and the pendulum task. He concluded that the major development in early 4. adolescence is concrete operational reaoning, and believeS this 3s the type of reasoning that science programs forAis age level "should both

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build on and promote." Shayer also foundfifferences between-the general population of this age group and the population found. in the "above-average comprehensive schools."

. A total of 96 seventh grade science students ranging in agefrom11.7 to 14.4 years (a-mean age of 12.6 years) was administered eightconserva- tion tasks to investigate if successful*completion of thoseasks was dependent only upon one type of reasoning or if there were°three components (early concrete, middle concrete, and early formal thought) required to successfully conplete all the tasks. When Lawson and Nordland (162) subjected their data to a principal components analysis, they fpund one 4 factor which could be identified as earlyconcrete- operational reasoning, another that identified "sdmething intermediate between'early concrete thought and early formal thought," and a third factor that seemed to indicate early fOrmal thought. These researchers state that their results "support Piaget's,distinction between concrete and fOrmal thinki4 and the tasks'.ability to measure these thinking abilities. They further state that the results, do not necessarily support the Piagetian theory in general nor the,notion that formal reasoning constitutes a"unified stage of development."

Benefield and Capie (23) used ten'of Ore 16 binary operations which Piaget describes as being acquired during the formal thought period to construct a test using foUi content types: true content, Pi*e content, neither false no true content,.and randomly,related content. (It is the 16 binary operations, where acquired, that represent the whole system of integrated operations at the formal level.) Six operations were eliminated because of logical equivalence to other operations. Each of the ten operations used was defined by a set of four truthconditions.Using the 16 binary operatiqns,each of the set of truth conditions could be judged true or.false when dealing'with two variables. Each test item contained a substitution instance of proposition41 operation corresponding to 4 Piagetian binary operation. The subjects were asked to check "Yes, this could be true" or "No, the statement could not be.true." Four 10-item tests were constructed; the items were assigned randomly to complete a

40 -item test. One hundred fifty-five students in grades 4 through 12 constituted the population for the study and completed the test. The range orscores was 0-34, with amean of 14.9., Significant differences were found among operations involving each of the four content typesas well as the composite.

Janovsk ,(134) investigated the development of the quantification of speed in children and adolescents. The population used consisted of .69 seventh graders, 66 ninth graders, and 47 eleventh graders; all participants were currently enrolled in mathematics. Four leels fot qualifying Speed were defined and'two sublevels were established' for each level. Six test items were prepared for each, sublevel; the measurement instrument, there- a fore, consisted of 48 items. Forty-nine subjects were also interviewed'tol,.7 check the accuracy of the results obtained from the 48-item test. The questions asked the students to compare speeds and predict distances. A test on using the operations involved in fractions was also administered. The investigator found that the four levell and the sublevels formed scales that could be used to assess the development of quantification of speed in children and

adolescents. Several correlations with reading and mathematics and the developed instrument were also included. Tlre investigator concluded that the results demonstrate the need for additional instruction aimed at developing an increased understanding of the equivalence of ratios within the context of speed.

Data from other research support this toncluslon but at a more general level; those data--some developed by Piaget-demonatrate that students do 4 not develop understanding of the ratio concept until early in the formal reasoning period.

A group of 105 third grade children was administered a screening test to determine if they exhibited concrete-operational reasoning with respect to the ability to make speed:-comparisons and perform simple division. From that groupBoulanger (34) found that 74,had met the criteria; those were 0 included in his study to determine the effects of training in the proportional reasoning associated with the concept of speed. From the 74 children, 51 were randomly selected and assigned to three equally sized,

treatment group's. The mean age of the 51 children was 8 years; 10 months. One treatment (T & C) consisted of training the children in the proportional reasoning associated with converting distance and elapsed time into a statement of speed. The children were next exposed to speed comparison problems. The second treatment consisted of'using comparisons of distances traveled and elapsed, time only (CO); no training was given on proportional

reasoning. A control group was also used. The T & C treatment was provided during two 25-minute and one 10-minute session on three successive

days. The CO treatment consisted of one 30-minute and one15-minute session on two consecutive 430. Those receiving the T &C treatment scored significantly higher on measures of immediate retention than did the control group but that significance disappeared when long7terM retention was checked. Both groups performed significantly better than the control group on problems different in context but similar in format. The T & G group could perform this transfer immediately while the CO group achieved significant success on transfer problems only after a delay of three weeks. In total transfer there were no significant differences between the groups. The investigator says: "It is tempting to conclude that the conflict experienced by the latter (CO) group in not being given a method of solution had a stronger residual effect than the directly trained group."

Lawson .and Blake (160) addressed themselves to the criticism that Some Piaget-designed tasks "such as the pendulum task and the balance- beam task...appear to requireicnowledge of specific physics content and therefore do not measurethe underlying cognitive operation which they purport to assess." These authors used three Piagetian tasks (the pendulum, bending rods, and the balance b am) designe' to measure fcirmal thought, a 13-item pencil-and-paper biology examination designed by the investigators, and a non-science content examination designed by Longeot,The student sample consisted of 32 males and 36 females from the same high school who were.enrolled in a second semester high school biology course, The age a range of the students was 14 years, 7 months to 17 years, 10 months with a mean age of 15 years, 5 months. Lawson and Blake concluded that since the students "did not perform more formally on the non-science content examination and on the biology content examination than on the Piagetian tasks, the claim thatstudents perform poorly on the Piagetian tasks because they require knowledge of specific physics content, has not been supported." Lawson and Blake also concluded that "The Piagetian tasks are relatively content free and can serve as realistic indicators of concrete and formal

I thinking abilities." 1r , 9

In 1970 Robert Karplus, University of California, Berkeley, published an article which included a puzzle which he Called "The Islands'Puzzlei" He suggested that the puzzle might perhaps be useful in assessitg the presence Of formal reasoning. Blake, Lawson, and 1,1Ordland (29) adMinistered

1110 "The Islands' Puzzle" (as designed by Karplus) to 126 secondary school students and then interviewed those students with three Piagetian tasks. Fifty-eight pharmacy majors at Purdue,took the Karplus-designed version of "The Islands' Puzzle" (Form A). A rewritten form, Form B, was administered to 52 phat'Macy majors and 50 completed a second rewritten form; Form C. A random sample of 24 of the 58 students who completed Form A were inter- . viewed with the same three Piagetian tasks.The investigators concluded that "The Islands' Puzzle" may measure deductive logic but is not measuring the-same abilities as the three Piagetian tasks used.These researchers do not recommend using "The Islands' Puzzle" to assess operational levels as defined by Piaget or to characterize a person'scOg*tiiie level.

Between 1970.and the present, the group working at the Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley, has published five. studies which reveal their findings of "Intellectural Development Beyond Elementary School."The sixth of these studies is authored by 'Wollman (317) and is concerned with the ability of persons to control variables. Pilot studies had confirmed that, starting as early as the third grade, children are aware of the role of variables in certain fontexts. A total of 1555 students in grades 4, 6-10, and 12 participated in the research. The students responded to written questions following an oral introduction during which an example was modeled. Most students finished the question in less than 10 minutes. Two scorers read and evaluated each 'paper and an 87 per cent agreement was achieved. The data revealed that al responses could be placed in four separate response categories. Woll an concluded that the concept of the controlled experiment probably begins near the beginning of the concrete operational stage. The root of the mature concept is probably in the child's concepts'of evenness and fairness. Absent at the concrete level, however, is a clear idea of what to do in general when asked to judge'a multiple-caused_event. Even when variables are. specifically isolated for the learners at the concrete stage they do not systematically determine each variable's role by varying it and holding all others the

ti same. Thinking that there isa single Formal concept of controlling variables and that it belongs only to the fin-mai stage rather than developing-thro'ughout the concrete and formal stages is probably not useful.

Karplus et (144) administered a proportional reasoning task and

14' a control-of variables task to 3600 students between 13 and 15 years of age in Denmark, Sweden, Italy, United States, Austria, Germany and Great Britain. They callected the data in order to make a determination of the distribution of'concreid,.and formal thought at these age levels. The results of.the research show that 25 per cent of the sample were rated at the formal level, 32 per cent in a transition stage, 15 per cent of the the students attempted to solve the problems by addition (Karplus calls this the additive level),and 28 per centOf the sample operated at an intuitive level.

Two paper-Ad-pencil tasks were -.added to the placement tests "in-

. istered to 885 students enrolled in general chemistry at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, in the fall, 1974 (5). The purpose of the research was to improve the placement advice given by the admission officers and to test the idea that scores on written Piagetian tasks would be particularly effective as grade predictors. The results show that the Piagetianc-

tasks score accounted' for very little variance in course performance, The specifically designed Piagetian tasks did not account for additional variance over and above that accounted for other measurement devices already used in the placement procedure.

Not infrequently, scores on Piagetian tasks are found not to cor-

\relate highly with'grades received in college sciencecourses. We hypothe- . size,that the teaching techniques (lectures, aemonstrations, show-and-tell), used in many college courses do not demand the use of formal thought,

Furthermore, students are tested upon what they can memorize. Many concrete operational students can memorize enough information to receive a respectable grade and, consequently, the' correlation between course performance and operational level as determined by tasks'is reduced.

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Dunlop and Fazio (82) used 466 students enrolled# general college chemistry or college physical science Lo test the asscimption that the level of reasoning used by students when solving prablems 1s: substantially below their capacity. Specifically, these rgpearchers investigated abstract preferences of science students,in 18,problemsolving tasks add the relationship between those preferences and level ofcognitivedevelop , / ment. When studying the abstract ability (level of cognitive development) and abstract preference scores for science students irifive different grade levels. (eighth, ninth, twelfth, college freshmen, and college seniors) the finding was that the abstract preference scores did not significantly differ from grade to grade even though abstract ability did increasOsignificantly as grade level increases. -Furthermore; there was no significant difference between college freshmen science and non . science majors'but a significant difference in favor of the science group did exist between the abstract preference scores for the science and nonscience groups.

Lawson and Wollman (161) designed and carried out a study-to find answers to four questions:

1, Can instructional procedures be designed and employed to successfully affect transition from concrete to formal cognitive functioning in fifth and seventh grade students with regard to one aspect of formal thought, i.e., the ability to isolate'4hd control'variables?

2. If itaining can enable concrete students to perform at a formal level On tasks which were used in the training, will that training transfer'to tasksalso involving the control of variables but using novel materials?

'3. If training can enable concrete students toperform at a formal level on tasks requiring the control of variables, will that training transfer td ;asks involving different concepts but ones which also involve formal thought?

4. What is the relationship between a student's level of intellectual development and his/her ability to profit from the training?

To secure data to answer those questions,, Lawson and Wollman worked with ' 32' fifth grade students and 32 seventh grade students. The fifth grade sample was composed of 14 males and 18 females, had an age range of from 9.5 years to 12.1 years, and a dean age of 10.5 years. No IQ data were 12

available. The seventh grade sample was divided equally between males and females, had an age range from 11.9 yeArs to 13.6 years, and a mean age of 12.6 years. The IQ range was 100-115 with a mean of 109.

The experimental design used was pretest/posttest control group

model. The students in the experimental groups received four sessions of individual training on cause-and-effect relationships. The control groups attended their regular classes. Posttesting followed the training sessions

and consisted of individual interviews conductqd by two examiners who did ' not know to which group the students belonged. A female examiner conducted

the testing with the females and a male examiner worked with the males.\ The Piagetian tasks used in the pretesting enabled the students to demonstrate early concepts (HA), late concrete (IIB), post concrete, and early formal (IIIA) levels of thought. The tasks used in the posttesting allowed

... late formal (IIIB) thought to be demonstrated. In the posttesting, the

, bending rcds task measured whether or not the training was effective in facilitating the ability to control variables with materials identical to those used in the training. The pendulum task was used to determine whether or not the training was generalizable to a problem also involving controlling variables but using novel materials. The balance beam task was also used to mea ure the extent to which the training led to formal thinking. Paper-gd-pencil tests and,oral responses were also used. "The seventh grade sample also responded to a shortened version Longeot examination.

These two researchers answered the first two questions stated earlier affirmatively. Students can be trained to isolate and control variables. These authors answer question three like this: "AlthOugh the training was effective in promoting formal thought with regard to one aspect of formal it was limited in extent." In other works, these researchers'searchers' data do not support answering question three affirmatively; training for general formal operational ability is not productive. The data collected generally. show - -in answer to question four--that the more formal students were more receptive to training than were the more concrete students.

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\\*\ The review Of the foregoing research 'as more extensive than the otherp reviewed Vtere.hecause the Lawson=Wollman,research article received 4 the NARST award as being the most.outstanding research publication in 1976.

As the studies involving, the measurement within the Piagetian pp adigm were_reviewed.one constant factor' seemed to consistently trouble us. That factor is time--duration of the experiment. If one subscribes to the Piagetian paradigm he/she understands that the endpoint is the con-. struction and/or reconstruaion of mental schema and/or structure. That ,process does not, we Bel ve, happen rapidly; time 'is required, In,addition, inallyrobablility except for the experiment's activities, the remainder of the learner's educational experience is at the show-and-tell level. In other words, the Piagetian-designed activities of the experiment must overcome' the rest, of the activities the child is having and produceitesults that will demonstrate that the Piagetian paradigm is superior (if it is). To accoMplish6this in a brief period of a week or two--or an,eight-day period as used by the following study--is expecting a great deal. We would urge researchers to use greater time. periodswhich will allow thorough testing of Piaget's mental structure paradigm.

A study designed to test how the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Ausubel relate to concept acquisition by young-Aildren was carried Out Billings (28). Thirty-one second grade classes were used by Billings in this research; The concepts used were "interaclion" and "evidence of interaction" from Interaction and Systems (Science Curriculum Improvement, Study). Ten classes received verbal, instruction and concrete experiences, eleven classes received "only concrete experiences", and ten classes--the control group--received no prescribed tveatment. An investigator designed and validated test, the Concept Acquisition Test (CAT), was used as a. pretest and posttest. The experiment was done over an eight-day period. A post- posttest was also administered a week following the experiment. The group who had concrete experiences with the concept scored higher on the post and post,post administration of the CAT than did the group receiving verbal instruction and concrete experiences, but not significantlY so. Billings states that the findings contradict "Ausubel's theories regozding"----- concept presentation to young children" but "do not give total support to the theories of either.Piaget or Vygotsky."This investigator also reports 14

that the group who, received only concrete experiences with concepts "used their own lAels to describe 'interaction'. and 'evidenccof interaction'." Billings conjectures that perhaps their invention of labels for the concept > accounted for.the higher scores of the concrete experience group, and,,,, if so, support is added to Piagetis position that when teaching new concepts to children their own vocabulary should be used.

Regearch With "the, Piagetian Paradigm Phase II:Curriculum ; Fifty-six female and 46 male subjects furnished Enwieme (85) the 4 data to evaluate the incidence of formal reasoning among 4ducatton students in eight specific content areas. The students were completing certifi- CatiOn in business, English, mathematics, milsic, modern language,' science, social studies, and speech. Enwieme wished to know whether' or not. differences in the incidefte of formal thoughoccurred among,education as students in those content areas will as whether or not a relationship existed between formal reasoning and sex, socioeconomic level, Parintal education, and/or grade-p i;It average. A specially designed te$t

measured the' achievement 11of formal thought.; There weresignificant . differences found among .formalreasoning abil'it'ies for stuilentsVrom the eight content areas. No significant differences Were found-between formal reasoning patterns and sex, socioeconomic level, parental education, and grade-point ayerage.

Chiappetta (53) made an exhaustive literature seariCh to determine what research-had found relative to the percentage of secoitaary school students who had moved iiitothe stage Of formal reapOning.hia.ppetta concluded that "most adolescentis and young adultt do not appear to have

,attained the forMaLoperational stage of cognitive development."This researcher also related research on cognitive development to science

. achievement and found that functioninghPlow-v level is the rule rather than the exception. Chiappetta states that courses such as PSSC, ,CBA,,CHEM Study, and BSCS are too abstract for most stueents. He also believes that'cUrricula such as ISCS and IAC are "better suited

to the majority of the students." The conclusion reached i that science education will Profit from the research done only it' he concern of teachers reaches the point "where it focuses on student learning."

01 . . 2 15 c-, Perhaps the most important conclusion of this studstates that "Science : teache'rs whp are chiefly concerned about themselves inrelation to their teaching role or about their adequacy as teachers will be unable to focus on'the intellectual capabilities of their students..."

Using the Science-LA Process Approach (SAPA) curriculum, Johnson o' (138) 'investigated whether or not children who had'reacheA-the concrete

* . s -operational,stdge of intellectual development wend more, likely to succeed. Iton SAPA exercises which require multi- classification, ability than we children identified as pre-operational. The,matched pairs design was employed using one child from eachaVvelopmental stage; the memberPof each pair had mental ages within approximately one standard error Of

each :0;Ither. The students were taught nine sequentially arranged classification exercises as prescribed by SAPA. The concrete group performed significantly better than did-the pre-:operational group in three exerocises requiring exhaustive sorting:-

Griffiths (111) used 60 physics, che mistry, and developmental scienct college students to study the relationship between the cognitive level - of students and their approaches and language fused in solving an inclined plane prbblem. This researcher found that, four types of responses were found to the problem. 1 w6 of the groups actively sought a general relationship among the variables andweie not content until they had -satisfied themselves about a relationship. These groups did show'a w difference in the language they used to explain the problem; Griffiths ratedboth,grOups as "formal." A third group was willing to quit at any time and further experimentation seemed to confuse them. A fourth group was passive and resorted to-the question: "What else do you want me to do?" This research showed that Chelparadigmsof science' exhibit the charaCteristics of Piaget's formal reasoning stage. One group (12 students) exhibited characteristics that showed readiness for the formal reasoning paradigm of science. Six students (the second group) could be raised quickly to the necessary level and audio-visual materials, programmed instruction and other suh'prodsdures were useful with this student type. The last two groups, 70' er cent of the sample, 16 representa totally differentproblem," with the last group "discriminated against the most."Much of the'educational technology of the'last few years has,been aimed at this group with poSsible counterproductive

results. In general, "the efforts to meet the demands of the student may be detrimental," Griffiths believes that the products'.of formal operational science cannot be indefinitely superimposed upon a nonformal

cognitive structure. .When this was repeatedly done 'students, ejected physical inputs and, retreated to their vocabulary: wordsnotfully understood."This type of situation can stop 'intellectual growth. So for about 70 per/cent of Griffiths' sample, scientific paradigms which 'rexhibit,the dynamic characteristics of Piaget's formal, stage" are

probably harmful. This led Griffiths to conclude that "the focus of higher education must be shifted from literacy to cognition."

.;, A project to prepare 43 high school students from the inner city for engineering led McKinnon (1&3-0)-,to design and teach a two-hour per day laboratory experience in the logic of science. The students also experienced remedial reading, EngliSh, and mathematics.All of the 43 students were well motivated toward an engineering career and came from the upper third of their high school graduating classes. Twenty- eight of the 43 students reasoned with concreteoperatitnsand only seven had reached the highest level of formal thought. Forty per of those students who were concrete operational moved into higher levels

of thought. (Comment: A remarkable accomplishment in a six -week period.) The logie-of-sciende laboratory ,w s successfUl -in prontoting formal reasoning among the sample-of inner city students.

Karplus (145) and his colleagues have been studying the relation of ° Piaget's developmental. levels concept to science teaching. A system I which describes intellectual behavior which can be observed and which occurs during the concrete and formal reasoningstages has been developed and is explained here.. The findingg of this group of researchers have led to procedures which Can be used to identify concrete and formal content concepts. If, for example, temperature is thought of as a reading on a thermometer or as warm or cold sensations, it is.a concrete

concept. If, however, temperature is defined as average molecular '4"$ IMP

. s 17

kinetic energy, it is a formal concept. This report explains how equilibrium, or self regulation, fits the intellectual development model and how reasoning patterns are encouraged by the use of the

learnin4_,cycle: exploration,opncept introduction, and concept appli -- I i' cation.

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%. 18 Teachhfig Methods and.Procedtges

There is probably no research area in education that evokes as

, much criticism as does the area generally referred to as "methodology". Someritics state, for exampXg, that genuine research in this area is impossible because the "teac4.r-variable" cannot. be controlled.' If differtnt teachers are used for two or more teaching methods, the critics take the position that the "teacher variablebis uncontrolled. If'the same person teaches different groups of students using a different technique with each group, those critical of this research area use as criticism the observation thatNno one person can °perform in an unbiased manner with more than one teaching method; surely the teacher will have

, a "favorite" method which will bias the results of the resdarch. t,

Regardless of the controversies surrounding research into the efficacy of the different procedures used to teach science to learners from kindergarten th'reugh twelfth grade, research in that Area continues year after year, and the effort made in 1976 was no exception.. When the results of those efforts are studied, one is struck by their diversity. Beyond the classical experimental group-condkol group design, the profession of science education does not seem to subscribe to a reasonably defined paradigm or set of paradigms to use in conducting or evaluating research in the general area of science teaching procedures.The fore- . EA going remarks are. made neither as evidence of strength of the _profession nor as a negative criticism, but as an observation(.

Research in the Methods and Procedures of Teaching Elementary. School Science

Much'of the research effort in 1976 was aimed at studying-the effectiveness of using the inquiry teaching method.. Wall (3Q3) studi the effects that three different teacher education experiences in inquiry teaching had on the teacher's perception of the process of science and

the'ability of the upper elementary grade students of thoseteachers to use science inquiry skills. The teachers had been in: (1) an NSF-

. sponsored, four and one-half weeks, Science Leadership Program: (2) an insermice program conducted by those in (1); or (3) teachers enrolled in agraduate elementary science methods course. A control group a 19 was also involvedtTeacher understanding of science processes was assessed by the Science Process Inventory (SPI).' The ability ofthe student to use science inquiry skills was.meagured with the Testof Science Iptuiry Skills (ISIS). The students of summer workshop teachers.

did not score significantly better on the TSIS than did the students O of the control group teachers.,', On the SPI, summer workshop teachers scored significantly better than did the methods course and control teachers, but not significantly better than the inservice participants. Other comparisons made were inconclusive.

Working in Anne Arundel County, Maryland, Tertitta'(92) developed a plan for the infusion of science processes into an existing unified science program. One of Fertitta's goals was to develop a plan flexible enough to be adaptfed to other science programs. The plan was composed of three distinct parts. part,One led teachers to find that there were seven areas where science processes could be utilized in their existing science program. Part Two represented points of contact among concepts, sub-concepts and content objectives and component process skills. Part Three represented at least onesample activity for each of the 113 sub-conceptg within the program. A total of 150 students from the program were evaluated and 54,7 percent of them showedqa 20 percent gain An the ability to use science process skills;6Kpercent gained 15 percent or more in ability; 76 percent gained 10 percent or more and 86 percent gained 5 percent or more. Guides titled Component Skills and Sample Activities were prepared, Fertitta concluded that the procedurts designed and used were effetive in infusing the teaching of process

00. skills into an existing Unified Science Program.

Is single language instruction in science any more effective than bilingual instruction when working with bilingual students? Working in New Mexico under the auspices of the University of Washington, Juarez (141) gathered data from 104 fifth grade children from four different schools. Those schools had used bilingual education for at least four years prior to the study. The students Were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups at each of the four schools and the teachers were trained in the use of the materials to be taught. The students'' 11. achievement was first measured during tjje initial science instruction

is) 20

and again on the final .set of science activities. In addition, student language,preference (Spanish) and attitude toward science were also 6 ieas1d.,The major finding of-the study is that bilingual children I instructed in Spanish learned science content and process -skills as ti well as'bilingual children instructed in English. 'Hut neither group

t -14 learned content and process skills as well as students instructed bil ingually in science activities presented in a subordinate and superordinate order. In addition, bilingual children preferred instruction d An the -two languages.

The relationship between curiosity and attitude and mode df instruction (inquiry and non-inglitry) was investigated by Metz (193). He used 200 third, fourth, and fifth grade children in his study. The Classroom Observational Record (COR) was used to assist in the data

, collection after:pilot observation had been used to place teachers in inquiry and non- inquiry categories. Metz assessed childrens' attitudes towards stience by Using the non-verbal measure called Faces which is a part. of the .eValuatian package of the Science Curriculum. Improvement. Study. "The &iriosity of a child was determined by ,the number of non-

. repetitive manipulations m, ade and the number of meaningful queues ( . asked. Thgl-resultssof'4i 0tudy,'although'notestatistitally signifi-. . ,k A , cant, show a trend(' that suggests thatthat children experiencing non-inquiry science become les'S and less 'eatisfied with the disCipline. The results

showing that a chikdi-s. ourfosity is a 'function of the teaching method , . _ . . used were highlysignificant; students of teachers using inquiry were , 1 . 1 found to genuch morei"--- curious, than were students of non:-inquiry teachers.

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Roger'T. Jobnson (136) also focused his-research on inquiry because he believed thare'is a-"strong relationship 'between inquiry learning and a-cooperatiVe learning'structure." His.s.tudy was designed to determine if students involvein an inquiry-based science program perceived it as'a cooperative or Competitive goal structure. There, were 108 Sixth- . . cgradestudents,i;;Olved., Data were collected from three teaching itultions: (1) a free inqLry setting using the Batteries and Bulbs, :11P. unit of'the Elementary Science Study (L), (2),the "Electrons in Action" Unit from -Concepts in, Science and accompanying materials (TM), and (3) 21 a

and again on the final set of science activities, 'In additiori, student language preference (Spanish) and attitude toward science were also measured. The major finding of the study is that bilingual 6hildren instructed in Spanish learned science content and process skills as well as bilingual children instructed in English. But.neither group leariled content and process skills as'well as students instructed bilingual children instructed in English. But neither group learned content and process skills as well as students instructed bilingually in science activities presented in a subordinate and superordinate order. In addition, bilingual children preferred instruction in the two languages.

The relationship between curiosity and attitude"and mode of instruction'(inquiry and non-inquiry) was investigated by Metz (193). He used 200 third, fourth, and fifth grade ,children in his study. The Classroom Observational Record (COR) was used to assist in the data collection after pilot observation had been used to place teachers in

inquiry and- non -inquiry categories. Metz assessed childrens'attitudes towards science'by using the non-verbal measure-called Faces which is a part of the evaluation packageof the Science Curriculum Improvement

Study. The curiosity of a child was determined by the number of no repetitive manipulations made and the number og meaningful questions

asked: The-results of this study, although not'statistically significant, show a trend that suggests that children'ekperiencing non-inquiry science become less and less satisfied with the discipline. The results showing that a child's curiosity is a function of the teaching method used were highly significant; studentS'-of teachers using inquiry were 'found to be much more curious than were students of non-inquiry teachers.

Roger T.. Johnson (136) also focused his research on inquiry because he believed there is a "strong relationship between inquiry learning and a cooperative learning structure."His study was deSigned to determine if students involved in an inquiry-based science. program ceived it as a cooperative or competitive goal structure. There were

1041,rsixth-grade.ttudents involved,. Data were collected from three teaching situations: (1) a free inquiry setting using tht Batteries and Bulbs unit of the Elementary' Science Study (L), (2)-the "Electrons in Action" unit from Concepts in Science and accompanying materials (TM), and (3)

L) 22 the "Electrons in Action" unit without the materials (T). The same' teacher taught all groups, A six-week instructional period was used during which the classes met for 50 minutes.daily. ,During the last week of the experiment, 14 students'per treatment group (a total' of42 student ) were randomly selected for individual-interviews. The students15- were shown four pairs of photographs depicting an aspect of cooperative or competitive classroom structure and two or three sentences describing each of the pictured situations. The photographs dealt with a general school atmosphere as well as with a science class. The intent was to focus attention on the cooperativeness or competitive-- ness of each pictdre and to compare that decision to his/her ownclassroom. There were no differences in the manner in which the general school atmosphere was perceived. Less than one-fouyth (24 perdent) perceived the school as cooperative and only 14 percent perceiyed division of labor as part of the school.. One hundred percent of the students in the inquiry group (L) perceived a cooperative goal structure, 86 percent of the TM group perceived a cooperative structure, and 50 percent of the T-group perceived a cooperative-goal structure. The differences were significant. One hundred percent of the L-group perceived themselves as, working with materials and 100 percent of them ,preferred it. In the T-group, 93 percent indicated a preference for working with materials and many recognized that they were not. In the TM-- group, 93 percent recognized they were working with materials and 100 percent preferred it that way. _One hundrpd percent of the L and TM goup and 93 percent of the T-group preferred cooperation to competition, Johnson concluded that the data supported the hypothesis that "inquiry-oriented science classes were perceived by students to be more cooperative than the text- k book classes.." Furthermore, all three groups preferred cooperation,

What relationships are there between the average ability level (as measured by the IQ score) and class size and the teaching strategies a teacher employs? Yeany°(325) used videotape and collected data from a random sample of 64 student teachers in grades three through six. The videotapes were anal.yzed for level of teaching strategy by "two trained raters" who were using the Teaching Strategies Observational Differential

(TSOD). The Elementary Science Activities Checklist (ESAC) was used to 23

collect data on how the students in those elementaty science classrooms perceived the teaching strategies being.used. Yeany's resultS were not statistically significant, but the "trend seems to be toward morp, direct teaching as class size increases...." The results involving class ability were also nonsignificant.

Using the Instructional Practices Questionnaire (IPQ)', Patterson (221) classified 17 fifth-grade teachers as high-individualized or low-individualized instructors. The students of those teachers completed the Bristol Study Skills instrument (which Patterson called "a science cognitive instrumen0and questionnaire which was designed to "validate teacher responses on the IPQ."The Bristol instrument contains five

subtests: properties, structures, processes, explanations, and inter- pretations. Patterson investigated how a classroom rated as high or low individualized by the IPQ was related to the achievement of science- related ccgnitive skills by the children. He found tha those classrooms rated as high in the individualized instructional situation produced students who ranked highest,in science-related cognitive skills.

Teacher behavior patterns in the elementary science classroom was the focus of research done.by Penick, Shymansky, Matthews, and Good (225). These researchers defined two contrasting teaching strategies, which were labeled "teacher-structured learning in ,science" (TSLS) and "student-

structuredlearni!ngin science"(SSLS). The difference in'the two strategies rested in the amount of directiveness used by the teacher in an-activity- centered science classroom. In other words, the research centered upon

how student classroom behavior was Influenced by teacher behavior. The. population was composed of 250 students and eight teachers--two teachers and classes in _grades one through three and one class and pne teacher for grades four and five. Fifty students from each grade level were 'randomly assigned to the SSLS or the TSLS treatment; sex and race were equalizing restrictions, The ."Teacher BehaVjor" and "Student Behavior" sections of the Science Curriculum Assessment System (SCAS) Classroom Interaction Catuories were used Lo collect student and teacher data. The SSLS classroom produced fewer patterns containing non-lesson-related behavior and greater clustering patterns which resulted in a more

-predictable set of behaviors than in the TSLS classroom. Perhap's ' 24 providing directions and other restrictive behaviors. provided the less- than-conforming student with a more relaxed and less anxiety-ridden frame of mind. These researchers concluded "materials, activities, and curricula, in general, cannot be made 'teacher proof'." Teachers need to be aware that their behavior patterns greatly influence the educational outcomes of a classroom.

