National Science Foundation

-Fourth Annual Report for Fiscal Year 1974

\'-:- For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washing-ton, D.C. 20402 - Price $2.35 Stocli Number 3800-00198 Letter of Transmittal

Washington, D.C.

DEAR MR. PRESIDENT:

I have the honor to transmit herewith the Annual Report for Fiscal Year 1974 of the National Science Foundation for submission to the Congress as required by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950.

Respectfully,

The Honorable The President of the United States.

Contents

Page

Director's Statement vii

Research Project Support Activities 1 Mathematical and Physical Sciences 5 Biological and Medical Sciences 13 Environmental Sciences 20 Engineering 26 Social Sciences 30 Materials Research 33 Computer Research 37

National and International Programs 41 National and Special Research Programs 43 National Research Centers 55 Science Information Activities 60 International Cooperative Scientific Activities 62

Research Applications 65 Energy 68 Environment 73 Productivity 77 Exploratory Research and Problem Assessment 81 Research Utilization 82

Science Education 85 Improvement of Education for Careers in Science 88 Development of Science Literacy 93 Public Understanding of Science 96 Increasing Effectiveness of Educational Processes 97 Problem Assessment and Experimental Projects 99 Science Resources Studies 100 Science Policy Studies 101

Appendices A. National Science Board, NSF Staff, Advisory Committees and Panels 103 B. Organization Changes and Staff Appointments 124 C. Financial Report for Fiscal Year 1974 126 D. Patents Resulting from Activities Supported by the National Science Foundation 127 E. Publications of the National Science Foundation, Fiscal Year 1974 128 F. National Research Centers Contractors 129 G. Criteria for the Selection of Research Projects 130

DIRECTOR'S STATEMENT vii

Director's Statement

As our Nation approaches its third century and world that supports it. Initially this appraisal as Western Society approaches its third mil- has generated much speculation concerning the lenium, we enter an era that may be recognized as future of human growth, raising a host of ques­ a turning point in human history. It is not diffi­ tions not only over the possibility of feeding pro­ cult to reaUze why we have arrived at this point. jected populations but over the environmental, The predominant reason is that through the economic, and social consequences of the con­ marriage of science and technology we have tinued industrial development of the world along created an industrially based society that up to present lines. now has been able to sustain and advance a If this speculation, given impetus by some new rapidly growing world population. scarcities now appearing, has led to and The shift from an economy based on agri­ intensified the debate over matters of growth, it cultural subsistence to one based on modern has also brought forth more penetrating thought industry has been responsible for explosive over the future role of science and technology. growth, not only in population size but in a While there are some who fear that further ad­ spectacular rise in mankind's activities—in vances in science and technology will only fire mobility, speed of communication, range of the engine of indiscriminate growth, there are knowledge, production of goods and services, others who feel there is a necessity for better and and in the number of interfaces within his more wisely applied science and technology to natural and social systems. Although much of enable better control and direction of growth and this process is based on human innovation and to allow us to continue to expand our physical industriousness, it is based also on humanity's frontiers. exploitation of the natural world. It draws This latter group also shares the belief that we heavily on nature's capital, particularly on the can expand our physical frontiers only by store of nonrenewable resources, and it impacts expanding our knowledge frontiers, and that heavily on her environment and living resources. knowledge is a form of capital capable of allow­ While many have long warned that such ing us to replace, in effect, the capital we have growth could not continue indefinitely, their withdrawn from the Earth's supply of finite admonitions have usually been taken with a resources. Perhaps a good example of this effect theoretical grain of salt. A combination of human lies in our potential ability to develop the means ingenuity and nature's bounty has always to use solar energy, directly and in all its seemed to disprove the Malthusians, or at least manifestations, as a form of energy income to move the day of reckoning into the distant future. replace the energy capital depleted through our In the past whenever scarcities conjured up the use of the nonrenewable fossil and fission fuels. ghost of Malthus to predict impending doom, the Increased knowledge capital, particularly that ghost of Micawber seemed to appear beside him gained from a sound program of basic research, telling us that "Something will turn up." And can have other very beneficial effects. Environ­ fortunately, up to now it has. As we depleted one mentally speaking, it can help us to understand resource we were able to find a replacement. As better the physical and social limits within we overtaxed one region of the Earth environ­ which we must operate in order to keep our mentally, we found the means to move on. And as natural and manmade systems individually we reached the limits of one technological viable and symbiotically compatible. In terms of achievement, we were able to find another to economics, it can help to increase the efficiency exceed its performance. with which we use limited resources, thus But in recent years we have been forced to moderating their cost as we draw down on them view the increasing problems of growth with a and giving us the time to search out and develop new degree of sophistication. That sophistica­ alternatives. And related to social change, in­ tion, also a product of science and technology, creased knowledge can help us to use both our has urged us to make a more realistic appraisal of physical and human resources more effectively, the human condition in relation to the physical improving our institutions and their distribution viii DIRECTOR'S STATEMENT

of goods and services, perhaps moving us toward area decidedly is energy. Projects bearing on all a life characterized by more quality for less aspects of our energy situation can be seen quantity. This may be the major thrust of science throughout the Foundation's programs, in Scien­ and technology in the years ahead, even though tific Research Project Support, in Research we can still expect considerable quantitative Applications, in Science Education, in National growth as much of the world seeks further and International Programs, and in policy and development. planning activities. Another important thrust in science and tech­ We know that- fundamental research in all nology—one characterized for some time now by fields of science can make a multitude of the growth of interdisciplinary research in the contributions related to energy. By way of better physical, social, and managerial sciences—is the organizing and coordinating the Foundation's interest in systems. Humanity's pervasive in­ basic research support toward this end, the Re­ fluence and impact on both nature and our own search Directorate established an Office of global society has led us to a stronger recogni­ Energy-Related General Research. An initial tion that we operate within systems wherein we effort of this office was the identification of 45 must take note of and deal with a myriad of inter­ areas of energy-related research which might re­ related factors. Never has this been brought ceive priority support from the Foundation. A home more forcefully than during the past year series of workshops that included experts from when, following the Mid-East War and its result­ the universities, industry, and government was ing oil embargo, disturbances within the organized to examine the challenges and relationships between energy, economics, opportunities inherent in these areas. It is environment, food, materials, and international interesting to note that these areas run the gamut politics seemed to ricochet around the world. of research interest, including the physical and All this is bound to have an effect on the state biological sciences, the earth and environmental of science and technology, emphasizing that we sciences, the social sciences, and engineering. must intensify our search for new knowledge, for Reviewing these, one sees that solutions to our ways to organize and apply it more effectively for energy problems can be found through a better man's benefit. This 1974 Annual Report of the understanding of such diverse research subjects National Science Foundation reviews a program as combustion, corrosion, and catalysis; electro- that illustrates in effect how one agency of the magnetism, ecology, and economics; radiation Government is moving in that direction and effects, reaction mechanisms, and remote sens­ attempting to contribute to the amelioration and ing, to name only a few. Increased knowledge of solution of some of the problems we face as a basic phenomena can help us to develop better Nation. energy technologies, discover alternative energy In line with this major effort, the Foundation sources, and learn to live better with what will be continued to emphasize its support of basic re­ available to us. search in order to expand the frontiers of knowl­ Much of that basic knowledge acts as under­ edge in all scientific areas. The principal instru­ pinning for the energy programs being sup­ ment of such support is the Foundation's Scien­ ported by the Foundation's RANN pro­ tific Research Project Support Program, which gram—Research Applied to National Needs. funds research in the physical, environmental, RANN energy research focuses on energy biological, engineering, computing, and social systems, technologies, and resources while also sciences. The vitality and growth of all these dealing with the environmental and economic fields must be maintained if we are to have the aspects of energy. The studies on systems in­ scientific and technological wherewithall—the volve both technological and social systems, for knowledge capital—to deal intelligently with the both the operations of machines and the attitudes increasingly complex relationships within our and activities of people have a great bearing on society and with the natural world. our conservation and effective use of energy. In reviewing the Foundation's programs, one From the standpoint of technologies and re­ will discover that the varied research projects sources, the RANN programs continue heavy em­ fall into certain broad areas related to our phasis on solar and geothermal energy with physical and human resource needs. One such significant accomplishments toward proving the DIRECTOR'S STATEMENT ix feasibility of the solar heating and cooling of terest is not only in a better understanding of the buildings. causes and nature of these hazards but in The Nation's energy situation has brought into developing measures to protect ourselves from sharper focus the interface between energy and them. Studies we support show that much can be the environment. Many programs throughout the done to mitigate disasters to save human lives Foundation are supporting projects that will pro­ and reduce the economic impact of these hazards. vide a better basis for resolving the energy- Progress along these lines has been made partic­ environment conflicts. In initiating its new pro­ ularly in understanding earthquakes and their gram on Environmental Effects of Energy, RANN effects and engineering for earthquake-resistant has begun a concerted effort to examine the structures. NSF-supported scientists have also environmental impact of old and new energy learned a great deal about hailstorms and have technologies with the intention of finding ways had some success in determining the feasibility to minimize the economic and social, as well as of suppressing their disastrous damage to crops. environmental, problems that may occur as we Tornados are another devastating meteor­ seek to improve our energy position. ological phenomenon under study. The Foundation's interests in the environment In addition to energy and environment the go far beyond its relationships to energy. The Foundation's programs are concerned with work of NSF's directorates involves such far- another broad area related to our immediate and ranging environmental interests as the biological future well-being—that is, the matter of re­ effects of environmental changes on mankind sources. As President Ford has stated, "One of and throughout the entire ecosystem, and the the essential lessons of the recent energy crisis is effects of our industry and technologies on our that if we are to prevent shortages of natural re­ natural systems—our lakes, rivers, oceans, and sources in the future, we must plan for the future atmosphere. Their programs are exploring more today. Our resources, however abundant, are not broadly how all aspects of the total environment inexhaustible. They must be conserved and re­ operate. They seek a better understanding of the plenished." In our NSF programs aimed at up­ basis of our climate and weather. Through such grading our understanding and use of natural re­ an understanding, perhaps we will be able to ad­ sources, as in our energy programs, there is no i dress the all-important question, "Is our climate one repository of research support. Rather, our changing, and if so, how?" Through large-scale relationships to resources, both renewable and international research projects, such as the nonrenewable, are reflected throughout many Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP), and diverse programs. Examples of this are the Mid-Ocean Dynamics (MODE) field experi­ striking. Take, for instance, the matter of ment, the Climate: Long-term Investigation, food—one of our most important renewable re­ Mapping and Prediction (CLIMAP) program, and sources. Among the programs supported by our other programs on land, in the seas, and in the air, Research Directorate is a large one being con­ we are pursuing basic information that will help ducted in cooperation with the Environmental us answer this question and others about climate Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of and weather. Answers to these questions could Agriculture investigating the possibilities of the prove vital to human survival. If large-scale biological regulation of pests—pests which take weather and climate changes lie ahead, any ad­ a huge annual toll of our food and forest crops. vance warnings on them might buy us some time Success in this field might not only reduce the to cope with them, to act in anticipation of their large losses of food and forest products incurred possible effects on world food production and annually but might do so without the need for other essential areas. chemical pesticides with their sometimes un­ We are, of course, confronted daily with im­ desirable environmental and health effects. mediate as well as long-range environmental Another biological research program related to challenges. The Foundation's programs have be­ food, the program on nitrogen fixation, is con­ come increasingly involved in the study of some cerned with both the possibility of improving of nature's constant threats to man—in the form food production and allowing us to cut down on of earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, hailstorms, the huge demand for synthetic fertilizer. If scien­ and other extreme meteorological events. Our in­ tists were able to develop more plants that are X DIRECTOR'S STATEMENT

capable of biologically fixing their nitrogen physics, chemistry, engineering, and the earth needs in the soil, we could eliminate some of the and materials sciences are telling us more about large energy demand involved in chemical fertili­ the properties of, and prospects for using a zer production and at the same time reduce some greater number of the substances that comprise of the environmental and health problems asso­ the planet's crust, waters, and atmosphere. We ciated with excessive runoff of nitrates into our have to understand these better and become more water systems. versatile in our use of them as our demands grow, Food-related research is also conducted both in terms of dealing with relatively shrink­ through our programs investigating the living re­ ing supplies, and meeting the challenges of more sources in our oceans and coastal zones. By demanding technologies. We must understand studying the upwelling phenomena that bring also the consequences of using such resources nutrients up from the depths of the sea and sus­ and technologies. The relationship between them tain its food chain, and by investigating the im­ can be seen most obviously in the demands such pact of human activities on sea and shore life, energy systems as coal gasification plants, NSF-supported scientists are learning much that nuclear power stations, and solar energy sys­ can help us improve our management of these tems make on our materials needs, calling for im­ valuable resources. proved resistance to corrosion, stress and heat, Studies supported by the Foundation's pro­ increased conductivity and reflectivity, and grams are involved with many renewable re­ other, more exotic properties. sources other than those which can serve as food. An important aspect of achieving a greater use Among these are sources of energy and building and control over the world's physical resources is materials. Interest is growing in the bio- gaining a better understanding of our human re­ conversion of animal and plant materials into sources. For this reason, an important part of the solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels. As a result, we Foundation's work is concerned with education, are funding research into the potential of a the social sciences, economics, productivity, and marine energy farm that can grow many square programs of international scientific cooperation miles of kelp to be converted to burnable methane and technology transfer. gas, the use of land farms capable of growing Our Science Education Improvement Pro­ plants for fuel, as well as for food and industrial grams are centered around three major thrusts: chemical byproducts, and the economics of using the improvement of science education for those agricultural waste as a major source of energy. who seek careers in science; its improvement for One of our most useful renewable resources scientific literacy—for those who will need a bet­ has always been wood, which has served man for ter understanding of science even though they centuries as a source of fuel, paper, and building are not entering scientific careers; and the materials. In spite of all our experience with this improvement of the efficiency and effectiveness great resource, there is the belief that we have of the educational process itself. These efforts vastly underrated its value and potential. We are should help to supply the well-trained scientific therefore pursuing a program of wood engin­ and technical manpower the Nation needs, while eering that is revealing many new and better at the same time giving us leaders, managers, and ways we can use wood, ways that will improve citizens better able to conduct the affairs of a both the engineering and economic aspects of its society increasingly dependent on wisely used use. science and technology. Concern over current and projected material Upgrading the Nation's science and en­ shortages is also focusing our attention more gineering education to achieve these ends is a strongly on research involving nonrenewable re­ long process in which new goals are met by sources. Here again the Foundation's programs developing new materials and methods for run a gamut of interests and are showing a instruction, training teachers and adminis­ variety of results. The Seabed Assessment pro­ trators in their use, and implementing the gram has sponsored research that is indicating improvements within the educational system. potential sites for new oil production as well as We are making progress in this direction, and are revealing potential sources of heavy metals in also initiating programs to help deal with asso­ sediments on the ocean floor. Programs in ciated problems such as the disproportionately DIRECTOR'S STATEMENT xi low number of women and members of ethnic drain on resources and improve the quality of minorities in the Nation's scientific and tech­ life. In this report you will see the Foundation's nological community. increasing interest in productivity in both the To make better use of our human resources we private and public sectors. Private sector need a better understanding of the human being, productivity programs are focusing on such his social behavior and institutions. We are areas as enzyme technology, extractive metal­ trying to achieve this through support of the lurgy, instrumentation, and automation. Re­ social sciences. Characteristically, our knowl­ search in these areas could allow us to reap vast edge of why we act the way we do, both as new benefits from nature at less cost and with individuals and in our institutions, and what we less impact. can do to improve ourselves, has always lagged Public sector productivity research is helping our understanding and control of physical forces. to spread the fruits of scientific and tech­ It also lags our political action. As Marc }. nological knowledge throughout the Nation, Roberts of Harvard recently pointed out, "Be­ particularly as related to improving services in cause social science is a camp-follower to public State and local governments. It operates as a controversy, social and economic policy is often form of science and technology revenue sharing, made at a time when only the slimmest scientific transferring many benefits developed at the Fed­ results are available." One can see this partic­ eral level to States and municipalities and ularly today in the Nation's and the world's dif­ helping the States and cities nurture and use ficulty in trying to understand and deal with available resources in the universities and in­ rapidly changing economic conditions. Much of dustry. There is a growing recognition that we the emphasis of the Foundation's programs in the need this type of cooperative effort, that in fact social sciences is directed toward strengthening we must become a more totally cooperative their scientific base. Historians of science tell us society to live with and manage the complexities that the skepticism sometimes directed today of today's and tomorrow's life. against the social sciences resembles closely the Such complexities and the degree of coopera­ criticism directed against chemistry and physics tion they call for extend globally and demand an in the early days of their development as increasing amount of international cooperation. sciences. By our efforts to develop sound As a result the Foundation now finds itself in­ methods and reliable data through social science volved in a number of growing international pro­ we may someday have a better handle, so to grams. These programs fall into two broad cate­ speak, on our social systems and prevent some of gories, though administratively they come under the human hardships and dislocations that take many arrangements. There are those programs in place with unpredicted, uncontrolled, and often which our scientists and those of other nations traumatic economic and social change. work side by side, share facilities, and seek In addition to developing a better under­ common objectives. These are characterized by standing of our human resources and how they such "big science" projects as the Global Atmos­ operate, we are interested in improving their pheric Research Program (GARP], whose first operations. One important aspect of "applied major effort GATE—the GARP Atlantic Tropical human resources" is productivity, that relation­ Experiment—took place last summer, and the ship between the output of goods and services latest work of the GJomar ChaJJenger in the Deep and the input of labor, capital, land, energy, and Sea Drilling Project. There are also those other resources that produced them. Today cooperative scientific activities in which scien­ productivity has taken on added importance be­ tists of many nations exchange visits, work in cause of such factors as increased competition in each other's laboratories, and share scientific international trade and the soaring cost of energy information. An extension of this latter activity, and materials. Therefore, we are highly con­ which had its roots far back in the history of cerned with the efficiency and effectiveness of science, is the transfer of technology. The producing goods and services, with the ability to Foundation is now involved in a growing num­ do more with less—less material, energy, and ber of bilateral agreements and agreements for environmental impact. If we can substantially cooperation through which we are not only improve our productivity we can reduce the sharing information but exchanging technology xii DIRECTOR'S STATEMENT