Penick (224) extended the study of the SSLS and TSLS classroom strategies to growth in creativity and used the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) to measure that attribute.The population used was 51 fifth grade students, He found that there were no differences in the verbal creativity data from students who experienced the two teaching strategies but that the figural composite score on the TTCT demonstrated that the SSLS group scored significantly higher than did the TSLS classes.

Few teachers would believe that teacher behaviors convey the same message to all children in that class. There is evidence that dyadic interactions tre useful in the classroom. Shymansky(268) studied the relationship between certain aspects of one-to-one interaction between a teacher and a student in an activity-centered classroom and that student's behavior during the remainder of the lesson. The time of, the interaction and whether it was verbal or non-verbal and the student's classroom behavior were the specific variables studied. During a five -seek period, 78 student observations were made in fifth grade science using the "Student Behaviors" portion of the Science Curriculum Assessment System (SCAS) Classroom Interaction Categories. The data collected suggest that lengthy dyadic interaction between student and teacher may reduce productivity and learning effectiveness,and be thought of as interference by the student. Some teacher-student interaction is needed but the teacher and the materials combine,to provide the learning environment. "\

Using the evaluation materials prepared by the Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS)--with some modification--to measure achievement

. in twenty third grade classes, Norris (211) compared the effects of individualizing the Interactions and Systems unit of the SCIS. The SICS

1 91' c0 4 25

material had been Aggrted for the individualized learning system and was entitled Science Curriculum for Individualized Learning (SCIL).Norris used the pretest, posttest, post-post-test design. There were no differences in achievement betweeh the SCIS and the SCIL groups on the post-test but the SCIL groUp scored significantly higher on the post- post7test. Norris also studied the students' attitudes toward science and sciencs/class using a survey instrument entitled "How I Feel About School and Science"; that instrument has five different scale factors. The results between the sup and the SCIL groups were mixed; one group excelling on some scales and the other group excelling on other scales.

.t Sixth grade students in Widon, Minnesota, were the population Fick (93) used to study the acquisition of non-verbal cognitive abilities and productive thinking skills when experiencing the ESS units Tangrams

and Geo Blocks. An experimental and control group design which utilized a post-test was employed. The instruments used were the Vdrbal Form A and Figural Form A of the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking and the Thorndike-Hagen Nonverbal Cognitive Abilities Test. The experimental group scored significantly better than did the control group at the 0.02 level on non-verbal cognitive abilities: beyond the 0.01 level on verbal fluency, at the 0.02 level on verbal flexibility, at the 0.20 level on v6rbal originality, and at the 0.001 level on figural flexibility, figural origindlity,.and on the composite scores of all divergent thinking'

tests,

Nelson and Abraham (210) believe that the post-laboratory discussion is being overlooked by many teachers ofelMeniary schoolscience. Furthermore, these researchers beileve ,that the accommodation of mental structures--according to.the Piaget model--can result from au effective post-laboratory experience. The teacher can, accor4Org to these investigators, use the laboratory experAences to move the students toward the symbolic mode of thought using what is called a probing strategy.A probing strategy is opposed to a teaching procedure which asks for student observations and then accepts or rejects thosp data on some notion of correctness. Nelson and Abraham studiJd the effect of the two strategies on student increase in observation, inference, verification, and classifi-

cation. The sixth grade population of an inner city and a suburb were 4

A 26 used, a total of 116 students. The Classroom Obseryational Record (COR) 4 and the Inquiry`SkillsMeasure (ISM) Were .used to gather data, The ISM

was used in a pretest,,positest manne . The investigators issue several J precautions regarding thei generalizab'lity of their'findings but cautiously conclude that to increase theuantity and quality of inferences, the probing strategy isjlettqr than aon-probing strategy. Furthermore,, a probing strategy increases the quant ty of observation made in an urban school but the non-probing strat gy is better in antiurban school. . .

Research in the Methods and Procedures of Teaching Secondary School Science.

Mosley and Bell (201) report a study undertaken to examine the influence of objective statement speigificity on student learning resulting, from the independent laboratory-based Physical Science Investigation

Program. The study involved-three teachers and 138 eighth grade Regents students from six intact classes. Each teacher taught one section using specific behavioral objectives and one using non-specific objectives. In both treatments, objective statements were presented prior to the instruction of thegiven unit. A non-randomized Control group, pre- posttest design was used. Pretest scores showed. no significant differences between classe. Two-way analyses of variance of the posttest generated F-values that were not significant for the,teacher and interaction

sourceof variance. The treatmont effects were significant (p<'.05). Higher means were obtained by the groups provided with the specific behavior objectives. A post-hoc questionnaire indicated student perception 40 of the use of behavrralobjectives as being helpful generally, helpful in achieving 'higher grades, and helpful in providing guidance .through

the unit.

How do the forms of questi9ning techniques teachers use influence

. student cognitive achievement and retention in juniqr high school science? Guthrie (112) identified two distinct questioning strategies; Type I questions were those formed primarily in the third person and therefore treated the student as an outsider and solver of the problem posed. Type II questiOns were those which were designed to place the student right at the focus of the problem and to convince the student he/she,

no 7 Lev should assume the responsibility of responding to the question from "quasi- experience base." Guthrie utilized an experimental group' control gro design. Using Type I questions, however, did.not significantly improv student achievement or retention of subject matterl increase the pe entage student -talk versus teacher-talk (when compared to earlier studies of Flanckers and others), nor did Type I questions significantly increase the length of student responses.

Carlson (48) evaluated' an individualized contract-directed high school chemistry course and compared that evaluation with a group- instructed, teacher-directed course. lie found no significant differences between scores on cognitive measures or affective measur of course preference, attitudes toward science or toward a specific cl s, or self actualization. After one academic year, a statistically significant treatment difference favoring students in the group-instructed, teacher- directed classes were found on an investigator-designed, suilmative, 'criterion-inferenced examination. After the same period middle, academic ability students from the individualized treatment produced higher scores on the Tennessee Self- Concept Scale.

Teacher-directed instruction where the students progressed together. through a prescribed sequence of concepts with access to a set of behavioral objectives was compared to the technique of letting the st t,progress through the same set of concepts in his own time (self-paced) with access to the same set of behavioral objectives by Ritter (249). The materials used in instruction were BSCS Biology: Molecules to Man. Ritter found no significant differences between the groups in short-term, mid-term, or long-term achievement nor did he find any significant differences between the groups in long-term process vokill improvement.

Monaco and Szabo (197) evaluated the team approach for teaching biology. A sample of 147 sophoCore'students,,Ls divided into six'sections; each section was, randomly assigned as control or treatment. The team consisted of three instructors. Each member taught,a control group for an entire year. After an introductory session of nine weeks, team members began teaching their specialty (botany; genetics, or microbiology). Students in the treatment groups worked with a different team instructor each,

?/9 I, 28 for nine weeks. The criteria used in this study.conSisted of T-scores. from five separate objective tests. The experimental design was a 2x3x5 factorial analysis of variance with intact class secti. s randomly assigned to experimental or control groups. Variables"includ two gduPs, three instiectors, and five content areas. Amimg the conclusions were that academic biology students acquired more biology,subjectmatter knowledge when they were-3T instructed- by ,a team rather than by an individual instructor and that 9kere were significant differences among each of the Instructors relative to student' achievement in biology.

Riban (246) distinguishes a field study from a field trip. According to Riban, a field expedition is of at least a few days in duration whereas a field trip is one or more periods on the same day. Sixteen junior 0 high schookstudents participated in a multi-day field study in the Grand Canyon in Arizona. A total of 85 items with geologic emphasis were selected fiom the preliminary tests of the Earth Sciencecurriculum Project and completed by the field study. Later the test' was administered too"A group of advanced studpnts of science from the same school' who had not participated 'in thefidl&TOrk."Neither the field,studieslproup nor the comptrison group had completed courses in the earth sciences. 0 Riban states that the learning displayed by the field study group excelled any reasonable expectations," The achievement of thd,field study group was "completel),' superior to that of the comparison group of' science-proneslrents." Some statistical data are offeied that sub- stantiale Rib claim.

Mayfield (185) studied°the factors which affeCt rationality in a .,. , group solution to a problem/ Sixty 11th and 12th gradets were divided into groups of five and given the NASA "moon survival" probleM. After participating in the group situation,, each group member completed Bales'

.. . . Interpersonal Rating Form A-(revised). Mayfield cautions about, the generalizability of his findings, but several, are worth noting in relation to outcomes from group work. Most individuals' Solutions were not as . . correct as later decisions made by tt entire stoup, and an individual's

, second solution tended toward thegroup\'s ,solution. At some point in the session after some useful and some useless items hadibeen idelktified, the group devalued the problem and the remaining decisions were seen as

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unimportant. Mayfield found that there,were four primary factors which contributed to non=rational decisions. being made. Those factors were concession, force, rules -of-thumb, and emotion.

4 One hundred and six chemistry students from eight classes, and involving four teachers, were the subjects Abraham (4sedto'study grouping as an instructional methodology. Speciffbally Abiaham studied 4 whethet or not grouping by divergent thinking potential influences the amount and kind of student verbal interaction during a science inquiry. Divergent thinking potential was operationally determined by each student's composite scove on the verbal portion of the Torrance-Tests of Creptive

Thinking (TTCt). Those scores were then used to form hoiotgeneous and heterogeneous groups. ,Science inquiry was used to stimulate the formula- tion of hypotheses and the design of experiments. The students were told they were in an experiment to see how they went about'splving science problems. A film was then shown to the students and they were given

twocies,tionsto discuss. Abraham summarized the results of this study as.meaning that there was an interaction between grouping anddivergent -?. thinking potential; and that interaction showed a trend which favored medium divergent-thinking persons in homogeneous groups and highdivgrgent-,-

thinking perions in'heterogeneous groui)s4When the mean number of 0, statements made by Orsons in both homogeneous and heterogeneous' groups *64 Who have,high., medium and high divergent.thinking potential is considered, homogeneous grOuping is 9, effective way of encouraging greater amountsof verbal interaction.

I Bates and Watson (19) investigated whether the interaction of. teacher, student, and classroom characteristics had a significant effect on classroom climate. Linear regression techniques wereused_,to predict selected scales of "Anderson's Learning Environment Inventory"'(LEI) from sets of orthogonal variables which sere representative characteristics of the teacher; student group, and class structure. Eight scales accounted for 21 percentito 63 percent of the variance for the model

group of 72 classes. Data for thestudyyere drawn from the Harvard Project Physics Summative Evaluation Data Bank which-repreeents a true national random salle of 54 physics teachers with 3085 students in 103

classes. One of the observations of these, investigators relates to the

t- c) . 4 30 disttibution of the sexes within classes. Classes with a relatively high proportion of females and a climate that was more democratic and intimate and contained less friction and apathy.. The students in those classeswereevaluated as being more satisfied than in classes where the proportion of females dropped. These investigators ask whether or not women are attracted to, Or produce; that type of environment.

Which combination of lecture, discussion or,direct-indirect teaching produces optimum student growth? Markell and Mayer (177) used 19

0 teachers, all of whom were participating in an NSF-supported College School Cooperative Science Earth Science Progt.am, and 18 classes to gather data to answer that question. Actually this study involved the search for statistically significant linear and curvilinear (optimal) relationships between assessed student perceptions about classroom instructional procedures and pre-posttest chariges in students' understanding of science concepts, attitudes toward science, and development of interests in science. The 19 teachers and 38,scierice classes, involved in the study also participated in a research plan that included the administration of several instruments in a pre-posttest design during the academic year. Data were collected using: (1)'concept=process ,tests, (2) the Science Classroom Checklist (SCACL), (3) the Silance and Remmers Interest Scale, and (4),an instrument to measure student attitudes toward science and scientists (BATSS). For this study, the Instructional tivities Ingtrumeni,was developed, Piloted-, and administered near the end of the year A direct/indirect score on this instrument was compared to corresponding pre-posttest change scores as measured by the other four instruments. A linear relationship was found between student attitude toward science as a subject and teacher direct-indirectness. Certain instructional methods were found to lose favor with students if frequently used.

A learner's attitude towafrd what-is being studied-and his/her \ anxiety about the course, teacher, peeys and/or examinations are certainly factors in influencing th amountl an kinds of learning which will be accomplished in any clast.c)wo studies reported during1\976 F \ addressed themselves to the general areas of attitudes and anxieties

as,Sociatedwith different teaching methods in secondary school biology. 31

Clay (57) investigated attitudes toward education, critical thinking ability and specific affective behavior. She compared students who had studied the BSCS environmental module "Investigating Your Environment" (IYE), those students using one of the BSCS Biological Sciences version and those studying Modern Bidlogy. The sample of. students came from 32 high school classes throughout the United States.,Sixteen classes were involved with the IYE and sixteen classes received the other two instructional met,hods. The IYE treatment enrolled 355 students, and 375 students received the other two treatments. Instrumentation consisted of the Attitude Toward Education Survey; Cornell Critical Thinking Test, Level X; and the Biology Students Behavioral Inventory, Form C. Clay found that the ability of students who had experienced BSCS Biological Science was significantly increased but no other differences were found among the students on any of the other variables.

The design and formative evaluation of a two-Weeks minicourse dealing with the bioChemical, physiological, and psychological aspects of emotional stress was completed by Betkouski (26). A total of 431 secondary biOlogy students from four different schools (six different teachers) were the subjects for the experiment and were randomly divided among three treatments--A, B, and Control. Treatment A consisted of the two -week, minicourse followed by a four-day session on coping with test anxiety (a modified version of Coping With TestAriXiety: A Guide, was used). Treatment B consisted of the coping-with-test-anxiety component only. The two treatment' groups and the control took a series of pre- tests consisting of the A-State scale of the State-Trait'Anxiety Inventory (STAI-Form X) and the Test Anxiety. Scale (TAS) prior to a teacher-constfucted test administered before the treatments began. An achievement test covering the material in the minicourse was alSo giverias a pretest. The posttests, consisting of the same instruments, was administered at the conclusion of the treatments; and the STAI and TAS were given prior to a teacher-constructed test six to nine weeks after the treatments concluded. The research sought differences in the anxiety levels and knowledge levels among the groups. No significant differences in anxiety levels were detected. Significant differences in knowledge levels measured by means of the achievement test were found:

ti NJ

Group A scores were significantly higher than both Group Bana Control scores;. Group B scores were significantly higher than the 'Control scores.

During the last few years the type of methodological procedures usable with the mentally handicappeehas, in general, received universal attention. What methodongical procedures in science are effelttive with this particular group of_learners is also receiving consideration. Bacon (16) used the BSCS curriculum Me Now to study the achievement and retention when that material was taught by "a deductive method and a discovery method." Bacon used the BSCS objective test accompanying the'' Me Now units, monitored teacher behavior with the Science Curriculum Assessment System, studied the reading abilities of the studentS, and tested the interaction effect of reading ability and treatment. He found no significant differences.

Teaching methodology to use with the educationally disadvantaged student also has received special attention recently. Kahle, Nordland, and Douglass (142) studied four teaching procedures--timed audio-tutored, self-paced'audio-tutored, a traditional classroom procedure with study guides, and a t ;aditional classroom approach with visual aids as teaching procedures. The first-year biology students of these teachers in an urban high school constituted the 160-member sample which was divided into six treatment groups. The age range of the sample was 14 years to 18+ years. The treatments were conducted over a six-week period. The groups were judged as equivalent at the start of the experiment. Self- graded, miltiple-choice, formative tests were used throughout the study. A pretest with an equivalent form of posttest was also used.A Itnifi- cant difference in achievement was found in favor of the self -p&ced audio-tutored group.

Kahle, Douglass and Nordland (143) also analyzed learner efficiency when individualized and group-instructival teaching procedures were utilized with disadvantaged students. "Learning.effiCiency" was defined as achievement point gain per classroom minute.- The subjects, procedures, and treatments described.in the previous study were used in this study. The conclusion was drawn that learning efficiency "as described by net . , gain mean/total time mean, is increased by an individualized instructional

system." 3 33,

The separation of the teaching methodology employed in aclassrood and the materials used is often artificial.Most certainly materials can be designed around specific teaching procedures which Will lead tb the achievement Of specific gOals. Coleman4(61) designed a non-simulation game technique, Genetico, to assist studenEs'in the study ofgenetics? After testing and evaluating Genetico, Coleman concluded that significant cogn4ive learning resulted from its use, and that'race and scholastic achievement "predicted cognitive achievement for the study pulation." Genetico did not, however, influence attendanceand punctuality. Johnson (137) Undertook the development ofmaterialAhichwouldpromote and permit investigation of problem --recognition and subsequent research

questioniklg ability among students. A system named Learning tosk 41. Research Questions (LARQ) went through four develvmental phases The experimental population was tenth gradeiology students. Johnsoi concluded that LARQ is a useful tool for developing and investigating research questioning skills in students, taxonomic questioning is easier for students than cause-effect inquiry, relionships between pairs of skills is hierarchial in nature, and the s udents developed aquestiotning' -strategy in the course of several lessons.

Askham (12) designed and carried out a study, to find out if nine-

to-twelve-year-old children classify plants growing in a seminatural -

environment the same way they group non-natural objects .a classroom setting. He found tL4t this age group used more varied and complex strategies to classify the plants than to classify the non- natural objects. In fact, says Askham, children using more and morecomplex classification categories suggests that there are '!many latent classification schemes as yet =assessed." Since this increase in classification and its-complexity was motivated'by using natural objects (plants) in a seminatural environment, "further research should be moved out of the classroom or la4pratory and into a more natur)1 setting," and non-natural objects should be replaced with natural objects.

When reviewing-the thirty research studies included in this section, one is struck with the many problems inherent in studying teaching methodology. Some of those problems are beyond the control of the science-

\ 0' education' researcher and he/shd,can,,at best, only attempt to control

A J ti

.-3!1 such variables and, at least, recognize that they exist. There is, fipweVer, one variable that is, evaluated so differently in methodological research studies that comparison of those studies or attemptingrapply the research results in a setting different from that of the original researcher is difficult, if not impossible. The variable being referred A to is student achievement with respect to content. In the research just reviewed that variable was defined as everything from the,appli cation of methods of stating a research question to how many achievement points a student gained per minute.

There are those who believe that an entire spectrum of meanings of "Pr such a variable as achievement is acceptable and healthy for a research

area. Possibly that-position is true.' But the fact that there is such great variability in the meaning of achievement in the profession reflects, we believe; the lack of a common theory base for the practice of and research in the profession of science education. We recognize that the establishment of one or more theory bases for science education is an undertaking of monumentai propoytdons and will require a great deal of

time. We believe however, that if science education is to continue as a viable research area, that undertaking must be started. In the interim, each researcher can, ake a significant contribution to the profession if he/she will carefully define how student achievements with respect to content is being viewed.

4 1. 35 The Education of Teachers Perhaps no topic in the field of eduCation evokes more divergent

411 r opinion than the general area teacher education. The laws governing teacher certification range from absolute prescription of specific courses in some states to a general statement in other states of the number of hours of college credit required. The types of educational experiences a kindergarten teacher must have are generally prescribed by law but the law is silent about what types of educational experiences the persons teaching future kindergarten teachers will have. had.

Has research been helpful in resolving the problems inherent in the area of teacher education? In general, the answer to that question is probably-"no," but research in the past has certainly been helpful in isolating specific problems in need of solution, providing data for particular questions involved in the general teacher-education picture, and suggesting improved ways of accomplishing specific objectives in the field. A summary of the research published in the area of science teach education during 1976 is reviewed in this chapter. The review is divided into four general categories: elementary school teacher education, secondary school teacher education, research concerning teacher education

. , from kindergarten through 'jade twelve, and research into inservice

--,-, education. "-I C Research in Elementary School Science Teacher Education

The profession of education has generally agreed that both preservice and inservice education are necessary in teacher education,Which of those experiences is more effective? Does one stage in va teacher's career make that person more amenable to change than another? Stephens, (278) compared the influence of a natural science course on preservice and inservice elementary teachers and on inservice primary and intermediate teachers with respect to their agreement with the philosophy to teaching science.of the Elementary SCience Study (ESS). He used 29 preservice and i2 inservice teachers. The eight-week treatment- -two hours and fifteen minutes each week--consisted of activities from ESS materials preented as the developers intended them to be used with children. The subjects were evaluated by responding to a series of 36 multiple- choice, behavioral items, each presenting a teaching situation. Stephans found that the instruction did not prodQce any significant diffetences in agreement with the ESS philosophy% between preservice and inservice teachers. He did find, however, that with the inservice group the treatment had a greater influence on the intermediate teachers than-- on the primary teachers.

Cotten and Evans (68) used an experimental group of 70 elementaty teachers and a control group of 32 to study whether having teachers perform ,inquiry-investigative activities with a written model would lead to greater facility with process skills than could be expected from elementary school teachers who did not perform the inquiry-investigative activities. The treatment required a minimum of-seven weeks. The process skills considered were observing, measuring, communicating,' classifying, prediction, inferring identifying variables, and controlling variables. A 17-question, 75-item process skill instrument was developed and used in a pretest, posttest design. The investigators concluded that "the two groups can be considered equivalent' prior to the experimental treatment." The experimental group showed statistically significant performances in obsdbving, classifying, predicting, identifying variables and cont oiling variables. In addition, the experimental Tup signifi- canyly outgained the control group in inferring. These researchers used a subsample of sixteen from the experimental group-, and, using the Instrument for the Analysis of Science Teaching, Version 2, found that the ratio of closed teacher questions to open teacher quqstions was significantly '-reduced. The percentage of continuous teacher lecture was also significantly reduced. Students of these teachers.exhibited a significantly-more positive attitude toward science instruction, and engaged in significantly mere nonverbal activities and peer interactions.

Three procedures designed to encourage and educate preservice ( elementary teachers in the use of inductive/indirect strategies in teaching science were evaluated, by Yearly (24). Procedure One, Strategy Analysis Level, consisted of educating future teachers in science teaching strategy analysis using the Teaching Strategies'Observation Differential

(TSOD). In the second procedure, Modeling Level, the subjects viewed - video -tapes of model science lessons whichledinductive/indirece 37

teaching strategies.A third treatment group received a combination of the first two treatments and a control group viewed films neutral to

the treatments. The TSOD and the Elementary Science Activities Attitude Sort were used to collect data. The:combination group adopted a more inductive/indirect teaching style than did the control group. Evidence is supplied which shows that activities that will "signiftcantly, and positively affect the science teaching style and attitude of pre-service elementary teachers can be designed."

Yeany (323) also designed a study to assess the effects of three treatment levels involving microteaching with videotape playback and strategy analyses on the teaching strategies selected by secondary science_ teaching methods students. Three groups of tenstudentseach

were randomly assigned to three treatment levels. All subjects taught . a pretreatment and a posttreatment, peer group lesson; both were video- . taped. Each student viewed his own pyelesson, and before the taping of the postlesson, the following instructions were given: group 1 - no instruction (control); group 2 - instruction in how to use the Teaching Strategies Observation Differential (TSOD) to assess the prelesson;

group 3 - same asgroup 2 plus the requirement that a tape-viewing . session with the instructor of the course be carried out. Trained raters used the TSOD to analyze the'postlessons for the degree of direct- ness/indirectness exhibited by each subject in their teaching style after treatment. Using ANCOVA, significant differences were found between group 3 and group 1 and between group 2 and group 3, indicating a cumulative effect of the treatment procedures. Yeany suggests that perhaps this research shows that while there may be certain advantages to individualized.or self paced teacher education programs, opportunities for the student to interact with the ,professor are important.

The elementary school science "methods course" is usually a college - experience had by preservice teachers. A great deal is expected of the

,"methods course." The instructor is expected to combine the students' prior, courses in educational philosophy, pedagogy and science--not infrequently very traditional "show-and-tell" science courses--and lead them to develop a thorough understanding of how to teach scienceland a 38

procedure for doing so. The number of semester hours devoted to this undertaking is not infrequently less than three. Seldom is so much output expected from so little input.Perhaps for the foregoing reasons the elementary school service methods course has attracted researchers in science edudation for some time. The research published in 1976 was no exception.

Barufaldi, Huntsberger and Lazarowitz, (18) designed and narried out a study ptto investigate changes in attitude of pre - service, elementary education majors towardinquiry teaching strategies."The "methods course" furnished the subjects for the study; 146 students were involved, The subjects, however, had erected to study the "methods course." The subject matter of the course was the "content, methodology, and processes of science that are employed in the teaching of a modern course in elementary school science."A modified form of-the Inquiry Science Teaching Strategies (ISTS) was used to measure each subject's attitude toward inquiry teaching. The students were pretestedt(the first day of class) and posttested (the last day of clasS) The results demonstrated that a significant. change in attitude toward inquiry teaching took place between the :two administrations of, the ISTS.

A total of 246 students was used by Shrigley (267) to establish the reliability of an instrument to measure the effectiveness of the instructor of the "methods course." The coefficient alpha index of reliability was 0.83. Shrigley then surveyed 286 third-year elementary education students enrolled in science methods courses at four midwestern teacher-education institutions. The data demonstrated that if a science methods course instructor is to have high credibility with college students he/she: (1) referred to practical teaching activities in class, (2) had taught

Eighty-two elementary education majors constituted the group Strawitz (280) used to assess an undergraduate science methodsvcourse. The subjects involved in the study were 82 elementary education majors

at Louisiana State University. Students not in the course rved as a comparison group. The treatment group participqted in scie ce activities selected Trom ESS, SCIS, 2hd SAPA materials. Students were. encouraged -INcidevelop individual teaching styles, considerfeedback from the instructors and peers, and formulatetheir own concepts about teaching o strategies and roles appropriate for the teaching of elementary school science. The control group discussed topics such as planning fir

effective teaching, individualizing instruction, and evaluitid;;-Scores on an attitude inventory were used as a fremeasure as well as a post:- measure. Scores on Form E of the Rokeach Dogmatism Scalewere used as a measure of the belief systems of the students. The depeddent variable was teacher attitude; the independent variables were method of instruction

and teacher dogmatism. Findings suggested that the instructional method , was very effective in changing the attitudes about teaching science; It was noted that these Changes due to the treatmentwere for the most part ,unrelated to the bkief systems of the students.

Utilizing a "methods .course" which had a strong fieldcomponent, Piper (229) studied the changes in attitudes of the studentsand the cooperating teachers.. Thirty-six students enrolled inan elementary science methods course were randomly selected and givenan instrument using Osicod's semitic differential approach the first weekof class, the'sixthweek on campus priorto field experiences and the thirteenth "o4,week following field experiences. The elementary teachers who had

. observed the university students teaching in their classroomswere given the semantic differential prior to the students'teaching and following the students' teaching in theirclassrooms. Five factors 'were used to test the change in attitudes: (1) Science in High School; (2) Science as Remembeied in4Elemendry School; (3)Science Methods Course; (4) Stience in the News; and (5) Teaching Scienceto Children. At the end of five weeks of on-campus activities, theuniversity students changed their attitudes i a negative direction toward (1) and (2), but in a positive direction toward (3) and (5).Following the

44' 49 reality experiences with chi ren an the field, attitudes toward (3) and (5) were even more posi ve thanprior to field experiences. The 4 attitudes of classroom teachers who hAd university students teach 4 science activities in their classrooms also changed in a negative directiOn toward '(1) and in a Positiv'e direction toward (5),.

The elementary school science "methods course" is used for many things.' Bluhm and Hungerford (33) found that using the "methods course" as their instructional vehicle could make a statistically significant improvement in students' ability to define environmental education and in their acquisition of concepts concerning ecology. The research was conducted using a pretest-posttest design. The investigators developed their own evaluation instruments. These researchers believe that the instructional model used appeared to influence significantly under- graduates' perception; concerningConcerning the definition of environmental education.

The Teacher Corps was designed to provide persons who held a collegt degree:with "a repertoire of basic skills for teaching various school subjects, including science."Wilson, Koran and Koran (312) claim that "few if any sAmmative evaluation reports describing the effectiveness of Teacher Corps Programs exist." ,Tlese researchers worked with a multi-racial ,group all of whom had degrees'and whose Graduate Record Examination (GRE) scores were betwel1/650 and 1400 (a mean score of 850). The students received a M.A.T.-degree if they successfully completed the two year program. These students experienced a learning procedure that can best be described as modeling, pr tice, feedback, reinforce- \ ment using, the Science - A Process Approa elementary science program. The data used in the evaluation were collected by evaluating the students at entrance to and exit from the program on ne "target behaviors." Those target behaviors were: (1) assessing beh- ior, (2) evaluating instruction, (3) probing, (4) giving instructions, (5) vocabulary development, (6) establishing set,(,7) reinforcement, (8) eliciting observation and classification, and (9) establishing models, Significant behavior change, was found among the students in behaviors (1), (2), (3), (7),4nd (9). The investigators concluded that the methods of training used were successful even with students who had low GRE scores.They

.1 contend that the major advantage of the training model used is its.flexibil4z:__ and that the model would be advantagdous with many inservice and preservice teacher programs where local personnel are used as master teachers who may not know the nature of some of the basic skills and desired outcomes of the teacher training program. Most of the concerns of the Teacher Corps are also the concerns 'of the preservice and inservice teacher education programs.. The inference is that those programs should look at the Teacher Corps operation.

Tomera, Hungerford, and Walding (295) conducted a survey of professional scientists, science teachers, and preService'elementary education majors. They were sent a questionnaire consisting of the Perceptions of Science and the Scientist Inventory (POSSI) instrument. The instrument comprised six short - answer` questions dealing with: (1) a-definition of science, (2) the differences between science and technology, (3) the greatest contribution of science to man's culture, (4) the most important intellectual process to the scientist, (5) the paramount ethical responsibility of the scientist, and (6) the value of science education to human beings. Included in this report are analyses of the various types of answers given to,these questionsti and the percentage of each sample group that responded with each answer-type. In general, the results of the study showed that scientists and sciencekeducators had.similar perceptions of science but that the pre-service elementary education majors often had no response to questions or held views contrary to those of scientists and science educators.

. Research in SecOndary School Science Teacher Education

How can specific teaching beh fors be taught to preservice teachers? Rezba and Andersen (244) asked whe46'r or not using a system which involved a model teacher laboratory behavior and a microteaching environment would cause preservice teachers to change their interaction with students in such a way as to complement inquiry - Centered teaching. Randomly assigned groups from a sample of 56 participants were.presented a printe model of lab'bratory teacher behavior and a perceptual model employing those behaviors--a video- a. tape of a teacher performing the behaviors found in the printed model. The Students then engaged in peer geOup microteaching. All content for microteaching was taken from the work of the Intermediate Science Curriculum Study (ISCS) and all teacher behavior models were based upon materials from the ISCS.

4 (;) 42 VF

Following the instructional treatment, the participant's demonstrated signifi-

cant increases in the use of accepting feelings; praise or wouragement; modifying students ideas;accepting'ot using students/ ideas; all types of questions; and all indirect verbal behavior. The treatment also, significantly decreased the use of lecture. The treatment did not44%how a significant impact upon acknowledging, applying, or summarizing students' ideas nor was the use of cognitive-memory questions, giving directions, or critizing ancrjustifying authority significantly influenced by the treatment.

The ISCS program was also sed as a research vehicle by Knight (149) who investigated the value, to preservice teachers, of'classroom experience with the ISCS program. A total of 31 preservice teachers wds given 18 'hours of preparatory instruction on simple teaching skins and science con-

tent. They then had 20 hours'of experience as a teacher wopld'have in an ISCS classroom. The Nature of Science Scale, a Word Assaciation Scale, and a Teacher Profession Questionnaire were used.in eriluation.Measures were also taken to establish ,that the preservice teachers understood the philosophy of the ISCS classroom and that they demonstrated they knew the philosophy while working in the classroom.After the ISCS experience, the preserviceNc . teachers expressed interest in a broader science background, an increased .. preference for junior high sch6o1 teaching, student reading.problems, -.f individualized instruction and the evaluation of student progress.A decreased interest in the use of biZeildards, teacher aides in il.he classroojn,

and writing relevant objectives for students-was measu&i. .

There Is no doubt that the exact competencieslibeded-by dbcondary school science teachers are not known. Qureshi (239) designed and conducted a study to identify a set of validated competencies that could be used in educational programs for that group. Interviews with 21 randomly-selected high school teachers led to the identification of twelve competencies. Those competencies were: (1) A teacher must know his subject and keep striving to update his knowledge; (2) teacher must-have a good rapport with his students; (3) A teacher must recognize the individual academic . abilities of his students and try to help and encourage each of these students; (4) A teacher must make his lessons interesting without wasting time; (5) A teacher must be able to control discipline problems tb protect the learning experiences of hiS students; (6) A teacher must plan lessons /13 in advance,with the idea of presenting the scientifice conceptsand ideas in an organized and clear manner; (7)' A teacher must foster unbiased, independent and critical thinking in his students; (8) A teacher, especially the one who is teaching low and average ability students, must relate the scientific concepts and ideas he is teaching to the daily life experiences and needs of the'students; (9) A teacher must evaluate, in a traditional or any other practical sense, the academic progress of hisstudentsNandmake the results available to them as soon as possible; (10) A teacher must, 4 7 appropriately, respond to sudden diversions of student thoughts; (11) A teacher thust make appropriate actions to instruct the students about laboratory safety practices; and (12) A teacher must fulfill his professional responsibilities. Validation of the competencies was accomplished by using the pariel-of-judges technique. Through the,use of inter-judge reliabilities, inter-teacher reliabilities, and the Chi-sqUare statistic, theconclusion was drawn that only competencies 1, 2, 4, 5 and '6 were validated.

When a person engaged in the education.of science teachers looks at a class inwhich they\are enrolled, the question regarding who will finally- achieve certification is intriguing. What criteria could be used to predict success? Research has not yet produced'a definite answer, but Neff (209) has demonstrated that the ScholasticeAptitude Test of the College Entrance

Examination Board (SAT) is not capable of making that determination. 'All students at Ball State University seeking provisional certification to teach biology between 1965 and 1974 comOised the.sample, which was divided into two groups for the study. Group onoinauded all persons who achieved ication -(331-students) -and-g-roup--pwo-was -made-up-of-those-students-who did not receive certification f244 stVents). When the discriminant analysis technique`was used with the SAT verb4 scores and mathematics scores, no significant differencep/were found between the two groups. The conclusion was drawn that SAT scores were not reliable predictors of

"provisional certification of biologyeteaCh-ers at Ball State University 1 - during the period between September of 1965'and,June of 1974."

Do the actual experiences which'a student has in college really influence the attitudes of a future teacher? rry (226) designed and carried out a study to test whether or not a learn ng module which presented a laboratory-oriented, student-centered inquiry method of Science teaching,

r .40 presented in 'a postive way, could affect preservice secondary science

teachers' attit es toward the teaching odul , This researcher lso studied what other factors might affect the change, in attitude toward the module. Perry used 50 perservice secondary science teachers enrolled in a "science methods" course. The instrumentation used in the research included the Semantic Differential Test of Teacher Attitudes (SDTTA), the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), and the Ames Philosophical Belief Inventory (APBI). The 50 students were divided into two groups on the basis ofperformanceEbn the SDTTA. The sample was ranked from greatest postive attitude toward student-directed learning to greatest negative attitude toward student-diredted learning; in other words the better group was oriented toward teacher-directed learning. The sample was divided at the median. P p The Study's results demonstrated that a significant improvement of attitudes toward positively viewing student-centered, inquiry science teaching occurred during the completion of the learning module. The two groups differed significantly on four personality factors. The student directed Amp was more enthusiastic, forthright, apprehensive, and tense. No differences were found'based upon sex, philosophy or the number of education, credits earned. The major predictors of positive change in attitude, in order of importance, were the personality factors of'tenseness, maturity, stability, forthrightness, intelligefice, and laxity (carelessness of social,

rules),

Results of Astu(d-yeportedby Stronck (281) involved lessons taught in biology by 58 student teac s which were evaluated by other student

eachers and by the studentsreitng taught. The data were gathered by using .evaluation instrument which had nine categories: (1) knowledge of subject inatter, (2) 4ttitude toward subject, (3) explanation, (4) speaking ability, (5) attitude toward students, (6) personality, (7) evidence of Planning in procedures and materials, (8) students' atteRtion, and (9) objectives. A ,total of 2,399 questionnaires was completed by the students (an average of 4proximately 41 per lesson) and a total of 314 questionnaires was completed by other student teachers (an average of more than five evaluations per lesson). The students gave the student teachers significantly lower ratings on eight of the Jane categories than did the other student teachers (peers). The exception was category 2; no significant differences were found for that category. The suggestion is made that preservice teachers should not

5 45 become overconfident when studying peer evaluation from microteaching, Secondary school students will.probably be significantly more critical. When teachers taught at two separate times and were evaluated by the students, there were no significant differences between the evaluations of the first and second lessons. 'k

ti Farrell, Farmer and Clark (J0) began with previous research they had done to identify teaching competencies used in competency-based teacher education. They had identified 74 such competencies: There were seven competencies identified which "would no,t*likely bediscardedin a longer term study". In this research a Systems analysis model was developed using .the competencies as a conceptual framework for a program for teacher eduCa- tion in science and mathematics. The researchers sought to determine the interrelationships among the competencies comprising the model and to test the theoretical links between the model and the instrument designed for testing. Data were collected on 122 student teachers over a period of five semesters. Seven factors emerging from the analysis accounted for 46 percent of the total variance. Six of those factors loaded on the same general criterion which can best be described as dealing with the affective domain. Those six factors are: nature of the contento be learned, student intellectual development, objectives specified, how humans learn various categories of content, instructional strategy d ign, and feedback resulting from .the implementation of plans.

Many different positions in the educational heirachy from both the college and precolle .*!vel have an impact upon the profession of secondary science teaching. Do all persons in those positions view the tasks 0 to biaccOMplished from the same frame of reference? Conner (65) compared the views of science teachers with each other and the views of science teachers with those of "methods course" instruct op on selected theories and practices in.science education. The questionnaire technique was tsed and 42 methods course instructors from 35 Ohio teacher education institutions.and 216 Ohio secondary school science teachers participated. A total of 100 items, 504on theory and 50 on practices in secondary-school science, was rated on a.five-:point, Likert-type scale that indicated degree of agreement with the theory statements and frequency of use of the practices. The

. data were analyzed by the principal components method, t-tests and the') 1

5(1 46 .

analysis of variance. The principal, findin6 were: (1) Methods instructors were significantly higher than were the teachers on the theory factor related to nontraditionalism and significantly lower on the theory factor related to content mastery. (2) Methods instructors were significantly higher than were the teachers on the pActices factors related to humanism in science, nontraditional-approaches, and diversity of classroom proce-

dures. (3) The factor structures on the theory portion of the questionnaire. were different from the factor structures on the'Practices portion of the questionnaire. (4) Analysis of variance performed by experience on the teacher responses resulted in significant F ratios for all six theory factors and on only one practices factor. (5) Analysis of :variance performed by science courses on the teacher responses resulted in significant F ratios for three theory factors and five practice factorg. (6) Analyses of variance performed by school size and by teacher's major field resulted in no significant differences on either theory or practices factors. (7) Analysis of variance performed by amount of the teacher's education resulted in a significant F ratio for one theory factor and no pradlites factor-g. (8),Analysis of variance performed by curriculum, either traditional or,one of the national programs, resulted in significant F ratios for one theory factor andt, ree practices factors.

The results of the study indi ated that the theoretical orientation of practicing teachers differed siificantly from the theoretical orientation, of Methods course instructors. Furthermore, science teachers used practices which differed in many significant respects from the practices advocated by methods instructors. A teacher's teaching practices did not seem to have atelationship with that teachers agreement with given theories,

Vow well do teacher education graduates function in the schools? ICJ Acquiring data to answer that question requires that follow-up studies be made of those completing teachpr edudation graduates, Most assuredly not A enough follow-up studies have been made in education..Science education literatUre for 1976 contains such a study, Swami (286) made a follow-up study of teacher education graduates from a field - based, program which was to prepare science teachers to implement inquiry-orient-ad activities. in their classrooms. This researcher wished to find if teachers had changed their views of inquiry-oriented activities for science teaching and howl activities implemented by teachers with differing amounts of experience i , t 47

might be different. Data were gathered from 86 teacher_. education graduates having One to four years of experience and teaching fulltimesciedcein Ohio dur?ng the 1974-75'academic year. A-wide variety of instrumentation was

used. Using Analysis of Variace, Swami found no significant difference, in changes of science teachers' views regarding the appropriate types of classroom activities after one to four years of teaching experience. Furthermore, no significant differences were found in the types of activities these teachers implement in the classoom, Several variables which influence the types of activities impldmented (ntthe,classroom wete cited. data demonstrated that students generally liked inquiry-oriented teaching and teachers considered administrative support for inquiry-oriented activities essential. Swami concluded that an outcome of a field-based-program was the stability of views toward inquiry-oriented activities of teachers completing afield -based program.

Fdllow-uf studies,can*al..ad reveal trends, fads, and/or stability in science education. Mayer (L reports on a study conducted in the spring, 1974, which was a follow41P of-an original study conducted in 1964-65 and a follow-up of that study conducted four years later. As a pa of the 1964-65 study, a Criterion model of an earth science education program was developed. The 1968-69 study identified 210 institutions as having earth

41. science teacher education programs, 38 of those institutions had provided information for the 1964-65 study. The questionnaire used in the 1974 study went through several stages and evalu4tion d ing its development. It used data and proCedures from other science ed ation activities. The questionnaire was sent to each of-the 71 institutions which had prOvided information in the 1164-65 study; 68 of those institutions responded and all 38 from the 1968-69 study responded. Data from the study suggest that the academic components of programs of institutionsifvolvedid earth science teacher education were "resistant to ehange even when it means adopting nationally developed recommendations." 'Earth science as an inter- disotplinary study was not being.implemented by the institutions in the

study. The procedures for presenting the subject have seen very little change. Very little field work was foupd; that fact was first isolated in the 19624-65 study. The requirement or-an earth science teaching methods /-1 course has been added since the 1964-65 survey. The Earth Science Teacher Preparation Project has had little or no effect upon programs offered by the institutions in the study.

11- X43

in Science Teacher Education in K-12 Research Since 1958 the National Science Foundation has spent* nearly 150 million dollars for teacher-education and upgrading. Is there any'evidence that presollege.student cognitive achievement has been increased because of teacher participatiCt in NSF-sponsored institutes? Willson and Garibaldi .(310) believe that the answer to that question is generally positive but the significance to students of the, teachers attending institutes varies by subject matter and grade level. Furthermore, that significance was influenced by factors outside the scope of the study.

ft/ Forty-four sophomore teacher education students at the University of Iowa represented the population Uzzini (230) used to study whether or not the Iowa UPSTEP preservice teacher' education program made a positive contribution to the students' self concept. Twenty-two of the 44 students served as a control group and 22 of the students participated in UPSTEP. Twelve variables concerning self-concept were measured with Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. The UPSTEP group scored significantly better on ten of those twelve variables than did the control group. Since the concept of self is believed to have, an impact upon teacherLstudent interactions, the results are important to teacher education programs. Several recommendations are made,for use of these findings. The investigator concludes that perhaps "the most important/change is putting the person back into 'the processes of education'-."

May and Craw ey'' (183) sought to develop an instrument capable-of assess-

, ing the effect ofthe classroom teacher/s_ model of teaching upon the model acquired by the student. An instrument was designed which contained statements gronpqd into one of three categories depending upon the particular skill in /questi6n. These skills were instructional, interpersonal, and

, managerial in natur A Likert-type scale was used to iqdicate the extent to which an individua s model was teacher-, class-, or student-centered. Data were gathered from Level I interns, student teachers, and- cooperating teadhers in the competency based teacher education program at the University ofGeorgia. Pre- and post-data were obtained from Level I interns; a single sampling of responses was Collected from student teachers and cooperating teachers. A correlational analysis was conducted which examined intra- and inter-group agreements. Numerous findings were made tha indicated

f S 5E; 49

that the instrument was sensitive enough to measure changes. Among these results was that student teachers viewed the relationship between instructional and interpersonal models of teaching as similar whereas Level I interns saw them as unrelated, and cooperating teachers were uncertain as to the ref'ationship between the two teaching models.

Host certainly when a student enters a course which is to give him/her a perspective on teaching science, that student should expect to develop a perspective whichintegrat''s thenature of science the nature of the learned and the nature of teaching, College students should, in other words, develop a theory base for teaching science. Does' this happen? What would

such a learning experi'nce look_like? Could analytical scheme be . derived that would beseful in examining teaMng materials (namely books) used in the college m thods courses and, which also,might furnish a perspective to look at teachers' views of science and teaching?Russell (253) developed such an analytical scheme from selected theoretical perspectives of the nature of science and the concept of teathing. The divergent inter, pretations of science of several science philosophers were examined and used to develop five dimensions of the analytical scheme, Selected philosophical analyses of the concept of teaching were described and interpreted, yielding six more dimensions. An initial assessment of the applicability of the analytical scheme was made by using it to examine arguments in eight passages` selected from a sample of textbooks which discuss methods of teaching science. As developed, the analytical scheme may be used by science teacher educatOrs in the design and evallpatioi of various aspects of their programs; several possible applications were noted, .The theoretical per-

spectives developed intfilestudy provide a sound conceptual basis for research concerned with_views of science and teaching actually held by teachers, views implied by teachers' teaching behaviors,.and processes by which' views or teaching behaviors actually do change, I

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, Research in Inservice Teacher Education

A total of 24 rural elementary teachers used a home study instructional program designed-by Futrell (102) and which utili2ed materials from the -Elementary Science Styly (ESS). The 24 participants analyzed the investigations that they performed from a teacher's point and then used the

. activities with the students in their own classroom. Thestudy was made in order to test the effectiveness of providing teacher education with curriculum developments in an area of'low population density. Specifi- cally, the study was to test the effectiveness of the home instructional program in: (1) teaching a new elementary science curriculum's philoso- . phical approach and methology; (2) developing an attitude toward science and the teaching of science more consistent with the philosophy and goals of the new science curricula; and (3) developing a positive attitude toward the program of inservice instruction itself.The results of the study showed that knowledge of the ESS program was acquired and that a positive attitude toward science teaching was developed. However, significant changes were produced in the teachers' at ude toward science. Positive attitudes were developed toward h me study.

Fifty-three elementary teachers in the downswn area of Panama City were pre-tested by Barnett (17) to establish heir knowledge 'of

science process skills and attitudes toward'scienc , scientists, and scientific careers. The teachers were randomly ass ed to four workshops according to their process skill scores; those workshops were of varying length and approaches.All workthops used the Science-A Process Approach curriculum, materials and equipment. Some of the groups, however, participated in microteaching.Due to the statistical technique used, data from only 40 teachers were used in the final analysis. Pre- and post-workshop observations were made of the teachers' classroOms to ascertain the use of equipment and materials, as well as overall behavior, by the childrein those, classrooms. Barnett concluded that workshops that are organized for teachers' active participation can facilitae the transfer of that experience to classroom situations and the students of those teachers have their process skills and use of equipment enhanced. No interaction was noted between workshop length and the way the workshop was conducted. 51

A study by LaShier, Hall, and Colbert (156) involved the participants of a four-week, National Science Foundation- sponsored workshop who were interested in piloting the life science phase f Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS) materials in six school districts in Northeast

Kansas. The purpoSe of the study was to investigate the progress of participant usage of SCIS and to identify concerns of the participants so that help could be prpvided. For this purpose, a "Concerns Questionnaire" was administered to the participants before and after the workshop, and was also administered to teachers who had attended the workshop the previous year and had been using SCIS for one year. Among the results of the study were: (1) the teachers who had been using SCIS for one year were less.concerned about the management of SCIS.than were the inexperienced teachers; (2) the workshop participants were more concerned about management of SCIS after the workshop than before the workshop; and (3) there was no differ-

ence between the scores of the participants on the instrument "Science and 4r ScienceTeaching Attitude Scales" before'and after the workshop,

Thirty -six. teachers from eight different schools and their students . formed the experimental group used by Hounshell and Liggett (130) in evaluating whether or not bringing about cognitive and affective change in students could be accomplished by bringing about cognitive and affective change in their teacherd. These researchers used environmental education as their vehicle in gathering data which would lead to the answer to their' inservice education question.They designe'd a three-phase treatment of the teachers in the experimental group (a control group.was also used)

that began by studying particular areas and resources in those areas, 7 through environmental awareness activities and ended with implementation in the teachers' classrooms. A fourth phase, evaluation, was also included. Knowledge of attitudes toward, and feelings about, the environment were evaluated with appropriate instruments. In other words, the evaluations were made on the cognitive and effective levels; almost 2000 tests were admihist\ered in the pre-, post-experimental/control testing cycles. The answer to every question, but one, asked of the data was "yes' and all those answers were statistically significant. They did show that the time of exposure of the teachers to th project had a significant effect on the attitude of students but no ignificant influence on knowle e scores, 52

Evaluation in ScienOe Education

A large number of the studies reviewed in this summary could be classified as evaluation studies. Many of these studies (for example, evalution of teacher education programs and evaluation of instructional methods) have been or will be summarized An other sections of this review. This chapter will limit itself to five aspects of evaluation: (1) evaluation surveys - those studies ascertaining the state of learning science; (2) curriculum evaluations; (3) affective studies,- those fooking at the parameter of attitudes, beliefl, self-concepts, values,

and interests; (4) instrument development; and (5) evaluation methodology- those studies looking at the techniques and procedures of evaluation in science education. There is naturally considerable overlap between these various categories of evaluation. A study assessing the effect of a student's attitudes towatd science may also involve the development of an instrument to measure that attitude. These studies might be reviewed in either or both of the relevant sections of this chapter, depending upon how important the contribution to those areas is.

Evaluation Suiweys,

Quite a large number of studies appear to be trying to assess the state of science learning by students.Some of these surveys are very general in nature; others are more specific. Some survey on a large scale:some on a smaller scale. There are several foreign studies which, give insights into the workings of science education in emerging countries, The most important of these surveys, however, is the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which released several studies during the time considered by this review. The National Assessment studies (205, 206, 207, 257, 258, and 263).interpreted variousaspects of the .01f data collected during the 1969-70 and l972-73)g-cience assessments. There were 400 questions used in the science assessment and theywere asked of four age groups:9 years, 13 years, 17 years, and young adults (age 26-35). Sample groups were.compared by ,geographical region, sex, race,)and type of community. The National'Assessment objective for

cierircewere: (1) to assess the knowledge of 'scientific fact and 53

principles, (2) to assess process skills, (3) to measure an understanding Ar of the investigative nature of science, and (4) t6 measure the appreciation of science's role in culture. One of the reports (205) included sample questions and an analysis breakdown of the, question by groups.

questions from the NAEP exam which were concerned With knowledge of and attitudes toward energy Were studies in one of the reports (206), The results suggest an overall decline in knowledge, although some groups saw slight gains. This is in keeping wish-the general decline in science achievement noticed between the 1969 and 1973 surveys. Attitudes towards conservation and environmental concerns appear very strong as measured in the 1973,Eprvey. Selected results from the attitude questions of the NAEP are studied in another re art (207). -Interest in, and attitude toward, science appeais to ve undergone a small overall decline between 1969 and 1973. The majo ty still, however, have positive attitudes towards science. 'Interest seems to be high but is declining. Other results from the survey indicated that few high school students (approximately 10 percent) see science as a career in their future.Almost all of the subjects See that research is, important and beneficial. However, selected types orresearch get different levels of support from these 9 students.

Informatiign on ,selected scientific skills and knowledge were summarized fc in another NAEP study (257) : The breakdown of results in the 9, 13, and 17 year old age groups appear to be consistent. Students did not do as well in these areas in 1973 as they-did in the 1969survey. There was an average two to three percent drop on the individ questions which were given in both surveys. Regional results indicated that the Southeastern region was the lowest in overall knowledge and skills in science, but had improved its position with reSpedt to other regions from 0 1969 to 1973. Although boys appeared to out-perform girls in the area of science knowledge and skillS, both showed about an equal decline its:luring this period.' Scores for blackSwere below whites; but did not decline quite as much during the study period. Students in rural areas

. showed gains in the 9 and 13 year oldlage zrOup and smaller than average declines in the 17 year old age group. This groupwas next to lowest with regard to other types of communities in

GO 54

. Further analysis of the racial and regional data 4s carried out in' two NAEP Studies (258, 263). Overall, blacks paralleled whites in their declining scores in science from 1969 to 1973. There'was no improvet ment in the relative performance in sciences for blacks. Black-males apparently scored better than black females in the 13 and 17,,year old age groups. Ttiese differences increased with age. One noticeablebrighlik spot was that blacks in the Southeastern part of the country, preViously the lowest scoring group, showed increased scores compared to blacks in other regions. In general, declines were smaller in the Southeast for both whites and blacks. Although the scores of blacks were lower than whites in this region, they closed the gap very.slightly from thp 1969 to 1973 surveys. Outside the Southeast, scores of blacks declined at rates even greater than scores of whites. One of the reports (263) also compared the racial composition of schools in,the Southeast between 469 and 1972. During 1969, Most schools in the South werehighly segregated. As a result of legal and social pressures, there was a quick move toward integration of theschcols, and this region found its schools much more integrated in 1972. The rest of the nation saw ti relatively little change from 1969 to 1972 concerning the racial composition of its schools. It was cautiously suggested by the authors of

, theSe reports that there was a connection between the relative gain in science scores by blacks in the Southeast and the change.toward more integrated schools in this region. It was suggested that blacks benefit in achievement from the integration of schools to a measureable extent, while whites are not harmed by integration.

In trying to account for the decrease in NAEP scores from 1969 . to 1573, it has been suggested that the 1969 attitudes and knowledge,_ scores might be inflated because of the Sputnik aftermath and the great / emphasis on, science that resulted. This argument suggests that the 1973 4 data are more realistic in measuring the actualestate of where science 4. attitudes and knowledge ought to be.` It is encouraging when observing what is sometimes interpreted as the public's negative attitude towards science, to see these young people give fairly high attitudinal measure- , ments towards science and science related ideas. At the same time it

is disappointing to see the small percentage of students who arecon- .sidering 'science as a career. 55. .

In a quAemwide udy of science achievement trends, Renner and Coulter (243) tried to explain why studenls achievement in science in Norman, Oklahoma, was higher than nationwide statistics based on the California Comprehensive Tests of.Basic Skills.The science scores of these'students were higher than norms and higt3.er than would be predicted from IQ scores. It was suggested that a well-defined system wide philosophy of education was compared with the system wide choiee Of a K-8 science curriculum, and that these were compatible. This compatibility was said to account for the unexpectedly high science achievement. went. One of the most disturbing continuing phenomena in science achievement from kindergarten through college science is the group differences, in achievement according to sex and in all learning areas according

to race. Many reasons have been proposed for these differences including; sex and race role stereotyping, bias in testing, techniques and,instruments used in measurement, and cultural differences. Continuing study of these problems needs to be done, and if these individual differences hold up; effective ways of dealing with these differences in the class- , room must be proposed and tested.

Curriculum Evaluation

This section is concerned with the study of specific curriculum projects? Most of these projectsare supported.by,foundations in the United States, most often by the National Science Foundation. Also included, however, are some fOreign curriculum projects like the Nuffield Project, and curricul inspired by NSF-supported curricula but modified in other countries. These studies look at a variety of epics, from measuring the effect of the curricula on attitudes, to concept attainment. The projects studied run the gamut from elethentary through high school and take into account all the sciences including biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science. Thestudies reviewed are organized into three sections: (1) the study of specific curriculum projects, (2) 4 a comparison if traditional with new curricula, and (3) implementation, studies.

rc% .) 56

A group of studies looked at specific curriculum materials to ascertain the characteristics of these materials, or the learning requirements of these materials, or the effect of these materials on students. Charles(51), for example, reported the results of an evaluation of the Nuffield Combined Science Projects utilized in English schools for biology, 'chemistry, and physics. Using staff discussion, a staff questionnaire, too a pupil questionnare, and coded response tests, he gathered opinions and ideas from 18 teachers and 420 students about the effectiveness of the project in teaching certain skills. Consensus of the opinions indicated that the desired content' was being taught, that some of the skills and concepts being taught were difficult for students, but that, sin general, teachers felt that most of the materials were appropriate for the lev'els at which they were tried.

Ulcens .and_Merrifield (298) studied the mental abilities needed as prerequisites for learning the content of the Conceptually Oriented Program in Elementary Science (COPES). Guilford's "Structure of the Intellect" model was used as a theoretical base for studying the COPES unit covering mechanical energy concepts. Batteries of tests assessing chosen "Structure of the Intellect" abilities were developed.' Pre- and posttests on the concepts to be taught were also developed.One hundred fifty - eight' sixth grade subjects were given the "Structue of the Intellect" battery and the COPES pretest. They were then taught the COPES mechaniCal energy sequence and given the COPES posttest.The results owed that, when combined with the pretest score, three convergent and one divergent operations were good predictors of the students' attainment of the mechanical energy concepts being taught. The authors boncluded thaecertain mental operations were necessary as prerequisites to under- . stand'this unit, and that these pterequisites included these three convergent and one divergent thinking operations. If students do not have these thinking operations as part of their intellectual repertoire, then their attainment of the chosen concepts will be muchmore difficult, if not impossible.

Most of the natiopally supported 'curriculum projects developed through foundation support stated what they considered to be the important 57

goals to be obtained by students using the projectts materials. Scientific literacy was one such goal. The Science Cirr ±culumZImprovement Study, (SCIS), was one project for which scientific literacy was considered an important goal. Bowyer (35) studied the effect of SCIS materials on the development of scientific literacy. She developed an instrument whicOwas used with 521 rural sixth gfade children. This instrument was based on the development of nine Piaget-type).iteracy taskp.Points were given for different kinds of answers depending on the level sophistir

, - cation implied. These literacy tasks were designedto be cl administered and consisted of both, activities andpenciland-paper tasksk The activities were demonstrated for the students and they responded by writing down ansVE'rs on a prepared answer sheet, Sixty - three percent of the children in the study hadNbeen exposed to SCIS fort ,

. ` si ears. The nine literacy tasks were: (1) the ability to recognize and describe variables, (2) interpret and criticize experiments, (3) interpret data from histograms and probability questions, (4) interpret data from experiments and make predictions, (5) determine relative position, (6) identify the source and receiver of energy, (7) predict and explain temperatures in energy transfer situations, a) identify necessi- ties for minimal survival, and (9) understand the concepts of solution and evaporation.. Bowyer concluded that these tasks provided evidence that indicated that SCIS contributes to the overall development of scientific

literaey. The specific concepts which most accounted for this evidence were Numbers 1, 5,7, and 9 listed previously so far as these four .. , tasks are a reasonable definition of scientific literacy, this goal of the SCIS project seems to be an outcome of using SCIS.

a Research examining specific curriculum materials without comparing these materials to other curricula has special problems. Forem6st among ., these is the development of the criteria for evaluation. Operational definitions need to be carefully developed.One also needs to look at the type of data that are being collected, and spetifically tie these data to the operational definitions whether these data be opinions, performance date, or a. combination of the two. It is especially important in these cases that a theoretical background of some sort be developed and tested. More research lookin at the mental reqUirements of curriculum 58 Ir materials needed. Studies of these types are valuable on two counts. First of all they test t1 flexibility of the curriculum materials for different types.and'ages of students. Secondly, this approach is a way of testing our theoretical constructs to see how useful they are, in defining real world problems. t 1 A second type of study evaluating curricula concerns the comparison

of traditional curriculum materials with the "new" curriculum materials. Most of these studies operationally defined text-oriented non-laboratory,, centered and factrorirnted curricula as "traditional".The "new" science curriculum materials are by contrast inquiry- oriented and laboratory- centered, Most of the "traditional" materials are developed by publishers, according to this research, and are sometimes used as control groups. Foundation-supported curriculum projects are identified as being the nontraditional approach and are the-experimental groups in a comparison.

TaFoya (.288) compared the inquiry potential of a textbook approach versus the SCIS approach to teaching elementary science. Using a content analysis, it was determined that the SCIS approach was superior in developing inquiry skills 'in children. In another content analysis;'Kent and\- 4 Simpson (147) studied the content-of the biological\aspects of sex education as defined by SIECUS (Sex Information and Education Council of the United States) to see how thse topics were covered by five biology textbookd. These included the three Biological Sciences Curriculum Study

(BSCS) texts (Yellow version, Blue version, Green version). The con- . clusionVasthatthlirwas40,oedge for any one of the text books and/that all would need supplements to cover the4SIECUS defined topics thoroughly,

Ashmead (11) compared the BSCS human sciencds'program to an existing text to see how these two approaches affected thetchievement, attitudes, process skills of their students. The sixth grade students in the study showed no differeve on tese three measures.