that could have a profound bearing on the • Assistance in developing guidelines for economic and social development of other areas transmission to the Chairman of the Atomic of the world. Energy Commission for use in developing a 5- As the Foundation's role and responsibilities year, $10-billion energy R&D agenda. grew in fiscal year 1974 so did those of its • Assistance to the Office of Management Director. This year saw the Director of the and Budget in analyzing agency submissions in Foundation assume the additional role of Science the energy R&D area for the fiscal year 1975 bud­ Adviser to the President. This resulted from the get. Presidential announcement, through the Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1973, that he was re­ • Development of a Critical Path Analysis ducing the size of his Executive Office and re­ of Project Independence. turning more responsibilities to operating agen­ • Support to the Director as Chairman of the cies. In the Reorganization Plan, the Office of White House R&D Advisory Council. Science and Technology was abolished and its functions were assigned to the Director of NSF. To assist the Director in carrying out his In addition to his role as Science Adviser, the broadened responsibilities, he established two Director was designated to serve as Chairman of advisory groups, a Science and Technology the Federal Council on Science and Technology Policy Office (STPO) and an Office of Energy Re­ [FCST). One of the initial activities of the FCST search and Development Policy (OEP). Both of­ was a review of the committee structure to im­ fices, after building highly qualified staffs, have prove its relevance and effectiveness. New been providing valuable input to the Science Ad­ committees have been established on materials, viser in his effort to strengthen Federal science the International Geodynamics Program, and programs. domestic technology transfer. Committees which The STPO has focused its analytical capa­ have completed their objectives and have been bility on the assessment of emerging science and terminated are the Committee on International technology issues, reviewed R&D budgets of the Technology Transfer and the Committee on R&D-performing Federal agencies, and Ecological Research. developed science and technology policy op­ tions. Some of the major areas of interest which Throughout the pages of this annual report the STPO staff is addressing include: a world there is evidence that our relationship with the food and population study, materials, social re­ world of nature and the world of man is rapidly search and development, industrial research and changing, and that the shrinking of space, the development, international science and tech­ collapse of time, and the growing use and abuse nology issues, environmental and health re­ of our physical world—all accredited in large search, facilities for high energy physics re­ measure to the growth and use of science and search, space program activities, and tech­ technology—are inevitably making greater de­ nology transfer. STPO conducts a program of mands on science and technology. More than that outside grant and contract support in addition to they are making demands on the men and women drawing upon in-house NSF staff expertise. who have inherited this legacy of human knowl­ The OEP has been providing technical sup­ edge which has become a dominating force of port to Executive Office of the President entities civilization. They are challenging the scientist such as the Office of Management and Budget and the citizen both to adapt to change and and the Federal Energy Administration. In addi­ master change, to understand growth and con­ tion, it provides coordination of R&D policy trol growth, and to do this within the framework among all energy R&D-performing agencies. of a better knowledge of what we are and what Some specific activities of the OEP include: we might become. Ultimately, science and tech­ nology are but means to these ends, and it is to • Technical and staff support to the these ends that the National Science Foundation Director as Chairman of the R&D Committee of continues to dedicate all its efforts as it helps to the Federal Power Commission National Power support and guide the Nation's scientific enter­ Survey. prise.

RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 3

Research Project Support Activities

A major responsibility of the Na­ tion for action by a Foundation pro­ plan and coordinate the work sup­ tional Science Foundation is to sup­ gram officer. In some disciplines, ported through the Scientific Re­ port and strengthen fundamental re­ proposals may also be reviewed by search Project Support program. search in all fields of science. assembled panels, and certain pro­ Forty-four areas of energy-related re­ Scientific Research Project Support, posals are reviewed by the National search have been tentatively identif­ managed by the Research Director­ Science Board. ied as having a close relationship to ate through more than 80 program In selecting proposals for support, presently perceived solutions to the offices, is the Foundation's principal the Foundation seeks those of highest energy problem. To sharpen under­ program for this purpose. Approxi­ merit, evaluating such factors as the standing of the research opportuni­ mately 13,000 proposals were acted relationship of the proposed work to ties in energy-related basic re­ on in fiscal year 1974, representing the state of knowledge in the field, search, the Foundation is sponsor­ essentially all fields of the environ­ the probability that the research will ing a series of workshops to bring to­ mental, physical, life, computer, en­ contribute significantly to the field, gether experts from colleges and u- gineering, and social sciences, as well the soundness of the research plan, niversities, industry, and govern­ as mathematics. Of this number and the qualifications of the investi­ ment to identify key problems. The 6,400, or 49 percent, resulted in gator to successfully carry it out. The workshops are outlining energy re­ awards totaling $281 million, as com­ final recommendation for support de­ search opportunities that will con­ pared with 44 percent in fiscal year pends upon the availability of funds tribute to orderly but imaginative de­ 1973. The distribution, number, and allocated to that particular field. In velopment of priority research pro­ amount of grants according to field of making its distribution by fields grams. science for fiscal years 1972, 1973, within the project support program, Foundation involvement in the and 1974 are shown in Table 1. the Foundation considers the dy­ U.S.-U.S.S.R. Cooperative Agree­ Grants were awarded to 456 institu­ namics and trends in support by ment on Science and Technology was tions, including 321 colleges and other funding sources of each field, substantially increased in 1974 with universities, in all 50 States, the the relative readiness of the differ­ the obligation of $3.4 million from the District of Columbia, and Puerto ent areas of research to move ahead, Scientific Research Project Support Rico; 93 percent of the funds went to and national priorities for scientific program to support U.S. scientists academic institutions. Table 2 shows resources. engaged in cooperative scientific the average distribution in fiscal year In response to the world crisis in activities jointly approved by the 1974 for approved cost items on the energy resources, a major Federal ef­ two countries. Principal emphasis in research grants. fort was launched in 1974 to enhance 1974 was on microbial synthesis, Essentially all proposals to the Re­ energy resource availability. An-im­ computer applications to manage­ search Directorate are unsolicited, portant component of this effort is re­ ment, chemical catalysis, and science and most are submitted by academic search to broaden our base of scien­ policy studies. A number of working institutions in the United States. tific understanding of many aspects group meetings have been held in Support at those institutions affords of the problem. A significant part of both countries, resulting in agree­ graduate students an opportunity for the research responsibility has been ments for further expansion of research experience under the assigned to the National Science cooperative activity. direction of research scientists as a Foundation, with the Research Di­ The following chapter discusses byproduct of the quest for new sci­ rectorate focusing particularly on some highlights of recent research entific knowledge. Proposals are re­ those problems in basic research that supported by the Research viewed and evaluated by active re­ relate in some important way to Directorate. Also included are scien­ searchers in the field represented, as problems of energy. Much of the on­ tific highlights of activities of the Na­ well as by Foundation staff. On the going research supported in 1974 and tional Research Centers. Activities average, 3 to 5 reviewers are asked to prior years is related to energy re­ under the two national programs ad- comment on a particular proposal; in search needs, and this effort will be ministered by the Research the course of a year between 18,000 expanded. To provide management Directorate—the International and 20,000 different reviewers, ser­ emphasis to this urgent national pro­ Biological Program and the Global ving without compensation, are gram, an Office of Energy-Related Atmospheric Research Pro­ called upon to assist in this process, General Research has been estab­ gram—are covered in a later chapter which culminates in a recommenda­ lished in the Research Directorate to with other national programs. UBRARY RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

Table 1

Scientific Reseatch Ptoject Suppott Fiscal Yeats 1972, 1973, and 1974

[Dollars in millions]

Fiscal year 1972 Fiscal year 1973 Fiscal year 1974 Number Amount Number Amount Number Amount Astronomy 135 $ 8.01 170 $ 8.80 161 $ 9.30 Atmosptieric Sciences 218 11.71 232 11.93 242 12.24 Biological Sciences 1,644 54.00 1,584 56.22 1,641 58.93 Ciiemistry 633 24.52 675 25.08 730 26.65 Earttt Sciences 257 9.48 296 9.76 284 11.01 Engineering 665 25.43 663 26.16 711 28.09 Ptiysics 271 33.28 298 34.88 315 36.73 Social Sciences 619 22.45 635 23.63 617 24.92 Materials Research 392 33.39 409 34.97 469 35.56 Oceanograpliy 273 12.55 287 12.66 299 13.34 Mathematical Sciences 693 13.75 758 14.06 766 14.50 Computer Research 155 12.54 131 9.90 165 9.76 TOTAt 5,955 $261.11 6,138 $268.05 6,400 $281.03

Table 2

Scientific Reseatch Ptojects, Avetage Disttibution of Funds by Type of Expenditutes for Fiscal Yeats 1972, 1973, and 1974

Fiscal year 1972 Fiscal year 1973 Fiscal year 1974 Percent Percent Percent Amount of total Amount of total Amount of total Professional Personnel Faculty $6,458 14.7 $6,332 14.5 $6,543 14.9 Research Associates 3,295 7.5 3,232 7.4 3,337 7.6 Research Assistants 5,096 11.6 5,022 11.5 4,830 11.0 Other Professional 1,977 4.5 1,878 4.3 1,844 4.2 Total—Professional Personnel 16,826 38.3 16,464 37.7 16,554 37.7 Other Personnel 3,471 7.9 3,275 7.5 3,161 7.2 Fringe Benefits 1,801 4.1 1,922 4.4 2,064 4.7 Total-Salaries and Wages 22,098 50.3 21,661 49.6 21,779 49.6 Permanent Equipment 2,460 5.6 2,402 5.5 2,371 5.4 Expendable Equipment and Supplies 3,119 7.1 3,144 7.2 2,986 6.8 Travel 1,318 3.0 1,310 3.0 1,361 3.1 Publication and Printing 659 1.5 655 1.5 615 1.4 Computing Costs 1,142 2.6 1,092 2.5 1,098 2.5 Other Costs 2,592 5.9 2,926 6.7 2,898 6.6 Total Direct Costs 33,388 76.0 33,190 76.0 33,108 75.4 Indirect Costs 10,544 24.0 10,481 24.0 10,802 24.6 Total Average Grant $43,932 lOOO $43,671 im> $43,910 100.0 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 5

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES

During the past year public con­ tions of some of our grantees to solu­ energy transduction, conservation, cern has increasingly focused the tion of energy problems, a large frac­ and storage devices is a lack of Federal Government's attention on tion of the division's existing re­ fundamental knowledge in these research and development efforts re­ search projects, which are sup­ areas.) lated to the Nation's energy prob­ ported for their basic research in­ Therefore, our focusing on those lem. The Mathematical and Physical terest, also have energy implica­ areas of basic research possessing Sciences Division has participated in tions. Of course, the bulk of the pro­ strong energy implications will not activities supporting such efforts. gram continues to be dedicated to appreciably distort the character of NSF grantees, non-NSF-supported high-priority basic research and not the research we already support. In scientists, NSF staff, industry directly related to energy, as typi­ point of fact, no attempt, beyond the spokesmen, and other Federal of­ fied by research results reported on obvious step of requiring that ficials have, within recent months, the following pages. However, this energy-relatedness be feasible conducted workshops on energy- report could just as easily have cited within the foreseeable future, has related topics and prepared reports, examples that are energy related. For been made to narrow the list of re­ suitable for publication, defining the instance, research in physics could search areas that would be eligible dimensions of the problem areas. have been represented by a descrip­ for any energy-related research Some of the research areas in which tion of a calculation of the dynamics funds that might be specially pro­ workshops have been held or are of pellet compression, which allows vided in future years. Consequently, planned are: electrochemistry, optimization of energy production in the list of energy-related research catalysis, atomic and molecular laser fusion. In chemistry, any one of areas spans a wide spectrum (cataly­ physics, chemistry of coal, and col­ a number of electrochemistry proj­ sis, thermodynamics, physical and loid science and oil recovery. These ects relevant to the kinetics chemical separation, radiation workshops are part of a continuing mechanism, thermodynamics, and effects, optimization, systems effort to inform the scientific com­ transport properties of ions and theory, plasma dynamics, munity of the scientific needs of in­ electrons through liquid, solid, and instrumentation, etc.) with a wide dustry and government and to in­ gaseous media might have been men­ range of potential application (pollu­ form industry and government tioned. [Our electrochemistry work­ tion monitors, energy storage, fusion decisionmakers of the options that shop has determined that the prin­ devices, improved industrial proc­ research might make available. cipal impediment limiting the rate of esses, more efficient energy utiliza­ In addition to the direct contribu­ progress in the development of tion, etc.).

PHYSICS

Doppler-Free Spectroscopy The theory of two-photon transi­ Phys. Rev. Letters carried articles by tions was first discussed in 1929. But several groups—Harvard, MIT, and In one of those events so typical of experimental observations in the one in France—which almost simul­ research, four groups have in­ visible region have only become pos­ taneously have succeeded in ob­ dependently and almost simul­ sible over the past 10 or 12 years as serving two-photon absorption. Still taneously demonstrated two-photon strong laser sources became avail­ more recently the Stanford group re­ absorption in sodium vapor without able. In 1970 a Soviet group pointed ported that they had observed the blurring from Doppler broadening. out the possibility of using two- absorption with a low-power cw The technique appears to open up a photon transitions for high-resolu­ laser and obtained much narrower new way of achieving high-resolu­ tion spectroscopy without Doppler lines than the other groups. tion spectroscopy with tunable broadening. A recent visit by V. S. The experiments involve directing lasers. It also can be used, for Letokhov of the Institute of Spectro­ a beam from a tunable laser through example, to induce photochemical re­ scopy in Moscow to Cambridge and the gas under study, and then re­ actions selectively, to separate iso­ to Stanford, in which he discussed flecting it back along the same path. topes, or to provide more precise this idea, seems to have stimulated The optical transitions to be studied values for the Rydberg constant and groups at Harvard and Stanford to are those which cannot be seen in Lamb shifts. attempt the experiment. Recently ordinary spectroscopy: They con-

565-982 O - 75 - 2 6 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

nect states of the same parity anti so consequent emission of light of a dif­ molecule, the light frequency of one can only occur by the simultaneous ferent wavelength from the excited laser beam will appear shifted up­ absorption of two photons, whose atoms. ward. But the frequency of the light frequencies or quantum energies add The new method has several un­ in the oppositely directed beam will up to the required amount. Thus, usual properties. The energy ab­ be shifted downward by exactly the absorption can occur when an atom sorbed is the ^um of the energies of same amount, and so the sum of the or molecule absorbs one photon from the two photons, so that visible light frequencies is not affected by the the original laser beam and another can produce the effects of ultra­ molecular motion. Consequently, as from the reflected beam propagating violet. Moreover, the troublesome the laser is tuned, extremely sharp in the opposite direction. As the laser Doppler broadening from the ran­ resonances are observed and fine de­ is tuned, there is a sharp absorption dom thermal motions of the mole­ tails are revealed. The individual resonance, which is detected by the cules is eliminated. To a moving components are observed to have fractional line widths of about two parts in a hundred million, or less than 1 percent of the Doppler- broadened line width. Morever, the new technique has an PHOTO important advantage over other MULTIPLIER •TO RECORDER methods of avoiding Doppler UV-FILTER C 1 broadening, such as atomic beams AI LIGHT PIPE OPT. and saturation spectroscopy. The ISOLATOR earlier methods select a small frac­ tion of the molecules which happen to AR + CW \ T / —? DYE be traveling in a particular direction LASER LASER NA transverse to the light beam. In the LENS CELL MIRROR two-photon method, all of the atoms F = IOcm R = IOcm TO MONITOR can be excited, as the effects of their OVEN random velocities are eliminated. Thus, this method seems partic­ ularly attractive for selective laser photochemistry, such as isotope separation.