Davis et al. (73) compared.the achievement and creativity of elementary school stddentt using Science--A Process Approach (SAPA) versus a tradi- teAbook program. Students in grades one through six were given 59

the Metropolitan and SRA Achievement Tests in science, reading and mathematics. In addition they were given the "asking" and "just suppose" activities from the Torrence'Tests of Creative Thinking, Verbal Form A

(TTCT). Students who had attended the school from grades one through six were included. The number of subjects varied between 72 and 131 at the different grade levels. For the creativity measure, a'random sample of 25 students was drawn from each grade levels., Intelligence was used as a covariant in the statistical analysis. No differences in achievement, science, reading, or mathematics Were found between the control and experimental groups. The SAFA students scored\higher on the TTCT in verbal fluency and verbal flexibility. The authdrs' conclusions were that SAPA seemed superior in helping students develop divergent thinking

. processes which are important in problem solving.,

Sherwood and Herron (266) compared.an individualized version of Inter- , disciplinary Approaches to Chemistry (IAC) with a conventional high school chemistry approach to see what their relative effects on students' attitudes were. A class of high school chemistry II students was chosen as

411 the subjectsipf the study. Students used a conventional college text during the first semester, were given on attitude measure, and, after the second semester using IAC materials, were given a second attitude measure. Two attitude measures were used. The first was the Student Opinion Survey in Chemistry,. a 20 Likert-like item test designed by LAC: The secohd e was the Scale to Measure Attitude Toward Any School Subject, which is a Likert-like 17-item test. A significant difference favoring the IAC approach was found using)the IAC Opinion survey. No significant difference was found with the other measure. The authors commented that they could not tell whether noticed differences resulted from change in approach, content instructional style, pr other confounding influences.

Comparison research continues to have several problems; among these include the setting up of the traditional curriculum as a straw man. Oftentimes, by carefully choosing criteria or testing inptruments, the outcome can be controlled to fav4,4 the experimental group. There is a need to very strictly identify what the comparison really is.Confounding influences abound in this rind of research. The matching of control and owl

ti 60

(c, 'experimental groups needs to be carefully done, and the matching of treatments to be compared must also be looked into very carefully, so that confounding influences do not mask the tested-for effects. Comparison studies often end up comparing apples with oranges. The temptation is to criticize comparison studies to the extent of eliminating them as legitimate curriculum evaluation methods and stick completely with the N study of the characteristics of specific curricula. CompariSon research,

--...-5owever, can bellyaluable if it is used to identify real differenCes between different curricula and thereby help school personnemake ch ices. However, when this research is used as a propaganda device, It loses credibility.

A third class of studies concerned with curriculum evaluation examines a the implementation of curricula. Most of these studift point out the .difficulties and problems with implementing educational materials as they were intended by their developers. Flores (97) studied the verbal and nonverbal behavior of teachers to determine whether these behaviors were compatible with the implied philosophy of the Intermediate Sciente Curric- ulum Study (ISCS) program. Twenty junior high school science teachers in Puerto Rico were observed; ten were from urban and ten were from rural schools. A questionnaire was submitted to the schools of the teachers involved to determine biographical information. Five classes were observed for each teacher, These classed were also taped, and an observation instrument called thdScience T acher Behavior Inventory (STVI) was used to categorize observed behaviors It was found that the teachers behaved, similarly regardless of their experience, age, sex, academic preparation, or the type of communityr/ in which they taught.Their behaviors were neither consistent with the instructional nor logical behaviors prO-posed by the ISCS. Although this study was done in Puerto Rico and a lack of

of ctive inservice training was noted, these implementation problems do not seem to be much different from those in this country.

Jarvis (135) studied the implementation of Foundation-supported second' ary school curricula. He'sfudied curricula'associated,with biology, earth science, physics, and chemistry. Be submitted a questionnaire to science teachers, college professors, science consultants, and.state department personnel to survey these groups' opinions about NSF-supported 61

programs. Philosophy; the relationship of the program with t achers,

students, and administrators; and the content and implied meth of the program were the areas surveyed. The conclusions ,reached by the investigatorswere: (1) the programs showed a tendency.to be directed 4e toward-science-oriented students, (2) unstructured laboratory-activities resulted in a feeling of frustration by students, (3) teachers were all too often not involved in program selection, teachers were asked to teach hew programs' without sufficient training in their presentation,ana pprograms were usually not used in a well-coordinated K-12 program, but instead were grouped together at random.

AW Implementation problems seem similar in foreign countriesas in this country. Implementation problems continue to.be the major roadblock to the success of these curricula. Inservice training is necessary for this effort, The kind of inservice training which will result in succesAful implementation has yet-to be determined.

AffCctive Studies

The trend of the last number of years toward studying affectivepara- meters such as attitudes, beliefs, self-concepts, values, and interests continues to influence educational research in general and science educa- tionresearch in particular. Most of this research is directed toward attitudes concerning either_science as a discipline, scienceas a school subject; scientists, or science instructional procedures.'The subjects of these attitude surveyS- are usually science studentsor their teachers, Many of these studies also try to relate attitudesto grades, aptitude, , ability, personality factors, Many of theseostudies discuss the development of instruments used to measure .these affective parameters. Some of . ef these instruments are of general_iriterest anduse and will be discussed in a later subsection of this chapter.

$chrier (262) attempted to identify the areas of science in whichmost elementary school boys and girls were interested, Using a forCed-chbice questionnairj% he polled 2200 elementaryschool children in grades one through six, The questionsn the questionnaire were categorized into 62

nine areas of science. The areas f interest fromgreatest to least were: "(1) ecology and conserve ion, (2) chemistry, (3) healthand the body, (4) biology, (5) weather, (6) physics, (7)geology, rocks and minerals, J(8) astronomy; space and air travel, ( ) fossilsand ancient life.. In general, questions from the physicalciente area ranked higher ' than the life science area which in turn ranked higherthan the earth science areas. Primary grades (1-3) ranked ecology andconservation f as their areas of greatest interest; Children inthe upper grades (44) mosf',,Often selected chemistry` questions in preferenceover other science, areas. The author of this'study pointed out that thegreatest concerns ) of children lie inareas where maximum direct experience'is possible," Three of the affective , - studies reviewedwere concerned with self-concept (175, 274, and 301). Malcolm (,175) tried.to(determine if,,the use of -SCIS instructional materials could help childrento maintain Or develop a positive self-concept aS-measuredby the Piers-Harrisithildre-nirSelf- Concept Scale, -Heconcluded that students using SCIS sciencematerials , had higher self-concepts in the areas of intellectand school status _than did students notusing SCIS materials, Sellers'(264) examinedself- concept in stience by studying 320,sophomore studentsat a central public high schoollocated in an urban . community, This researcher inves- r-- tigated the relationship between students' self ,-conceptin science and OF their mental abilities, sex and achievement inscience. 'The researcher developed a test forself-concept called the Self-Concept in Science Scale 'f -($CSS) and validatedit with two other 9 established self-conceptinstruments, Mental abilitywas measured using the Otis-Lennon Mental AbilitiesTest. Science achievement was measured using theNelson Biology Test and the ' -Test of ScienceProcesses. The-finding of thisresearch showed that,high achievers inprocesses,, iology, knoWledge and high mentalabilities also had a high self-conceptin science,

Vargo (259 and 301)studied the relationship between sciezice attitudes, self- concept;and science teacher/pupil compatibility.' Using 12 classrooms which consisted.of204 students and , six science teachers;this researcher preand posttested students on the Science AttitudeScale (SAS) and the Self- Concept in Science SemanticDifferential(Sq0), Students also' completed the FundamentalInterpersonal Relations

n 63

Orientation-Behavior (FIRO-B) inventory. Sex and the students final grade in elihth grade science were used as predictor variables along with six compatibility variables from the FIRO-B in a stepwise multiple regression design. The results of the study include: (1) Pupil/science teacher interpersonal compatibility did not account for variation in self-concept in science nor.attitudes toward science; (2) both science ,grades in previous courses and the self-concept pretest were significant predictors of self-concept in science; (3) the Science Attitude Scale pretest was a good predictor of the attitude toward science of these students but was the only one; and (4) boys possessed a more positive attitude and self - concept toward science than did girls.

0 Santiesteban*,(256) assessed the attitude of high school students toward, various science instructional processes and procedures. Three hundred twenty-two tenth, eleverith and twelfth graders enrolled in various science courses in four high schools were given a test NtIch measured their attitude toward several variables in science instruction. These included: the structure and function of laboratory, teacher questioning behaviors; textbooks, library reports and independent projects, testing and grading, and types of instruction. The items in the questionnaire were factor ana yed and 'differences in attitudes by sex were studied. It was found tha 'females considered the use of projects and oral reports

more important than did males, whereas males preferred small groups and . perfo nce on a particular task.

By far the largest number of affective studies concern attitudes toward science. In a survey of primary school teachers in Southwes England, Harvey (117) investigated the amount and nature of science taught, (- the teacher's awareness of modern curriculum developments in primary -school sciences, the effect of sex differences, and the effect of science training on th'e attitudes of primary school teachers. He found that male teachers were more likely to teach more science, were more aware of modern curriculum developments, and were more interested in primary school science tha9 were female teachers. He also found that the length of

.1..1 ,- (.) 64

z.0 training in science did not affect the amount of science taught but did seem to affect the quality of the science taught.

Symington and Fensham (287) investigated teacher attitudes toward icience'with respect to dogmatism. They studied 72 teachers of fifth and sixth grade science in Australia to determine how dogmatism, attitude toward science in congruence with new curriculum influenced the ad9ption of "new" science programs. They used Schwirian's Science Support Scale (Tri-S) to test these teachers' attitudes toward science,.They found that teachers who felt compatible with the new curriculuM materials and teachers who had a good attitude toward science were measured low in dogmatism.

Buckley (40) studied teacher and pupil attitudes toward science as a function of whether or not a science specialist worked in the district. The study involved 96 teachers and 2277 students from 4 different towns. Two of the towns had a kindergarten through sixth grade science specialist, while the other two towns did not.' Teacher attitudes toward science were determined by using Moore and Sutman's Science Attitude Inventory (SAT). Student attitudes toward science Were measured by the semantic differential Science and Me test. Student science acbievement.was measured by the Stanford Achievement Test at the primary levels and Science Research Asgociates' Science Achievement Test at the intermediate levels, Results 7kt. of thy study showed that the teacher sample of the specialist towns had -o significantly more positive attitudes, toward science than did the comparative :sample from the non-specialist towns.Also, the total student sample -tt 1 "Mom the specialist, towns had significantly more positive attitudes toward science than did the comparative sam fwm the non-specialist towns. rf. No significant differences were foundliwetween the groups' concerning science 0 achievement.

st. 9 The remaining studips Summarizet heTe are concerned with students' attitudes toward science. Ward (304) studied high school biology, chemistry; and physics students in 12 states to assess their attitude toward science as a function of class sio Altitude toward science was measured by Moore's Science Attitude Inventory (SAI). In addition to this, achievement 65 tests were given to4these students. The results showed that there was no evidence of a,direct relationship between small class size and good attitudes toward science. There did, however, seem to be strong asso-. ciatioris both between achievement and attitude and between achievement and class size. The author of this study suggests that achievement serves an intermediary role between class size and attitude. He hypothesizes that class size affects achievement and that achievement then affects, attitude:

In two studies, Novick and Duvdvani (213 and 214) studied tenth grade students in Israel to assess their attitude toward science as 'related to school and student variables. The attitudes of students at agri- cultural schools were less positive than were those of students at either academic or vocational schools. The type of curriculum ("new" science or trditiOhal) had no effect on attitudes. Students from Western extraction cultural backgrounds had more positive attitudes than did those students of Eastern extraction. These researchers used Moore's Science Attitude Inventory (SAI) and also did a,rocs cultural comparison to identify, the 'relationship between Israeli, stud nts and those in the United States. Scores of a stratified sample of 684 tenth grade students in Israeli schools were compared-with scores generated by a similarstudy done'in the United States. The results of this study show remarkable similar attitude patterns between the two cultures.

In another foreign study, this one done in Australia, Gardner (104). studied physics students' attitudes toward physics as a function of pUpiil and teacher personality characteristics. One thous'and-fourteen high school students using PSSC materials were studied using three instruments developed in previous studies by th44 reseacpher. The Physics Attitude Index (PAI) assessed students' views tSward physics learning on four categories: (1) authoritarian/non-authoritarian, (2) physics as an open/ closed process, (3) views of scientists as normal/eccentric people, (4) physics as enjoyable/not enjoyable. This test was given both as a pre- and posttest for the study. In addition to this instrument, the4ersonal Preference Index (PPI) measured personality characteristics. Several scales were developed from this instrument including: achievement,

min 4 conjunctivity, deference, play, understanding, order, nurturance, and

_energy. A third instrument, The Physics Cl s oomndex (PCI), provided scales concerning student needs as they occur)in a classroom, These scales included competetivenePs, organizati n, compliance, pleasure, intellectualization, compulPiveness, warmth, an s imulation. The author found that students high on nurturance had small but significantly more favorable attitudes toward scientists. Students high on achievement and understanding were more favorable toward non - authoritarian modes and enjoyed the subject more. Students who described the teacher as well organized and intellectually stimulating also enjoyed physics more. Achievement-motivated, intellectual students tended to hold more open views of physics. However, achievement-motivated teachers promoted a more closed view. Pupils who were warm and friendly, and also those who were submissive and conformist, were more likely to regard scientists as normal people than as eccentricpeopleYOverall, this study showed a sharp decline in enjoyment of physics by students who took'this course using PPSC materials.

Mt overall summary of the attitude data collected by the preceding studies can be summed up in several statements.Males have better atti- 0 tudes toward science than do females. Higher achieving students have better attitudes toward science than do lower achieving students, These

results are not particularly surprising. The first result has been part , of the popular belief forquite a long time, Perhaps this will change in time and be reported differently by research summaries of the future. The second result is a reflection of one of the weaknesses of correlation 1 type studies, a weakness which might be caned the chicken and egg syndrome. It is difficult tio tell whether attitudes cause achievement .or vice versa. It is difficult to come to any sort of ,conclusion about this frcim the studies that are, reported here. One final result of summarizing these attitude studies is that Moore's Science Attitude Inventory seems to be the most widely used instrument for assess.ng attitudes towards science.

1 4Th

Instrument Development .

Mapy of the evaluation researches discussed in this cfiapter involved the development of instruments in order to collect pertinent data necessary for the proposed research. Many of these are specific Co the research being carried out or are too limited to be of general interest and application. Some, however, show promise of value outside of the research setting in which they were developed. Of these, some are interesting only because of the techniques or procedures used in development. These will be,Oiscussed in the next sub-section. The following is a brief descrip- , tipn of new evaluation instruments which might have some general use in science education research.

I Since most of the new foundation-gdpported curricula developed in th( last decade involve teachers in using.inquiry teaching techniques, there is a great deal of concern about secondary sCienceteachersbeing able to exhibit appropriate behaviors. Lazarowitz and Lee (163) have developed ,an instrument for determining the inquiry attitudes of seeondary science teachers called The Inquiry Science Teaching Strategies.instrument (ISTS), The instrument consists of forty Likert-like items which are positively and negatively related to the inquiry approach. Sample of items positively related to the inquiry approach are: "students ire often capable of designing valid experiments ", and "it is delirable to present to students science questions to which answers are not.necessarily known." . Exampleg of items negatively related to the inquiry' approach are; "questions which are integrated in the textare confusing to students and should be omitted," and "a primary role of secondary science teachers is . ,s- to design the investigations to be done". \aliditywas judged by a panel of expert judges. An item aialysis lent further support to the instrument. . - The alpha-coefficient reliabilit.ofinternal Consistency averaged between 0.48 and 0.85.

Another instrument used to measure attitudes, this time of el grade chemistry and physics students, is the Test On Scientific Attitudes (TOSA). The developers of this instrument, Kozlow and Nay (152), criticized whall"they identified as four shortcomings of other attitudemeasures. 4 68

These researchers say that they: (1) are too general, (2) lump several dimensions under the caption of attitudes, (3) show no diScrinination between cognitive and affective components ofeede, and (4) do pot adequately;tipresent classroom situations and experiences.Taking the point of view that attitudes must be inferred from the behavior of students, these researchers developed a multiple choice format test with tfie stem of each multiple choice question describing a situation relative

to an attitude. The distractors of the questions defined different courses

C of action that a student might take which represent different scientific attittideipe In developing the examination, the researchers developed behavioral definitions of eight attitudes: (1) critical-mindedness, (2) 9. suspended ju0 ement, (3) respect for evidence, (4) honesty, (5) objectivity, i (6) willingness to change opinions, (7) open-mindedness, and (8) questioning

attitude. The behavioral definitions of.these eight attitudes were used to develop items. Forty items survived to form the final test. Twenty of these items make up the "cognitive component!' subtest of the total examination and describe a situation which a scientist might encounter during his work. The student is then asked to seledt from four courses of action the one which is most appropriate for the scientist. Twenty items make up the "intent component" subtest which-presents a situation which the.student may encounter in the science classroom or in everyday activities. The student'again is asked to select one from four alternative courses of action which represent his reaction to die

ation. Test-retest reliability judged by th, KR-20 was 0.71. Content validity was determined by a panel of judges and structural validity by factor analysis.;

Molitor and George (196) have developed a science process skills examination to assess the inquiry skills pf inference and verification of fourth, filth ancisixth graders. In an attempt to be cogent fr4ey the items were based on common, everyday experiences (for example, a 1. window breaking). Items and item distrac.tors were in the 'form of illustration and test instructions were read to the students. The test was administered in adfoup format. Items are in a multiple choice format: \ There are nine items for each skill. Validity was determined by a panel of judges. KR-20 reliability average for the three grades'for the inference test was only 0.56. Verification reliability was high, at 0:75.

fr') X- if 69

More emphasis is being put on the role of science instruction in o hdlping students develop self-concepts; both generally and in science. Sellers (264) has developed the Self-Concept in Science Scale (SCSS). Items for the scale are Likert -like items divided into two categories, the "operations of learning in a science classroom", and a general self-

, concept scale. The "operations of learning in a science classroom" subscale consists of questions concerning science processes such as ob,Orving, comparing, classifying, etc., and, aethods and techniques of learning, such as taking notes, testing, reading and others, The general self-concept scale consists of three subparts, identity, self-satisfaction and'behavior. Content validity-was determined by nine judges. Total agreement resulted in keeping 63 statements in the Likert-like five - dimension scale. Students were' to use the item statements as self descriptions. Validity with an existing self-concept scale, the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, were 0.43 for the Identity section, 0,44 for self satisfaction, 0.42 for behavior, and 0.48 for total composite. Tes- retest reliability with 142 tenth grade biology students as subjects was measured at 0.82., The test can be c leted in 15 minutes.

Anderson and Herrera (8) attempted to translate an existing attitude scale into Spanish. According to these,authors, the problem in trans-

, ferring from one language to another is not just a translation problem, but also invotVes the evaluation of culture-bound items. They developed a Spanish version of the Allen Inventory of Attitudes Toward Science and Scientific Careers, a 95 item Likert-like scale. The Spanish wrsion consists of 38 Likert-like items. It was used with college age students.

Its reliability coefficient alpha was 0.89 and 0.80 in two 3ifferentuses. The authors argued that a battery of such Spanish and other fo eign languageittrumentsis need*

Science education needs well standardized systems for all phases, evaluation in science, education. These "tools" are necessary for the progress of research in this field. The continued proliferation 4if instruments is a necessary evii until a battery.of well developed, reliable, andvalid instruments can-be developed. A system Tor categorizing and storing these instruments for retrieval by researchers in the field is'needed. Some , sort of criILtal ev4luation of existing instruments needs to be4rode and 2, continually updated.

rb I r

O Evaluation Methodology

This discussion is concerned with the techniques and procedures of evaluation presently being used to do science education research. Some of these studies are concerned with formative evaluation techniques. Ciesla (55), for example, tried to determine what types of feedback had the most influence on the 'revisions of instructional materials deve.ldped by writers in the Indiyid zed Science Instruction System (ISIS) project. The most influential typees of feedback which resulted in revision were verbal or audiotaped feedback from teachers. Feedback that involqed information obtained from students who used the instructional materials received the lowestling. The author concluded that informal and verbal, that is non-quantitative, feedback was rated as being more! influential than was feedback that was more formal, less verbal, and more quantitative.

Interaction analysis instruments also continue to be commonly used in evaluation research: Platts (231) suggests a new technique of using time-lapse photography with a moving picture camera to study classroom movements utilizing non-verbal interaction analysis instruments. Sta tically, multi-variate statistical analysis seems to be used more and more commonly in science education.resparch.

Three techniques or procedures, howeyer, seem to be much more commonly Used than in the past, and thereflore require discussion. These are the Q- _ sort, ethonographic research, and contenr, analysis.

The rt is a fairly old technique;. or method, of rank-ordering a large number of items into categories. It is used as anmevaluation instrument, usually for some sortof affective study (attitudes, values, \\. opinionl. Typically, subjects are 'Led to sort items into categories according to specific criteria. These items are sometimes printed on separate cards, and students are asked to sort the cards into a forced normal distribution. Analysis can be carried out'by a large number of techniques including what is called a Q-technique, a version of factor analysis. Q-sort and Q-sort-type instruments are again becoming popular. Toews (294) used a version of Q-sort called a free-sort to measure 72

Ethnographic evaluation methodologies-are also gaining popularity and

greater use in science education. These types of studies, which consist mostly of case studies or what might be called anthropological field studies, cat' be very useful in studying curriculum implementation and school proCedures. Harding (115) studied the use of the ;lase study method of inquiry to assess the implementation and evaluatiOn of Nuffield curriculum materials in Great Britain. Questionnaires, structured and unstructured interview techniques wer- The case study method, Harding thinks, is useful for generating hypotheses and, because it is more open than techniques like questionnaires, is notas limited. In- sight can be gained when combinations of these instruments and techniques

are used. Harding used the case study techniques to study thecommunica- tion and support for change for school science education.Harding 4' concluded, among other things, ehIIat change which is initiated from .0. outside is most successful: when it builds on r creates dissatisfaction ith the present situation, when it builds on an acceptability for change, when it is adaptive to a local'situation, and when resources insure the feasibility of the change. She. further concluded that there are problems if the change requires the teacher to assume 'a changed identity or if the change is in conflict with vocational aims of science education.Teacher attitudes, an exposure to communication, openness to change, initiative, '4indepoodence, and leadership are all factois affecting the success of curriculum impl entation.

School proc ures affecting decision-making and p rticipants most important to the deciion- making process in schools wee e studied by Werner

(306), Using case study techniques such as review of records of important meetings, interviec4s with staff members, and other formal and informal techniques and instruments, the came to the conclusion that the most important internal participants in the decision-making process were, . in order of importance, elementary school science consultants, superintendent of schools, elementary school principals, the director of elementary instruction, t e assistant superintendent of §chools in charge of instruction, class n teachers, and lastly, studefits.

Davidman (72) carried on a rather extensive anthropological field study to evaluate the effectiveness of a curriculum project's training.

0'7n 72

Ethnographic evaluation methodologies-are also gaining popularity and

School proc ures affecting decision-making and p rticipants most important to the deciion- making process in schools wee e studied by Werner

Davidman (72) carried on a rather extensive anthropological field study to evaluate the effectiveness of a curriculum project's training.

0'7n 73

model for teachers. Showing how.the problems to bestudied and the techniques for studying them evolve as a result of a personalinteraction/ and involvement with the curriculum project was the object of this

research. While studying the curriculum materials, he developed dOubts about the project's implementation and diffusion strategies. Using hybrid methodologies, investigativ strategies closer to that of ethno- graphy and the conceptualization ofrt criticism than 'to.standarized research methods, the design of this.research study evolved: The techniques used varied from traditional to more innovative and informal' approaches. Tape recordings of lessons, super-8 filmings, structured interviews, written observatiOn notes.of class events, a diary, attitude inventories, questionnaires, an analysis of curriculum documents, and oral dialogues with key personnel were\techniques which became part of the study procedures. The unique role of the participant observer and the process of getting involved in the curriculum project, gives the researcher a special vantage point. There are several differences between anthropological research and more traditional research: inquiry is naturalistic rather than dependent on experimental techniques, research is not necessarily started or ended with hypotheses, methods of study 4

7 evolve as the researcher proceeds rather than being planned out in advance, there is more emphasis on intuitive observation and eclectic and hybridized methods, thereyis more personal involvement of the researcher in the project, and the approach is more informal than in more traditional methods.

Even though ethnographic research techniques can be criticized for ' being non-objective, it is obvious from studying these reports that much valuable information can be developed from techniques of this sort that would not come out of more traditional research strategies. In the hands of a competent and self -aware researcher these techniques can be very .valuable!for assessing the impact of curriculum materials.

COntent analysis is another research methodology which seems to be gaining influence in assessment and evaluation in science education. The key to this type of research seems to be the development of objective checklists for observation instruments to apply to the content of the 74

curriculum materials. Kent and Simpson (147), for example, examined five * biology textbooks to analyze their coverage of six related topics as . defined by SIECUS, using index and page counting techniques. They,compared the coverage of these textbooks with topics suggested in their criteria.

A much more extensive content analysis was performed by,TaFoya (288)

who developed an inquiry potential analyy.s instrument to do content . analysis comparisons between a textbook versus the SCIS elementary science curricula materials. An qperational definition of inquiry potential was used to develop a set of standards and a category system was developed. The category system was established as the first process in the analysis. Randomly selected sentences of the two curricula examples were categorized and knowledge claims ch were imbedded/ in the programs wereridentified and quantified. The s cond process of analysis involved examining the knowledge-claims And the manner in which they were to be verified by students. By examining the sentences from the teachers' guides as units, it was found that 48 percent of the sample of the textbook progracontained either pseudoscientific' assertions, which were confusing or.non-verifiable, or theoretical knowledge claims. Thirteen percent'of the statements were found to be experimental knowledge claims that should require children to observe some natural phenomenom for their verification.Yet examination of procedures provided for verification revealed only confirmation activities' in which results were known beforehand. In contrast, the SCIS program con- -. tained no pseudo-scientific statements, only 4 percent of the sample oia was found to consist of theoretical knowledge claims, and 47

\ which provide information only about how we have agreed to use, words, or experimental knowledge claims. Examination determined that experimental e claimsAin this program required empirical verification by students, princi- pally through guided inquiry, active investigation, and collection and analysis of data with no prior knowledge of expected results.

There seems to be a high potential for formai'and informal evaluation

'cam methodologies to be used in science edecation.All of those described, And many others which are presently being used, should become part of the repertoire of techniques which are used by researchers in appropriate contexts.

Q; fi

P; pieUse of Media in Science Education

The use of media ieinstruction has concerned educationalrpsealchers for a long time. This reviewrof research into the use of.media in science education is concerned with the gse amid effectiveneekof certain hardware such as television, movies, and computers; and the study of strategies of instructional presentation, such as program instruction:audio-tutorial instruction, and simulation. Although science as a discipline has mede common use of many of the traditional instructional media, such as film,' for the most part it continues to depend'on thelaboratory as the major source of variety in instructional Aresentation. Recehtly, however, simulation games, audio-visual strategies, and combinations of media have interested science education researchers. To some extent, media have been used as substitutes fcbr direct ATerience. There are three possible reasons for this substitution. First, the direct experience could not practically be provided in the school setting, therefore some simulation or representation of the real experience had to be provided. Secondlir the use of simulation was more effiCient.Usually, this meant simulation had a cost benefit, a time benefit, or a maiower henefit.which made it more reasonable to use under the constraints of a classroom situation. Finally, simulation was considered to have an educatioAl efficiency. It was possible to do a better job using media than it was withput ibis use. --This sometimes meant that the r1 experience was too complicated to be understood.'

The study of astronomy is one area whereasimulation has recently played a major role in instructi=117-itrategies. Because of the difficulty of obtaining data and information from the heavens directly, and because of the inconvenience of studying tlie,*.beavens during daylight hours, simulation has played a heavy Fole in the study of astronomy concepts. Lang (154) compared students u ing computer graphic simulations with those who'used y- the multi -media matt. ial developed by the Project Physics Course during the study of the Project P _unit "Motion in the Heavens". Thirty studentS.

k . were randomly Selected to serve as subjects. The simulations presented r from the text as well as laboratory experiments, The control , sections , group attended discussions and laboratory experim s,, from the Project . b Physics. handbook, Students were tested at the conclu n of the units by, N. St 10

yr 76

using a Project Physics test and responded to an attitude questionnaire about the computer. "Ninety days later both groups were retested on the

\ material in the unit.The findings of this study indicated that there was no significant difference between the experimental and control group gain scores on the achievement test. Using IQ as a covariant, the experimental group scored significantly higher than did the control grOup on the retest given ninety days after the conclusion of the unit. Tpe experimental group seemed to have a higher iositive attitude-toward the computer than did the control group.

Several research studies looked at the role of the planetarium as a simulation device in teaching astronomy: For example, Smith (272) studied three methods of teaching constellation recognitiort to differing age groups. The three treatments were (1) teaching constellations in'the -crassroom by using 35 mm slides of hand drawn constellation star fields; (2) teaching constellations in the planetarium by means of 35 mm slides of hand-drawn.constellation star fields; and (3) teaching constellations by means of a planetarium sky. The'ehree age categories were children, teenagers, and adults. One hundred-three subjects completed the study. The results of the study indicatedlthat: (1) regardless of treatment, all age graUps performed approximately the same wheb evaluated under the real sky; () 'when evaluated by a paper and pencil instrument, those,subjects Who were instructed under the planetarium sky scored significantly lower than, those receiving treatments involving slides; and (3) rhe sUg- jects receiving the slide treatment in the planetarium reported more positive

_ responses-to the study of constellations than 'did the subjects receiving the other treatments.

ttheridge (88) also studied siMultion by comparing planetarium instruc- Mon versus two dimensional slides representing the constellation sphere. 'The experiment was a"tosttestIonly control group design. The experimental 4 grdup rectived instruction using a planetarium. The control group was treated identically in location and oralioresentation via a recording -but

substituted two dimensional representation of the celestial 'spherepro- -jected by slides fot the visual component:,Four elementary astronomy classes 4 from tl:ro California community colleges participated in the experiment.

r.) L.J,) 77

Each class received each treatment for each of two topics; the sun and the seasons, and the moon and its motions. Each treatment period lasted 30. minutes and was followed by a 15- minute posttest. The posttest consisted of three types of multiple.choice items. One set had a visual component similar to the simulation treatment, and the other had a Visual component similar to the representation treatment., The third set of items was en irely verbal and had no visual component. All subjects were additionally ad istered.a verbal aptitude and a spatial aptitude test. The results of the study indicated a definite positive.corre tion betweeri performance on the posttest and spatial ability, regardles of all other variables. No such relationship was noticed with the a scores. Post facto analysis indicated that this relationsh was colinear. The posttest versus spatial aptitude score regression slope vas significantly greater for sub- 4 A jects scoring.above the spatial ability grand mean than for those scoring

below. Etheridge made several recommendations based on the study, including: (1) that spatial aptitude tests 'would be useful in identifying students who have a high probability 'of experiencing dilgiCUlty with highly v,isual materials in elementary astronomy, and (2)`rany decisiong regarding the

4 feasibilityofilinstallinga planetariumin an institution should be based on considerations far broader thin just cognitive factors.Effective areas

, such as motivation and sati.sfactiOn are important, though little%studied at this time. 9 4 1 It seems that even in places where substitution for the real thing seems necessary, that there is little evidence that these simulations are effective on a cognitive level. It might be that some topics, such as those , concepts found in astronomy, are so.abstract that those students who can deal with abstractions easily do not have a particular cognitive preference for simulations such as those provided by the planetarium. While on the other hand", students who are leis able to hdndle abstractions iind learning the concepts taught through the use of a planetarium just as. difficult as they would -by viewing the sky. Even though, they are dealing with thtt real world, their access to that world requires abstract thinkingtabilities they do not possess. 78 4e

Several studies explored the use of media as an economic factbr. Piper

and Butt& (228) studied the effect of a televised inservice program for- )

elementary,science teachers. They explored three questions. First of all, . scan a TV inservice program adequately prepare teachers to teachscience? That is, can they give the competencies of the lessons to be taught?