No 3s^ S - 4d^D Unification of a Elementary Particle Interactions

The interactions of elementary b c particles appear to be confined to four broad categories. Gravity and eJectromagnetism are long-range forces experienced in the everyday world. Strong interactions, which hold protons and neutrons together r in the atomic nucleus, have a range of about 10-" centimeter. Weak inter­ 1 1 r L'S — actions, which are manifested only in 500 1000 1500 certain kinds of collisions or decay Av (MHz) • processes, have a range of less than 10"" centimeter. The apparent dis­ parity is partially alleviated by In an experimental arrangement for two-photon spectroscopy of sodium vapor knowledge that relativity and quan­ (lop), a beam from a tunable laser is directed through a cell of sodium gas to a tum mechanics lead us to a mathe­ rnirror and then reflected back along the same path. Within the cell, an atom of matical formalism, quantum field sodium absorbs one photon from the original laser beam and another from the theory, in which elementary-particle reflecting beam, thus imparling the sum of the energies of [he two photons to the interactions can all be explained by atom. As the laser is tuned, extremely sharp resonances are observed (bottom) and fine details are revealed in the structure of a single line ol atoiriic sodium. the exchange of elementary particles JIESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 7

themselves. The different inter­ action ranges then become a conse­ quence of the uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics, which can only be satisfied if the range of a force is inversely proportional to the mass of the exchanged particle. Thus, electromagnetism and gravity, which seem to be of infinite range, are due to the exchange of particles of zero mass [the familiar photon and the hypo­ thetical graviton), and the strong interactions are generally believed to arise from the exchange of a large variety of strongly interacting particles (protons, neutrons, mesons, and hyperons of various kinds). Since the weak interactions have a much shorter range than the strong interactions, they must be produced by the exchange of much heavier particles, presumably particles too heavy to have yet been created with existing accelerators. A quantum field theory tells us how to calculate the rate for any process in terms of a sum of individ­ ual processes (involving particle ex­ changes), each symbolized by a Feyn­ man diagram. In the late 1940's I I several investigators independently I found a limited class of field theories I in which the infinities arising in Feynman diagrams with loops occur only as corrections of the funda­ mental parameters of the theory (such as masses and charges). These infinities could be eliminated if one identified the corrected parameters With the measured values listed in tables of the fundamental constants. But problems remained. For the strong interactions there is no lack of possible renormalizable theories; rather, the trouble is that the strength of the interaction invali­ dates any simple approximation scheme, and other calculational schemes have not yet achieved satis­ factory agreement with experi­ Evidence has recently been found for neutral currents in interactions of elemen­ mental values. Gravitational effects tary particles. Such evidence supports theories of a connection between two of are so weak that one can get no help the four forces in nature—electrotnagnetic forces and weak interactions. This drawing, based on experiments at the Argonne National Laboratory, shows an from experimental measurements, at example of neutral-current process distinguished by the absence of outgoing their current level of precision, in negative muon or proton tracks. Tracks are left only by charged particles—the finding the correct theory. However, positive pion (7r+) which has split from the incoming neutrino (Vu) and decays the weak interactions are strong inlo a positive muon [u+), which then decays into a positive electron (e+) visible as a tightly wound spiral. [After Scisntific American] enough so that there is good experi- 8 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

mental tlata, and yet weak enough so electron. Therefore, a theory uni­ intermediate vector basons can be that approximate calculations are fying the weak and electromagnetic produced directly, the best way to practicable. Therefore, it is not sur­ forces would have to find a family test the theory is to look for effects prising that the most significant re­ relationship between the massless attributable to the newly predicted cent efforts of theorists seeking a uni­ photon, which intermediates the neutral intermediate vector boson. fied field theory have focused on the electromagnetic force, and the mas­ The best such test is provided by the weak and electromagnetic inter­ sive intermediate vector boson. fact that only the neutral inter­ actions. In 1967 it was suggested that there mediate vector boson can contribute It has been known for inaiiy years" existed' a so-called "briJ^lc^rr gatlgF- to processes such as the elastic scat­ that the Maxwell field equations of symmetry group" that forces the tering of neutrinos by protons or neu­ electromagnetism obey a gauge sym­ photon and the intermediate vector trons. metry, based on the group of rota­ boson into such a single family. The Within the past year evidence for tions in two, rather than in three, proposed group contains within it the neutral-current (neutral inter­ dimensions. And, for many years it unbroken gauge-symmetry group of mediate vector boson) processes has had been speculated that the dif­ electromagnetism and therefore re­ at last begun to appear. Experiments ference in the apparent strengths of quires the photon to have zero mass, at various laboratories (including the weak and electromagnetic inter­ but the other members of the photon's one by an NSF grantee, Wonyong Lee actions was due simply to the large family are associated with broken of Columbia University, using the mass of the particle exchanged in the symmetries and therefore pick up a Brookhaven AGS), have detected a weak interactions. Because this ex­ large mass from the symmetry- number of events in which muon- change involves transfer of one unit breaking. In the simplest version of type antineutrinos are inelastically of angular momentum, the hypo­ this theory both charged (39.8 proton scattered by protons or neutrons, thetical particle exchanged is called masses) and neutral (79.6 proton without the production of a muon. the intermediate vector boson. Since masses) intermediate vector bosons Such scattering events can appa­ at low energies the apparent strength are relatives of the photon. rently only be explained by the ex­ of the weak force is roughly 1,000 In 1967 there was no experimental change of a neutral intermediate times weaker than the electro­ evidence for or against this theory. vector boson (a neutral current) and magnetic force, its participation in However, it subsequently did pass an are therefore direct evidence for a nuclear beta decay means that it internal test that could be made with­ new kind of weak interaction. More­ must carry a positive or negative out help from experiment, in that its over, the inferred collision rates charge equal in magnitude to the renormalizability was demon­ agree well with rates predicted by the charge of the proton or of the strated in 1971. Until such time as new theory.

CHEMISTRY

Advances in Chromatography components can be identified and in solute migration times through the measured. A very powerful group of packed bed, the migration time being The importance of the tools of separation methods are those using related to distribution equilibrium. chemical analysis is reflected in the the process of chromatography. With Barry Karger at Northeastern diverse activities using them. Tech­ these methods chemical constit­ University has been studying niques devised for fundamental uents with very small differences in various aspects of gas and liquid scientific research soon find their properties (e.g., vapor pressure, solu­ chromatography with the overall way into everyday use in clinical bility) can be separated, measured, goal of improving the methods in medicine, food production, public and often identified. terms of speed, convenience, preci­ health operations, pollution control, Chromatographic separations are sion, and applicability. He has been and a host of other routine en­ based on differences in distribution examining the determ.ination of op­ deavors contributing to our health behavior of substances between two timum separation conditions in and well-being. insoluble phases, one of which is temperature-programming gas One of the major problems that usually mobile. The mobile phase chromatography. In this pro­ chemists face in developing these may be a gas (gas chromatography) gramming method, the temperature analytical tools is that samples to be or a liquid (liquid chromatography), of the packed bed or column is varied analyzed are often too complex for while the stationary phase is either a at a controlled rate. Since migration direct measurement. Consequently, packed bed (adsorbent) or a liquid time in gas chromatography is pre­ chemical separation techniques are coated on a porous solid (partition). dominately a function of vapor pres­ needed to simplify mixtures so their Separation results from differences sure, temperature programming RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 9

one time column liquid chroma­ tography was characterized as a slow and inefficient process, but recent work has made this method fast, with performance comparable to gas chromatography. This relates to the fact that column conditions [e.g., temperature, liquid mobile phase) correspond most closely to those needed for pharmaceuticals, bio- chemicals, and drugs of abuse. Dr. Karger has also been active in the developments of modern liquid chromatography. Under NSF support he built a computer-con­ trolled liquid chromatographic unit that is useful as a powerful separa­ tion unit, as well as a precise analy­ tical instrument. He has indentified many of the factors that determine precision in migration time and quantitation, and by careful control of conditions he is able to reproduce In studies of gas and liquid chromatography, Barry Karger at Northeastern Uni­ migration time to 0.1 percent rela­ versity works to find optimum methods of separating chemical components to be tive standard deviation and identified and measured. [Photo by JET) quantitation to 0.2 percent relative standard deviation. These results are important when one wishes to iden­ tify substances (e.g., drugs of abuse) allows one to separate a much wider the chromatographic properties of a by their migration times or wishes to boiling point range of solutes than series of phases in which the alkyl determine the amount of substances simple constant temperature opera­ structure of the primary alcohols was [e.g., analysis of body fluids to deter­ tion. He has developed a method by varied while the straight chain length mine disease stages) by their finger­ which optimum temperature pro­ remained constant at eight carbons, prints. In this work Dr. Karger has gramming conditions can be rapidly he showed the bonded phases to be also produced liquid chromato­ determined for unknown complex unique for the separation of graphic columns with very high effi­ mixtures through the use of a mini­ relatively small polar molecules. ciencies [70,000 to 90,000 plates per computer. Temperature is only one of Column efficiencies were remark­ meter) using very small adsorbent a number of chromatographic para­ ably high, revealing these phases to particles (about 3 microns in dia­ meters that need to be optimized, and be quite suited to a variety of com­ meter). These are currently used in Dr. Karger is applying the same prin­ plex separation problems. Finally, the separation of complex mixtures. ciples to specify other optimum his work revealed the clear im­ A striking example of the applica­ conditions. portance of adsorption over parti­ tion of chromatography has resulted Dr. Karger has also been investi­ tion in the equilibrium process. from the research of Harry Svec and gating the use of chemically bonded These results are important in the James Fritz at Iowa State Univer­ phases for chromatography. An ad­ understanding of the relationship of sity. Although the potable water sup­ sorbent, such as silica, has a surface these phases to other stationary plies of cities and towns are com­ that is quite heterogeneous and re­ phases in gas chromatography. monly analyzed for hardness, other active, leading to poor separation and Liquid chromatography has under­ inorganic constituents, and biolog­ precision. The surface is commonly gone the greatest development of any ical organisms, relatively little is deactivated by the addition of small separation method over the past 5 known about the soluble organic amounts of water or modified by the years. While gas chromatography compounds that are present attachment of a different substance. works best for volatile compounds, naturally or result from some He selected the latter approach for liquid chromatography is well suited contamination. The pressing need for study, and studied the phases formed to the separation of higher molecular such information has been widely from reaction of primary alcohols weight substances, ionic species, and recognized. This lack of information with the silica surface. In examining thermally unstable compounds. At about the organic content of water 10 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

exists primarily because, until University procedure. Analysis of these cases, even the specific isomer recently, there was no general analy­ raw and treated water samples from has been identified), many of which tical method for identifying soluble municipal drinking water supplies of are common in water supplies. In organic compounds that may be pres­ 15 cities in Iowa and Nebraska many cases the raw water is less ent in concentrations substantially showed neutral organic impurities contaminated than the treated water. less than 1 part per million (ppm). ranging from 0.019 to 79 ppb. The Presumably the additional most common neutral organic contamination results from the In 1972 and 1973 Drs. Svec and materials found in the drinking water treating equipment or even the Fritz, working mainly under the supplies are: organic coatings (tar or asphalt) used sponsorship of the NSF (with addi­ to prevent corrosion of the iron con­ tional support from the Iowa State • Plasticizers—common constit­ duits used to transport the water to Water Resources Research Institute uents of tubes, hoses, and pipes consumers. and the City of Ames), developed a method for identifying and meas­ • Alkyl benzenes—common in sol­ Extensive analyses of water from uring the concentration of organic vents for paints, insecticides, anti­ ten wells supplying water to the city impurities present in drinking water septics, etc. of Ames, Iowa, were also done, be­ at concentration levels as low as a • Alkyl polyaromatic and heter­ cause it was known that some of the few parts per trillion (ppt). Their ocyclic compounds—active ingre­ wells were contaminated with continuing research has resulted in a dients of insecticides, wood organic compounds that had entered simple, fast analytical procedure. preservatives, sanitizing mixtures, the aquifer by leaching of residues from a coal gas plant that operated in The required amount of water for an etc. analysis has been reduced from the city until about 1920. The total approximately 100 gallons to about 1 • Common industrial sol­ impurity concentration was deter­ gallon, and studies on a large num­ vents—alcohols, ketones, phenols, mined for each well, with values ber of model compounds added to halogenated hydrocarbons, etc. ranging from 0.56 ppb to 287 ppb. As a result of these studies, Ames offi­ water in the 10 to 50 ppb concentra­ • Pre-emergent herbicides—atra- tion range show that the procedure is cials have abandoned some wells and zine and related soluble compounds. quantitatively efficient. revised pumping schedules of other Many water samples have been More than 150 compounds have al­ wells, drastically reducing the analyzed using the Iowa State ready been identified (in about half of organic contaminants.

ASTRONOMY

Recent Solar Observations Jack W. Harvey of the Kitt Peak source of solar wind enhancements National Observatory (KPNO) in which produce important disturb­ Neutral helium atoms in the atmos­ Arizona has now shown that the re­ ances in the Earth's immediate space phere in the Sun can be ionized by the gions of the Sun which do not show environment. Thus, it is important to extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray the 10,830-angstrom helium absorp­ be able to continue observation of lines emitted by the solar corona, a tion line coincide with regions below this newly found solar phenomenon low-density but very high-tempera­ a so-called "coronal hole." The for better physical understanding. ture region which forms the Sun's coronal holes are regions of the The discovery of the relationship outer atmosphere. The singly ionized corona with anomalously low bright­ between coronal holes and the pres­ helium is then able to recombine with ness, first discovered through space ence or absence of helium lines free electrons to produce highly ex­ observations made with the Or­ strengthens our understanding of the cited neutral helium. This, in turn, is biting Solar Observatory IV, and formation of the helium lines and has capable of absorbing photospheric further observed by the SKYLAB allowed observations of the coronal light at certain specific wave­ teams. They are of great interest to holes to be made from the ground as lengths, one of which is at 10,830 ang­ solar astronomers since the low well as from space. The new Kitt stroms in the near infrared region of coronal brightness is found to occur Peak vacuum solar telescope used by the spectrum. If the neutral helium over sizable areas of the solar sur­ Dr. Harvey employs silicon diode were not first ionized by radiation face and to be persistent over periods detectors which have a high quan­ from the hot corona, this line would of many days. Furthermore, the tum efficiency in the red to near-in­ be very weak. coronal holes also appear to be the frared spectral range (7,000 to 11,000 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 11

trum of the center of the Orion Nebula a previously unknown strong emission line with a peculiarly shaped profile. After establishing the firequency of this new line at 86.2 GHz, they contacted the microwave spectroscopy group at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS). Frank Lovas and Donald Johnson of NBS suggested several possible molecular states that might be re­ sponsible for the observed emission line. Among these was a very highly excited state of silicon monoxide (SiO). This molecule has been known to be present in the interstellar medium as well as in certain types of stars. The excitation of the line re­ quired a temperature of at least 1,800° K., which seemed rather extra­ ordinary considering that up to that time the largest excitation observed was 600° K. for the water (H^) maser. A subsequent survey by Dr. Snyder, Dr. Buhl, and Norio Kaifu (NRAO/Univeristy of Tokyo) showed that the peculiar line ap­ peared even more strongly in a number of well known red giant variable stars. At about this time This spectroheliogram of the Sun was taken June 6, 1974, in the infrared portion Patrick Thaddeus and John Mather of of the spectrum in a very Hmited wavelength range. In certain dark areas, light the National Aeronautics and Space originating from the bright solar surface at this wavelength is absorbed by helium atoms in the overlying atmosphere which are in condition to absorb light Administration, and a group from the at this infrared wavelength. In other large areas, where fewer helium atoms are in University of Texas (Davis, Blain, condition to absorb light at this wavelength, bright light shines through the at­ Van Till, and Vanden Bout) used the mosphere. Such bright areas are seen on the spectroheliogram at 8 o'clock and 1 16-foot telescope at the Millimeter o'clock (indicated by arrows). These brighter areas coincide with the coronal Wave Observatory in Texas to de­ holes where the hot corona is nearly absent above that part of the solar surface. [Photo by Kitt Peak] tect two other lines of excited silicon monoxide at 43 GHz, thus confirm­ ing the rather unusual high-tempera­ ture excitation for the original line discovered in Orion. angstroms). The output of the The New Naturally The situation became even more spectroheliograph and the magneto- Occurring Maser startling when Drs. Buhl and Snyder, graph with which the telescope is along with Drs. Lovas and Johnson, equipped takes the form of measures In December 1973 Lewis E. Snyder discovered during a June 1974 of the intensity, velocity, and mag­ of the University of Virginia and observing run that the second vibra- netic field of the Sun to a resolution of David Buhl of the National Radio tionally excited state was some­ one second of arc. First results indi­ Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) times just as strong as the first (this cate that surface magnetic field were using the NRAO 36-foot milli­ state requires a temperature of configurations appear to be basical­ meter wave telescope located at Kitt 3,600°K. to excite it). To add to the ly responsible for the coronal holes, Peak in Arizona to search the radio dilemma, emission from the and studies of KPNO magnetograms spectrum of certain astronomical unexcited (or ground) state and from to elucidate this relation are under sources. During the course of this an even more highly excited, or hot­ way. search they discovered in the spec­ ter, state was not detectable. 12 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

The most reasonable explanation of the enhanced intensity of the inter­ mediately excited lines, and the com­ plete absence of the unexcited and more highly excited lines, is that the observed lines are due to maser action within a shell of dust and gas around a red giant star. The star, at a surface temperature of 2,000°K., is pumping energy into the system which, in turn, is radiating in a maser mode. Thus SiO joins three other molecules, H2O, CH, and OH, as known natural masers. The mechanism by which the star's energy is converted by the SiO molecules to these particular fre­ quencies is not yet understood, but with two lines available for study and with an energy source that is well understood—such as the giant stars—this puzzle has a good chance of being solved in the next year or two. The spiral Seyfert galaxy NGC 1068 is unusual in that most of its radiation is be­ ing emitted in the infrared wavelengths from a nucleus that is small compared to the total size of the galaxy. This photograph was taken with visible light. [Photo The Amazing Seyfert by Hale Observatories] Galaxy NGC 1068