. - Secondly, can a TV .inservice program help inservice teachers,gain a more positive attitude toward teaching science? Finally, will there be an increase in the science Activities taught in the classroom as the result of a TV inservice program? Seventytx elementary science teachers who chose to participate in implpmenting Science A Process Approach (S-APA) were the subjects of the study. Fifteen meetings lasting 30 to 40 minutes were held once a week and the teachers were instructed with a television component. Materials were used with a teaching assistant at the local level. The results of a science competency measure indicated that the subjects did.R, for the most part,'gain the competencies of the lesson to be taught.A pretest-posttet semantic aifferential attitude instrument indicated that attitudes were more positive after the TV programs than before. At the be ring of the study there were no science lessons being taught, This i creased to a steady average of two activities per week per teacher after just a few sessions., This.trend contin ed forthe period 'of training, Piper and,Butts doncluded that science inservice programs'via t levision is a reasonable method to efficiently. make use of time, place, a,d resources forschoolsith access to television.

These researchers a ndicated that the study was limited to the success of initial ` implementation. A study of the long range ebelg'ct of materials.such as these is also necessary. Will these teachers continue to teach two activities per teacher per week after the-training period is completed? What factors are necessary to keep the level of enthusiasm engendered ty this program? Sedgral- other questions.are raised by thi research. Haw does theTG inservice program Cimpare with other methods of implementing the same'ma Finally, would this method work with less highly' structured eve progrs?

Ben-Zvi and ottlers( , 25)- studied the effect of= experimentation in highsiirol chemistry versus the use of tilts -to -teach the same material 4

r ,79

covered in the experiment. Two groups of tenth grade Israeli students were instructed in chemistry using either films or laboratory experiments. Effectiveness was measured using four measures.An#chievement test in chemistry consisting of 25 multiple chdide items was used to measure. general

achievement. Specific knowledge was judged by using a written test measuring experiment techniques and the underlying knowledge fot the chemical

experiments. 3'w practical tests, one assessing manipulative skills and the

40' other assessin planning of experimental procedures, were also carried out. And finally, a observation test was carried out to assess skills performed- . in the laboratory. Three hundred - thirty tenth grade students; 150 in the film group and 180 in the eperimental group, received-g"-five-Month treatment consisting of 11 key experiments. The experiments, either,taken directly or vicariously, depending on which group the students were in, consisted mostly of two activities: (I) the collection of qualitative or a quantitative data and other observations, and (2) the interpretation and evauatior of the collected data. The results indicated that the experiments were bette only at helping students gain routine manipulative skills. A questionnaire onsisting of kert-type items wasliso administered to

these groups, which indicated that _oth groups found personalized lab- 1

. 1 oratory more effective than films in promoting, their interest in chemist946

Results of the preceding sudy indicated that laboratory activities presently being'used in chemistry are no better than films frobti cognitivt point of view. Obviously, these laboratories are not designed either to teach students to. learn to design and carry out experiments or to teach specific knowledge. From a cognitive point of view,.we are wasting our time and money with the presently available laboratorymaterials. They seem to be good only far helping students gaim routine manipulative skills. Several possible recommendatiops might be based on this kind of research: , 9 (1) One might t we are, wasting our time and money on laboratory material, and should seek other ways a helping our stu ents learn fr manipulative skills; (2) One might take the approach, that the ivational factor by itself justifies the expense and time which outs students spend doing laboratofy work; and (3) Presently available materials are not worth=

while and we should spind time and energy in developing differ k-Ir4pes of laboratory materials which in fact'mcet the objectives which we feel are worthwhile.

40. 0 80 01 One of the techniques of using instructional media las a presentation device for teaching a science is the audio-tutorial approach. Nussbaum and Novak (215) Studied the effect of audio-tutorial lessons to teach second grade elementary school students.Twenty-six studentewere given six audio-tutorial lessons on earth concepts, such as "the earth is round," 'the globe can be used as a Model for the earth," and "gravity.."Each of these audio cassette tape,1ssons, use conjunction with manipulative materials, laste d between 15 and 20 minutes. The audio-tutorial cassette guided students through experiences with objects and materials. Piaget- type interviews designed to assess, understanding of earth'concepts were used to judge the effect of these lesgons. Results of this study indicated that" there were no significant advances in the students' concept of the earth as a result of using these audio-tutorial1:iSons. According to these researchers, these results,stand in contrast to other experiments done on audio-tutorial materials at Cornell. They add that this may be the result of the necessity of using models and other abstractions rather than direct experience in the instructional'strategy.

6 In another study. of the audio-tutorial materials with elementary scho* et. do, /. students, Dech (74) compared the effect of immediate reinforcement in feed- - back On the cognitive gain of ele9entary students using a commercial audion

futor 4 1 metric unit. Th'e50 students in the experimental group consisted i Of 22 third, graders and-28 fith graders. ,The control 'group consisted of 23 third graders and 27 fifth graders. Both the experimental and control groups were given metric instruction using the same audio - tutorial material. Audiotapes given to the -students in the experimental group contained immediate reinforcementSIfeedback, while those given to students in the control group did not. Both groups were pretested and posttested to determine cognitive gain. The results of this study' indicated that immediate reinforcement and feedback, as presented in the study using audio- turial mode, Was nil a significant method for increasing elementary students' ..... cognitive understanding'of-the metric system.

Rastovac (240) siudie.d the effectiveness of a mastery learning stratxy in promoting cognitive-growth of secondary students Three high school biology classes frbm both innercity and rural backgrounds were used for this it 1 - _ VT

study. Piaget-type tasks were used as pre- and posttests in a written aummativp examination based on the objecttvesof four audio-tytorial

units. Classes at both schools received three treatments: (1) audio- . tutorial approach without mastery, learning strategy, (2) audio-tutorial approach with master learning strategy, and (3)' teacher directed inquiry with mastery learning strategy.Tour individualized audio-tutorial units' were utilized. Each unit presented behavioral objectives; study guides, a additional experiments, and a final summative evaluation. The results showed no significant differences inpostteststotal scores due to the treatment.

Direct concrete experience is, to a large extent, possible in science to a greater extent than in other disciplines. In some cases, astronoth for examille, it is difficult or impotsible to use direct experience in teaching and learning this material. If the learners exposed to this material are sophisticated enough,to deal with the abstraction implied by simulation, it seems reasonable to u4e simulations or other media in substitutionor the direct experience. However, in the case Of students who cannot deal with abstractions, there is a serious question whether

this does any good'. The question arises, "Shoul4 we limit the elementary curricula fro concepts which can be represented as,direct experience?" The answer wou ld 'teem to be "Yes." Enough concepts seem to be available 4 that can be presettedat a concrete ledel to provide a reasonable science curriculum. The more abstract concepts which require less direct methods,N of approach, should be saved for those learners who can deal with them. Althou gh approaches suchasaudio-tutokal systems of instruction eah be justified on the basis of their cost, tiAge, and manpower efficiency, it V . r, is still not,clear whedller these methods of instruction, are bore effective"from attitudinal or ,cognitive staltApoints than are more traditionak approaches.

"14 r

TheiConcepts, Processes, and Content of Science

The research summarized irthis chapter will consist of stud s of the concepts, processes, and content associated with science. Most -of these studies are descriptive in nature. Many of these studies look at specific units of content, concepts and processes. Others concern themselves with

syllabi of consent in a particular area. A Pe.w of these studies.are ,/

experimental. These experimental studies are concerned with the optimum tr conditions under which specific processes or concepts can be\learned. Several of these studies looked at aptitude/treatrnbnt interaction effect. a Student chatacteristies and instructional methods al'Zlhe parameters often studied.

Syllabi

Most of the .studies' summarized here are surveys, attempts on the part of the researciiler to sample the content, processes, and concepts which are being used in elementary and high school scienccourses in various loca7

tions. t ti

o Fournier (100) tried to determine if cultural differences exi tel between Mexican- and Anglo-American students inhow they,perdeive n tural. phenomena. In order to do this, he used the Science,Concepts Instrument (SCI) to survey the science knowledgeig 298 fgth grade students, some of whom were Mexican-American and others who were Anglo-American. The available fifth grade text and other curriculum materials were used to select the science concepts tested in the instrument. The following conclusions are based oAkrpretation :of thesurvey data. Stores on the SCI correlated

6 , significanl with the*fathet's educations level. A significant correlation 41,J/ also existed between the scores on the SCI nd sex within, the Mexican- American group, but'not within the Anglo-American group, Scores on the SCI,- correlated significantly with school science'grades for the,Mexican-American- group only. Correlations between the Science Concept Instrument and cultural background,' language background, age, and father's occupational level revealed no significant differences between Mexican-American and Anglo-Arne4can fifth

grade students. 4 r

S A

0 83 5'

. Batten (20) studied ninth grade earth science students and their y mt,,'abilityto use the processes of science. 4e tried'to correlate this ability with the student achievement level, the students' science curriculum 42 experience, and aspects 40. their teacher's educatibnal instructional experi-

ence. The Test of Science Processes was administered to each student in 491elected sections of earth science. The analysis of the data indicated

the following., Results indicated that SCAT quantitative test scores were C significant student achievement predictors for the use of science processes as measured byhe Test of Science Processes. Previous science experience, was significantly related to the student's ability to use scienceprocesses.

. Students who had completed an introductory Physical Science (IPS) course showed a higher ability, to use qpie.processes'ofsalence than did their counterparts enrolled in eighth grade physical science of an Intermediate vs, Science Curriculum Study (iSCS) course. Educational experience, age, sex, hours of mathematics,' area of certification, years of NSF atademIc year institutes and number of mathematics and science center workshops attended - were teacher variables which were identified assignificant predictorsgof

the use ci)f science processes by students. Considering the instructional 1 experience of the teachers in the sample, Batten concluded that-the fewer

the number of years of teaching experiencetit,higher the ability of

thetea cher'sstudents in using science processes. This result may be accounted for by the fact that younger teachers took their collegetr- aining at a time when process instruction was emphasized heavily.'

l John.46 stonl and Mughol (139) studied secondary and 'college level students to find out what fundamentalphyAic epncepts'were,the most difficult for . them to understand. Cqncepts. report d as most difficdlt included differerrces

. between as and weight,si-magnification, indirection, the idea of fields; . 0/

aild potential difference. Abel (1) analyzed, questions used in the Intro- , ductory high school biology correspondence instruction syll4bi issued by the

k .., National University Extenion AssociAtiort. The major findings ,of this study were that zoology was emphasized over othersontent areas.The methodology and history of science were least\ emphasized. Ecology received very little . , emphasis in the test. Test items emphasizing low level intellectual skills

war .ws -represented. Abel concluded from these rpults that there was an 4 overemphasis of biology content in the'high school correspondence syllabi.

. ,

1. "

Att . 84 0 The literature of bi, ogy teaching suggests that biological instruction for the present and future s ould increase the emphasis on problems of conservation and human concerns, yet the findings of this study indicated that only _ , ti 10 peAent of the questions examined concerned these areas. While a review of the literature suggests that ecological levels of biology should be more emphasized, this area was not sufficiently covered in the syllabi exakitation.

Levin and Lindbeck (161) surveyed five secondary school*biologytext- books to study their coverage of controversial issues in biosocial problems. The three BSCS versions were found to rank higher than two other,Widely used 'high school biology litexts in the quanti tative and qualitative use of these controversial issues.

Wofford (315) surveyed secondary school advanced biology teachers, college professors of biology, and college biology majors to develop 4 model set of 4segnitiAre behavioral objectives for a secondary school advanced biology curriculum. A list of behavioral objectives was constructed from

the literature on advanced, biolci"gy. These behavioral objectives were used to construct a questionnaire I.* which eaph behavioral objective could be *e rated as being higtly'suited, suited,'or unsuited for use in a high school advanced biology curriculum. Each behavioral objective was assignO ed a T grade by each the three.groups. From an analysisof these data, a model r, set of objective was construed. Of 114 behavioral objectives, advanced, biology teachers considerp31 to be highest rankedpeollege biology proleskrs consideted 16 to be highest ranked. All groups combined consigered 13 behavioral

objectives to be commonly highest ranked. Signifiy6nitdifferences were ' e

, found between the three groups for only three behavioral objectives.

Specific Content, Concepts, and Processes

The process skill of "hypothesis formation" was studied by Quinn'itand

Kessler (238). , Theseresearchers studied the rationship between skills involved in a qufring language and those in an activity based science pro-

gram. two 7 xth grade claAes participated in theattudy, one of which served as control group. The other, the treatment group, had Lessonsrelated*: inquiry vclopment and instruction on how to formulate hypotheses which

fi 85

.consisted of twelve films and six discussions. It was found that the students involved:in the treatment did indeed impr ve their ability to

, 4 hypothesize. One of the conclusions of this st dy was that individhls who are successful in science are also usually profic ent iilanguage cent d activities. The converse was also true. This is in contrast with the common assumption irony made about language and science skills.!D

Thiel and George (291) studied the process skill of "prediction," which they defined as the ability to use one or moreorules from the same or different rule ellipses to determine the outcome of an event or series of events. They'hypothesized that four factors may affect the use of prediction,:, .S1) experience, (2)'ability tio infer or-to use rules, (3) the types of rules available, and (4) the dimensionality of the task. The subjects in this study were given Piaget tests concerned with sefiation, conservation of length, anethe classification of objects. The results of these bests were used to judge if the students werd- concrete operational. In the third grade, 55 percent of the, students;, in the fourth grade, 75 percent of the students; and in the fifth grade, 77 percent of the students wereAudged operational.0 Ninety of these concrete operational students from the third, fourth and fifth grades were chosen ior, the study. Schools in the study had ncfprevious formal science program:

Students were given six prediction tasks, Half of the groups were giver_ an algorithm for solving the problem, which consisted of a verbal description . u of a rule type. The other half 4re given no algorithms :" The results of the

study'indicated that, for concrete operational children in grades three- '

thr h five, the' skill of prediction develops independent of formal instruc-

t tion in science. There was no difference in the attainment of thekill between ade levels,'It was hypothesized that concrete operational ef children-IXmay .Rot use rules given to them, unless 'these rules correspond to -procedures ecit already exist in theirown cognitive structures. Thiel and 'George had originally hypothesized that students given the algorithms would have less trouble making predictions than those who did not redeye N "these algorithms. This hypothesis was not confirmed by the data in the study. A further result of the study ind d that children in grades three through five had difficulty nat ng multiple dimension0 s when they were .

Mir 4 86

Usked to make predictions using these dimensions. One-attribute seriation.

1Sk. and classification tasks were less difficult than two-attribute tasks, which in turn were less difficult than three-attribute tasks. Based on khis

,,, study, it was also found that classification rules were easier for students in grade three to five than were seriation rules, Olen more than one attribute was contained in'the prediction task.

Erickson (86) studied the ccepts associated with the general topic of heat. In the first part of the studyinterview data were collected and analyzed, while the second part involved the construction of an instrument called the Conceptual Profile Instrument (CPI). This instrument consisted of statements about heat obtained from analyzing the interview data. These statements represeneed typical ideas of children concerning the kinetic and calo'ric theories of heat. Children were asked to respond to each statement indicating their belief and their familiarity with the concepts. It,was found.that fifth, seventh, and ninth graders pOssessed beliefs about heat and temperature which were based upon common sense and intuitions developed _ from everyday experiences. Temperatu- re of an object was thought to be related to the amount of heat possessed by that object, and so many children, concluded that the temperature of an object depended in part upon its size. Heat, and cold were sometimes thought to be substances capable of penetrating objects. Heat was therefore considered to be an active external r-# agent accounting for the expangion and contraction in melting and freezing' behaviors exhibited by many substances.

The specific concept "tree" was studied by Klausmeier, Schilling and

Feldman! (151) in order to determine the effectiveness of special lessons . in facilitating and attainment of this concept by children. Using a learning model called the Conceptual Learning and D velopment Model (CLD), these researchers lookedat the levels of co tAttainment of elementary school children of the concept "tree." According to this model, there are four possible levels: (1) the concrete level, which consists of the ability to discriminate a concept; (2) the identity level, which consists of the ability to generalize two or more forms of the concept and'see that they are the same; (3) the classificatory level, which is the ability to generalize .two or more instances of the concept and see that theare the same; and finally, (4) the formal level, which consists of the ability to infer the 0 3 concept. Thg..vocabularrassociated is connected with a number of researchers, es A. 1 including Piaget; but the terms concrete wand formal are not used in the slime way that Piaget uses them.

Two exile ments are reported by this group. One experiment with 103 fifth grade stu nts showed that there was no significant effect of the treatment on thi group. This result was attributed to the fact that students h'ad already had a high level of attainment of the concept before instruction began. The second study had 64 third grade students divided into control and experimental groups. The control group had placebO lessons. The experimental group was instructed using two lessons on the subject "tree."The first lesson was 33 pages of written material which had several aspects including an introduction and 'a presentation of each of the defining attributes of a tree. Questions were asked following the piesentation of each attribute and immediate feedback given to the subjects. The seeend lesson had a rational set of examples and r examples to be used to discriminate the concept, and 'students w it strategies for evaluating instances to see whether they were or were not examples of the concept. The experimental design went through a number of different stages, including an analysis of the concept to be taught, determination of pre-instructional student characteristics, identification of desired level ofsattainment according to the CLS model,assessmen,of Students'priorinstructional level of concept attainment using tests with exercises designed to assets the various levels of the concept, theidaSigning of pictorial and verbal lessons, the actual instruction', the assessment of the 'students' post-instructional level of the concept, and evaluation of the results. Results with these third grade students showed that the experimental group-performed better than did the control group on the tests for the formal level of attainment of the basic concept presented. The researchers recommend that such leisons can be valuable in facilitating children's attainment of"toncepts such as this one. At the same time, they rvommend the use of concrete experience, with younger children and children who have had exper with examples of a particular concept:

Novick and Menls (212) did a small scale study of high school chemistry students in Israel to check their understanding of the "mole" concept.

tri /.41 88

The mole concept was developed with a textbook approach, not obviously experimental, although some of the concepts were used to interpret experi-, ments'Using verification laboratories. A structured interview consisting

of 21 items assessing levels of concept attainment from defining the. - 1 concept to,using the concept to solve problems, was developed. Student answers to the 21 items Were taperecorded and analyzed. Misunderstandings about the concepts were developed from a "wrong answer" analysis. A product =cent correlation between IQ and the score pn the interviews was

0.69. SeverOl misconceptions about the Concept of the mole seemed to prevail. The mole was thcAught-to be connected to mass rather than number and to be an exclusive proper* of gases. The conclusion of 'the Study was t at most 15-year-ld pupils in Israel do not have a coherent under-

atindin Othe mole's significance in interpretation and its use in , solving problems. The author suggests that perhaps these students do not /function at the cognitive level necessary to understand this concept.

The apparent discrepencies between the'ability of some students to learn concepts and the use of those concepts in existing curriculum materials

. plop-bethe source of significant learning difficulties in the science classroom_ Fet'that reason, the study of,specifis processes and conc ?pts and how students learnthese,yrocesses and concepts, the age at Wg they.are capable of 1-pdrning them, and the levels at which the learning is possible allseem tobe important questions to be studied by science educatipu researchers. Most of the studies in this area seem to be descriptive

--at'tidies. This seems to he a reasonable approach based on the present limit of our theoretical knowledge. However, one would hope that more experimental studies can be done in order to test some of the knowledge that we already possess.Evaluation tools for studying this area vary widely from informal interviews to standardized examinations.' The clinical Piaget- type interview seems to be a widely used and valuable technique for studying

''- the understanding of concepts by elementary Id secondary students.

. . a

11 89 College Level Research t

College level research was arbitrarily divided into two major parts.

The first part includes research concerning comparisons of components of 44, a course or instructional programs. Most of the studies involved a com-1,t''' parison of one teaching or program approach to another with student achievement and attitude toward-the course as variables.

101! The laboratory portion of science courses appeared to gain the most attention. 'Several research studies modified the laboratory approaCh and compared the new approach with respect to student,achieltmentand attitudes to what was most often labeled the "traditional" approach.

Another relatively large group of studies focused on the lecture portion of the science to'urse or program. Several of these studies / compared various forms -of audio-/isual, self*paced, individualizedt and tutorial aspects to the lecture-recitation or "traditional" approaCh. In most cases, no significant differences in student achievement were found. Most studies did, however, show that student attitude' oward science in general or toward a particular courss was improved by what- / ever modification was used:

h. Someresearch studies in the first group focused on course obiec-, tives. Generally,speaking, the studies 011 not Investigate on question the( value or apprNeriateness of objectives, but focused' on if, ors when, or how, the objectives should be 'revealed to students.

. Other relatively large c gories included in this first path are

, CoUtse Supplements andFocu/orOrientation of the course of study. Tge categories in they14t sectionare as follows:, (1) Laboratory, (2) lecture, (3) Objectives,/ (4) Tests, ,(5) Supplements, (6) Time,

. .

(7) Focus or Orientation, Aid (8) Multiple. , :4

i,. The second part 'includes research that deals With predicting success -of students and evaluation of college instructors. The evaluation applied ? . , 1 , .1. to college instructors is quite limitedin scope and depth sine it focuses

. a

' t re fl 0t.) 90

primarily on the evaluation of instructor performance by students in the class. The research studies involving students were aimed at predicting success in college, comparing the cognitive preformances, and motivation. The categories in the second section are: (1) Students, (2) Instructors.

In some categories a brief-introduction is given prior to the review of specific research reviews. In other cases an introduCtion was not considered to be necessary.

Component Comparisons

Almost-one-half of the research reports reviewed in this chapter are classified with this group. The idea in most cases was to alter or modify some part of a course and then see how that affected achiellement or attitude. Achievement was usually teasured by performance on a standardized or institutionally constructed test. Attitude was most often measured on a semantic differential instrument.

Laboiatory

Several investigators modified the traditional laboratory approach used in science. The first group of experiments fit into this category.

Townes (296) compared the effect of vicarious laboratoryexperiences with conventional laboratory.One group of students collected data without

having direct contact-with equipment, apparatus,, and materials., Thisgroup was said to have a vicarious laboratory experience. Another group of students collected data by manipulating equipment, apparatus, and materials.

This group was said to have a conventteal laboratory experience. The Vicarious laboratory group was labeled'experimental. The conventional laboratory group was the control'.

Townes concluded that the experimental' group exceeded the control

group on all instruments used to measure achievement. Also the experimental group showed greater competency in theuse of science processes than did the conventional laboratory group. 91

Dickinson (78) also experimented 1.;:ap modifications of the traditional laboratory-lecture approach to determine the effects on student attitude and achievement. He used threediffer4tlaboratory-lecture combinations. Forty-three students comprised the control group taught bythe lecture method only. Another 43 students comprised one experimental group taught by the lecture-laboratory method. A second experimental -group of 43 stur. dents was taught by the lecture-recitation method. Student achievement was measured on two subject matter achievement tests: one constructed by the instructor and the Nelson Biology Test. Student attitude wascompare*

, .; using the Scientific Attitude Inventory.

Dickinson reported that students taught by the lecture-laboratory method had higher achievement scores than students taught by lecture only. Stu- dents taught by lecture-laboratory did not achieire significantly (.05 Level) better than those taught by lecture-recitation. Student attitudes toward science were changed more favorably by the lecture-laboratory and by the lecture-recitation methods than by lecture only. A

Holloway ,(127) investigated the effects ,of ,13 open-ended laboratory experiences in physical science on critical thinking ability and attitude 6f-,.college freshmen. The experimental group consisted of 38 randomly assigned studentS'who were taught by the'discussion-lecture method and open-ended (TCCP) laboratory procedures. The control group consisted of 38 randomly assigned students taught by lecture only.

At the'end of the 12 weeks instructional period, both groups were administered the Test on Understanding Science and the Watson-Glaser Cuitical Thinking Appraisal Significant differences were found between the two 1 \ groups in critical thinking and in attitude toward science which favored the experimental group.

Dorrance (80) compared two laboratory instructional treatments to a non- laboratory approach to determine their effects on manipulative and cognitive skills. In general biology, laboratory sections were assigned randomly to the three instructional treatments--four received lecture only (control), three'received lecture with structured laboratory, three received lecture with a structured demonstration.

rf * 92 A 40-item test on cognitive skills based on the Bingman (BSCS-MCREL) analysis of processes of science was used to measure cognitive skills. The acquisition of manipulative skills was established by performance of a specified laboratory practice (serial dilution) and proper laboratory

procedU're.

see Q T results showed the laboratory method of instruction superior to the demonstrption method in the acquisition of behavior's characteristic' of manipulative skills and cognitive skills fodnd in the processes of science.

Cannon (46) compared the effects of student- directed versus traditional, highly structured laboratory on student interest and understanding of the process of science. Eighty students in a general education physical science course were randomly assigned to two laboratory groups. One group was encouraged to use the laboratory to develop anedirect, their own laboratory activities. The other group used traditional, structured laboratory activities. .

Students were pre- and post-tested,with the Welsh Process of Science Inventory and Interest Assessment Scales. Cannon found no significant differences between the laboratory groups with respect to interest and understanding of. the process of science.

From Canada, Valeriote (299) experimented with a self-paced laboratOry course in first-year chemistry.' Two sections of 24 students each were assigned to a trial group that did,not follow a strict laboratory schedule. Several other laboravory sections of 24 students each followed the weekly three-hour laboratory schedule.

Students in the two trial group sections were allowed to work during the regular laboratory period if they wanted to and at other Periods as * well. The laboratOry was left open 18 hours perweek for thes.e trial groups. A certain number of set experiments was required but other experiments could also be done. A written laboratory examination on the set experiments was administered at the end of each term. Based on grades assigned to students for laboratory performance, the self -paled grdup scored 93

. , higher on laboratory examinations and on the final laboratory grade,than did the regular group. The, difference was statistically significant. The students' responses to a questionnaire about the course revealedtthat they liked the self-paced format.

Goodson (109) used objective based diagnostic tests and help sessions based on these tests in undergraduate physical science laboratory. The . - study attempted to assess student learning during various types of help sessions.

Ninety-seven students Were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups and a control group. Each group was a laboratory section. Ten laboratory exercises of two hours duration each,were scheduled in 'con junction with the physical science course. Three of'the ten sections were selected for this study and were taught by Goodson and five teaching assistants.

There were four different treatments for the experimental groups , utilizing the results of the objective-referenced diagnostic tests and one non-treatment or control group. The treatments were as follows; (1) A list ofobjectives,for each exercise studied, a diagnostic test based.on these objectives, and a help session designed for reteaching incorrect responses on the diagnostic test. (2) Treatment was the same as (I) except the help session simply encouraged students to ask.questions con- cAning.items missedon the diagnostic,test. (3) Treatment was the same' as (1) except students were to use various certain resources to find answers to incorrect responses, (4) Only diagnostic test andshelmession which advised students to use various sources to find answers to incor'rect' responses were used. (5) The control group-received no treatnignt..1',

4 At thelconclusion of the study a criterion testef physical science laboratory achievement was administered to all students.A'similar test was administered six weeks later as a retention test. 'Goodson reached several conclusions: (1) Student achievement was greater in the he21) sessions in which students were encouraged to ask questions. (2). Student

5 I achievement was higher when the diagnostic' tests with remediation liere

,9 7 /

94 used than when no remediation was used. (3) Retention was greater when students were advised todiscover, on their own, correct responses to diagnostic

$ tests.

Hill (125) evaluated a set of commercial slide - -tape unif designed Eo teach laboratory technique in chemistry. The program did prove to be an effective meant of presenting instruction in basic laboratdry technique. A Hill's interest was-specificOly related to creativity. One purpose of her study was to determine if creativity could be enhanced in a specific discipline, such as chemistry, if students received laboratory instruction in which they were encouraged to practice processes considered to be creative and were rewarded for such behavior. Based on the ideathat creativity involvA es divergent production which involves the ability to synthesize and recombine material to form new solutions, this,study used teachingmethods believed to encourage divergent thirrlcing in the chemistry laboratory instruction.

Hill designed a pretest and posttest for creativity in chemistry using the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking by Guilford and Merrifield.The investigation of creativity' involved 176.students in 4 laboratOrY sections in general chemistry. Three of the laboratory sections comprised the,experi- . mental group. The fourth laboratory section was the control.

Students in the experimental group had access to the slide-tape instruction of Yoting and Fiel. The control group did not use the slide-tape. presentation. The Modular Laboratory Program in Chemistry by Neidig and Young was the source of the weekly laboratory experiments for all four sections. All four laboratory sections received .laboratory instruction which emphasized the importance of creativity. Pretest and posttest scores indicated that all four sections made statistically significant improvement (.05 level of confidence) in both laboratory technique and creativity. The experimental group excelled over the control group in,laboratory technique. Hill further concluded that a system of feaching nd rewarding creativity through grades can effect an increase in creative abilities.

10 95

DeLuca and Renner (76) comparedachievement and attitude in traditional

laboratory and a structured inquiry laboratory approach in introductory .1

- geology. All students,attended lecture sessions three hours per week. The lectures were conducted.by the geology staff.,

The traditiona geologylaboratdry required that a large percent of the total,laboratory time (three hours) be given t lanations and clarifi-

cation of terminology. It was common practice for the instructor to devote-. the first hour to lecture and providi,ng'informationusing the chalkboard. 0 In som$ laboratory sessions, most of the, three -hour period was used this

way.

The structured inquiry approach that was used in the experimental

. - laboratory began with a 10-to 15-minute introduction.Then the students were involved in the activity. A variety of learning aids was used:models, movies, slides, modeling clay, stereographs, etc. When working with the,

. materials, students wereencourage dto make observations, -collect data, draw conclusions if possible, and answer questions.In the study, 83 students were randomly assigned to two instructors, two classes to each instructor.

Eachinstructor,taught an experimental group and a control group.

To measure achievement, an objective test was developed, tested, re- . Wtitten and used.D Student attitude toward their resptctive course and e.

*selflresteem as a geology student was measured, using a 10-scare semantic . differential test. Analysis of the data yielded the following findings: '(1) There were no significant differences in achievement between groups,

. instructors, or methods. of instruction. (2) Students in the experimental tyoup had,a significantly more positive attitude toward their course than did those in the expository (traditional laboratory) group. (3) Students in the structured inquiry group indicated greater self-esteem as geology. students than did those,tadght by the expository approach.

Generally speaking, the .two approaches mere equally effective in promoting achievqmentin geology content. The structured inquiry approach, however, was significantly more effective in promoting favorable student attitude and self-esteem as a geology student.

102, 96

Lecture

- \ , ' , . .- The first investigation in this group is the only research report reviewed.dealing specifically with the effectiveness of lecture and lecture

style. Since lecture is, no doubt, the most frequehtly employed teaching technique, thisresearch has broad application in college teaching noonly in science but in all curriculum areas. eft

Johnstone and Percival (140) investigated student attention patterns during lectures mostly in first year chemistry. Thelavestigators interested in the existence and frequency ,of general'non-attention. More speAfically, the research centeredondetermining the pattern of attention breaks. if they/ did exist. They were also interested in deterbining whether or not the attention breaks were related to lecture style and Which factors, if any, improved the non-attention pattern la a lecture.

An attention break was defined as "a peridd of general of .concert,- . tration during a leCpure involving the majority of the class and nIt merely' isolated individuals."These attention breaks were identified by increase, in background noise, students j.nyolved in doodling, chatting, looking around,

etc. A general feature was a mood of restlessness in the class.

The investigators observed over 90 lecture sessions and sat among classes'of 275 to 300 students to make observations. Several'of the lectures were:attended by independent observers so that the findingS could

be compared. A :"finger print" of the lecture was recorded which included , t aspects of lecture style, times and length 'of non-attent on, and precise content ideas presented during non-attention. There was a very high correlation of these notes taken by .the separate observers although they were not in contact during the lecture..

A large class (550 students). of first year chemistry had been divided 4 into two sections, one in the morning and one in th7e afternoon. Each section received an identical lecture.,A comparison was made of these two classes to determine the effect of the attention breaks on achieveMeh61' For example, if one class had an attention break during a particular presentation of

40') 1.

t content and the other did not, this would be expected to show upon one-of the dianostictes s which were given monthly.

Patternofg neral non - attention were observed. These periods gener- . ally lasted from two to four minutes. The first period of non-attention . % was at the beginning of.the lecture, due to the class ettling down. The next.lapse of attention generally occurred some 10-18 minutes later. As the lecture proceeded, the attention span beame shorter and often fell Co

three or four minutes toward the end of the lecture. This general pattern , Of shortening of attention span was found inevery case where a lecture without a break was given.The rate of decline of attention spans varied

. from, one lecturer to another of\the 12 observed. he variables which appeared to affect the rate were difficulty of subject material, delivery rate, legibility of chalkboard work; and lecturer personality.

To determine theeffect of non-attention breaks on achievement, certain items from the diagnbstic tests were selected for comparison of the morning and afternoon sections Of general chemistry. Some items represented Periods., in which both sections were involved in non-attention. Some items were selected to represent periods when both sections were attentive. Some items were selected to represent periods when one section was attentive and. the o o other wasnot.'

In flly a cases in which both sections were attentiveor both sections we e involved in non-attention, while the ideas represented by thetest items were covered by the lecturer, there were no sigriificant differences in test

scores. In the cases where one sectioh was attentive and the other *asnot, the difference in scores was highly significant.

00 Lectures with deliberate variations interspersed usually commandeda better attention-span pattern and had the effect of postpdningor eliminating the occurrence of the attention break. The variations included illustrative models, experimentS, buqz sessions or problem solving sessions andother 'such plantied breaks:

.: 98

Lawrence (1$8) compared the achievement and attitude of students in medical biochemistry fn a standard Acture-chalkboard presentation to a slide-tape method and a combination of these methods at the student's discretion. Achievement.was measured with regular scheduled quarter exams. 110

Attitude was measured*by using a pretest and posttest Likert-type scale . directed at the student's attitude toward biochemistry. Another Likert- type scale was used gt the termination of the course to determine each student's attitude toward the instructional method used. Lawrence found that informational gain was highest in the group taught only by the slide- tape method. The combination group had the highest rank in attitude toward the subject and the method of instruction.

Combs (64) used the self-paced format in physical cheratry lecture and testing. Lectures we're taped so students could.listenat their convenience. Also, students could take tests early if homework problems were completed. Taped previews and aids on problem solving for each unit were available to the students. After a period of adjustment to the various,,avenues available to them, the students using the multiple Option approach improved steadily: Class attendance was even_better under this option than with the traditional approach. a

Ott (218) compared the achievement and attitude of students taught by two methods in a one semester freshman level physics course. One group of students was taught by lecture-recitation-laboraCory. The other was taught by audio-tutorial instruction. Students in both groups used the same texts, had the same homework, and laboratory assignments, and were given identical quizzes and examinations.

The standard lecture4ecitation-laboratory consisted of two hours lecture and two hours of recitation per week, and a two-hour laboratory every other week. In the AT method, there was a one-hour recitation period per week. All other instruction was at the student's convenience in a learning center staffed by tutors 47 hoursper week. This learning center contained materials for seli demonstration, audio-tape commentaries and slides. The tapes, commentaries and ilidesowere coordinated with a study guide. The measure of student achieve6ntein the course was the student's

final grades',

.1 0 r; . 99

,424. Another aspect of this study had-to do with,Ehe method'of assignment of students to AT or standard methods of instruction.Four different types of assignment were used as shown in the following diagram which also shows the number of sections in each category. AT Standard

Random 4 4

Preference 3 4

The respof the study can be briefly summarized as follows:- There was no significantddifference in achievement as measured by final grades .between students in the audio-tutorial group and studentS in the standard 'group if students were assigned on the same basis. Students assigned by preference indicated greater satisfaction with the method of instruction they received than did randomly assigned students.

Mere is much moreinthe research by Ott than can be dealt with in thig brief review. The interested reader should refer to the complete article. / Spevack (276) compared the achievement-and final course attitude of

. I non-science oriented chemistry studentsusing the Keller Plan and\the Lecture Recitation System (LRS). The Keller Man or the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) is a self-paced, mastery oriented, student- . tutored instructional method based on the psychology of reinforcement theory.

The distribution of stude in the PSI (experimental) and LRS (control) sections' was nearly random since ,studentschose their section without know-

I ing if it would be experimental or control. The sections were designated experimerital or control on the basis Of a coin flip.

Students in the control group had three periods each_week conducted by 'the traditional lecture-recitation methOd. The students' grades were based on their performance on four regularly scheduled exams and a non- cumulative final. -Students in PSI had one period each week 'designed.to motivate them to learn the course content on thei r own, During two other scheduled periods each week, the lecture room was turned into a study hall

where students-could consult with tutors. Students- in the experimental * group were also informed that their course had been divided into"12 units, each consisting of a reading= assignment, instructional objectives,, and homework questions. Each PtI student studied the units sequentially at lhis/her own pace and took mastery exams given by a tutor when she/he believed they knew the'material. Alternate exams could be taken without penalty.

All students Were tested during the first week with the American Chemical SocietyNational Science Teacher's Association (ACS-NSTA) Cooper- _ ative High School Chemistry Examination, Form 1971. The course instructors and Spevack constructed objective, multiple choice midterm and non- cumula- tive- final exams. The sum of the standardized raw scores on these two exams, with corrections for guessing, was considered a measure of achievement. An analysis of covariance was used to analyze the data. There was no significant difference in the achievement of the experimental and control grodps.

Acou/rse evaluation questionnaire was used to measure the final course attitude of the students. 71e instrument, administered during the.fif- teenth week, allowed the investigator to copcliide that PSI students had a more favorable final coukse attitude.

Calhoun (42) conducted a study using the Personalized-SysteM of Instruction (or Keller method) in an undergraduate personality course. The results indicated that progress through tit course was related to grade point average. That is, strong students progress rapidly but weaker students can achieve mastery if adequate time is available-.The flexibility to go 'beyond the limits of the semester or quarter is'desirable.

Mintzes, Littlefield, Shaub, Rakitan, Richard Crockett and Ronald Crockett (195) reported on five studies involving 693 secondary and college students in individualized biology courses.They identified student char-

, acteristics relating to high achievement in these courses. Prior knowledge, intellectual ability, and mAivaiion were re lated to high student performance in all five studies:/

rt 101

Wolfson (316) compared lecture and individual research as methods Of teaching a required science course for achie4ient and retention.. Students, in three classes of 30 s dents each, all taught by the same person, were permitted to select eith r of two approaches. One approach, the "formai" approach, required studenE) to be present at lectures given once -each week for two and one-half hours. _They also attended a labOratory section that met once each week for two-and one-half hours. The second, or "informal" appfoach, required the student to select a research topic fr9m:a., lis,t provided by theinst for or decided on with the approval or instructor.nstructor. A statement and rief outline of the topic was required.at three weeks,

a.-biblibgra y at eight weeks,a formal outline at twelve, and the paper at fifteep,eeks. Each student gave a 10-minut* talk on his/her paper. The "informal" group participated in laboratory with the formal group. i

1 .13 Objective tests were given to all students in both groups three times during the course. There was no significant difference in science knowledge

, at the beginning of the course.After 15 weeks, the formal groupper- formed better on tests but not significantly better. After a weeks a retention test was administered. The informal group otltpL+- formedthe formal group at a level of significance greter-than .05.'

Clipjectives

These resear studies dealt primarily with student. achievement and attitudeS related to variation in type and use-of'course objectives:

.. .

Miles (194) studied the relativeffectiveness of behavioral. and non- behavioral objectives on achievement in an introductory geblogy course. The behavioral objectives specified what was to be learned and how the learning would be\ demonstrated. The non-behavioral objectives, or outline objectives, consisted of listings of terms and concepts in hierarchical groups. A second objective was to assess the attitude and preferences of the students with respect to the two types of objectives. 4-,

Two intact 'Classes; totaling 32 students were randomly assigned as experimental and two classes (30 students) were desitgnated as comparison or.

1 0s 102

groups. The experimental groUp used behavioral objectives and the comparison group used outline objectives for one quarter. Tests were given on two," week intervals and the students were also given a comprehensive final exam.

Analysis of the,data (multivariate analysis) indicated that the overall achieve nt of the experimedtal group was significantly higher than that of the comparison group. Duringthe next quarter, all students were exposed to both types of objectives. An attitude scale showed an almost unanimous support for the use of objectives. Also, when students were given a choice of behavioral objectives or outline objectives, the majority of the studentschose the outline form and appeared to view the outline form as more useful to'them.

Leonard (165) conducted a study in which (among other variables) the students' perceived usefulness, of, and attitude toward, prior knowledge of instructional objectives in a physical science course was assessed.The student groups which were givetrthe instructional objectives,found-them useful and expressed a desire to have such statements of instructional objectives made available to them in other courses.

Tests

A Trochet (297) studied the influence of a computer-based repeatable testing program on student achievement and attitude inagenQ/Neducation physical science course. Students (108) in the experimental group followed .arepeatable testing program in which they, could take unit tests-a second and,third time without penalty. The repeated tests were an alternate form of the first test. The control group students"(100) had only one opportunity-to take each.test. Three unit tests,an opinion survey about the course and the testing program, and a midterm achievement examination were given.

Stuaents in the experimental group scored significantly higheron two of the three unit exams. There was, however, no significant difference _between the experimental and control groups on the midterm examination. It appears,that repeatable testing allowed short-term learning, but there

was not a significant difference in long-term retention. Students preferred

101P 4

103

the repeatablefistingbut this preference had little,if any,influence on their attitudes about other aspects of the course.

.Rosati (252) reported on Announced Repetitive Tests (ART), a teaching

. method similar PSI. The method involves defining a minimum acceptable course content a.d expressing it' in the form-pf'a certain number of quei-

tions. The questions are grouped into question sheets and quizzes and given .to the students together with study guides. The student studies the quiz until he knows the material. Then the student takes the quiz and has it checked by an instructor. The student may repeat incorrect questions,. or variations of them,until they are answered correctly. Students and instructors liked the ART method of teaching. Rosati feels, however, that the method would not be successful with classes of over 30 students.

Supplements

. Research studies placed in this group are those which generally intro-

, duce some innovation in the form of supplementary materials or activities into an instructional program to enrich or enhance it or to solve a particular problem in the course of study.

Reiss (242) introduced the use of a personal journal kept by the student as a means of measuring students' learning and evaluating the students' knowledge of physics. He determined that the journal was an effective instrument by which the student could document and demonstrate learning.

Kromhout (153) investigated the effectiveness of computer review lessons as a supplement to an introductory physics course. Fifty-five computer lessons were Mad available to the 170 students' involved in the study. Generally favora le results were achieved by users of the supplementary lessons. 46

Tamminen (290) supplemented a general chemistry course, for non-science majors with a workbook of programmed chemistry problems.Four lecture sections (120 students) of college genefal chemistry were used in the study.

f 104

All sections met twice a week for a one-hour lecture and a two-hour laboratory session. Another one-hour cfiscussion period was optional. Students in two sections used a basic chemistry text with the Programmed Supplement of General Chemistry Problems written by the investigator. The other two sections served as controls. A two-way analysis of covariance was employed to evaluate the data. Tamminen found that there was no significant difference (p >.05) between the treat5pt and control groups.

Wooley (318) developed and evaluated a supplemental Computer AssiSted Instruction (CAI) program to improve the ability of students to cope with the mathematics in introductory astronomy. Three types of CAI modules were developed for use: (1) guided discovery modules which provided feedback guiding students to correct responses; (2) discovery modules which supplied only knowledge of results feedback; and (3) placebo modules.

Wooley taught the two sections (94 students) involved in the study. A mathematics ability pre -and posttest was used. Course content, retention, CAI attitude, and course evaluation instruments were admftistered at appropriate times during the semester. Wooley conclUded that neither of the experimental approaches resulted in, an increase in students' mathematics ability or in transfer of learning to mathematical portions of the course.

Meade (192) studied the use of a computer as a problem solving tool in college physics. Three areas were explored! (1) aahieveMent on course examinations and quizzes, (2) attitudes toward problem solving, and (3) feasibility of the use of computer problem solving on a regular basis.An experimental group of 46 students was required to write and execute computer programs base+pn problem assignments given to the control group of 89 a student's. Both groups had the same instructor and were given the same quizzes and examinations,Students in both groups were given surveys to measure their attitude toward physics, problem solving, and the particular course of study in which they were involved.

Meade found that students who were taught problem solving by the computer approach did not achieve higher scores on examination and quizzes and did not have a more favorable attitude at the end of the course toward I 111 r 105

A problem solving or physics. Also, students in many cases reported that the computer programming'took too much time.

Time-

Blind (31) assessed the effects of compression of a dio and video I components on learning during an instructional television presentation. The results indicated that in this presentation learning, as de'monstrafed

, by a pencil and-paper test on multiple choice items, occurred as-readily with compreed material as with uncompressed material.

Studdard (283) demonstrated that the same goals could be achieved during an interim term in a college '1:evel physical science course as in a regular semester course.

Focus or Orientation

The following four research reports describe investigations in which a focus or orientation was utilized in the course that differed from the traditional course in that content area. One*of the research studies, the last one, was included with this group because the evaluation was,based in part on the election to take the second course of a two-semester sequence. The second course was not required.

Graham (110), attempting to make physics more attractive and familiar to students, developed a new course emphasizing the qualitative aspects of physics. He tested the hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in achievement by students who studied phy ics by the qualitdtive

approach and those who used the quantitative approScII, 4

,A control group of 32 students enrolled in a physical science course which used the quantitative approach was used as the comparison group. Twenty-six students, the experimental, group, were taught physics using the ,qualitative approach: Both courses were'taught.by the same instructor. The instruments used included the Dunning -Abels Physics Test (Form E pretest, From P posttest) and a science and mathematics interest, inventory pre- and Osttest. [:1 106

Analys14 of the data showed that there was no significant difference in physi6sachievement using the two approaches.There was also no significant differOpce in the two approaches with respect to interest.

Blomme (32)-compared the attitude toward science of students in a t4 traditional chemistry course and an environmentally oriented general chem-

' istry,couAe for non - science majors: The Science and Scientists Attitude Inventory (SASAI)`deiielOped by LamOlne Notz was administered as a pretest . and posttest.. The pretest indicated that no significant difference in atti-, tude toward science, existed between the sample populations of the two groups. . There was, however, a significant differencein the attitude toward scientists . at the..011 level. The,tiaditional chemistry group had a more positiv,p attitude.

After completion of the two courses, there was no significant change in the attitude toward science by the students in the environmentally oriented course. There was a positive change at the .001 level of signi- fican e toward science by the traditional chemistry group.The environmentally oriented% course produced a positive change in the attitude toward

scientists in the sample population of the traditional course.,, .

Williams (309) measured the effect of the course Physical Science for Non-Science Students (PSNS) upon the problem solving skills of non-science college students. Ten classes using PSNS were compared to ten. classes using another science program.

? The College Science STEP Test was administered as a pretest and as a posttest.. The pretest score of the two groups were subjected to analysis of variance. The results indicated no significant difference between mean peilorMa.nceof the two groups.

The'pretest and posttest class mean scores of the PSNS and non-PSNS IFatips were subjected to an analysis of,,covariance. The results indicated that there appeared to be no significant differenCe in the improvement of problem solving skill in the,PSNS and non-PSNS groups.

113 107

Mauldin (180) studied the effectiveness pf aphysidaN stience inquiry 4 course in changing the attitudeof college students towardscientific made of the methods. In this study, which involved 300 students, use was 0 f fact that the course was available as a two semestersequente. The second half of the sequence was optional:

/. I A pretest and posttest with a twelve-scale semanticdifferential applied to each of the phrases "physical science,""doineexperiments," and "making inferences fromobservations" was used to assess attitude. Science interest was measured with two questions on thefrequency of outside reading and science activities.

Analysis of data from the instrument used in the pretestand posttest indicated a significant change in attitude in theunfavorable direction. Also, no significant relation was found between studentattitude level or change in the first course and student decision totake the second inquiry a course.

MultipleComponents

Th'e first research report inhis section is different from most of the' others in two ways. First, it involves the use by students of many different components or variations from a traditional course.Most of-the research studies focused on one or two components. Second, since the .course of study and objectives are differentfrom traditional courses, comparisons are probably not as meaningful.

The third research report ind cafes that chemistrycourses offered by colleges and universities for non- cience majors have no de;ectable patterns

of content.

Naegele and Novak (204), in a paperpresented at NARST,'1975, reported on a two7semester introductory phy ics sequencedeveloped over a five-year period at Cornell University., The courseinvolveS between 20 and 30 staff members and from 500 to 700 studeh s. The course is aimed primarily at students pursuing careers in life cience areas. 108

The physical facilities occupy a 10,000 square footarea with some 90 carrels containing audio cassette recorders, film loop projectors, demOnstration and laboratory equipment, etc:" A large portion of the. space is occupied by a testing center and post-exam tutoring rooms.

The function of the learning center is to providea wide variety of instructional alternatives to be used by the student as oftenas she/he wishes. Students work at their own pace, with help from an instructor . as needed, on nine modules each term. A standard textbook is also used

with the course and students are provided a study guide containinga list of learning objectives, a list of recommended activities, laboratory\, instructions, audio-tape supplements, supplementaw problems, programmed materials, and sample examination's. Examinations are self-paced mastery type and are non-scheduled and repeatable.

,Student'attitude was assessed usingan end -of- course questionnaire. The information from this questionnaire,when comp'ared to a background questionnaire administer,ed at the beginning of thecourse, indicated substantial gains in student attitudes. The attitude of the staff, pritharlly

graduate physics teaching assistants; was also reported to be extremely ", positive. The staff expressed a marked preference for the self-paced format over the more tradition4 format.

Because the content, objectives, and eyaluation procedures have signi- , ficantly changed since the course was taught traditionally, Naegele and Novak propose that it is virtually impossible to definitelycompare overall achievement under the two formats. Castaldi (49), 'in, a report on research at Cornell using the audio-tutorial format, self-pacing,and mastery testing, states that achievement in this format allowsas good or

bett r achievement than in a traditional lecture- laboratory -- recitation format,

Blatt (36) used questionnaires to obtain information about introduc-

, tdry chemistry courses specifically designed for non-science majors.

Questionnaires sent to four-year colleges accredited by theAmerican Chem- . ical Society established that, most of these schools do offera course for iron- science majors. The courses differ from traditional chemistrycourses in many ways and differed from each other such that therewas no detect-' able pattern among the infoimation obtained. 109' nstructors and Students

The college instructor, as apart of the educational program, is

touched upon by two reports. , In both cases the evaluation of the instructors was based on student opinion surveys. The research reports which dealt with students were richer in variety.

instructors

Counts (69) investigated the effects of certain student characteris-

tids on the students' ',ratings of instruction in biology at the colle.ge . ,00 level. The basic population for the study was 374 students enrolled in Freshman.Biology. Among the fiddings were reactions of students to class size, workload in class, and course difficulty related to their e biology instructors' performance. Students who thought the classsite was too large gave instructors the highest ratings. Students who said that clasS size did not matter gave the lowest ratings. Students who perceived ,the workload as much heavier than other courses gave much lower ratings to instructors than those who believed the\workload was "about' right."' Students who perceived the workload aa lighter than other courses gave the highest ratings. Students who thought the course was either very difficult or very easy gave significantly lower ratings than those vjho thought the course difficulty was,"aboli right:"

McLaren (191) posed the questions in his study, "Do students rate instructors with training in professional education higher than those '7' instructors who lack this training?" and "Do students rate instructors' who have completed_the Ph.D. degree higher than those instructors who havenotcompleted their doctorate?"

Sixteen member colleges of`the Council forthe AdVanc-effient of Small

Colleges in Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan were used ip the study, The A senior biology and chemistry students in those colleges evaluated science instructors using a Simple numerical ranking scale, and the Student Instructional Report. Information was obtained from instructors by interview. There were no significant differences in the ratings of instruttors on either,of the two questions. 1113, 4

deStu nt1

NtN... Yekeson(326).tested a set of criteria to be used by academic advisors for the prediction of success and placement in general college chemistry. . The independent variables tested were ACT scores, high school grades, scores on. the 1958 ACS-NSTA cooperative examination for high school chemistry, and scores on the'Western Michigan.Upiversity ChemistryPlaCement Examination

(WMUCPE). The'sample consisted of 339 students who hadcompleted qemiftry.. 101 and 102. Yekeson found that no single predictor ofsuccess tested had a.high relationship (coefficient of correlation ranging from .70 to 1.00) with the Chemistry grade.

Using stepwise regression analysis, six variables were identified as effective predictors of the'.general chemistry grade. These variables were: (1) ACT English Scores, (2) ACT Mathematics score, (3) high' school mather matics grade, (4) high. school social studies gradg,.(5) high schoolnatural

. science grade, and (6)- the ACS or WMUCPE. Yekeson developed a prediction

equation using the ACT- mathematics score Snd the. WMUCPE.score. v tik

. ,

0 Spenter (275) conducted a study to find the relationship of,certain variables to the grade point average in general biology. The independent variables tested were high school grade point average, SCAT veral and quan- .tative scores, and CGP mathematics, verbal, motivation and biology interest'

scores. '

A random sample of 140 students was drawn from a list 6T-582 students wboAlid already completed biology courses. The SPSS programs were used to ee, conduct a Pearson product-moment correlation and a'stepwise multiple regression analysis of the sample. Spencer concludAd that the best single- predictor of success in general biology was the high s,hool grade point average.

Lipton (169) asked the question, "In introductory science classes,'is there a differential relationship between academic ability a d achievement, and between academic ability and attitude that dependson the.personality ) characteristic of internal-external control?" -10 r 111

, f. The predictor variables consisted crf the verbal andmathematical scores of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), the scores of thetotter Internal, External, scale, and the linear cross product terms of internal-external control and ability. The criterion variables were course achievement as measured by pooled standard scores of mid-term ancfinal scores for. each class, and the intellectual and emotional scales ofthe:SCientific Attitude Inyentary. Three multiple regression analyses were perfoi4aed to .analyze the data. The results showed the SAT to be a valid predictor Of cademic achievement.

e.; hedges and Majer (120) determida the relationship between grades received in prerequisite biology, chemistry, mathematics, and physics eourseg.and subsequent grades received in science major areas.

The-subjects were 195 students who graduated with majors in applied g physics, information science, applied mechanics and engineering,sciences,

go, biology, chemistry, mathematics or physics. Multiple regression analysis ' was used:

Hedges and Majer concluded that grades inrmajor prerequisite courses were accdrate predictors of upper division grades in the major area. 'Low -er division physics grades, were the best predictor for four of the seven areas and lower division mathematics grades were the best predictor in two of the three remaining areas, An interesting, and no doubt unexpected, finding of the study was that lower division biology, chemistry, mathematics and physics grades were not the best predictors of upper division gradeS in

. those areas.

Yett (327) conducted a study to determine the effectiveness of "high (chool laboratory experience in preparing students with the necessary skills _and knowledge requisite for.atisfactory performance in college chemistry .vt, programs.'A questionnaire consisting of 52 items of laboratory skill's and knowledge selected from chemistry textbooks and manuals wag-sent to chemistry teachers in 110 high schools throughout the colint67,'The teachers rated the importance which they assigned in teaching ()The 52 items. 112

College' instructors of general college inorganic Chemistry from 298 two-and four-year colleges and universities rated students regarding their skills at the beginning of their general, inorganic chemistry course. Analysisof.the data indicated that although high school chemistryteachers emphasized certain laboratory skills, first year college inorganic chemistry laboratory, students failed to exhibit knowledge of these skills. College chemistry professors expressed doubt about the value of highschool chemistry' / laboratory courses in preparing students for college chemistry programs.

Mo4ation

Winsberg and Ste-Marie (314) studied the relationship ef-motivation and u academic achievement in physics. For this study they used three types of motivation: (1) motivation to satisfy unfulfilled needs for security and belonging; (2) motivation to satisfy esteem needs such as the attainment of status within society though access to higher education, higher social status, higher income, etc.; and (3) motivation to satisfy groWth needs such as the individual's needs to self- actualize, to create and diveit his energies into intellectual, cultural, or humanitarian outletS.

The.question posed for the study was:How does the individual student's academic achievement in physics relate to his measuredUred strength in each type of motivation?

The sample for the study was the entire group of students registered in.Physics 302. There were 78 students in the sample who completed the tests utilized. The sample was made up of approximately equal numbers of male and female students.

Each student's motivation to satisfy security needs, esteem needs, and growth needs was measured, using theMerritt College Mstivtion Inventory (MCMI) developed.by -Coughren in 1972'. Academic achievement was measured by the final or cumulative grade which the student received in the course. .All of the subjects were evaluted by the same teacher.

/ '113 negative The data collected and evaluatedindicated a significant but achievement in relationship between the needfor security and academic self-confident were not,successfulin physics. That is, those who were not =Ovation to satisfy esteemneeds or /r- physics. The correlations between significant. growth ngeds and academicach4vement in physics were not that a lack'of Winsberg and Ste-Marie interprettheir findings to suggest rather than- motivation to study physics may bedue to a need for security

, / adististe for physics.

. i

1 Cognitive Preferences

Wright (320) studied the differentcognitive preferences of college undergraduate students majoring inscience, mathematics,;_and engineering. A sample of 241 undergraduatestudents majoring in science,"mathematics and engineering was used inthe study.,

The students were administered arevised CPE-II test which measures Other " the subject's preference formemory, application, anequestioning. instruments developed by Wright werealso used.the students' cumulative grade-point averages and ACT wereused. --

the study revealed that theme were nosignificant differences between, There the cognitive preferences of sciencemajors,and mathematics majors. differences between engineering majorsand science and . were significant significantly stronger pre- 'mathematics majors. Science majors displayeka engineering majors. Engineering majors , ference for quettioning than did mathematiCs displayed a significantly strongerpreference for memory than did less preference for memory than toa4pi. Students in all three areas, showed for application and questioning.

0 114

_References

Citations containing ED information indicate documents availble from from ERIC Document Reproduction Service, .P.O. Box 190, Arlington, Virginia

22210.. '

1, Abel, Robert W. "Content Areas, Organizational Levels and Cognitive Levels Emphasized in karroductory High School Biology Correspondence Syllabi." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2765-A; November, 1976.

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571-572. _

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- 8. Anderson, Elaine,J. andDeyanira Barnett Herrera.. "Development of a Science Attitude Sc'ale for SpaniSh-Speaking Populations." Journal' of Research

in Science Teaching, 13(1): 45-48, January, 1976. ;

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Futuristics on Attitudes Toward Science Among Students in a _ Year

' College." Dissertation Abstracts, 3'6(11): 73187A, May, 1976.

, 11. Asltmead, Donna Conner. "A Comparative Study of BSCS: Human Sciences Pro- gram and EXisting Science Programs According to Achievement, Attitude, and Process Skills in Selected Sixth-Grade Classrooms_in Baton Rouge, Louisiana." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(6): 3392-A, December, 1976.

120 115 .

12. Askham, Lednard R. "The Effects of Plants on Classification Behavior in an Outdoor Environment." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(1): 49-54, January, 1976.

13. ASTEP: A Project in Teacher` Education, Evaluation Handbook. Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Austrialia, 1976: ED 132 023 65p.

14. Atanu, Emmanuel Yahayn. "Effects of Science Instruction on Behavior Among Nigerian Students"Dissertation Abstracts, 36(12): 7969-A, June, 19764

15.' Attashani, Abdulrazik.Salhin.- "Information Theory Applied to the Analysis of Verbal, and Non-Verbal Problem Solving Behavior in Science Related 1.sks in a Libyan Sample of Primary,and Secondary School Students." 'Dissertation Abstracts, 37(1)-,-,: 212-A, July, 1976.

16. Bacon, Walter Edwin. "A CompSrison of Two Science Teaching Methods for Educable Mental* Handicapped Children."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(2): 780-A, August 1976.

17. Barnett, Deyanira Rosa Herrera. "k5,tudy of the Effects of Inseriiice Education on the Developmentof Science Process Skills, Science Attitudes, and Classroom Presentation of Science and Use of Equipment in Panamanian Elementary Teachers." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2760-A, November, 1976,

18., Barufaldi, James' P., John P.-Hudisberger and Reuven Lazarowitz. "Changes in Attitude of Preservice Elementary Education Majors Toward Inquiry Teaching Strategies." School Science and Mathe- matics, 76(5): 420-424,'May-June, 1976. lP. Bates, Gary C. and Fletcher G. Watson. "PrectingLearning Environ-, ments fro'm Teacher and Student Personality." Paper ptesented ate the annual meeiing of theNational Association for Research in Is Science Teaching. San Trantisco,, California, April 23-25, T976, ED 123 111 1 24p,.

20. Batten, Roland Wesley. \"1]e of ScienceProcesses by Earth Science Students, and Aspects of Their Achievement, Previous Science Curriculum and the Educational and Instructional Experience of Their'Teachers." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2761-A,November, 1976.

21. Baylis, Clifford Anthony", Jr. "Investigating the Facilitative Effects of Advance Organizers on Readiness for a College Level Unit in Science." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(9): .6035-A, March, 1976.