The infrared study of astronomical lengths from a nucleus that is small A small core would imply a single objects has been a small but increas­ compared to the totgl size of the very hot source, or perhaps several ingly important part of astronomy galaxy. small sources, arising from self- for the past several years. The field is absorbed synchrotron radiation. This Seyfert galaxy is being a difficult one technically, but offers The current observations of NGC studied intensively, and scientists at great promise for future observa­ 1068 show some very interesting the Universities of Arizona, Cali­ tions. It is now known that many properties. The size of the core, using fornia, Minnesota, and Texas, and ordinary and unusual objects in the observations at 10 mdcrons, has been the California Institute of Tech­ sky emit strongly in the infrared, and measured to be about 1 second of arc. nology have made significant only by understanding the origin of At the assumed distance of NGC observations. The facilities used for the infrared radiation can we know 1068, the core would be about 200 the infrared observations were the the physical nature of such objects. light years in size, which is in agree­ telescope designed for infrared The characteristic black body radia­ ment with the size of the core meas­ observations at Mount Lemmon, near tion of the Moon, the planets, cool ured in visible light. The radiation Tucson, Ariz., and the Hale Observa­ stellar and galactic objects, and from such a large core is thus tory telescopes, including the 200- many galaxies and quasars is in the probably thermal and from heated inch telescope on Palomar Mountain infrared region. dust grains. Spectral analysis of the in California. An example of a galaxy emitting radiation from the core fails to reveal infrared radiation is the Seyfert One of the most important any strong special features in the galaxy NGC 1068. This is a spiral observations is to measure the region from 2 to 18 microns, and there galaxy with a bright inner region and angular size of the emitting region, is a rapid cutoff in the energy a less luminous outer region. Dust and therefore deduce the linear size. distribution beyond 20 microns, lanes (dark areas) and spiral areas The linear size is needed to decide which also implies thermal emission can be seen easily, and faint external whether the emission arises from a from dust particles. The measure­ spiral arms can also be traced. The thermal or nonthermal mechanism of ments do not rule out a small amount amazing feature of this galaxy is that energy generation. A large core of nonthermal emission, perhaps a it is now known to be emitting most would imply that the emission is quarter of the radiation, from an un­ of its radiation in the infrared wave­ thermal radiation from heated dust. resolved core. RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 13

MATHEMATICS

Hydrodynamic Stability is determined by an externally con­ in the proof of this criterion is trollable quantity, the Reynolds violated if the flow has infinite ex­ The need to understand the mo­ number, R [for example, if a liquid is tent, and the proof fails. Further­ tions of fluids has been the motiva­ stirred, R is some measure of the more, when the flow is time depend­ tion for a great deal of scientific stirring rate). The general problem is ent, this method requires that the dis­ research over the ages and is one of to find a critical value, Rc, of the turbances decay at every instant. the cornerstones of applied mathe­ Reynolds number such that when R is matics. One of the important ques­ less than Rc, the flow is stable, and Supported by an NSF grant at tions is that of hydrodynamic when R is greater than Rc, the system Johns Hopkins University, S.H. stability. If a small disturbance is unstable. Since the Navier-Stokes Davis and C. Von Kerczek have leaves the motions of a fluid system equations are quite complicated, developed a technique to extract an essentially unchanged, the system is exact solutions to the equations are improved stability theorem without called stable. If, on the other hand, unknown in physically realizable using the Poincare inequality. Hence, small disturbances cause a change in cases. The objective of the theory, asymptotic stability in the mean can the state of a system, the system is then, is to obtain a lower bound, Re, be proved for R less than Re, even for called unstable. on the critical Reynolds number, Rc, infinite domains. More important, Consider the motions of a fluid of for disturbances of arbitrary size; the criterion gives a larger value of R e constant density, which may be des­ that is, the existence of a number Rg for time-dependent states, since dis­ cribed by nonlinear equations [the gives a sufficient condition for the turbances may grow at any instant Navier-Stokes equations) and the stability [such that R is less than Re) but must decay "on the average" equation of conservation of mass. If of the given flow. when R is less than Re- This means a the exact solution of the system and less conservative sufficient condi­ appropriate boundary conditions are Previously, a criterion was estab­ tion for stability is obtained. This given, one may ask if the system is lished for steady flows that can be theorem has already been used by stable or unstable. To answer that, contained in a strip of finite width. CM. Homsly in the case of modu­ one must determine the conditions However, a certain mathematical lated Benard convection and found to for stability. The state of the system condition [Poincare inequality) used lead to significant improvement.

BIOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL SCIENCES

Support of basic research in the tive measurement and for protocols may seriously threaten the renew­ biological sciences has continued framed in clearly testable hypo­ able resource base of the biosphere. across a broad spectrum, enlarging theses. Man's ability to manipulate his our knowledge of the molecular and Although the increasing rigor of environment has outstripped his atomic basis of biological mech­ biological research augers well for development of the knowledge anisms and the more complex rela­ continued progress, it also makes the needed to manage these manipula­ tions which appear in the intricate inadequacy of present knowledge tions wisely. Although improved assemblies of cell organelles such as more evident. The extent to which technology may provide tentative membranes and chromosomes, and problems of food and health have answers for present shortages, the enlarging our knowledge of cells been partially resolved for parts of technologies to be used in the long themselves or collections of cells. At the world population has made the run will depend upon biological the other end of the spectrum, pro­ need to solve them for all the world consequences which cannot now be gress is being made in describing seem both more possible and more predicted with any precision. A great complex mental processes by urgent. These same successes have, deal more attention will have to be di­ examining ways in which sensory however, helped to create new prob­ rected to applied research in biology, stimuli are processed and responses lems. Rapidly increasing popula­ which seeks to find the best answer generated in the central nervous tions and aspirations which may out­ within the limitations of current system. At all levels, research in biol­ run available supplies of energy and knowledge. At least equally import­ ogy continues to be characterized by nonrenewable resources, and which ant is a much more rapid expansion an increasing demand for quantita­ lead to environmental degradation, of the basic understanding of the 14 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

interactions in complex biological Within the Lake Washington develop. In predator-free laboratory systems, and the development of a population of a minute crustacean populations of mixtures of the three much sounder understanding of zooplankton, Bosmina Jongirostris, forms, the rapidly reproducing inter­ human beings and the factors that W.T. Edmonson, and W. Charles mediate morph will quickly replace shape our aspirations and behavior. Kerfoot of the University of both types of extremes, illustrating Responses to these needs of Washington have been studying an that they are more competitive and necessity have been limited in fiscal interesting spatial and temporal pat­ efficient in converting algae and year 1974, but continuing attention is tern of polymorphism similar to pat­ available nutrients to growth given to ways in which the bits- terns observable in other lakes. materials. But in the lake, survival logical sciences program might be These patterns have long been a depends more on the ability to escape more responsive to the needs and puzzle to biologists, and the recent predation than on metabolic effi­ opportunities in basic research. work of the Edmonson-Kerfoot team ciency. Progress made under the Inter­ provides the explanation, pre­ The late season dominance of the national Biological Program has viously unconsidered, that they two extreme morphs of Bosmina in made it clear that a strong effort result from the differential effect of different parts of the lake is the result should continue in the examination two classes of predation. of two quite different kinds of preda­ of ecological processes within a sys­ The different kinds of body forms tion. One is the visual selection of tems framework. Consequently, the of Bosmina are found in different individual prey by young fish in the Ecosystem Analysis Program will parts of the lake in the fall of the year. shallows. The other is the blind, continue to play a very significant The open-water population is the grasping, predation by the large role in the activities of the division. " 1 o n g - f e a t u r e d " morph, copepod Epischura that inhabits the In response to the continued need characterized by longer projections open waters of the lake. Epischura to maintain an essential information of body parts, such as antennule, glides through the water until it base represented by systematic larger eye, and a relatively larger size encounters an object. It then grasps collections of flora and fauna and to at maturity. The "short-featured" the prey and attempts to tear it apart the positive steps taken by the form found inshore is characterized and eat it. The longer projections of Association of Systematic Collec­ by shorter projections, smaller eye, Bosmina are more^ difficult for the tions to develop a responsive and ra­ and a slightly smaller size at copepod to reorient and consume tional plan for these resources, a new maturity. than the short-featured morph. Biological Resources Program has The long-featured population is When an Epischura is added to an been established within the divi­ found in open water throughout the experimental mixture of inter­ sion. This program will also have the year; the inshore population changes mediates and the two extreme responsibility for genetic stock seasonally. In early spring, when the morphs in about equal proportions, centers and for assessing needs for Bosmina population increases the short-featured morphs are field research facilities and research rapidly from its wintertime scarcity, quickly eliminated, leaving mostly natural areas. short-featured morphs are found in long-featured morphs together with a The examples of research progress shallow water, but many more few intermediates. The dominance of which follow present only a small individuals are intermediate the long-featured morph in the open sample of divisional activities and between the two extremes. As spring waters is, therefore, interpreted as lines of research which will be partic­ becomes summer, the intermediates the result of preferential removal by ularly significant in the future. disappear and only short-featured Epischura of the other two more individuals are formed inshore. The easily eaten morphs. The larger fish intermediate forms so abundant in in the open water of the lake do not Predation, Polymorphism, and spring are thought to be the products feed on the small Bosmina, preferring Survival of sexual crosses between clones that Epischura itself, or other large occurred during the preceding species of animal plankton. In a lake ecosystem, energy is autumn. The sexually fertilized eggs, On the other hand, studies of passed up the food chain from algae quiescent over the winter, develop schools of young fish in the lake show to small animals to fish. Scientists and hatch in early spring. preferential feeding on the larger, have begun only recently to recog­ Under laboratory culture each long-featured morph, leaving the nize the complex effects that preda­ morph reprpduces itself and each can other forms to dominate when the tory habits have on the composition be considered a clone of genetically school has swum away. The sea­ of the prey species in lakes. The identical individuals since under sonal shift in the composition of the following studies have provided new these conditions Bosmina popula­ Bosmina Jongirostris population in insights on the species variation tions are comprised of females that inshore waters is, therefore, inter­ observed for a lake population of produce diploid eggs that do not preted as the result of visual preda­ microscopic planktonic animals. require fertilization in order to tion by the immense number of young RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

BOSMINA LONGIROSTRIS (cladocera)

The changing distribution of various life forms in lakes at different times of the year has not been clearly understood. Now the role of predators is being recognized as a factor bringing about such changes. Studies of different varieties of a tiny crustacean found in different parts of Lake Washington at different seasons show that the distributions of these polymorphs depend on the effects of two kinds of predators—copepods and fish. In early spring, all forms of the crustacean Bosmina are found in inshore shallow waters—the short-featured (top left), intermediate (top middle), and long (top right). As spring turns into summer, the intermediate-size morphs are eaten by both copepods and fish, and gradually disappear. The long-featured form is also cleared from shallow waters early in the year by small fish which overlook the short forms. Thus, by summer, the short Bosmina are the dominant forms. In open waters of the iTiiddle of the lake, long-form Bosmina are found throughout the year. By late summer this is the dominating form in open water, mostly as a result of the preference of copepods for small morphs, and of the preference of fish for copepods. A diagram of the preferred eating patterns ot fish and copepods is shown on the right. The degree of preference is shown by the strength of the arrows. [Photos by W. Charles Kerfoot] 16 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

fish which develop in the weedbeds languagelike representations such as normal or mirror image symbol were covering the shallow bottom. These the hierarchical sets of features that consistently short and independent young fish quickly eliminate any have been proposed in most of the angle of the expected orienta­ Epischura and other large plankton, computer simulations. tion. Individuals are only able to and then progressively remove all The following studies from Dr. carry out the mental rotation of an forms of Bosmina except the small, Shepard's laboratory illustrate the internal representation of a partic­ short-featured morph. bases of the above interpretation. ular concrete object—not a general Clones of each extreme morph Individuals were asked to identify abstract frame of reference. Thus, survive summer predation in differ­ number and liTfer symBbls as normal even though an individual is given ent parts of the lake, while the inter­ or as mirror images when the advance information as to the mediate size preyed upon by both symbols were presented in various orientation of an upcoming stimulus young fish and the copepod orientations in the plane from 0° to (e.g., 120° clockwise), he is not able to Epischura is virtually eliminated by 180° (upright, tilted, or upside perform an advance mental rotation autumn. As winter approaches, down). For example, individuals unless he also knows the identity of males and females appear in both were required to determine whether the stimulus. clones and with the vigorous mixing the presented letter was a normal "R" These and other studies from Dr. of inshore and offshore water have or a mirror image letter "H," regard­ Shepard's laboratory indicate that in the opportunity for crossbreeding, less of its orientation in the plane. mentally rotating the image of an ob­ Normal and mirror image alpha­ and numerous intermediate progeny ject, the internal structure of the numeric symbols were presented hatch in the spring. The demon­ image is transformed in a way that equally frequently. Reaction time strated competitive success of this corresponds specifically to the trans­ swarm of intermediates establishes measurements indicated that the re- formations that occur in a rotation of the spring population of zoo­ quired "match-mismatch" a physical object. To account for plankton. discrimination is made by rotating a these results requires a postulation mental image of the presented that either there are neural mecha­ symbol into its normal upright Neural Processes nisms that store images in picture- orientation or into an abnormally like form (e.g., neural holograms) or Understanding how the brain func­ rotated orientation that an individ­ that neural mechanisms exist that tions in perception, in storing ual had been led to expect. Reaction can take language-like stored information, and in thinking is one of times turned out to be a remarkably descriptions and construct picture­ linear function of the angular the most difficult challenges facing like images from them. difference between actually biologists. Recent progress from the In studies of brain centers of higher presented and expected orientations laboratory of Roger N. Shepard of animals, researchers have made of a symbol. Furthermore, Dr. Stanford University provides new significant progress in dealing with Shepard found that the time required insight into the nature of the human the complexity of interrelated struc­ to mentally rotate an image from mind. His work is directed toward an tures and nerve networks of the orientation A to orientation C is the analysis of the internal representa­ mammalian brain. Studies of neural sum of the times required to rotate tion processes that we call memory processes in higher order brain from A to some intermediate orienta­ and imagination images. The results centers for the past 50 years have tion B, and to rotate from B to C. of his experiments indicate that some been characterized by a "single-unit" of these internal processes operate by Dr. Shepard has also found that it approach, i.e., the examination of an analog process in which memory does not matter whether the mental electrophysiological properties of images are stored in picturelike form. rotation is carried out in the presence neurons one by one. Much useful Dr. Shepard has shown that when of an external stimulus, or in the ab­ information has resulted, but the one rotates the mental image of an sence of the stimulus in preparation single-unit approach is inherently object from one position to another, for it. If information as to both the limited to the capture of static, the mental image is in fact going identity and orientation of a stimulus simple geometric properties of through all the intermediate posi­ is provided sufficiently in advance neuronal activity. Nearly all forms of tions of the rotation. That is, the (e.g., the letter "R" at 120° clock­ interaction between neurons or any parts and the relationships among wise), an image of a normal "R" is sequential patterning must escape the parts of the image are trans­ mentally rotated into the designated detection. One viable alternative has formed continuously in accordance orientation for rapid comparison been the analysis of the gross poten­ with the mental rotation. This with the stimulus when it appears. tials of the brain with instruments finding is far reaching in that it chal­ Thus, when individuals were set for a such as the electroencephalogram lenges the traditional view that the specific alphanumeric symbol in a and the electroretinogram, as well as representation of an object in specific orientation, reaction times with evoked brain potentials. How­ memory is in terms of discrete, for determining whether it was a ever, in the view of many scientists RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 17

there is not yet enough known about study the development and function Cells and Genes the underlying interactions to be able of the nervous system in living in­ Cell membranes play a critical role to interpret these gross potentials tact animals, it is essential to have in many essential biological proc­ meaningfully. relatively simple systems which can esses, particularly with respect to Until recently, this paradox, i.e., be analyzed and manipulated out­ intracellular regulation by con­ the static limitations of the single- side the body. unit approach vis-a-vis the diffi­ trolling the molecules that enter and Dr. Heinemann, in collaboration culty in interpreting gross poten­ leave cells and by mediating the with other investigators, has tials, seemed unresolvable. A grantee interactions between cells. developed a tissue culture system from the University of Pittsburgh, Membranes are sites of highly or­ adapted to continuous growth which Gerhard Werner, in recent research ganized assemblies of macro- maintains its ability to form has transcended the inherent limita­ molecules, but relatively little is synapses—the areas where a neuron tions of the single-unit techniques by known about their molecular transmits information to another developing a 4 by 4 multielectrode organization and dynamic state, a neuron. Cell lines of both nerve and array; he has been successful in necessary prerequisite for under­ muscle have been established and recording simultaneously from as standing how cells function. Recent grow in the same culture environ­ many as 16 neurons. Piezoelectric studies by M. Edidin, S. Roth, andL. ment with the formation of synapses. transducers were built to enable Brand of Johns Hopkins University These cells have many of the separate positioning and automated have employed nanosecond and electrical, pharmacological, and bio­ advance of each recording micro- steady-state fluorescence spectro­ chemical properties of intact cells. electrode. Special computer tech­ scopy to analyze the spatial relation Since the cells grow as monolayers in niques were developed to analyze the of molecules and their motion at the glass dishes, they are readily avail­ large amounts of data recorded. cell surface as related to functions of able for study by a wide variety of These arrays are being used to study the cell. These studies involve techniques. The nutritional and the patterning of nerve responses in attaching small fluorescent physical environment can be altered brain centers when various stimuli molecules to specific antigens and as desired. Intracellular and hor­ are applied to the skin. Dr. Werner following the spatial association and monal interactions can be investi­ already has shown that complex movement at the cell surface. Their gated in relation to cell growth and temporal and spatial patterns of results show that there are a large synapse formation. Using tech­ activity do exist. Research with this number of antigenic sites distrib­ niques of time-lapse photography small array is being continued while uted over the entire cell surface and and electrophysiology, researchers a 64 by 64 electrode array is being that they move in the plane of the should be able to define the stages in constructed. Thus, for the first time, membrane to one pole of the cell synapse development over extended complex temporal and spatial neural accompanied by a ruffling move­ periods of time. The cells can be pene­ interactions can be analyzed with an ment of the membrane. Continuation trated with microelectrodes or micro- approach using appropriately com­ of these studies coupled with studies pipettes for intracellular recording plex measurements. We anticipate of other types of cell surface sites while being watched by phase con­ that other investigators will follow should reveal the extent to which the trast microscopy. In addition, the Dr. Werner's lead. For, example, it membrane approximates a fluid opportunity exists to select mutant now will be possible to analyze brain rather than a solid. cell lines deficient in a selected potentials by simultaneously record­ One aspect of biological processes property. When these cell lines are ing and interrelating both the gross is developmental biology—the study introduced into the tissue culture potential and underlying neuronal of those striking changes that occur system, the spectrum of available activity. The combined information in organisms from their inception as study material increases. should greatly extend our ability to zygotes until their maturation as interpret neural interactions and pat­ The availability of this system, adults. Some of these changes are terns of the higher brain centers. adapted to neurobiological research, unique to each species while others Powerful new research tools and represents a significant step toward are more general, even universal, in significant findings on the molecular using the tools of genetics, bio­ character and are found in all working of the brain are emerging chemistry, biophysics, and organisms. from the research of Stephen immunology to increase scientific One of the universal features of Heinemann of the Salk Institute for knowledge as to how cells develop development is the production of Biological Studies, San Diego, Calif. and respond to stimuli, how the ner­ messenger RNA (mRNA). The The long-term aim of this research is vous system operates at the mole­ mRNA is the vital link between the to understand, at the molecular level, cular level, and potentially the basis genetic information contained in how the brain operates. Since in of a wide range of debilitating neuro­ DNA and the production of protein many instances it is impossible to muscular diseases. necessary for growth. Leon Dure of 18 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

the University of Georgia is study­ to be associated with movement in many fewer genes which are, in ing the relation of mRNA production many animals.] Dr. Lodish intends to general, not essential to the life of the and seed maturation and germina­ purify the mRNA responsible for cell. Some of these plasmids contain tion. In higher plants the embryo actin synthesis and, having this, to genes which render the cell resistant begins to develop and then ceases synthesize the DNA segment to antibiotics (indeed, the plasmids growth as the seed matures. The seed responsible for the production of the are probably responsible for the is a remarkable survival package, actin mRNA in vitro. Such a system resistance to many antibiotics among complete with protective covering, will permit a detailed analysis of the pathogenic bacteria found in the stored food reserves, and a dormant factors regulating production of world today]. Dr. Cohen, in but living embryo. A vital question in specific mRNA's. Clearly, this type of collaboration with several plant development is what causes the information is likely to aid Dr. Dure colleagues, used a particular restric­ embryo to stop developing and in devising experiments on more tion enzyme which splits the plasmid become dormant. An equally import­ complex plant embryos. DNA at only one site. The plasmid ant question is what changes trigger A new advance in genetic DNA also carries a gene for resis­ this dormancy to be broken and manipulation has come into exis­ tance to tetracycline. Using various stimulate the embryo to grow into a tence this past year. It now appears methods of modern molecular mature plant as the seed germinates. possible to transfer genes from any biology, he inserted foreign genes Dr. Dure has found that mRNA has organism into the simple bacterium, from the DNA of other organisms, a critical role in these events. Work­ E. coli. This development should similarly split with the same enzyme. ing with cotton, he found that a large allow for extending our knowledge He then selected those E. coJi which body of mRNA is synthesized in late on the molecular organization of the had been successfully transformed embryogenesis; translation of this genetic material of higher orga­ with this "hybrid" plasmid DNA by mRNA genetic information will nisms, and is likely to find eventual challenging them with the anti­ inaugurate seed germination. More­ practical applications. For example, biotic; only those carrying the over, a plant growth regulator, E. coli could be programmed to plasmid with the tetracycline- abscisic acid, acts to prevent prema­ produce antibiotics by trans­ resistant gene can survive this treat­ ture functioning of the mRNA until planting genes from fungi which code ment. Dr. Cohen and his associates the mature, dessicated seed is for antibiotic production, or even used these methods to introduce formed. For the seed to germinate, the eventually to produce human insulin specific genes from an animal (a concentration of abscisic acid must after transplanting the correct toad). They have shown that the be lowered until it no longer inhibits human genes. hybrid plasmid reproducing in E. coli mRNA translation. Dr. Dure has also The recent developments which contained the original plasmid DNA shown that during the early stages of have made these exciting and the animal DNA and, further­ seed germination, the mRNA possibilities real are twofold: more, that the animal genes were produced before the embryo becomes "restriction" enzymes, which have functional. dormant is used for protein been shown to split the genetic mole­ The implications of this work are synthesis. Thus, the critical stage of cule, DNA, only at specific sites; and vast, yet the techniques are rela­ seed germination can occur without transformation in E. coli. tively simple. The stumbling blocks the complete involvement of the Transformation is a process, existing for further work revolve around the genetic store itself. in some bacteria, whereby the genes difficulties of selecting easily the Specific questions in biology are from one bacterium, in the form of desired genes to transplant into E. often best answered by seeking a pure isolated DNA, can be trans­ coli from among the very large simple system for study. Thus, less ferred to another bacterium. Michio amount of DNA contained in the cells complicated organisms, such as the Oishi at the Public Health Research of higher organisms. Dr. Cohen took slime mold DictyosteJium, can Institute of New York developed the advantage of a special property of the provide important information on conditions and strains to allow African toad which allows ready mRNA synthesis and its function in transformation in E. coli. Stanley N. isolation of a specific class of genes. specific protein synthesis. This is the Cohen of Stanford University has David Hogness, also of Stanford, has organism used by Harvey Lodish at devised ingenious ways to introduce circumvented this difficulty by MIT to study mRNA synthesis and foreign genes by transformation into- identifying genes from the fruit fly function during development. This E. coli. Dr. Cohen for some years has Drosophila, after growth in E. coli. organism has a stage during which it been studying the plasmids of E. coh. After construction of hybrid migrates. During this stage 30 per­ Most E. coli genes are contained on a plasmids containing unselected frag­ cent of the protein synthesized is in long circular molecule of DNA (the ments of Drosophila DNA and the form of a molecule, tentatively chromosome]. The plasmids introduction of these plasmids into E. identified as actin. (This observa­ represent a class of much shorter coli, single transformed E. coJi cells tion is of interest since actin is known circular DNA molecules containing are grown to large numbers, and their RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 19

Electron micrographs show circular, untreated molecules of a plasmid DNA (left) used by Stanley Cohen at Stanford in experiments to introduce foreign DNA into E. coli DNA. After treatment with a particular restriction enzyme, linear full-length plasmid DNA molecules are obtained (right), indicating that breaks have occurred at only one site on each molecule. [Photos by Stanley Cohen]

plasmids re-isolated. These repro­ sites of attack, one on either side of manipulation of plants and micro­ duced hybrid plasmids are reacted the inserted gene. The purified organisms for enhanced food and fuel with the chromosomes of Drosophila Drosophila genetic material can now production. where they will interact only with be studied from many angles. Further The great power of this new DNA complementary to the progress for understanding complex approach, however, is not without Drosophila DNA present in the genetic systems is anticipated. potential hazard. Mindful of this, a hybrid plasmid. The beauty of These gene transfer techniques group of distinguished scientists Drosophila, which has been under present exciting possibilities for who have been at the forefront of this intensive genetic study since the turn agricultural and medical applica­ field (including Drs. Cohen and Hog­ of the century, is that the genetic map tions. Medical applications, how­ ness] have voluntarily suspended re­ has been identified with the visual ever, must await more advanced search in the instances of gene trans­ appearance of the giant chromo­ knowledge about human chromo­ fers involving animal tumor viruses somes existing in certain specialized somes. Increasing numbers of and some classes of antibiotic- cells. It has so far been possible to inherited diseases have been shown resistant bacteria. Furthermore, they identify at least 20 different isolates to be associated with mutations in have urged that other scientists join in which Drosophila genes have been particular genes, but the complexi­ in the moratorium and with the introduced into a particular E. coli ties of the chromosomes are such that encouragement of both the National cell. Any region of the Drosophila progress in eliminating or over­ Academy of Sciences and NSF are gene can later be recovered from the coming them will be slow. However, organizing an international plasmid by treating the hybrid the gene transfer techniques should conference to assess hazards and to plasmid with the same restriction in the near future prove to be a real develop effective guidelines for this enzyme, which will now have two breakthrough in the genetic type of work. 22 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

tion is controlled largely by air mo­ face temperatures by several Combined studies from structural tions, not by its own diffusion or degrees. Moreover, stratospheric analysis of hailstones and flights of a sedimentation as previously be­ cooling caused by decreased ozone sailplane above the freezing level of lieved. Evidence about the ways in might cause significant surface developing storms gave strong evi­ which sulfate can spread toward the warming. These effects may be veri­ dence that hailstones develop direct­ Equator from polar sources and mi­ fied by a project now under way to ly from the ice phase and not from the grate between the Northern and construct a more complex radiative- freezing of large (drizzle-sized), Southern Hemispheres indicates that convective equilibrium model for supercooled water droplets. Al- sulfate remains in layers for a long- -Stratospheric studies. though the latter hypothesis is the time (up to a year). SST exhaust basis of a Russian hail suppression emissions would probably behave program that has reported practical similarly. Probing the Hailstorm success, it does not appear to apply to A third experiment was the bal­ Colorado storms. The distinction be­ loon flight of the Lower Atmosphere Progress toward clarification of tween the theories is important, since Composition and Temperature the processes that produce hail and the locations and mechanisms of Experiment (LACATE)—a success­ methods to prevent damaging hail hailstone formation must be known ful test of apparatus that will fly emerged from the second field sea­ to make effective use of cloud- aboard the Nimbus G satellite later in son of the National Hail Research seeding agents to convert a storm's the 1970's. LACATE, developed at Experiment (NHRE). Several univer­ moisture to smaller (nondamaging) NCAR, scans, across the Earth's sities and government and private hailstones and/or a greater propor­ horizon and remotely measures the agencies are participating in the tion of rainfall, infrared radiation emitted by gases multiyear experiment under Na­ NHRE radar techniques to detect in the atmosphere. The test experi­ tional Center for Atmospheric Re­ early stages of hail growth have ment, undertaken by Government search (NCAR) management. matured. Dual-wavelength measure- agencies and three universities, yielded one of the most complete sets of data on the composition of the stratosphere obtained so far. Theoreticians at NCAR made im­ portant steps in modeling the trans­ port of stratospheric trace consti­ tuents to predict their speed and direction of distribution. One model accurately simulated the observed transport of radioactive bomb debris and the observed distribution of ozone. That model, and transport models in use elsewhere, will profit from new "objective analysis methods" developed at NCAR to con­ vert weather balloon (radiosonde) data to a basic data set that supplies vertical data (while systematically correlating vertical and horizontal structures) that cannot be measured directly. At the request of the Department of Transportation, which is spon­ soring a Climatic Impact Assess­ ments Program to elucidate all SST hazards, NCAR conducted a study of possible responses of ground sur­ face temperature to aircraft-induced changes in stratospheric aerosols Ice and water droplets, photographed from an NCAR sailplane above the freezing level of storm clouds, showed that ice particles far outnumbered large water and ozone. A simple model sug­ droplets. Large dots in this photograph are ice particles; and small dots are super­ gested that altered aerosol cooled water droplets with radii less than 10 microns. No large water droplets concentrations might decrease sur­ appear in this field of view. [Photo by NCAR] RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 23 ments have provided the first un­ high shear apparently act to trans­ Typically, a tornado funnel varies equivocal evidence of hail within a port large quantities of water down­ in diameter from 30 to 300 meters cloud and have also revealed hail tra­ wind from the anvil. These factors while embedded in a larger meso- jectories in clouds, from which the are responsible for the low precipita­ scale cyclbnic circulation ranging extent of hailswaths at the ground tion efficiency (about 15 percent] of from 3 to 8 kilometers in diameter. may be deduced. the storm cloud. Familiar evidence of This parent circulation is usually Interesting evidence about the this process is the dense cirrus identified as a tornado cyclone, and is masses and moisture budgets of hail­ canopy that often covers the sky fol­ usually situated near the right rear storms was another product of NHRE lowing strong convective activity. flank of the thunderstorm. While the field studies. Analysis of a case- presence of such a mesoscale circula­ history storm showed an estimated tion by no means assures that a 13 kilotons per second of water vapor Tornado Dynamics tornado will form, there does appear entering the cloud base. The ac­ to be a high correlation between counting for this amount of water John McCarthy at the University of them. vapor inflow includes 4.5 kilotons Oklahoma, in cooperation with the per second flowing out as vapor; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Dr. McCarthy designed an experi­ about 2 kilotons per second—roughly Administration's National Severe ment that uses a special radar re­ equivalent to NiagaraFalls—of rain- Storms Laboratory (NSSL], has flective material called "chaff," a out; with the remaining 6.5 kilotons recently completed the first year of metallized plastic fiber, which, when per second being transported down­ convection research in central Ok­ distributed in clear air, will return wind in the cloud's anvil top. Rain­ lahoma. The primary objective is to "clear air" echo signals to the radar. fall from the anvil evaporates before understand the circulation and When chaff is distributed through reaching the ground. Strong winds thermodynamic structure of tornado- much of the volume of clear air ad- aloft, accompanying conditions of producing thunderstorms. j acent to the natural echo of the meso-