22. Becht, Paul Anthony, "Evaluation of the P. K.Yonge Individualized Chemistry Curriculum Field Testing Program in Florida." Dis- sertation Abstracts, 36(8):' 4981-A, February, 1976% 116

23. Benefield, X. Elaine, and William,Capie. "An Empirical Derivation of Rierazchies of Propositions Related to Ten of Piaget's Sixteen 'Binary Operations." Journal of Research in Science Teaching,

. 13(3): 193-204, May, 1976.

24. Ben-Zvi; R., A. Hofstein, D. Simuel and R. F. Kempa. "The Attitude of High School Students Towards the Use of Filmed Experiments." ,Jburnal of Chemical Education, 53(9): 575-576, September, 1976.

2..Ben-Zvi, *.,.A. Hofstein, D. Samuel and R. F. Kempa."The Effective- Aess of'Filmed Experiments in High School Chemical Edgcation." '4ournal of Chemical Education, 53(8): 518-520, August, 1976.

26. Betkouski, MarianatBoguskif "A Study of the Effect of ,Science Know- ledge and Coping Strategies Related to Stress on Student ehavior." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(10): 6578-&, April, 1976.

27. Bieniek, Ronald James.and Michael Zeilik. '!Follow-Up Study of a PSI Astronomy Course,P. American Journal of Physics,. 44(7): 6951-

696, July, 1976. .

. .. ..,;.' . 28. Billings, Gilbert Wendell. "The Effect of Verbal Introduction of Science Concepts on'the Acquisition of these Concepts by Children at the Sacand Grade Level." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(10): 657alli, ,April, 1976'. I "",.k.7:,^- :. . '- . 4. : ( 29. Blake, Anthony J. D.:?Anton E. Lawson and Warren T. Wollman. "The \....

Karplts Islands;Pazz.le: Does It Measure Piagetian Operations?" .

' Journal'of Research' in Science.:Te.ichin , 13(5): 397-404,

September, 1976: .

7':. , s.--"----- 30. 4at,t, Rit4r1pould. 'An Investigation of the Nature of Introductory College ChemisCry Courges," Dissertation Abstracts, 36(9):

5852 -A, March, 1976. '

. - p I. 31. Blind, MaryAnn Domanski.: The Effect of Different Levels of Audio . and Video Comvgssion Upon astelevised Demonstration in Micro- btology:" Dissertation Abstracts, -37,(1): 247-A, July, 1976.

, . , . ...),... t 32. Blomme, Michael.Adollph: "Attitude C nge and Achievement in an Environmeneally-Oriented Gener 1 Chemistry Course for Non-

Science Majors." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(10): 6579-A, 0

) April;1976, . ii" '

.. .

. 33. Bluhm, William 'J, and Harold Hungerford.. "Mo)difying Prgservice Ele- ,Mentary School Teathefs' Perspectives.V. Journal of Environmental. Education, 7(4): -14-17, 1976.

" . 34. Boulanger, F. David. "The Effects Of Tiaining in the Proportional Reasoning A.S."bciated with the Concept of Speed."Journal of Research in Science Te?ching, 13(2).: 145-154, March, 1976.

1'1^Ai 117

35. Bowyer, Jane Ann Baker. "Science Curriculum Improyement Study and the Development of Scientific Literacy."Disertation Abstracts, 37(1): 107-A, July ,1976.

36.. Briggs, B. H. "Student Attitudes to Physics,"Physics Education, 11 (7): 483-489, November, 1976. -N' 37. Brown, Richard Keith. "The Effect of Mathemetical Skills Instrudtion on-Attitude and Achievement in a High School ChemistryProgram," Dissertation Abstracts, 37(3):- 1480-A, September, 1976.

38. Brunner, Carl Edward. "A.Comparis6n Between College Students and Ninth

. Grade Students in Learning Advanced Biologic Concepts." Dis- sertation Abstracts, 36(10): 6579-A, April, 1976.

39. Brush, Edwin Graham, Jr. "Science Education in a PhillipPine Village," Dissertation Abstracts, 37(4): 2091-A, October, 1976.

40. Buckley, John Thomas. "A Comparative Study of the Relationship. of 7 the Presence of the Elementary School Science Specialist' Toward the Science Attitudes of Teachers and Students and-Student Achievement." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(3): 1367-A, September, 1976.

41. Bybee, Rodget Wayne. "The Implications of Abraham H, Maslow's Philo- sophy and Psychology for Science Education in the United States."

Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4378-A, January, 1976. .

42. Calhoun,,James F. "Self-Pacing artg. Performance in a Personalized System of Instruction." Journal of College Science Teaching, 5(4): 2'30 -231, March, 1976.

43. Camp, David Lawrence. "An Investigation of Six"Major logical Groupings of Concrete Operatibnal Thought." Dissertation Abstracts, 36 (e): 5176-A, February, 1977.

44. Campbell, Richard' .and Luis A. Martinez-Perez. "A Study of Relation- ships of Science Attitudes, Achievement and Self-Concept of Pre- Service Teachers." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Natfbnal Association for Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976.

ED, 125 898 ' 12p.

45. Canary, Pat, Carol Hudacheck and Robert D. Allen. "Student Response to Extra Credit Opportunities in a General Biology Courgt." Journal of College Science Teaching, 5(5): 312-314 May, 1976.

46. Cannon, Richard Allen. "A Comparison of Twolaboratory Methods Investigating Interest and the Understanding ofthe process of Science in a General Ed6cation Physical Science,Course,"Dis-

. sertation Abstracts,' 36(7): 4379-A, January, 1976. 47. Capers, Joseph Wilbert. "A Comparison of Biological Science in General' Education Programs Among Black Institutions of Higher Learning in

, 1967 and 1973." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(12); 79690A, June, 1976.

48.- Carlson, John Allen. "The Design and Evaluation of an Individualized, Contract-Directed High School Chemistry Course." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(10): 6580-A, April 1976,

49. Castaldi; Peter Louis. "A Summary°of Cognitive Educational ReSearch .Done in Introductory Science Courses at Cornell University, d a Study of the Effects of Tutoring Mode and Learners' Con- ceptual Abilities on Learning Efficiency in Introductory College Physics."Dissertation Abstracts, 36(9): 5967=A, March, 1976.

50. Cathey, Everett Henry. "Geophysics Education in North America." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(3): .1423-A, September, 1976.

51. Charles, D. J. "Nuffield Combined Science - An Evaluation." School Science Review, 58(202): -129-134, September, 1974%

52. Charlesworth, Jean DuRette. "Educational Chante in Malaysia: A Cape Study of the Implementation of a Curriculum,Innovarion."' Dissertation Abstracts, 37(3).1 1368-,6P, September, 1976.

Chiappetta, Eugene L. "A Review of Piagetian Studies Relevant to Science Instruction at the Secondary and College Level." Science Education, 60(2): 253-261, April-June, 1976.

54. Chiraphongse,jBoonyuen. "A Study of the Characteristics of Elementary Science Teachers in Thailand and the Competencies Needed for Imkoving Their Teaching.' Dissertation Abstracts, 36(9): 5567-A, March, 1976.

, 55. Ciesla, Jeromd_,L.- -"J-The-Effects of Various Formative Evaluation Pro------cedures on Instructional Material ReviPiOli in a Large Scale Individualized Science Curriculum Development Project." 'Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. .San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976. ED 123 110 12p.

56. Clamann, York Hilmar. "Demonstration of Concept Attainment of Three Biology Concepts in Selected Grade Levels, K-12." Dissertation

Abstracts, 37(3): 1368, September, 1976. .

57. Clay, Sister Corinne. "A Study of the Effect of Two Programs in High School Biology' Upon Critical Thinking Ability, Specific Affective Behaviors, and Attitude4'Toward Education."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(1): 189-A, July, 1976. --

A s 119

58. Cleaver, Thomas G. "A ConttolleeStudy of the Semi-Paced Teaching Method." Engineering Education, 66(4): 323-325, January, 1976.

59. Coldy, John T. afid Edward L. Pizzini. "The Effectg of a Secondpry Science-Training Program on the Methods, Procedures, and Pro- cesses of Science. Science gducation, 60(2):V3-198, April-Junet 1976.

40.. Cohen, Karen C. "The Impact of-the WPI PLAN on Students. A Report of a Three Year Longitudinal Study at WorcesterPolytecheic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, 1972-75.Project Report No. 3"." Worcester-PolytechnicInstitute, Worcester, Massachu- setts, November, 1975. 197p. ED 129 590 f.

61. Colemen, Cora Turpin. "The Development and Field-Testing'of a Non- Simulation Genetics Game as an Alternative Method for Teaching Genetics." Dissertation Abstracts$ 37(1): 212-A, July, 1976.

62. Collins, Michael A. J.-- "Student Attitudes TowardAnimals:" American-Biology Teacher, 38(8): 491-493, November, 1976.

63. Collins, Robert Earl. "The Design and Evaluation of Multimedia, Audiotutorial Learning Materials Concerning Evolution and Behavior for a College General Education BiologyCourse." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(8): 4986-A, February, 1976.

64. Combs, Leon L.'A Teaching Approach to'Physical Chemistry." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(5): 467-472, September, 1976.

65. Conner, Paul Eugene. "Relationships Among the Views of Methods * Course Instructors and Science Teachers TowardSelected Theories and Practices in Science Education."Dissertation Abstracts, 36(11): 7318-A, May, 1976.

66. Connor, James Vincent. "A Humanistic Approach tq Physical Science Development and Evaluation of a Cbllege Text for Nonscientists." Dissertation Abstracts, 56(12): 7979 -A, June, 1976.

674 Cooper, Thomas J. "The Views,ofthe Role of the Student in a Science Class as 'Reported byCollege Science Educators and Secondary Science Teachers."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(6): 3537-1c, December, 1976.

66. Cotten, Donald Ray and Johnnie Joe Evansl "The Effects of a Wri,tten Inquiry Model on the Acquisition andtImplementation-,of InqUity Teaching Strategies by Elementary Teachers."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(4): 2092-A, October, 1976.

1 ri 120

69. Counts, Clare Potter. "Student Ratings of Biology Instructors' Performance at the College Level." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2598-A, November, 1976.,

70. 'Crocker, Robert K. And Others. "A Comparison of Structured and Unstructured Modes of Teaching Science Process Activities.;' Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(3): 267-274, May, 1976.

.71. Danek, Joseph Gerard. "Institutional Management and Utilization of National Science Foundation Institutional Grants for Science atliniversities and Colleges During 1970-74: An Analysis Model."Dissertation Abstracts,37(6): 3533 -A, December, 19Th.

72. Davidman, Leonard E. "A Formative Evaluation of the Unified Science and Mathematics in the Elementary Schools Curriculum." Dis- sertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2598-A, November, 1976.

73. Davis, Terry. And Others. '"A Comparison of Achievement and Cre- ativity of Elementary School Students. Using Project vs. Textbook Programs-." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(3): 205-212, May, 1976. dts

74. Dech, James Herbert. "A Study of an Elementary School Auto- Tutorial Mode of Selected Factors Relating to Comprehension, of Metrological Use and Measurement." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4379-A, January, 1976.

75. Dede, Christopher. "Examining a Model for Teaching Scientific Literacy Through Interdisciplinary Courses Focused on Science- -Related Social Issues." Paper presented at the annualmeeting of. the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco, California; April 23-25, 1976. ED 123 129 25p.

76. DeLuca, Frederick, P.-and John W.- Renner. "Structured Inquiry vs. EXpository Approach in Introductory Geology Laboratory." ja Journal of College Science Teaching, 5(5): 307-309, Mme, 1976.

77. Dempsey, John Young. "A Comparison of Selected Louisiana High Schools Having High Percentage Enrollments in Chemistry with - Those Having Low Percentage Enrollments in Chemistry in TerMs. of Certain Identified Institutional, Teacher, and Student Characteristics." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(12):.7970-A, June, 1976.

78. Dickinson, Donald Hood. "Community College Students' Achievement

'\ and Attitude Change in a Lecture Only, Lecture-Laboratory Approach to General Education Biological. Science Courses." Dissertation Abstracts, \36(9): 5968-A, March, 1976.

79. Dillon, James Carroll. "Black College Students' Attitudes and Other Factors Related to Blacks' Participation in the Sciences." Dis- rN_ sertatiom Abstracts, 36,(9): 5969-A, March, 1976. a)it 121

80. Dorrance, Robert W., Jr. "C itive and Manipulative Skills as (--eacomes of moral Biolo Laboratory Instruction."' Dis- sertation Abstracts, 37(1) 212-213-A, July, 1976.

81. ttubaldi, Linda Ann. "A Comparson of Teacher Attitudes and Instructional Outcomes Relted fo the In-Service Use of ISCS. Teacher Preparation Module." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(6): 3534-A, December, 1976.

82. Dunlop, David and Frank Fazio.1 "Piagetian Theory an Abstract Preferences of College Science Students."Journal of College Science Teaching, 5(5): 297-300, Nay', 1976.

83. Durkee, Phillip and George CosSman. "Views on the Nature of Science Among College Science Facu,ity." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National As4,gc,iation for'Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco, .California,,April 23-24, 1976, ED 131 999 54p.

uFles, P., and G. J. A. Deleeuw. "Information Processing and Pupil Achievement: A Model and a Study."Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(5): 383-395, Septemberf 1976.

85. Enwieme, Xavier Asquo Edet. "The Inciddnce ofFormal Operations of Students in Eight Subject Areas of the Nustep Program at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln Campus." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5):, 2761-A, November, 1976.

1 86. Erickson, Gaalen L. "An AnalySis of Children's Ideas, of Heat Phenomena." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4380, January, 1976.

87. Estes, Flex William. "A Comparison of Subject Matter Learned and Retained by High School Science Students Given a Simultaneous 'Audio-Visual Presentation and Two Unitary Audio-Visual Pre- senthtions Using Compressed Speech." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4345-A, January, 1976.

88. Etheridge, Dale Allen. "Simulation and Representation in Visual Learning: The Planetarium as a 'Simulation Device." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(4): 2093-A, October,i1976.

89. Fairbrother, R. U. "Research on Mixed Ability Teaching." Educa- tion in Science, No. 66, p. 16, January, 976.

90. Farrell, Margaret A. and Walter A. Farmer, and Ri4kard Clark. "Field Testing a Systems Analysis Model for Mathematics/ Science Teacher Education." Unpublished manuscript, 1976.

91. Fazio, Frank and David L. Dunlop. "Value Preferences of College Students with Reference to Environmenlal Chemistry.' iJournal of Environmental Education, 8(1): 26-51, 1976, c 122

92. Fertitta, Neal V. "Assisting Teachers to Infuse Science Processes Unpublished doctoral . Into an Existing Unified Science Program.". dissertation, Nova University,, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, 1976. ED 132 041 133p.

SelAdped Elementary ir 93. Fick, Donald Leonard.. "The EffectS .of_Two Science Study Units on Divergent-Pr6ductitre Thinkingand Nonverbal Cognitive Abilities."Dissertation Abstracts, 36 (11): 7319-A, May, 1976. !." 94. Flatt, James. Lynn. A Comparison of Card Deck. Programmed Texts Versus a Conventional Textbook for General Biology on,the Achieve- ment Levels of College Freshmen."Dissertation Abstracts, 37 (4): 1093-A, October, 1976.

95. Fleetwood, George R. and Paul B. Hounshell. "Assessing Cognitive and Affective OutcoMes of Environmental Education." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(1): 29-35, January, 1976. , - 96. Fletcher, Richard K., Jr. "A Comparison of Sdhodl Personnel and Public Citizens of Middle Tenvssee Toward, theTeaching of Evolution in the Schools - Some Historical Perspectives." Paper presented-at the national convention of the National Science Teachers Association, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,1976. ED 125 910 26p.

97. Flores, Ruben. "A Description of the Classroom Verbal andtr(s'il Verbal Behaviorlif a Selected Group of Junior High School Science Teachers in Puerto Rico."Dissertation Abstracts, 37. (4): 2094-A, October, 1976.

-- 98. Foster, Robert-J. "Differences Between Persistors and Nonpersistors in Engineering Programs." Paper presented at the annual con- ference of the American Society for Engineering Education. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, June 16-19, 1975. ED 125 875 22p.'

99. Foster, Robert J. "Retention Characteristics of Engineering Educa- tion." Engineering Education, 66(7): 724-728, April, 1976.

100. Fournier, James F ancis, Jr. "An Investigation af the Correlation Differences ilScience' Concepts Held by Fifth Grade Mexican and Anglo-American Students: A Cross Cultural Study." Dis- sertation Abstracts, 36(7).: 4381-A, January, 1976.

101. Frazer, M. J. And Others. "Aims of First Degree Courses: Student Opinion." Education in Chemistry, 13(2): 44-45, March, 1976.

102. Futrell, William Millar, JT. "An Elementary Science Study (ESS) Instructional Program for Geographically Isolated Elementary Teachers." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4219-A, January, 1976.

1 ri 1/4...P .123

103. Gabel, Lawrence Lee. "The Development of Model to Determi4 Perceptions of Scientific Literacy." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus,1976. /ED 130 915 337p.

104. Gardner, P. L. "Attitudes Toward Pkysics: Personal and Environ- mental Influences." Journal ortesearch in Science Teaching,

13(2): 111-125, March, 1976. 11/4.

105. Garforth, F. M. And Others. "Ionic Equations and Examinations ..ai 16+." Education in Chemistry, 13(2): 41-43, arch, 1976.

106. Gilmartin, Kevin J.And Others. "Development of Scientific Careers; The High SchoolYears. Final Report."American Institutes for Research inthe Behavioral Sciences, Palo Alto, California; 1976. ED 129 607 216p.

107. Glass, Lynn W. "Abstract and Selected Tables from a udy Entitled: An.Analysis of Science Teacher Edgcation Graduates fr m Three State Universities Currently Employed Full-Time in N nacademic 'Positions." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. Sag Francisco, California, April 23-25,1.976.

168.' Goodson, !martin. L. and James R. Okey. "The Effects of Diagnostic Testand Help Sessions on Science Achievement."Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976.

ED 123 108 . 9p.

109. Goodson, Martin Luther, Jr. "The Effects of Objective-Based Diagnostic Tests and Help Sessions on the Achievement of Undergraduate Physical Science Students." .Dissertation Abstracts; 36(9): 5969-A, March, 1976.

110. Graham, Robert Milton. "A Comparative Study of Learning Physics Concepts by Quantitative and Qualitative Methods." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(3): 5177-A, February, 1976.

11I. Griffiths, David H. "Physics Teaching: Does It Hinder Intellectual Development?" American Journal of Physics, 44(1): 81-85, January, 1976.

112. Guthrie, William Fredrick. "The Effect of a Personalized Questioning Method on Student Cognitive Achievement and Retention in JuniOr High School Science.!: Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2601-A, November, 1976.

113. Hansen, Richard A. and James tleujahr. "Career Development of High School Students Talented in Science." Science Education, 60 (4): 453-462, October.- December, 1976.

1 7.0 124

114. Hapke, Lawrence Henry. "AA Evaluation of Adult Education Activities of the Space Science Education Project in a Total Community Awareness Program." `Dissertation Abstracts,,36(10):. April, 1976,

115. Harding, Joyce M; M. "Commt/nication and Support for Chae in School Science Education."Thesis,'Centre for Scienc duca-

1 Lion, Chelsea College, University-of LOndoti, 1975. ° ED,123 693 428p, )

1161 Harty, Harold. "The Implementation Consultant and Classroom Teacher - Pupil Verbal Interactions." Science Education, 60(1): 39-461 'January-March, 1976.

117. Harvey, T. J. "Science in the Primary School. An. Estimate of the Amount Taught and the Teacher's Attitudes Towards It." ,School Science Review, 57(201): 770-774, June 1976.

118. Hausman, Howard J. and Arthur H. Livermore. "A Shortage okScience Teachers by 1982?" Paper'presented at ehe annual meeting of the National Science Teachers Association.-Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March 19, 1916. ED 128 161 12P.

119. Hayward, Robert R., "The Developing and Field Testing of anInstru-

. went Using the Planetarium to Evaluate the Attainment of the Concept of Annual Motion."Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Natio4a1 Association for Research in Science Teaching,San Franciqco, California, Apri1,23-24, 1976A g1) 130 839 V 17p.

1201 Hedges, Larry V. and Kenneth Majer. "Prerequisite CouAes as Predictors of Achievement in the Natural Sciences. OASIS Research Rzport,#3." California University, San Diego,', California, February; 1976. ED 121 &Air 15p,

121. Hedges, Marion Fay. "Conceptual Frameworks in Developments ih° cienc4M115. F. Skinner and Ludwig Von Bertalanffyas Exemplars of Compakng Paradigms."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5):' 2774- A, November, 1976.

122. Herron, J. Dudley. "Commentary on 'Piagetian Cognitive Developmeht and Achievement in Science': Journal of Research in.Sciehce 'Teaching, 13(4): 355 -359, July, 1976.

123. Herron, J. Dudley And,Othets.. "Concept Formation 'as a Function of Instructional Procedure or What Results from Ineffective Teaching." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the pational Association for. Research in Science Teaching. Los Angeles, California, March 17-20,,1975. .ED 129 561 30p.

4( 125

124. Herron,-J. Dudley, Thomas G. Luce aneVad E.Neie, "The Proper Experimental Unit: Comparative Analysesof Empirical Data." Journal of Research in Science Teaching,13(1): 19-27, January, 1976.

125. Hill, Brenda W. "UsinglCollege Chemistry toInfluence Creativity"

. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,13(4): 71-77, 1976. 0

126. Holliday, -William G. and Harvey A. Dahl. "Adjunct Labeled Drawings in Teaching Physics to Junior High School Students," Journal of Research in Science Teaching; i3(1): -37-43, January, 1976.

127. Holloway, Dehilis, Jr. "A Study of the Effects of the. Thirteen Colleges Cii,rrictilut Program Open-Ended Laboratory Experiences on the Criti,cal Thinking Abilities and Attitudes Toward Science of College Yteshmen."Dissertation Abstracts) 35(7): 4222-A, January1978.

128. Hooper, Frank-H., CharlesJ. Brainerd and Thomas S. Sipple. "A Representative Series of Piagetian Concrete Operations Tasks. Theoretical Paper No. 57."Research and Development Center for Cognitilie Learning, Wisconsin University,- Madison, Wis&onsin, September, 1975. ',_) ED 124 416 100p.

129. Horak, Willis James. "AmAnalysis of Science Teachers' Beliefs

About Teacher Classroom Behaviors."Dissertation Abstracts, 36(12): 7971-A, June, 1976.

-47 130. Hounshell, Paul B. and Larry R. Liggett. "Inservice Education:' It Can Make a Difference." School Science and Mathematics, 76(6): 493-498, October; 1976.

131: Hung, Narl C. "Survey of Evaluationand Gradings in Utdergraduate Chemistry." Journal of Chemical Education, 53(4): 565-570, September, 1976.

132. Huntsberger, John. "Developing Divergent-Productive Thinking-in ElementaO.School Children Using Attribute Games.and Problems." Journal of Research in Science Tiaching, 13(2): 45-194. March, 1976.

133. Hurn, John Edward. "Survey of Oklandma Secondary *Science Teachers and Their Factual Knowledge of Scientific Principles Contained`° in Eight ISIS Minicourses."Dissertation Abstracts, 36(11):

7319-A, May, 1976. °)

134. Janovsky, Andrew Victor. "The Development of the. Quantification of Speed in Children and Adolescents." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(8): 5177-A, February, 1976.

1 '4-9 -a- 126 1

135. Jarvis, Gayle Wayne. "An Evaluation of a Select-Group of Federally Funded Science Programs."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2762-A, November, 1976.

136. JohnsOn, Roger T. "The Relationship Between Cooperation and Idquiry in Science Classrooms." ,Journal'of Research in Science Machina, 13{1) : 55-63, January,-1976.

137. Johnson, Susan Mary Marjamaa. 'The Use of An Instructional Model in the Development of a Hierarchy of Skills Involved inPobing 'Research Questions and An Analysis of Related Student Perfor- mance."Dissertation Abstracts, 36(10): 6581-A, April, 1976.

138. Johnson, Theoddre M. "An Experimental Study of the Placement of Classification Skills in the Science-A Process Approach Curric- ulum Employing Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development.", Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4225-A, January, 1976

139. Johnstone, A. H.; and A. R. Mughol. "Concepts of Physics at Second- ary Level." Physics Education, 11(7): 466-469, November, 1976.

140. Johnstone, A. H. and F. Percival. "Attention Breaks in Lectures." Education in Chemistry, 13(2): 49-50, March, 1976.

141. Juarez, John Reynaldo. "Subordinate and Superorditate Science ProcessSkil1 An Experiment in Science Instruction Using the English and Spanish Language with Fifth Grade Children in Bilingual Schools." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(2): 902-A, August, 1976.

142. Kahle, Jane B.; Floyd H. Nordland; and Claudia B. Douglass. "An Analysis of An Alternative Instructional Model for Disadvantaged Students." Science Education, 60(2): 237-243, April-June, 1976.

143. Kahle, Jane .; Claudia B. Douglass; and Floyd H. Nordland. "An Analys s of Learner Efficiency when Individualizedand Group- Instructional Formats are Utilized with Disadvantaged Students," Science Education, 60(2): 245-251, April-June, 1976.

144. Karplus, Robert and Others. "Proportional Reasoning and Control of Variables in Seven Countries Advancing Education` Through Science- Oriented Programs, Report ID-25." Lawredce Hall.-.of Science., California University, Berkeley, California; June^,1975. ED 132 046 62 p.

145. Karplus, Robert. "Science Teaching and the DeveloPMent of-Reason- ing."Papei presented at the annual meeting of the Natibpal Association fop Resea,#h in Science Teaching.-San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976. ED 123 128 20 p.

146. Kennedy, John Settler. "An A nalypis of the Science Students in.High Schools of a Southern Metropolitan School System." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(4): 2994-A, October, 1976.

3 2 127

].47. Kent, Gyann and-Ronald D. Simpson. "An Analysis of Sex-Related. Topics in High School Biology." American Biology Teacher, 38(1): 34 -39, January, 1976.

148. Keshock, Edward G. "The Relative Value of Optional and Mandatory Homework." Educational Research and Methods (ERM), 8(2): 30-32, 42, 1976.

149. Knight, Linda Bernhard.' "The Effect of An Early, Field-Based Experience in ISCS Classrooms on the Attitudes and Behaviors of Preservice Science Teachers."Dissertation Abstracts, 36(9): 5970-A, Srch, 1976.

150. KilbOurn, Brent Scott,"Identifying World Views Projected by Science Teaching' Materials: A Case Study Using Pepper's World Hypotheses to-Analyze a Biology Textbook."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2763-A, November, 1976.

, 151. Klausmeier, Herbert J.; Joan M. Schilling; and Katherine V. Feldman: "The Effectiveness of Experimental Lessons in Accelerating Children's Attainment of the Concept 'Tree.'Technical Report No. 372."Research and Development Center for CognitiveLearn- ing, Wisconsin University, Madison, Wisconsin, January, 1976. ED 129 600 50 p.

152. Kozlow, M.-James and Marshall A. Nay. "An Approach to Measuring Scientific Attitudes." Science Education, 60(2): 147-172, April-June, 1976.

153. Kromhout, Ora Morlier. "Effectiveness of Computer Review Lessons in a General-Education Physics Course."Dissertation Abstracts, 36(8): 5179-A, February, 1976.

154. Lang, Charles Richard. "Computer Graphic Simulations in High School Physics." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(2): 903-A, August, 1976.

155. Lantz, Alma; Anita S. West; and Linda Elliot. "An Impact Analysis of Sponsored Projects to Increase the Participation of Women in Careers in Science and Technology."Research Institute, Denver University, Denver, Colorado, June, 1976. ED 130 840 153 p.

156. La Shier William S., Jr.; Gene E. Hall; and Joel Colbert. "In- Service Education: Identifying and Responding to Concerns of Teachers of Science Curriculum Improvement Study Materials." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Education of Teachers in Science. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March 18-20, 1976. ED 121 600 21 p.

157. LaTrielle, John William. "The Design, Development, and Evaluation of a College Level Introductory Biology Program for Majors and Non-Majors, Individualized for Method of Instruction, Rate, Goals, and Testing." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4230-A, January, 1976.. 128

158. Lawrence, David M.-"A Comparison of Selected CognitiV0 and Affective Changes as a Result of Two Distinct Formats of Instruction in Medical Biochemistry."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(1):' 250-251, July, 1976.

159. Lawrenz, Frances. "StUdent Perception of the Classroom Learning Environment in Biblogy, Chemistry, and'Physics Courses." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(4): 315-324, July, 1976. i, .

I .... ,...."" . . - t 160.'Lawson, Anton E. and Anthony J. D. Blake. "Concrete'and Formal Thinking Abilitie in High School Biology Students as Measured by Threelgeparate Instruments." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(3): 227-235, May, 1976.

- ,

161. Lawson, Anton E. and Warren T. Wollman. 'Encouraging the Transi= tion from Concrete to Formal Cognitive Functioning - An Experiment."Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(5): 413-430, September, 1976.

162. Lawson, Anton E. and Floyd H. Nordland. "The Factor StruCture of SOme Piagetian Tasks."Journal of Research in Science Teach- , ing, 13(5): 461-466, September, 1976.

163. Lazarowitz, Reuven and Addison E. Lee. "Measuring Inquiry Atti- tudes of Secondary Science Teachers."Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 11(5): 455-460, September, 1976.

164. Lazzaro, Anthony and Michael Szabo. "Problem-Solving Behaviors as a Function of Instructional Mode, Conceptual System, and Field Independence in a CAI Environment." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. San. Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976. ED 123 131 '19 p.

165. Leonard, Albert J., III. ".The Effects of Prior Knowledge of Instructional Objectives and Student Conceptual Level Upon Student Achievement,in a Physical Science Laboratory Exper- ience." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(4): 2133-A, October, 1976.

166. Leopardi, Donato. "The Impact of a New High School Scien Sequence on Achievement, Attitude, and Self-Concept of Academic Ability." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(10): 6581-A, April, 1976.

167. Levin, Florence andJoy S. Lindbgck. "An Analysis of Selected Biology Textbooks for the Treatment of Controversial Issues." Paper presented et the annual meeting of the National Associa- tion for Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 19,6. ED 128 184 30 p,

7° 129

168_. Lindsten, Carin. "Different Ways of Presenting and Handling -I Subject Matter: Science and Social Studies, Grade 3."-/ Department of Educational and Psychological Research,School. of Education, Malmo, Sweden, 1975. ED 128 192 26 p.

169. Lipton, Lawrence A. "Relationships Among Internal-Externala , Control, Academic Ability, Attitude Toward Science, and Achievement in Introductory College Physics ClaSSes." Dissertation Abstracts, ,37(4): 2095-A, October, 1976. 4 170. Littlefield, David Lewis. "An Investigation of St ent Character- istics as' Related to Achievement in an I idualized High- School Biology Program." Dissotation Abstracts_, 36(7): 4383-A, Janu.lry, 1976.