0 20 . 40 60 r

A Doppler radar screen at Cimarron Field, Oklahoma (left) shows a small mesoscale almospheric circulation al point A that could possibly develop into a tornado. Distribution of metallized plastic fibers called chaff is shown in clear air tireas inarked B, where they return "clear air" echo systems lo the radar. A radar screen al Norman, Oklahoma (right), shows a suspected mesoscale cyclonic circulation al point A, while chaff streamers are shown al points H. The display shows positive velocity of wind circulation moving away froin the antenna as bands of light, while negative velocity moving toward the antenna is shown as solid light. [Photos by John McCarthy] 24 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES scale circulation, radars can see the Dr. McCarthy has obtained what more of the oxygen-16 isotope than entire circulation. appears to be a unique series of data do any other meteorites or terres­ A number of excellent meteoro­ on the action of a tornado cyclone. trial rocks. This enrichment is far too logical tools have been used in this The data, when fully analyzed, will great to explain by normal chemical research. The NSSL 10-centimeter advance the understanding of the processes, and the scientists con­ Dual Doppler radar system, one structure of the tornado cyclone and cluded that it results from the mixing located at Norman and another at illustrate more clearly its interac­ in of pure oxygen-16 formed directly Cimarron Field, 42 kilometers north­ tion with the larger scales of motion. by nuclear reactions going on either west of Norman, was the primary in the Sun itself or in another star. data acquisition tool. The chaff dis­ This result agrees with other persal system was capable of distrib­ EARTH SCIENCES information about the meteorites uting 10-centimeter chaff in five themselves. The carbonaceous distinct bundles through a 2,600- Present at the Beginning chondrites are believed to be some of meter vertical column below the air­ the first solid matter to have formed plane flight level. A major geochemical discovery in when the Sun and the planets The University of Wyoming fiscal year 1974 was the recognition developed from a huge whirling meteorological research Queen Air that some of the matter present in the cloud of hot gas and tiny dust grains airplane, operated under sub­ ancient solar system before the about 4-1/2 billion years ago. Recent­ contract to the University of Ok­ planets formed 4-1/2 billion years ly this view was confirmed by the lahoma, provided a highly sophisti­ ago has been trapped and preserved discovery of small fragments of high- cated measurement platform, as well in an unusual group of meteorites. temperature minerals in a carbon­ as a means of delivering the chaff to This discovery provides a direct look aceous chondrite that fell near the the appropriate environmental at what was actually happening in village of Allende in northern Mexico inflow regions of a tornado cyclone. our part of the universe when the Sun in 1969. These small fragments are On June 8, 1974, a severe thunder­ was just beginning to burn and be­ composed of minerals that would be storm containing a mesoscale fore the Earth and Moon had formed. the first to form as the gas cloud circulation produced a tornado at Robert N. Clayton, Lawrence cooled down, audit is significant that Harrah, Okla. This storm was one of Grossman, and Toshiko K. Mayeda the unusual excess of oxygen-16 a number of similar storms occur­ of the University of Chicago came to seems to be concentrated in these ring during a tornado outbreak in this conclusion by analyzing the iso- high-temperature fragments and not central Oklahoma on that day. Chaff topic composition of the element oxy­ in the other parts of the meteorite. operations were conducted before gen in an unusual group of meteor­ These studies, which were sup­ and during this particular tornadic ites called carbonaceous chond­ ported by NSF's Geochemistry Pro­ storm. rites—so called because they con­ gram, suggest that these inclusions While the storm was in its develop­ tain much more carbon than do other formed so early in the history of the mental stage, a chaff curtain was meteorites. Some of the oxygen, they solar system that they trapped ex­ placed approximately 20 kilometers found, was so abnormal in its iso- cess oxygen-16 that had been formed ahead of the inflow border of the topic ratios that it must have been by nuclear reactions just beginning storm. Photographs of the intensity- produced by nuclear reactions in the to operate in the Sun. This extra oxy­ contoured Cimarron Doppler radar Sun or in another star before the gen-16 was trapped before it could be scope showed positions of the chaff meteorites themselves solidified. mixed throughout the rest of the dust and the location of the suspected Oxygen, which forms about 50 per­ cloud. Other meteorites and the mesoscale circulation shaped like a cent by weight of both terrestrial planets formed later, after the oxy­ hook. Other photographs showed a rocks and meteorites, occurs as three gen-16 had been well mixed, and they combination of vertical cyclonic different types of atoms, or isotopes, do not show any unusual composi­ shear and strong cyclonic inflow. At whose atomic weights are 16, 17, and tion. The material that makes up the this point, the chaff appeared to be 18. The relative amounts of these dif­ rest of the Allende meteorite pro­ rapidly entraining into the meso­ ferent atoms in such materials as bably formed at this later time as scale circulation. rocks, meteorites, and ocean water well, and the early high-temperature While dual Doppler data were are nearly the same, and all natural minerals [with excess oxygen-16) being collected within both the chaff processes like melting, evaporation, were mixed with later low-tempera­ and 10-centimeter precipitation re­ and condensation produce only small ture material (with normal oxygen turn, the airplane collected dense variations [only 1 to 2 percent) in the composition) to form a single body horizontal wind and thermo­ ratios of one isotope to another. that lasted for 4-1/2 billion years dynamic data in the south, south­ However, material from the before falling to Earth in 1969. west, and west flanks of the imme­ meteorites studied by Dr. Clayton This discovery shows that there diate environment of the storm. and his colleagues contains much are still exciting new possibilities in RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 25

1, Olivine-pyroxene-rich chondrules nesting beach at Tortuguero, Costa 1, 10. Coarse meli Hte-,ipinel-perov:iki Lf;-rioli Rica. Dr. Richard's computer- generated plots of surface currents have successfully demonstrated that by passively drifting in surface cur­ rents, turtles would duplicate the seasonal migrations documented by 90 percent of tag returns from the Caribbean turtles.

Dr. Richard believes that the migration pattern is maintained be­ cause: (1) green turtles feed directly upstream from the nesting beaches; [2] strong southerly currents come close to the coast near the nesting beaches; and (3) the current is appa­ rently strongest at the beginning of the nesting season. High mountain peaks behind the nesting beach may also be a visual cue assisting recog­ nition of the beach used previously for nesting.

But the passive drift hypothesis This unusual meteorite that fell near the village of Allende in northern Mexico in becomes less tenable when con­ 1969 contains small fragments of oxygen-16 enriched minerals. Scientists sidering the assumed migration of believe these minerals were present in the ancient solar system before planets sea turtles from feeding grounds off were formed iVi billion years ago and were trapped in certain meteorites such as that of Allende. [Photo by Robert Clayton] the coast of Brazil to nesting beaches on Ascension Island in the mid-At­ lantic. In this instance, Dr. Carr pro­ poses that surface currents flowing the active field of meteorite re­ fied scientists. How is this large from Ascension Island to Brazil may search. Dr. Clayton and his col­ turtle able to migrate up to 2,500 kilo­ transmit a unique chemical cue that leagues feel that important informa­ meters and still return to within a guides the turtles in their eastward tion about the early [pre-planet] kilometer of its previous nesting swim. beach? Archie Carr of the Univer­ history of the solar system may still Both the olfactory and passive drift be hidden in Allende and similar sity of Florida has accumulated 20 interpretations of turtle migrations meteorites. After several years of years of data concerning turtle are based on circumstantial evi­ migrations in his efforts to answer studying meteorites in order to dence. What is needed to con­ such questions. Dr. Carr interpreted understand how the planets formed, clusively test these hypotheses is his data as demonstrating a true scientists have suddenly discovered observation of the turtle migrations navigational sense, although that they may be able to push their and subsequent correlation of the investigations of the acuity of turtle view even further back in time. These movements with other environ­ meteorites may now give us direct senses failed to produce conclusive mental data. To date, balloons, floats, information about how both the Sun evidence for a celestial, magnetic, or and fixed radio transmitters have and the tiny bits of matter that would chemical-receptive basis for this failed as mechanisms for long-range assumed long-range piloting ability. become meteorites condensed out of a tracking. Future research by both Recently, Joseph Richard of the primordial cloud 4-1/2 billion years these investigators may be focused University of Miami utilized Dr. ago. on exact documentation of turtle Carr's data on the return of tagged movements, perhaps using satellite turtles and on surface currents in the OCEANOGRAPHY tracking. Caribbean. From this analysis he Sea Turtle Migrations developed an alternate hypothesis of passive drift transport of green Migrations of the green sea turtle, turtles from feeding grounds off the Chelonia mydas, have long mysti­ Nicaraguan coast to the major 26 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

thermocline. In one model down­ ward diffusion of heat from the ocean surface is balanced by the upward movements of cold bottom waters, which originate in subpolar seas. The second model postulates that distinct water masses form in specific parts of the ocean surface. Below the sur­ face, these water masses retain their identify as they flow nearly hori­ zontally for thousands of kilometers across ocean basins.

The University of Miami concen­ trated on the study of the Sargasso Sea area, south and southwest of Bermuda, and later on transects across the entire Atlantic Ocean. The project examined the annual winter­ time formation of large volumes of relatively cool surface waters which spread south and southeast as a distinct water layer known as the Eighteen Degree Water. This tri­ tium-tagged water formed a layer in A giant green turtle rests on its nesting beacli on Ascension Island, a small dot in the upper main thermocline, and its the Pacific Ocean to which these turtles swim from their feeding grounds on the downward diffusion could be traced coast of Brazil, some 2,500 kilometers away. [Photo by Archie Carr] and studied. The decrease in tritium concentration in deeper waters to about one-sixth of its surface value the water has been in contact with Tritium—A New Ocean gives an estimate of the effective radioactivated atmosphere some­ Tracer vertical eddy diffusion, which is only time during the past 10 to 20 years. 20 percent of that considered neces­ This provides a tracer useful for Testing of nuclear weapons in the sary for an oceanwide uniform diffu­ oceanographic research. Beginning in atmosphere releases a host of radio­ sion thermocline model. active isotopes, which enter the 1969, a program carried out by Gote ocean where they can serve as tracers Ostlund and Claes Rooth of the In short, the use of the manmade of oceanic processes. One of these is University of Miami has used bomb tracer tritium, has shown that the rate the radioactive hydrogen isotope tri­ tritium to test dynamic models of the of vertical exchange of water and dis­ tium [half-life of 12 years) in the form thermocline—the zone of large solved matter in the central ocean of tritiated water, HTO. Since the temperature change separating basins is considerably less than pre­ pre-bomb tritium levels in the ocean warmer surface waters from colder viously thought. So horizontal move­ were almost undetectable, meas­ deep waters. ments of water masses may be the urable tritium concentrations found Two general models have been dominant processes forming the in ocean waters today indicate that used to explain the origin of the thermocline in the open ocean.

ENGINEERING

Engineering is science in the supports "basic engineering encourages the development of those service of man. Engineering science"—the development of tech­ promising engineering areas which activities range from determining nology from science and scientific are expected to "pay off" within 5 to characteristics of Martian soil to the principles that will be used in the 25 years. Unlike most other sciences, services of doctors, electricians, and solution of specific problems of engineering looks not only to the those other technologists who make society. Working primarily with uni­ forefront of science but also to life possible in modern society. NSF versities through grants, NSF industry to measure the success of RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 27

supported work. Uniquely in engi­ ciency of chemical, petrochemical, neering development worlc. neering science, real success is and related industrial chemical measured in terms of solutions to real production. Lowering the Cost of Steel Structures problems—the design of a better • Process synthesis—developing rapid transit, more effective information and data that can lead to The design of steel buildings and communication systems, or more new processes and techniques saving bridges, as conventionally practiced, work output per kilowatt-hour. energy, money, and critical makes the ultra-cautious assumption NSF's Engineering Division, which materials. includes the traditional engineering that each structural member has a • Food energy—increasing protein science [but not materials), supports yield strength equal to that of the and food nutrients from normally a broad range of disciplinary and weakest specimen recorded in mill non-edible sources by combining the interdisciplinary fields. The tests (i.e., the "guaranteed minimum skills of chemical engineers, bio- division's goal is to keep the basic yield strength"). In reality, however, engineers, and chemists. engineering sciences in the Nation almost all steel members signifi­ strong so that the technology is avail­ • Wind engineering—providing cantly exceed this minimum strength able when societal needs are greater understanding of ths inter­ level —by 33 percent on the determined. action between wind structures and average—and members can be found During fiscal year 1974 the Engi­ urban areas. with twice their assumed yield neering Division reorganized to be • Planning and design of tall strength. Obviously, then, many more responsive to society and the buildings—identifying and initiating kinds of structures are "over Nation's long-range needs. Its new areas of research, and designed" for their specified use. programs include new interfaces incorporating the best available In an attempt to reduce the between government, industry, and information for planning and inefficiency of this process, Ralph L. universities, with emphasis on areas designing of tall buildings in the Barnett of the Illinois Institute of of energy, food, minerals, and inter­ urban environment. Technology (IIT) has developed a disciplinary areas-of-opportunity, new design philosophy in which the • Machine design technology and with special emphasis on: engineer does not necessarily have to transfer—bridging the gap between choose the lowest possible value for • University-industry work­ basic research results and their use in every member. In effect, it turns the shops—recognizing the intimate practice. statistical variation in actual interaction between engineering and Of the funds available to uni­ strengths into an asset by focusing industrial and government activ­ versities for engineering research, 15 attention on the strong members in a ities. percent is furnished by the NSF statistical population rather than on • Organized research areas—iden­ while the majority of university the weakest ones. Of course, the tifying broad problems having a support in this field is provided by strong members would have to be unique opportunity for high impact Federal mission-oriented agencies. identified by nondestructive proof- through intensive coordinated re­ Within its limited sphere, however, testing, and that would require that search. the Foundation supports research every member manufactured be • Encouragement of young uni­ with promise of future benefit to tested and labeled with its actual versity researchers to engage in society. Examples include theo­ strength level. But is should be noted research on current problems. retical studies currently under way that for several years the lumber on the allocation of the overcrowded industry has been proof-testing some Problem areas of special interest frequency spectrum which may have species of its product on a piece-by- are: a profound effect on the commun­ piece basis. • Optical communications—de­ ications industry; work on knit Dr. Barnett's work shows that new termining, theoretically and experi­ fabrics to reduce snag potential that structural designs based on the exact mentally, the techniques and may save Americans billions of strength of every proof-tested methodology necessary to develop dollars over the next decade; and member would result in a 25-percent practical systems. work supported in mineral weight savings in the steel needed. In technology that is expected to signifi­ actual practice, however, a one-to- • Advanced automation—concen­ cantly improve the raw materials one match between loads and trating on pattern analysis and picture at the foundation of the resistances is not possible, so the processing fundamental to all Nation's industrial enterprise. approach in each specific design advanced automation. Activities of this nature, supported situation is to convert the procedure • Process dynamics—applying by NSF, take on added importance as to an optimization problem. and using computer-aided control economic pressures force industry to Fortunately, this can be formulated and optimization to upgrade the effi­ curtail industrial science and engi­ as a linear programming problem 28 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

with all its associated solution techniques. As part of the research at IIT a comprehensive design-manu­ facturing-inventory system was developed and applied to various design problems. The engineers studied a simple two-bar truss to establish the effect of inventory si^ze on potential cost savings. The savings in steel costs were found to be a constant 15.5 percent as the inventory increased beyond 25 members. The design of a 24-story apartment building using the non­ destructive proof-testing phil­ osophy showed that a 19.5-percent steel cost saving Could be achieved. Because various combinations of strength and size may be equivalent from a performance standpoint, the proof-testing procedure, does not specify a unique geometry. This nonuniqueness enables designers to simplify the problems of joining structural members and to improve esthetics without compromising .BBiiiiiiiiiiiBIt integrity or efficiency. An additional nil nil nil nil innx benefit of the proof-testing design nil nil ini nil nil IT system is structures that are lighter niiiiniiiiniiiiiirr ; ,,p,,.pHnil«il Till nil Mil IIII.WiiSiB and more reliable. Iffll One of the important BiiBiiiiiiisiisas mill characteristics of the new design MniiaiiMi nHBinHHf" urns procedure is that the more closely one can match the loads with the resis­ tance, the greater the cost savings. That means cost efficiency is linked to the degree of specificity of user needs. Consequently, it follows that the proof-testing philosophy would Traditional steel structure designs are gradually being refined as construction favor domestic steel and metal engineers focus on new designs based on exact strength proof-tested steel members, resulting in possible 25-percent weight savings in steel. [Photo by U.S. suppliers who have the most Steell definitive marketing information. In its current state of develop­ engineers to design in a more perfor­ almost exclusively with the reliable ment, such a methodology is far from mance-oriented mode by admitting transmission of information from a being readily adoptable. Indeed, such criteria as deformation or drift, single transmitter over a single more explicit formulation of design buckling resistance, and post- channel to a single receiver, the kind spaces, including aspects of column buckling strength. The mathe­ of situation commonly found in the and beam-column action, will have to matical nature of Dr. Barnett's switched telephone network. The be included. However, it is note­ proposed methodology and limit- basic concepts for these analyses worthy that the general trend in state concepts seem to hold strong were described by Claude Shannon structural engineering over the past promise for fruitful interaction. in his classic papers in 1948. decade has been to adopt a design New Theory for Although David Sarnoff in the 1920's philosophy based on "limit-state" provided the framework for modern Broadcasting concepts. This approach avoids broadcasting systems, no similar complete dependence on unit or The mathematical theory of mathematical theory exists for such allowable stress criteria and enables communications has been concerned systems. The proliferation of radio, RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 29

television, urban mobile, satellite, present procedures of allocating for accurately predicting the relevant and telecommunication broad­ different frequency bands to physical and thermal properties of casting channels has resulted in a different transmitters is not nearly as these compounds is urgently needed. very crowded frequency spectrum efficient as allowing each station Several years ago, K. C. Chao and without any real understanding of with its own power to utilize the R. A. Greenkorn of Purdue the fundamentals of the nature of entire bandwidth with suitable University initiated a program to broadcasting. switching. A method has been develop a comprehensive method for Recently, Thomas Cover at devised that depends on pooling the generating the needed thermo­ Stanford University formulated the time, bandwidth, and power allo­ dynamic data, based on the property problem of simultaneous communi­ cations of the individual trans­ value attributable to each of the cation, of a single transmitter to mitters. The current implementation constituent radical groups in an several receivers via a single broad­ scheme involves subtraction from organic compound. Using reliable cast channel—situations such as a the received signal of the estimated data on a relatively small number of TV transmitter communicating with signals sent by the other simple compounds, values numerous individual stations, a transmitters, followed by decoding contributed by the various groups satellite communicating with several of the intended signal in an iterative can be calculated. Then the distinct ground stations, or a lecturer manner. This particular result is properties of more complex speaking to many people with expected to have a profound effect on compounds can be synthesized and different backgrounds. Early results the simplification of broadcast predicted without experimentation. indicate that optimum allocation of procedures and the allocation of the Since the key to the accuracy and, the frequency spectrum will result frequency spectrum for future hence, success of this method is the through a rigorous theoretical treat­ communication systems. mutual interactions among groups, ment of broadcast channels. the procedure must involve more Dr. Cover's formulation, in turn, than a simple additive operation. As Energy Conservation in suggested that of transmitting from a the molecular weight of a compound single source to many receivers using Distillation increases, the complexity multiplies, a simple connecting network of and the interactive contribution to channels rather than using a single Distillation, the separation of the property values plays an broadcast channel. The transmitter mixtures of volatile components by increasingly important role. would then generate separate but thermal energy, is the most To date the interactive properties related streams into each of the important separation method in the of such basic organic structural units process industries. Forty percent of separate channels destined for one or as methyl [CH3), methylene (CH,J, more of the receivers. When the capital investment in a petro­ methine (CH), quaternary carbon communicating over such a simple leum refinery is in distillation (C), hydroxyl (OH), and carbonyl network, each receiver might desire a systems. Although this technique (CO) groups have been determined in separate "piece" of the source data dates back to the earliest days of the form of partition functions. From suitable to his own needs, such as multistage processing operations, such properties the relevant thermal only the weather conditions for his many aspects of its practical imple­ and physical properties of solutions own town. In addition, each receiver mentation are still empirical, of alkane*/alkanol,** may have its own fidelity particularly with respect to efficient alkanol/alkanol, alkane/alka- constraints, such as highly reliable energy utilization. Lacking reliable none,*** and alkanone/alkanone thermodynamic data, such as vapor communication at a minimum cost have been calculated and verified. liquid equilibria, heats of for the network. An example of such This research is being continued vaporization, and free energy of communications is the transmission under NSF support with a view solutions, systems designers have of data from a source such as a toward simplifying the mathematical had to incorporate safety factors that telephone or cable television station representation and obtaining general result in inefficient energy use. Many to several receivers [several results applicable to large classes of industrial and academic groups are computers or several subscribers) liquids of polar molecules and their currently engaged in case-by-case, via a simple network. The under­ solutions. lying idea is to optimize the total laborious, and often repetitive usage of all the channels rather than experimental data acquisition and deal with each receiver separately. evaluation activities, but increasing More recently, Dr. Cover has numbers of commercially important Examples.- obtained a very important result in organic compounds have made it * Alkane: 2,2,4 - trimethylpentane (CHaJz CH what he calls "cooperative broad­ impossible to keep design data up CH2 C(CH3)a ** Alkanol: n-octanol CH3 (GHz), OH casting" involving several trans­ with the demand. Hence, the *** Alkanone: 2-pentanone CH3 CH2 CH2 CO mitters. It has been shown that development of a rational procedure CH 30 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

SOCIAL SCIENCES

Although the study of mankind can able, some of which are described Foundation and other funding be pursued from many perspectives here. An important feature of the organizations for locating and sup­ and by many methods, research sup­ Foundation's efforts is the attempt to porting shifts in scientific activity ported by the Division of Social provide for continuity of support, and to stimulate activity in areas that Sciences is characterized by an em­ since fundamental work rarely has a are important to their specific agency phasis on increasing scientific rapid payoff and since contributions goals. knowledge about human beings and to theoretical and methodological What Dr. Small and his colleagues their interactions with one another, problems may not only require long have done is to develop a compu­ with their physical and biological years of work but may be recognized terized system that permits environment, and with the social and only after still longer periods of time clustering of an annual cumulation of cultural institutions man himself has and often in unexpected circum­ the Science Citation Index to deter­ created in great variety. To be scien­ stances. mine the structure of science in a tific, studies must obtain objective, In addition to this aim of pro­ particular year. Structure is defined reliable, and verifiable findings, viding a stable base for established as the sum total of linkages among quantified where possible. They research, the division has continued papers co-cited (pairs of papers cited should be able to be replicated, to its program of doctoral dissertation together) above a certain minimum have predictive qualities, and to have research support, which provides threshold. Clusters of highly co-cited an ability to be generalized. This opportunities for more advanced pairs are derived automatically, and special emphasis on strengthening scientific work to be done by young each cluster corresponds to a tradi­ the scientific base of social science is students just undertaking their tional or perhaps newly identified an integral aspect of the Founda­ thesis research. This program has scientific specialty. These special­ tion's responsibility. been very successful, and a number ties are usually more highly specific Funds for research supported by of these have resulted in important in subject matter (for example, re­ the Division of Social Sciences re­ contributions to the disciplines. A verse transcription of nonlinear mained at approximately the same gratifying number of recipients of optics) and compact in structure than level in fiscal year 1974 as in the pre­ dissertation awards have gone on to traditional disciplines (physics, ceding year, and the scope of the pro­ research careers and have succeeded genetics). By drawing lines con­ grams coverage was also sub­ in the rigorous postdoctoral re­ necting the cited papers, researchers stantially unchanged. Included in the search competition. can graphically represent the division's activities are physical and clusters on a diagram, as well as the cultural anthropology, including strength of linkage between papers. archaeology; economics; social and The Changing Disciplinary The various clusters can be mani­ economic geography; sociology; Structure of Science pulated by varying the parameters social psychology; political science; for indicating linkage. A higher link­ social indicators; history and philos­ The study of the development of age threshold will cause a cluster to ophy of science; science policy; and scientific groups and new areas of become more compact and a lower law and social sciences. A notable scientific development has pro­ one will increase the size of a cluster. organizational change during the ceeded quite rapidly in the past Applying this technique it has been year was the unification of activities several years. In particular, several found that larger specialties break in support of linguistics research. new techniques using co-citation down to a finer structure and sub­ These had previously been distri­ measures and multidimensional groups appear which focus around buted among five separate programs scaling as techniques for clustering key papers or individuals who are depending on the primary focus of citation data have made it possible to leaders in particular specialties. the work. Now it is organized as a co­ define areas of high activity within These manipulations result in herent activity under the Special the scientific literature and to list all identification of basic units which, Projects Program. This development the scientists and published works when clustered, identify the broad will enable closer monitoring and that constitute the core of a scien­ discipline. greater responsiveness to the needs tific area. This research, done by Also, these clusters may be viewed of this active research area. Henry Small of the Institute for as dynamic systems which change A number of interesting and im­ Scientific Information in Phila­ from year to year. It has been found portant projects were supported, and delphia, promises to provide an im­ that the individual clusters and a number of results became avail­ portant tool for the National Science groups of clusters are subject to LYMPHOMA; CERVICAL 1973 BIOMEDICAL CLUSTERS EMBRYO CELLS CARCINOMA; 10t4 MAREKS DISEASE HERPES VIRUS VIRUS CLUSTER CO-CITATION >-100 107:7 318:3

CYCLIC AMP: CANCER: PROTEIN KINASE S-BROMODEOXYURIDINE EPSTEIN-BARR VIRUS: 306:27 4:5 MONONUCLEOSIS 388:20 PREIMPLANIATION NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCES IMMUNOTHERAPY: EMBRYOS LEUKEMIA 421:5 18:10 703:7 \ \ CARCINOEMBRYONIC ANTIGEN 338:15

HVPERLIPOPADTEINEMIA HEART DISEASE 8:21

ACETYLCHOLINE RECEPTORS 145:8

CHOLERA TOXIN 305:11

PROSTAGLANDINS 181:22

INSULIN RELEASE 347:8

ERYTHROCYTE MEMBRANES 174:11 /

DNA-REPLICATION: R-FACTORS 67:12

MEMBRANE LIPIDS 271:32 HEMOGLOBIN DNA-POLYMERASE ATP-DEPENDENT BETA-POLVPEPTIDE TISSUE DNA MEMBRANES: CHAINS REGENERATION 135:5 GAP JUNCTIONS 191:5 138:4 109:41 ENZYME SECRETION: MEMBRANES: ELECTROLYTES MALIGNANT FLAGELLAR FLUORESCENT 397:4 HYPERPYREXIA MOTILITY PROBES AND HYPERTHERMIA 491:6 116:4 244:10

A new technique identifying tfie structure of scientific research based on published papers gives an idea of how scienlific studies are grouped together in certain years and then how these groups change in succeeding years. With a compulerized system that permits clustering of co-cited publications from an annual cumulation, researchers at the Institute for Scientific Information can categorize scientific specialities. By drawing lines between the cited papers, they can graphically represent Ihe clusters on a diagram as well as the strength of linkage between papers. The linkages in the 1973 biomedical clusters, for in­ stance, show intense activity in viral genetics and immunology. 32 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES dramatic change. When the linkage main, according to their analysis, it ment has often been a particular thresholds are raised or lowered, the was due to the high quality and effi­ problem in the social sciences. Be­ science cluster diagram begins to ciency of black labor and the special cause of the nature of the pheno­ take on an appearance of a rapidly skills of black managers. Citing re­ mena to be measured, the more highly changing landscape. Depending on liable census data, they report that, developed scaling procedures of the nature of the change in threshold, "On a majority of the large planta­ physical measurement have pro­ new specialties may emerge in fast tions, the top non-ownership vided very little guidance. An moving fields in as little time as 3 to 6 management was black." Plantation interdisciplinary team including two months, and drastic internal shifts records and slave market irivoices political scientists, a psychologist, can be observed in existing special­ also are cited to prove that less than 2 and a psychophysicist at the State ties. These shifting diagrams may be percent of slave families were broken University of New York at Stony exceedingly useful in the determina­ up by owners and that most slaves Brook is currently engaged in a pro­ tion of science policy and planning sold were either unmarried or were gram of research that promises to the allocation of resources for the sold with their mates. While this sort make very substantial progress to­ future. of evidence in no way condones ward the goal of improved measure­ slavery or establishes it as a progres­ ment. The Economics of sive social institution, it does shed In a series of experiments, the re­ Slavery light on the degree to which owners searchers have been building social perceived their self-interest to be scales using the procedures of psy- The traditional interpretation of associated with a stable productive chophysics. One of the chief prob­ the economics of slavery in America work force. lems in psychophysics is the dis­ has been challenged in a recent book, Unlike most of the densely crepancy between changes of Time on the Cross, written by Robert quantitative works of the new physical stimuli such as the change Fogel and Stanley Engerman of the economic history, the Fogel-Enger- in the intensity of light and the Universities of Chicago and man book has been widely discussed human perception of the change. Two Rochester. The massive quantita­ in the popular press in addition to the procedures are'used to establish the tive evidence which they compiled usual professional journals. Both the relationship between the change in and analyzed with the aid of econo­ praise and the criticism it has re­ the physical stimuli and human metric methods calls into question ceived make it plain that it is not the perception. The individual is asked the once widely accepted notion that last word on the subject but rather to make an estimate of the magni- slavery, as practiced in the Ameri­ the opening round of what promises tutie of the intensity of the physical can South, was an inefficient produc­ to be an increasingly scientific and stimulus relative to a standard. The tion system and that it was very very useful historical inquiry. The estimate is made in several ways (or harmful, if not ruinous, to the south­ authors themselves regard their modes); it may involve the individ­ ern economy. It is the authors' study not as a complete history but as ual assigning a number, turning contention that traditional figures a correction to impressionistic and sound up the same amount that the showing southern income far below partial narratives. In particular, they light has increased in intensity, and northern income are misleading be­ emphasize that their statistical in­ squeezing a hand grip. The multiple- cause of the extremely high levels at­ ferences about average economic mode estimates permit the second tained in a few Northeastern States. well-being on the plantations do not procedure used by psycho- Southern per capita income in the speak to moral issues or to the physicists, which is cross modal decades before the Civil War, they general psychological injuriousness validation. There are known func­ find, actually exceeded that of the of the slave system which must be tional relationships between the dif­ North Central States and was higher approached largely by nonquantita- ferent modes. If these known than any European country but Eng­ tive means. At the same time their re­ relationships hold in making esti­ land. Moreover, it was growing search testifies to the efficacy of mates of the intensity of the sti­ appreciably faster than in the North. mathematical techniques for probing mulus, this is treated as validating The complex productivity index a wide variety of important historical the estimates that are made by the developed by Drs. Fogel and Enger­ questions. individual. man indicates that southern slave Exactly the same procedure is farms were 28 percent more efficient "Hard" Measurement of being used by the research team at than southern free farms, and 40 per­ "Soft" Variables Stony Brook except that they substi­ cent more efficient than northern tute a social stimulus for the physical family farms. To some extent this Precision in scientific results is stimulus. These social stimuli may be startling result is accounted for by directly related to the ability to make individual words, phrases, or sen­ the economies of scale realized on precise distinctions in measure­ tences; or they may be visual stimuli large slave plantations, but in the ment; the lack of precise measure­ such as pictures. The numerical esti- RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 33 mates assigned by the individuals jective. Across four separate experi­ tial for a substantial improvement in can then be used as the basis for as­ ments with separate sets of subjects, social science measurement. They signing values in further research different objects to which the ad­ permit the assignment of a ratio scale using the stimuli. The cross modal jectives were being applied, and dif­ to social stimuli. The validation validation procedures permit a very ferent combinations of adjectives, procedures are rigorous and precise. precise check on the validation of the the experimenters have found a very The procedures can be used in a wide assignment of these values. remarkable stability in the values variety of research enterprises, for being assigned to adjectives, "ab­ instance, to develop better question­ By various procedures, re­ solutely perfect" was used in two of naires in survey research, or to meas­ searchers have been able to build and the experiments; in one the ratio of ure very precisely the stimuli that are validate scales measuring the im­ the values assigned for "absolutely presented to subjects in experi­ portance of different political offices, perfect" to the standard was 6.9 and mental research. They can be used the importance of different forms of in the other it was 7.0. "Good" was with content analysis procedures to political participation, and feelings used in each of the experiments and attain sophisticated measurement of toward political institutions. In their the ratios of the'values assigned for documentary data, or for measuring most recent set of experiments they "good" to those of the standard were various aspects of visual stimuli pre­ have been using adjectives as the 2.2, 2.0, 2.4, and 2.1. The adjective sented in, for example, television. stimuli to be responded to by the sub­ "very" was used to modify "good" The initial work of this group is al­ jects in the experiment. The subjects and "bad" in two of the experiments. ready being tested by other NSF were presented with an adjective or In each case the modifier "very" in­ grantees in quite different sub­ adjectival phrase such as "ade­ creased the ratio of the values to the stantive areas to determine its quate," "not too good," or "not too standard by exactly the same applicability to their research. This bad" as the standard stimulus. Then amount. The cross modal proce­ research may well improve the preci­ the subjects were presented a series dures indicated very strong validity sion of measurement in the social of adjectives and asked to estimate for the experimental results. sciences by several orders of magni­ their relationship to the standard ad­ These procedures hold the poten­ tude.

MATERIALS RESEARCH

The Foundation's Division of • Materials Research Laboratories University to better define basic Materials Research is concerned research that would be of help to the The emergence of the Foundation's with understanding the special long-term commitment in this area Energy-Related General Research properties—electrical, mechanical, now developing in the United States. (ERG] program (discussed in the chemical, magnetic—of solids. introduction to this chapter] led to a The identification and definition of Improvements in this basic under­ close evaluation of NSF's materials research opportunities and standing lead, in time, to improved or research activities to identify interaction with the research totally new industrial products. existing energy-related research and community in these areas is a broad During fiscal year 1974 the division other research areas that the division and continuing process, and partial was regrouped into three sections to should try to emphasize. For support to special topical meetings is allow the programs a better defined example, NSF has substantial a device being used by all the scope and help cope with the range of programs in mechanical properties, division's programs. The engi­ disciplines covered. The new surfaces, and superconductivity, all neering-related programs often organization consists of: of which are of importance to the support workshops with limited attendance, semi-structured dis­ • Solid State Sciences- ERG program. A look at emerging national programs revealed that the cussion, and roughly equal partici­ Solid State Physics pation by academic and industrial Quantum Solids & Liquids behavior of materials in the unique personnel. Workshop reports are Solid State Chemistry environment of coal gasification systems stands out as an important, published and distributed. • Metallurgy and Materials- but little understood, area. A Another device for grouping Metallurgy workshop on "Materials Problems research of this sort is "coherence Ceramics and Research Opportunities in Coal areas"—groups of grants with a Polymers Conversion" was held at Ohio State common theme. Currently, the 34 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

division is maintaining two of 10 these—biomaterials and hard materials. Meetings are held once or twice a year to exchange and discuss the results, and to set goals. In biomaterials, this provides a device for coordination with other agencies, primarily the National Institutes of Health.