171. Long, Ernestine Martha Joullian. "Determination and Measurement 4 of the Elements and Safeguards of Scientific Think' ." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(4k: 2095-2, October,, 1

172.. Lu, Phillip, Kehwa. "An Analytical Study of Various Kine Struc- tural Patterns in Teaching Astronomy and Their Effects on Student Learning." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(6): 3535-A,

December, 1976. '

173. Lustig, Loren Wayne. "A Case Studand Survey-of Two Montgopery County, Maryland Nature;Cent rs; with an Overview of Nature Interpretation as a Unique Spectrum in the Edation Process." ,Unpublished Master's dissertation, University of Maryland, College P4A, '1976.

ED 130 850 . 204 p.

"The Potential for Improving Science Education- 174. Lutz, John E. A. Through Transdisciplinaty, integration with Artailucation."

Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National , AssociglSon for Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976.

ED 127 139 I 17 p.

175. Malcolm, Marshall Day. "The Effects of the Science Curriculum ...Improvement Study on a Child's Self-Concept and Attitude Toward Science." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(10): 6617-A, Apt41, 1976.

176. Manteuffel, Mary S.l'Implementing PLATO in Biology Education at Three Commuriity Colleges. CER Report X-47." Computer Based atcation Lab, University of Iinois, Urbana, Illinois, February, 1976. ED 128 173 39 p.

41. 177. Markell, Clark.and Victor Mayer. "An Investigation to Empirically Determine Which Instructional PrOcedures Produce Optimum Stu- dent Growth." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association tot Research in Science Teaching. Los Angeles, California, Mgich 17-20, 1975. ED 129 560 24 p.

1r) BP S. V I ' 178. -Mark1e,Glenn and William Capie. "The'Effect'of the Position of Inserted Questions.on Learning From an Activity-Centered A Science Module." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(2): 167-170, March, 1976. taw.

.179. Martin, John F. "Analysis of John M. Mayfield's 'Factors ffecting Rationality in the Discussion of a Problem by Small Groups of Secondary, School Students'." Science Education, 60(2): , 185-192, April-June, 1976.

180. Mauldin, John Hugo. "A Study of the Effectiveness of.a Physical Science Inquiry Course in Changing the Attitudes of College Students Toward Scientific Methods." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(10): 6582-A, April, 1976.

. 181. Maupin, Pauline Hicks. "An Assessment of the Effectiveness or Selected Aerdspace _Education Workshops in Tdnnessee." Disser- tation Abstracts, 36(8):' 5179-A, February, 1976.

182. Mauro, John James. "The Prediction of High School Chemistry Achievement as Measured by Performance on the New York State Regents Examination." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(8): 5051-A, February, 1976.

183. May, David H. and Frank E. Crawley. "Assessment of the Effects of the Competency Based Teacher Education Experience on the Acqui- sition of a Teaching_36ael." Paper presented at the annual, meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. San'Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976. ED 123 107 11 p.

184. Mayer, Victor J. "Requirements in Earth Science Teacher Prepa.ration Programs: 1965 to 1974."Science Education, 60(2): 223-234, April-June, 1976.

185. Mayfield, Joh "Factors Affecting Rationality in the Discussion of a P am by tte!ll Groups of Secondary School Students." Sciedce Educ 60(2): 173-183, 441-June, 1976. ,/ 186. McCarty, C. T. "Hoe Pupils Chose." School Science Review, 200(57):

)" 571 -574, March, 1976.

187. McDonald, Leo K.-'*Accidents in the Chemistry Laboratory-CauseS and Prevention." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(9).: 5781-A, March, 1976. I 188. McGuire, Christine. "Simulation Technique in the Teaching and Test- ing of Problem-Solving-tkills."Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(2): 89-100, March, 1976. ,

189. McIntyre, Patrick J./and Jack A. Reed. "The Effect of Visual Devices Based on Bruner's Modes of Representation on Teaching Concepts of Electrostatics to Elementary School Children." Science Education, 60(1): 81-94, January-March, 1976. A 131

190. McKinnon, Joe W. "Encouraging Logical Thinking in Selected Pre- _ Engineering Students."Engineering Education, 66(7): 740- 744, April', 1976.

191. McLaren, James Pilillip-.4°746A Study of Student Evaluations of Science Instructors in Small Liberal-ArtS Colleges." Disser- tation Abstracts, 37(5): 2763 -A,, November, 1976.

192. Meade, Roland Lou. "A Study of the Use-of the Computer as'a Problem-' Solving Tool in an Introductory Course in College Physics." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(6): 3535-A, December, 1976

193. Metz, William Charles. "The Effects of Two Modes of Instruction t on the, Curiosity and the Attitude Toward Science 9f Elemen- tar School Children." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(1)1 123-A, July, 1976.

194. Miles, ,Roy Gene. "The Effect of Behavioral and Non-Behavioral Objectives on Achievement in Introductory College Geology." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2606-A, November, 1976.

195. Mintzes, Joel J.; David L. Littlefield; David Shaub; Richard Crockett; Robert W. Rakitan; and Ronald Crockett. "Studies on Individualized Instruction in Biology." School Science and Mathematics, 76(8); 675-686, December, 1976.

196. Molitor,_Loretta L. and Kenneth D. George. "Development of a Test of Science Process Skills." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 14(5): 405-412, September, 1976.

197. Monaco, William J. and Michael Szabo. "A Comparative Studyof a Team Vs. a Non-Team Teaching Approach in High School Biology." Paper presented at the annual meeting of thejational Associa- .. tion for Research in Science Teaching..Safi Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976. ED 123 130 19 p.

47 19-8-. Moore, Kenneth Dean. "The Development and Use of an Instrument to Assess the In-Service Needs of Science Teachers." Disserta- tion Abstracts, 36(9): 5970-A, March, 1976....;

199. Mori, Ichio and Others. "The Effect of Language on a Child's Con- ception of Speed: A Comparative Study on Japanese and Thai Children." Science Education, 60(4): 531-534, October- December, 1976.

200. Morissette, Robert L. "Development and CompariSon of Two Science Sentiment/Attitude Inventories, by Item and Factor Analysis." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4384-A, January, 1976.

201. Mosley, William E. and Paul E. Beni.. "The Effect of Specific and Non-Specific Behavioral Objectives on Eighth Grade P.S.I, Student Achievement."Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976. ED 125 905 4 p. 40/ .1. 3 132

202. Munby, A. Hugh. "Analyzing ScienCe Teaching: A Case Study Based on Three Philosophical Models of Teaching, The Explanatory Modes Project, Background Paper, No. 5." Department of Curri- culum, Ontario Institute for Studies'ih Education, Toronto, Canada, s1975. ED 130 836 82 p._

203. Murchison, Alvin. "Student Response to Multiple Advance Organizers According to Sex, IQ, and Teacher Evaluation of Motivation." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(9): 5971-A, March, 1976.

204. Naegele, Carl J. and Joseph D. Novak. "An Evaluation of Student Attitudes, Achievement, and Learning Efficiency in Various Mddes of'an Individualized,. Self-Paced Learning Prograffi in - Introductory CollegePhysics." Paper presented, at the annual

meeting of the National Association for Research in Science ' Teaching. Los Angeles, California, March 17-20, 1975. ED 129 556 37 p.

205. National Assessment of Educational Progress.Changes in Science Performance, 1969 - 19.73: Exercise Volume. National, Assess- ment of Educational Progress, Education Commission of the States. Denver, Colorado, December, 1975. ED 127 199 332

206. National Assessment of Educational Progress.,. Selected Results from the National Assessments of Science: Energy Questions. Educa- tion CoMmission of the States. Denver, Colorado, May, 1975. ED 127 2034.,, 27 p.

207. onal Assessment of Educational Progress. Selected Results from the'National'Assessments of Science: Attitude Questions. Edu-. cation Commission orthe States. Denver, Colorado, October,, 1975. ED 127 200

208. Needham, Ronald Lafayette. "Change in Attitudes Toward the Sea in Samoan...High School Students Enrolled in an Activity-Centered Marine Studies Program.". Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4434-A, January, 1976.

209. Neff, Ray Allen. "A Study of the, Effectiveness of the Scholastic, Aptitude Test of the College Entrance Examination Board as a Predictor of Provisional Certification of Biology Teachers at Ball State University During the Period Between September of 1965 and June of 1974."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(2): 836-A,' August, 1976.

210. Nelson, Miles A. and Eugene C. Abraham. "Discussion Strategies 'and Student Cognitive Skills."Science Education, 60(1):

... 13-27, January-Mardi, 1976.

138 133

211. Norris, John Thomas. "Effects of Individualizing the ScienceCurri- culum Improvement Study (SCIS) Programon Third Grade Students' Achievement and Attitudes Toward Science."Dissertation Abstracts, 36(10): 6582-A, April, 1976.

212. Novick, S. and J. Menis. "A Study of.Student Perceptions ofthe Mole Concept."Journal of Chemical Education, 53(11): 720-7-2, November, 1976.

213. Novick, Shimshon and Dint Duvdvani. "The Relationship Between School and Student Variables and the AttitudesToward Science of Tenth-Grade Students in Israel." Journal of Research.in Science Teaching, 13(3): 259-265, May, 1976.

214. Novick, Shimshon and Dina Duvdvani. "The Scientific Attitudes of Tenth-Grade Students in Israel,as Measured by the Scientific Attitude Inventory." School Science and Mathematics, 76(1): '9-14, January, 1976.

215. Nussbaum, Joseph and Joseph D. Novak. "An Assessment of Children's Concepts of the Earth Utilizing Structured Interviews." . Science Education,' 60(4): 535 -550, October-December; 1976.

216. Odunusi, Taiwo Olajide. "The Performance of Nigerian Childrenin Science-Related Cognitive Tasks: Validation of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives."- DissertationAbstracts, 37(4): 2130-A, October, 1976.'

217. Ogden, William R. and Janis L. Jackson. "A Chronological History_ of Selected Objectives for the Teachingof Secondary' School Biology in the United States During the1918-1972 Period, as Reflected in Periodical Literature.",Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Associationfor Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco Calktornia,-Ap-ri-1---2-3-457-19 6. 15 p. 218. Ott, Mary biederich. "Evaluation of Methods of Instructionand Procedures for Assigning Studentsto Methods."American Journal of Physics, 44(1):,12-17, January, 1976.

219. Ott, Mary Diederich.."The Men and Women of the Classof '79." Engineering Education, 67(3): 226-232, December, 1976.

220. Parker, Richard C. and DavidS. Kristol. "Student Peer Evaluation." Journal of Chemical Education, 53(3): 177-178, March, 1976.

221. Patterson, Marvin D. "Contrasting Children's Science-RelatedCogni- tive Skills in High and Low IndividualizedClassrooms."Paper presehtdd at the annual meeting of theNational Association for Research in Science T6aching. San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976. ED 125 900 21 p.

1 sr* 134

222. Pedersen, Arne A. and Judith E. Jacobs. "The Effect of Grade Level onAchievement in Biology."Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(x): 237-241, May, 1976,

223.'Pendaeli, John. "The Analysis of a Chemistry Curriculum in Tanzania." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(2): 788-A, August,, 1976,

224. Penick, John E. "Creativity in Fifth-Grade Science Students: The Effects of Two Patterns of Instruction." _Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(4): 307-314, July, 1976.

225. Penick, John E.; JamesA. Shymansky; Charles C. Matthews;-and Ronald C. Good. "Studying the Effects of Two Quantitatively Defined Teaching Strategies on Student Behavior in Elementary

School ScienceUsing Macroanalysis Techniques."Journal of t Research in Science Teaching, 13(4): 239-295, July, 1976.

226. Perry, Constance Merrifield.. "Evaluation of an Instructional Module in Secondary Science Teaching Utilizing Personality Variables and Sethanttc Differential Measured Attitudes." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(6): 3565-A, December, 1976.

227. Perry Glen Richard, Jr. and Dale G. Merkle."Validity and Relia- bility of the SCIS Test for the Organism9 Unit." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(2):,177-183, March, 1976.

.228. Piper, Martha K. and David P. Butts. "The Developthent and Evaluation of a Televisedf4cience Inservice Program."Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(2): 177-183, March, 1976.

229. Piper, Martha K. "The Investigation of Attitude Changes of Elemen- tary Preservice Teachers in a Competency-Based, Field-Oriented Science Methods Course and Attitude Changes of Classroom Teachers Cooperating t1ith the Field Component."Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976. ED 127 136 20 p.

230. Pizzini, Edward L. "Analysis of the'Effects of a Component of Iowa Upstep on Self-Concept."Journal of Research in Science Teach- ing, 13(5): 473-477, Septetber,"1976.,

231. Platts, C. V. "Recording Science Lessons on Cine Film and.the Analysis of Such Records." School Science Review, 58(202):

' 5-11, September, 1976.

232. Pohala, Ronald Joseph. "A Comparative Study of Teaching Anatomy and Psysiology ased on Popham's nodelVersusLan Alternative Instruc- tional " Dissertation Abstracts, 31(1): 213-A, July,

1976. ...;. .- -.

233. Porilg, Norbert T. "Diagnostic nuiz to Iden,tify Failing Students in Physical Chemistry." Journal of Chemical Education. 53(2): 10974" FebruarY, 1976.

14 0 135

234. Pottenger, Francis M. "From Theory to Design andDevelopment: Foundational Approaches in Science Teaching,A Case Study." Paper presented at the annual meeting of theAmerican'Educa- tional Research Association. San Francisco,California, April 19-23, 1976. ED 128 194 22 p.

)235. Pouler, Chris Aemil."The Effect ofIntensive Instruct n in Hypothesis Generation Upon the Quantity and Quality of Hypo- theses and the Quantity and Diversity of Information Search Questions Contributed by Ninth Grade Students." Unpublished

. doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, .-- .

1976. l

ED 128 225 i 157 13, * 236. Pringle, Rhodell Gretcenia. "The Effects of Laboratory find* Experiences in Science Education on Cognitive Style. Disser- tation Abstracts, 36(12); 7841-A, June, 1976;

237. Pungah, Dhep. "An Investigation of the Developmental Sequence of Conservation of Number, Mass, Weight, and Volume in Thai Children." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(4): 2085-A, October, 1976.

238. Quinn, Mary Ellen and Carolyn Kessler. "The RelationshipBetween

Science Education and Language Development." Paper presented - at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. ''San Francisco, California, April 19-23, 1976. -ED 123 112 24 p.

239. Qureshi, Zahir. "A Practical Approach to the Identification of Teacher Competencies for High School Science Teachers." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(2): 903-A, August, 1976,

240. Rastovac, John Jacob, "An Investigation of the Relationship Between a Mastery Learning, Strategyarid"the Cognitive Level of High School Silkdents." Dissertation-Abstracts, 36(10); 6583-A, 41April, 1976.

441. Raville, M. E. and W. J. Lnenicka. "An Analysis of a Nationwide Study on Curricular Emphasis in Basic Mechanics." Engineering Education, 67(3); 249-252, December, 1976.

242. Reiss, Barry. "The Use of a Journal as a Method of Teaching and of Evaluating Physics Instruction." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(2): 904-A, August, 1976.

243. Renner, John W. and Vivian Jensen Coulter. "Science Achievement is AbOre Expectations in Ndrman, Oklahoma." Science and Children 13(7): 26-27, April, 1976. ar 244. Rezba, Richard J. and Hans 0. Andersen., "Effects of ModelingonPreser- ,vice Science Teachers Dnrinft ISCS Microteaching Sessions." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(1): 13-18, January, 1976.

141 137

257. Sauls, Judith M. "National Assessment of Educational Progress.High- lights and Trends from liational Assessment:, Changes in Science Achievement, 1969=1973." National Assessment of Educational 'Progress, Education Commission of the States. Denver, Colorado, 1976. ED 127 202 36 p.

258. Sauls, Judith and, John Michael Kalk. "National Assessment of Edtica- tional Progress. Changes in Scignce Achievement of Black Students." National Assessment.of Educational Progress, Education Commission of the States. Denv,eri-Colorado, 1976.' ED 127 201 35 p.

259. Schafer, Larry E. and Robert A.4Vargo. "Students' Science Attitudes and Self-Concepts in Science as a Function of Role Specific. Pupil/Teacher Interpersonal Compatibility." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science reaching. San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976. TD 129 592 27 p.

260. Schmidt, Gerry Lee. "Alternative Structural and Process Models for Earth Science Education."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(1): 213-214-A, July, 1976.

261. Schmitt, Robert M. and David L.'Groves. "A Comparison BetweenEduca-. tional Approaches to Teaching Forestry and Tree Identification in a Resident Camp Setting." Science Education, 60(4): 485- 491, October-December, 1976.

262. Schrier, Michael Douglas. "An Investigation of the Science Interests of Elementary School Children." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(12): 7856 -A, June1-1916.

263. Science Achievement: Racial and Regional Trends, 1969-1973. National , Assessment of Educational Progress, Education Commission of the States. Denver, Colorado, March, 1976. ED 127 143 53 p,

264. Sellers, Burt A. "An Analysis of the Relationship of Students' Self Concepts in Science t eit, Mental Abilities, Sex and Measures of Achievement in Scien ." Dissertation Abstracts,'36(10): 6583-A, April, 1976.

265. ShAyer, Michael. "Development in Thinking of Middle School and Early Secondary School Pupils."School Science Review, 57(200):* 568- 571, March, 1976.

266. Sherwood, Robert D. and J. Dudley Herron. "Effect on Student Attitude:

Iridividualized IAC Versus Conventional High School Chemistry." . Science Education, 60(4): 471-474, October-December, 1976.

1.11,-)`1 / 137

260. Schmidt, Gerry Lee. "Alternative Structural and Process Models for Earth Science Education."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(1): 213-214-A, July, 1976.

262. Schrier, Michael Douglas. "An Investigation of the Science Interests of Elementary School Children." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(12): 7856 -A, June1-1916.

263. Science Achievement: Racial and Regional Trends, 1969-1973. National , Assessment of Educational Progress, Education Commission of the States. Denver, Colorado, March, 1976. ED 127 143 53 p,

265. ShAyer, Michael. "Development in Thinking of Middle School and Early Secondary School Pupils."School Science Review, 57(200):* 568- 571, March, 1976.

266. Sherwood, Robert D. and J. Dudley Herron. "Effect on Student Attitude:

Iridividualized IAC Versus Conventional High School Chemistry." . Science Education, 60(4): 471-474, October-December, 1976.

1.11,-)`1 / 138

267. Shrigley, Robert L. "Credibility, of the Elementary Science MethOds Course Instrqctor as Perceived by Students: A Model.for Attitude Modification."Journal of Research in Science Teach-

ing, 13(5).: 449-453, September, 1976. rits

268. Shymansky,James A. "How is Student Performance Affected by the One- to-One Teacher-Student Intel-actions Occurring in an Activity-, Centered Science Classroom?" Journal of4,Research in Science Teaching, 13(3): 253-258, May, 1976,

269. Simpson, Ronald D. and Others. ''Influence of Instrument Character- . istics on Student iesponses in Attitude." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(3): 275-281, Nay, 1976.

270.-4 Smith, Kirk R. and David D. Cudaback. "A Teaching Lab inRaAio Astronomy." Sciencd Education, 60(4): 463-469, October- December, 1976.

271. Smith, Louis William. "The Perceived Effectiveness of an Off-Campus Master of Science in Education Degree Program."Dissertation Abstracts, 36(11): 7116-A, May, 1977.

272. Smith, Theodore Victor. "A Study of the Effectn'efteSs of the Plane- tarium and the Classroom in the Teaching of Constellations." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(3): 1478.r September, 1976.

273. Southerlandl Isaae,prown. "A Study of Selected Characteristics of College - Transfer Science Instructors in North Carolina's Public Community Colleges." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(3): 4r1365-A, -- September,.1976.

274. Spader, Carol Ann. "Titeaoles of Scientists at Public Hearings." ,Dissertation Abstracts, 36(11): 7320-A, May, 1976,

276, Spevack, Harold M. "A Compar n of the Personalized System of Instruction with the Lecture Recitation System for Conscience

Oriented Chemistry Students at an Open Enralment Community . College," Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4385-A, January, 1976.

277. ,Stahl, Robert J. "Population Education id' Florida Seconeary Schools: Where are the Science Teachers?" Science Education, 60(1): 29-37, January-March, 1976.

278. Stephans, Joseph I. "Influence of Instruction Upon Pre-Service and 'In-Service Teachers' Agreement with the.Philosophical Approach of the Elementary Science Study (ESS)." Dissertation Abstracts,'

. 36(7); 4386-A, January, 1976,

. 279. Stoker, H. Stephen and 0. Reesearkeri "Allowing Students a Second Chance on Examinations."Journal of College Science Teaching, 5(4): 232-235, March, 1976.

11 139

280. Strawitz, Barbara M. "The Effects of an Activity-Centered Elemen- tary Education Science Methods;Course one the Attitudes. of rretervice Teachers."Paper presented at the ann9al meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976.

281. Stronck, David.R. "A. Comparison of Peer and Pupil Evaluation o Lessons Taught by Preservice Biology Teachers." Science Education, 60(2): 217-221, April-June, 1976.

282. Stronck, David R. "The` Effectiveness of Institutes for Changing the PhilosOphy of Teaching Elementary School Science." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National AssoCiation' for Research in Science Teaching. San Francisco, California, April 23-25, 1976. ED 125 897 14 p.

283. Studdard, Amos Lee. "A Study Comparing a Regular Semester and an Interim Term College Level Physical Science Course Based on- - Changes in Student Attitudes add Understanding of Science Processes." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(12): 7979 -A, June, 1976.

284. Suksringarm, Paitool. "An Experimental Study Comparing the Effects of BSCS and Traditional Biology of Achievement, Understanding of Science, Critical Thinking Ability, and Attitude Toward Science of the First Year Students at the Sakon Nakorn Teachers' Collage, Thailand."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2764-A, November, 1976.

285. Sunal, Dennis W. "Analysis of Research on the Educational Uses bf a Planetarium." Journal of Research in'Science Teaching, 13 (4): 345-349, July, 1976.

286. Swami, Piyush. "A Follow-Up.Study for Evaluation of the Pre-Service Secondary Science Teacher Education Program at-The Ohio State University."Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State

University, Columbus, 1975. - ED 113 200 a A 380 p.

287. Symington, David J. and Peter'J.'Fendham. °"Elementary School Teachers' Close-Mindednesttitu4 9s Toyard Science, and Congruence with a New.Curriculum."Journal of-Research in Science Teaching, - 13(5): 441-447, September, 1976.° --

- . 288. TaFoya, M. Estelle. "Asse(singInquiry Potential in Elementary Science Curriculum Materials.".-Dissertation Abstracts, 370)-r----\

3401-A, December, 1976. I , ,

289. Taiwo, Adediran. "A Study of the Nature of Incidental Physical Science.Knowledge Possessed by Elementary. School Children in Western State of Nigeria." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4387-A, January, 1976.

46 \-

, 115 I 140

290. Tammigen, ildred. "The Effects of a Programmed Supplement of Gene al Chemistry Problems o the Problem Solving Skills of Coege Chemistry Students Vol mes I and II)." Dissertation stracts, 36(11): 7320-A, May,. 1976.

291. Tavares' Alberto Tereno Valente, Maria Odete. "A Study of aft Ausubel Advance Organizer Paradigm in an Inquiry Physical Science ,Course."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(5): 2764-A, November, 1976.

' 292. Thiel, Robert P. and Kenneth D. George. "Some Factors Affecting the Use of the Science Process Skill of Prediction by, Elementary School Children."Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(2): 155-166, March, 1976. e. 293. Tisher, Richard P. and Colin N. Power. "The Effects of 'Classroom Attivities, Pupils' Perceptions, and Educational Values in Lessons where Self-Paced Curriculum Materials are Used." Australian Advisory Committee on-Research and Development r in Education. Canberra, Australia, 1975. ED 128 227 135 p.

294. Toews, William. "Students' Perceptions of Science Conceptual Schemes Using Categorical Procedures." Journal of Research ieScience Teaching, 13(1): 5-11, January, 1976.

Ilk 295. Tomera, Audrey N.; Harold R. Hungerford; and Henry G. Walding. "A Comparison and Analysis of Concepts of Science and the Scientist Held by Professional Scientists, Science Educators, and Preservice Elementary Education Majors." Paper presented at the Association for the Education of'Teachers in Science, annual meeting,,Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March, 1976. ED 130 843 22 p.

296. Townes, James H. "An.Expeiimental Comparison of Two Laboratory Approac 11e for Teaching General Physical Science at the College Level: Vi arious Laboratory Method and Conventional Laboratory Method."Dissertation Abstracts, 36(11): 7176-A, May, 1976.

297. Trochet, Paul Daniel.(/..."An Evaluation of a Computer-Based Repeatable Testing Program in a College Level Physical Science Course." Dissertation Abstracts,'27(3): 1478-A, September, 1976. 4. AP 298. Ukens, Leon L. and Philip R. Merrifield. "The Structure-of-Intellect ,Model Applied to a COPES Learning Sequence." Jouriial of Research in Science Teaching, 13C3): 221-225, May, 1976.

299. Valeriote, I. M. "A Self-Paced Laboratory Course in First-Year General Chemistry." Journal of Chemical Education, 53(2): 106-108, February, 1976.

300. Vanchuplow, Smarn. "A Study of the Education Program of Science Teachers at Sri Nakharinwitot University, Bangsaen, 1963-1973." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(11): 7245-A, May, 1976.

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301. Vargo, Robert Andrew. "Pupil/ScienceTeacher Interpersonal Compati- bility and Science Attitude's."Dissertation Abstracts, 37(4): 2097 -A, October, 1976.

302. Varley,, Peter J. "Science in the Primary School." Queensland Depart- Alt of Education. Brisbane, Australia, December, 1975. ED 130 841 47 p.

303. Wall, Guy O. "Efakts of Three Implementation Approaches of Science / Process Orien,tation pn. Elementary Teachers and Studenis.6 Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7Y: 4239-A, January, 1976.

304. Ward, William H., Jr. "A Test of the Association of Class Size to St dents' Attitudes Toward Science."Journal of,Research in Q Science Teaching, 13(2): 137-143, March, 1976.1, ft. 305. Wejuli, Habil Waudo Wangiah. "Analysis of the Correspondence Between Objectives of Biology Secondary School Teaching in Kenya and Examinations Designed to Measure the Attainment of Those Objec- tives." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(12): 7972-A, June, 1976,

306. Werner, Neila Anne. "A Case-Study of Decision-Making in Elementary School Science Curriculum Improvement, 1961-1974."Disserta- tion Abstracts, 36(8): 5007-A, February, 1976.

307. West, L. H. T. and P. J. Fensham. "Prior Knowledge or Advance Organizers as Effective Variables in Chemical Learning." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(4): 297-306, July, 1976.

308. Williams, Carolyn Chandler. "The Relationship Be ween Selected Read- ,- ing Skills and Other Personal Variables ofixth and Seventh Grade Students and Achievement in Science a d Social Studies." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(7): 4132-A, Janu ry, 1976,

309. Williams,: Irving Laurence. "The Effect of the CollegPSITS (Physical Science for Non-Science Students) Course Upon Impfovement of Problem- Solving Skills of Nonscience College Students." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(8): .5180-A, February, 1976.

310. illson, Victoi, L. )and Antoine M. Garibaldi.' "The Association Between Teacher Pdarticipafion in NSF Institutes and Student Achievement.". Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(5): 431-439, September ,1976.

311. Wilson, Alison F. "The Effects of Schools in Victoria on the Science Achievement of Junior Secondary Students, IEA Report 1975:2." Australian Council for Educational Research. International. Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. .-Hawthorn, Australia, 1975. ED 132 039 46p,

117 -) 142

312: Wilson, John T.; John J. Koran, Jr.; and Mary Lou Koran. "Teacher Corps Preservice: A Study of Change in Science Teacher Behavior." Journal of 'Research in Science Teaching, 13(4): 337-343, July, 1976.

313. Wilson, Roosevelt L. "An Evaluation of the Use of an Anthology of Articles.on the Understanding of Science Selected to Improve Student Attitudes Toward Science." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(12): 7973-A, June, 1976.

314. Winsberg, Suzanne and Louis Ste-Marie:"The Correlation of Motiva- tion and Academic Achievement in Physics."Journal of Research- in Science Teaching, 13(4): 325-329; July, 1976,

315. Wofford, John Clarence. "The Development of a Model Set of Cognitive - BehavioralObjectives for'Secondary-School Advanced Biology Curricula." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(3): 1478-A, September, 1976.

316. Wolfson, Morton L. "Lectures versus Individual Research: Their Effect on Retention." Journal of College Science Teaching, 6(1): 36-37, September, 1976.

317. Wollman, Warren. "Intellectual Development Beyond Elemeytary School VI, Controlling Variables; Survey." Lawrence Hall of Science, California University, Berkeley, California, 1976. ED 132 055 15 p. ,

.318. Wooley, Jon Kenneth. "An Experimental Evaluation-of the Effectk&eness and.Effectsof Computer-Based Teaching Modules Used to Supple- ment Instruction in an Introductory Cbllege-Level Astronomy Course." Dissertation Abstracts, 37(3):id1479-A, September, 1976.

319. Work; Clyde E. "A Nat onwide Study of the Varjability of Test Scoririg by Different Inst ctors." Engineering Education, 67(3): 241-, 248, December, 19 6.

320.1Wright, Robert Richard. "Cognitive Preferences of College Students Majoring in Science,-Mathematics, andEngineering," Disserta-' Lion Abstracts, 36(8): 5180-A, February, 1976,

321. .tYager,Robert E.,"Baseline Data Concerning Science Teacher Education Programs at the University of Iowa, 1955-1973. Technical Report No. 8." Science Education Center, Iowa University, 'iowa .City, Iowa, March, 1976. ,V3 ED 121 601 80p,

322. Yeany, Russell H., Jr. and Stephen J. Cosgriff."A study of the Rela- tionship Between Perceived and-Observed Science Tepching Strate- gies and Selected Classroom and Teacher Variables." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Educa- tion of Teachers in Science. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March,.1976,

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323. Yeany, Russell H., Jr. "The Effects of Micro-:Teaching with Video- Taping on the Teaching Strategies of Pre- Service Secondary Science Teachers." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. Los Angeles, California March, 17-20, 1975. ED 129 555 ,28 p.

324. Yeany, Russell H., Jr: "Some EffectsOfTraining PreserviCe Teachers in Science Tedching Strategy Analysis." Paper' presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. Los Angeles, California, March 17-20, 1975. .

325. Yeany Russell H. jr. "A Study of the Correlation.- Between Elementary Student Teachers' Selection of Science Teaching Strategies and

. Average Class Ability and Size." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 13(3): 249-252, May, 1976. /-

326. Yekeson, Stephen Marka. "A Study of Selected Variables for Prediction of Success and Placement in General Chemistry at Western Michi- gan University." Dissertation Abstracts, 36(11): 7320-A,

May, 1976.. 0

. 327. Yett, James William, Jr. "4ationship Between Success in General, College Chemistry Labo atory and Secondary School Chemistry Laboratory Experience." bissertation Abstracts, 37(2): 905-A, August, 1976.

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