Fabrication Technology for

a Practical Superconducting 10 Material

Large equipment used by electric utilities in generation and trans­ mission of electric power could benefit greatly if superconducting - t t t t t t t t materials—those which conduct June, 1974 electricity with very low losses—could be used extensively. Unfortunately, most super­ conductors lose their desirable properties if the current they carry becomes too large, if the magnetic field in which they are used is too large, or if their temperature rises too high. Of the thousands of compounds known, the materials that best avoid these difficulties are compounds of niobium with aluminum, ger­ manium, or silicon; a typical compound is NbsAl. However, these compounds are very brittle, and their superconducting properties are highly sensitive to chemical compo­ sition and crystalline perfection. Thus, production of wire from these materials which is strong enough and resilient enough to permit the winding of magnet coils has been very difficult. However, by careful control of the chemical and metallurgical processing, Robert Rose at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology has developed a wire 10 J_ J_ _L ± with greatly improved properties. 40,000 80,000 120,000 160,000 200,000 Furthermore, the technique can be Applied Field, Oersteds easily adapted to the present By careful control of the chemical and metallurgical processing, a superconduct­ industrial processes used in ing wire has been developed at MIT with improved properties for conducting production of niobium-titanium high amounts of currents over large inagnetic fields. In this chart, the white area alloys, the most common commercial shows that the improved material, niobium zirconium aluminum [NbZrAl], can carry and maintain a current of about 300,000 amperes per square centimeter, at superconducting products now magnetic fields in excess of 150,000 oersteds. Wires of different compounds such manufactured. In comparison to as niobium aluminum (NbAl] and niobium aluminum geriuanium (NbAlGe) do niobium-titanium, the alloys of not have these improved properties. RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 35

niobium with aluminum, germanium, Binding of Carbon segregated on nickel surfaces. His or silicon can be used at temper­ to Nickel Surfaces studies show evidence of three atures at least twice as high and at distinct states of carbon coverage, called A, B, and G, with a remarkably electric currents at least three times Many, if not most, of the physical sharp transition between phases A as high. and chemical processes important to and B at 1,180° K. From a combined our everyday life occur at surfaces. analysis of the composition and A major problem in production of For example, the properties of many structure of the surface, he has deter­ these newer materials has been important catalysts, substances that mined that the A state is isolated elimination of voids that develop promote chemical reactions, are carbon atoms on the nickel surface, B when the constituents, such as strongly dependent on the nature of corresponds to formation of one niobium and aluminum, react at high their surfaces. Also, the embrittle- atomic layer of carbon, and G temperature to form the compound ment of structural materials is often represents bulk graphite on the NbaAl. These voids increase the caused by the migration of impurities nickel surface. In addition to these brittleness of the material and to the interfaces between different structural determinations, a thermo­ decrease its current carrying crystallities (grain boundaries] in the dynamic analysis yields a value for capacity. However, precise control of bulk material. Despite the existence the binding energy of carbon to the the geometry of the constitutent of a qualitative understanding of the nickel surface which is less than 1 metals has permitted control of the influence of the surfaces, there are percent larger than that of carbon in void geometry and consequent fundamental questions in surface graphite. reduction of their undesirable science unanswered. effects. Using recently developed electron The information about the binding scattering techniques, J. M. Blakely energy and coordination of the The procedure for producing these of Cornell University has measured carbon on the nickel surface obtained materials consists of four steps. the degree of segregation and atomic in this investigation is directly First, a multifiber composite of arrangement of carbon atoms relevant to the understanding of the bundles of aluminum and niobium wires is fabricated by swaging and drawing (a composite only 0.01 centimeter in diameter may contain 10,000 to 100,000 wires]. Then a short heat treatment at 1,700° C. in a protective argon atmosphere permits the aluminum and niobium to chemically react. A final heat treatment around 750° C. causes additional internal changes which increase the usable temperature.

The improvement in properties that results from these heat treatments—determined by Dr. Rose in tests at the National Magnet Laboratory—permits the material to carry a current of about 300,000 amperes/cm^, compared to about 10,000 amperes/cm^ available earlier. Furthermore, this high level is maintained in applied magnetic fields in excess of 150,000 oersteds, performance which is superior to any commercially available super­ conductor. Still higher current densities appear possible. The Al Cornell, ]. M. Bhikely has measured Ihe degree of segregation and aloinic materials developed in this study arrangement of carbon atoius on nickel surfaces. He has identified three stales of (Urferenl carbtm coverage as a funclion of leinperature: G as bulk graphite on should be reasonable in cost and nickel surl'at;e; B as one aloiuic layer of carbon on nickel; and A as isolated carbon should permit development of large- aloms (m nickel. A photograph of a ball model depicts, on the left-hand portion, scale equipment. Ihe probable arrangemeni of one atomic layer of carbon. [Photo by J. M. Bhikely] 36 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

heterogeneous catalysis of hytlro- on the order of 1 millimeter wide. The lying physical interactions that give carbon reactions. The effectiveness domains are regions of very high rise to them. of the transition metal catalyst resistance which concentrate most of depends upon a delicate balance of the voltage drop across the sample. Highly Efficient Catalysts the binding energies in an inter­ Initially, before the domain can fully for Making Polymers mediate state including adsorbed develop, a high current passes carbons and in the initial and final through the sample. After Polymeric materials surpass all states. The energy of the carbon- approximately 2 microseconds the other manufactured materials in metal bond plays a significant role in domain is fully formed, and the volume of production. They are determining this balance. current is reduced from its initial fabricated into fibers, films, molded Furthermore, the catalytic surface is value by an order of magnitude. objects, coatings, and other objects, sometimes coated with a carbon and represent a very significant Recently, in the course of light layer under actual operating factor in the national economy. scattering studies of the amplified conditions. Polymers are made by chemically phonon beams using a powerful connecting large numbers of small pulsed laser, it was discovered that Intense Laser Modulation molecules, called monomers, by a the laser greatly modulates the of Acoustoelectronic Interactions process known as polymerization. current in the sample—but only This process received a very signifi­ when the laser light is directly The interaction of light with cant advancement some 25 years ago incident on the propagating domain acoustic waves in certain semi­ with the discovery of certain of acoustic flux. A factor of ten conducting materials offers the catalysts which promote poly­ increase in the current can be possibility of rapidly scanning and merization into stereoregular achieved, whereas incidence of the detecting light patterns as well as polymers with superior properties. light elsewhere on the sample detecting and modifying propa­ While these catalysts are used in produces a very small modulation of gation of acoustic waves. These much of commercial polymer the current. The unusual light- phenomena are of basic importance production today, they have certain induced modulation of the current is in potential devices for modern disadvantages. First, they are highly accounted for by the photo- signal handling, pattern recognition, corrosive and must be subsequently excitation of trapped electrons into and nondestructive testing; removed from the polymer by conducting states in the highly moreover, they provide a funda­ energy-consuming extractions and resistive domain. mental probe for investigating the solvent recovery. Second, they are behavior of materials. The observation of the laser modu­ not completely efficient, resulting in The generation, propagation, and lation of the domain current has two 3 to 5 percent low molecular weight control of acoustic waves in immediate useful applications. First, polymer, a significant waste of materials has been of major interest the domain, as it propagates across scarce raw material. at the Purdue University Materials the sample, can scan the sample and Work sponsored by NSF at the Research Laboratory from both the provide a photoconductive time University of Massachusetts has fundamental and the engineering response pattern related to the recently produced stereospecific points of view. One of the more basic spatial distribution of incident light. catalysts which are essentially 100 aspects of this effort has involved the R. L. Gunshor and his colleagues in percent efficient in polymerizing continuing study by Ralph Bray of Purdue's Electrical Engineering olefin monomers into polyolefins. In the Physics Department of the Department plan to study possible addition, these catalysts are properties of amplified phonon, or uses of this phenomenon in the noncorrosive and have the added acoustic, beams in a semiconductor, detection of light patterns. advantage of decreasing the flam- gallium arsenide. In this material, Conversely, moving the light spot mability of the resulting polymer. pulses of high voltage are used to along the sample provides a scan for Because flammability of polymeric amplify phonons from the thermal the presence of the amplified acoustic materials is now being recognized as equilibrium background by factors of flux and its propagation velocity. a serious problem, the possibility of a the order of 10^°. These phonons Thus, it is possible to probe in detail highly efficient, noncorrosive travel through the sample with the the fundamental properties of the catalyst that also increases the flame velocity of sound in narrow domains acoustic domains and the under­ retardancy is highly promising. RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 37

COMPUTER RESEARCH

Changes in technology and knowl­ humans can instantly recognize a mediate payoff in reducing com­ edge and changes in their impact on picture showing a block standing be­ puting time and cost. For example, the complexity of human organiza­ hind a cylinder which stands behind very many problems in science, en­ tion have been a constant pheno­ a pyramid. Computers have a very gineering, economics, and business menon throughout the history of man hard time doing this. Clearly, this involve solving systems of equa­ but have, until the past century, recognition problem is not "hard" in tions. The core of this process is the accelerated only gradually. Today, any absolute sense but its apparent handling of matrices [i.e., arrays of however, the rate of change is difficulty depends upon the design numbers) which express the relation­ unparalleled in human experience. recognition by the perceiver. ships among the equations and un­ Stasis, it appears, has permanently Humans are better designed than knowns. Such matrices often have yielded to flux. In furtherance of a computers for this task. On the other thousands of rows and thousands of belief that research is, at the same hand, multiplying two long numbers columns (or millions of entries, in time, both an instrument and a sym­ together is relatively hard for all). In most cases, all but 1 or 2 per­ bol of progress, the Division of Com­ humans (impossible for most of us cent of the entries are zero. The tradi­ puter Research [formerly the Office without some auxiliary devices such tional way of treating these matrices of Computing Activities] supported as pencil and paper), but relatively requires keeping a record of each research in all areas of computing easy for computers because of a new entry, whether zero or not; i.e., a com­ during this fiscal year. procedure which is better suited to plete picture of the matrix, since we The division places major em­ the design of computers. Interest­ need to know both the value and the phasis on fundamental aspects of ingly, humans find this new proce­ position of each entry. Magnetic computer science and engineering dure much more difficult than the old tapes, magnetic discs, or other and on research directed toward the one and the old way may be optimal auxiliary memory devices can be development of techniques that in­ for us. used to provide the large memory crease the responsiveness of the com­ This search for new procedures is capacity needed for this purpose, but puter to the requirements of scien­ an important aspect of computer simply reading and rewriting these tific disciplines. Projects relative to science and engineering research and millions of entries as often as is privacy and computer system one which is producing an im­ necessary to solve a typical problem security, to the human-machine interface, and to energy-related re­ search are also supported by a newly established Special Projects Pro­ gram. In addition, a limited amount of support for travel to selected international conferences and meetings is provided.

Theory of Algorithms ^2 4635

Human beings have been seeing, hearing, comparing, calculating, making decisions and, in general, perceiving and thinking for thou­ sands and thousands of years. During that time we have developed techniques and procedures for 53^rG ^0305 humans which are very good and possibly optimal. The advent of the computer, which can perform some of The search for new theories in computer science has produced results not only in these same functions but which new computer techniques but in reexamination of human versus computer works very differently, has given us procedures. For instance, human beings can instantly recognize a picture of a block standing behind a cylinder which stands behind a pyramid (left). But com­ reason to reexamine many of these puters have a hard time doing this. On the other hand, humans have difficulties activities. We are discovering some multiplying two long numbers, and most need auxiliary devices such as pencil interesting results. For example. and paper (right). Computers can do this work easily. 38 RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES can require hundreds of hours, even a major report, is expected to take at a number of institutions is the at electronic speeds. nearly 3 years to complete. Bruce W. hierarchical computing system. This W. E. Rheinboldt and his col­ Arden, Chairman of Princeton's Elec­ typically consists of a number of leagues and students at the Univer­ trical Engineering Department, will small computers in laboratories and sity of Maryland have discovered a supervise the undertaking. The offices, connected in one or more procedure for solving such equa­ report will define what computer hierarchical layers to a central com­ tions which requires knowledge for science and engineering is, describe puter system. only the non-zero entries. This pro­ major research problems now under An example is the Multidis­ cedure reduces computing time by 25 investigation, and point out future ciplinary Integrated Research percent in the relatively simple case educational and research opportuni­ Activities in Complex Laboratory of linear equations and may produce ties. It will also seek to explore the Environments [MIRACLE) system at an even greater advantage in the relationship between research in Purdue University. The system con­ more complex nonlinear problems. computer science and the increasing sists of a collection of mini­ use of computers to help solve pres­ computers and microcomputers in Computer Science Survey sing national problems. laboratories and at field sites. These are connected via direct wires or tele­ Computer Science and En­ Hierarchical Computing Systems phone lines to a data concentrator, gineering is a new and rapidly thence to a main processor, and developing basic research dis­ The increasing sophistication and finally, to the main university com­ cipline. Its explosive growth, both in quantification of research efforts puter center. With this hierarchical terms of students and number of have broadened the demand for arrangement, the really "heavy" com­ departments offering degrees, has scientific computing services. Some puting is done centrally, and tasks re­ paralleled the growth of computer of these services, such as on-line quiring constant attention or fast usage in all parts of society. For the high-speed data acquisition, com­ response are done by the most appro­ first time in its quarter century of plex pictorial display, and timely priate small computer. activity, and with support from the feedback of results to the investiga­ At the Purdue facilities, a multidis­ Division of Computer Research, this tor, have led to the exploration of new ciplinary array of research projects discipline will be given a compre­ types of computing resources to aug­ includes investigations in bio~^ hensive examination by researchers ment the conventional computing chemistry, physiology, structural en­ in the field. This examination, which center. One type of resource which gineering, meteorology, and environ­ will conclude with the preparation of has been successfully implemented mental science. The multidis-

New types of computing resources such as the hierarchical system have provided aid for the increasing sophistica­ tion and quantification of research efforts. Studies of ecosystems at Purdue use minicomputers to reach into a corn­ field (left) where solar radiation is recorded and into a laboratory (right) in which a simulated watershed is used in basic hydrology studies. Data from these laboratory computers are transmitted by a series of various devices to the main university computer center. RESEARCH PROJECT SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 39 ciplinary environment greatly facili­ forming basic computations re­ focus of Government interest has tates the transfer of techniques and quired in science and engineering, in­ been on nontechnical matters. How­ ideas among research disciplines, cluding an analysis of errors intro­ ever, several relevant technical prob­ and also helps get research results duced in long sequences of steps lems remain, some general and some quickly into pubhc use. For example, typical of scientific computations. specific to particular regulatory pro­ the Purdue group has developed a This research is fundamental to pro­ posals. These problems involve pri­ Generalized Environmental Model, viding science researchers with accu­ marily the development of adequate using concepts resulting from re­ rate, consistent, well-documented, access control methods to assure search in meteorology, atmospheric and extensively tested computer pro­ confidentiality of data and measures science, soil science, and hydrology. grams. A major collaborative proj­ of the information content of a data This model, implemented on the ect to improve the quality of scien­ bank. MIRACLE central processor, accepts tific computer programs is under Several research projects on com­ data in real time over telephone lines way at nine universities and labora­ puter security ranging from prag­ from remote field installations, tories with supjDort from NSF and the matic short-term data-gathering where sensors monitor phenomena Atomic Energy Commission. studies to highly mathematical and such as soil temperature and mois­ speculative basic research have been ture, atmospheric gases and funded by the division. For instance, particles, and solar radiation. The Privacy and Access Donn Parker of the Stanford Re­ system generates a variety of re­ Control search Institute is continuing his search outputs and also produces study of computer-based crimes with agricultural advisory information on Concern continues to grow over the emphasis on how the computer sys­ flooding, irrigation, crop develop­ threats to privacy posed by com­ tem was compromised by the crimi­ ment, harvesting, fire probability, puter data banks. This concern was nal. The data he collects will provide and pest management, and urban expressed in the Presidential State of invaluable information for the design advisory information on energy the Union Address delivered on of new protection measures and for demand, health episodes, airport January 30, 1974, and amplified fur­ research into secure operating sys­ safety, and roadway freezing. ther in a special radio address deli­ tems. Also, William Maxwell at vered by the President on February Cornell University is studying tech­ 23. In that talk, he announced the niques for making computer sys­ Software Quality Research formation of a special Domestic tems more secure through better soft­ Council Committee on Government ware. He is looking at ways to con­ Another thrust of the Division of Data Banks and Individual Privacy trol access to data in systems where Computer Research is directed at one to be chaired by the Vice President. In several different users are sharing a of the biggest problems in the com­ addition, legislation is pending in simple computer with overlapping puter field: the need to improve the both Houses of Congress, and many data sets. At the theoretical end of quality of computer programs. Errors States are considering or have passed this spectrum of projects, Peter Den­ in scientific programs are frequently laws controlling the operation of ning at Purdue University is subtle and may escape detection for computer-based personal data developing mathematical models of months or years. They differ from banks. data security in a computer system. errors in business computations, The attending legal, social, ethical, His work promises to provide im­ such as when a surprised recipient and technological considerations of portant insight into the future de­ receives a check for $99,999.99 when computer privacy have been sign of secure operating systems and no check was due. During the past 12 thoroughly sorted out in a series of into new computer architecture con­ years there has been much research studies and reports produced over cepts which may be needed to in numerical mathematics for per­ the past several years. The main guarantee the privacy of stored files.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 43

National and International Progams

The National and International require unusual involvement by the antarctic research ship Eitanin, now Programs Directorate comprises staff in the management of programs. IsJas Orcadas, to Argentina for joint most, though not all, of the so-called Indeed, intensive participation by use by Argentine and U.S. "big science" programs of the the program staff is a main character­ investigators. Foundation. Covering a variety of istic of the directorate's activities. • The establishment, shortly activities, the directorate's programs Highlights of activities in fiscal before the end of the fiscal year, of an are particularly strong in year 1974 include: Office for Climate Dynamics which, oceanography, the atmospheric • Initiation of the construction of in cooperation with other elements of sciences, and astronomy. two new oceanographic research the Government, will focus atten­ With some exceptions, the vessels, one of them funded with tion on long-term variations in world programs of the directorate depend fiscal year 1974 appropriations, as climate. on unsolicited proposals, which are replacements for older ships in the The fuel crisis had major impact on reviewed and evaluated by peers and "academic fleet." staff in standard NSF fashion. several programs, especially those Interdisciplinary projects are • Completion of the Pacific phase requiring ships and aircraft and common and require especially of the Geochemical Ocean Sections those with major installations to careful review. In addition to the Study, a project of the International maintain. A redistribution of funds scientific reviews, however, the Decade of Ocean Exploration, to was required in many cases to cover proposals often require reviews for collect baseline data along profiles of the unexpected increases in fuel logistic feasibility and evaluation of major oceanic bodies. costs. international aspects and impli­ • Initiation of construction at the In the atmosphere of detente, the cations. And, in the national site of the Very Large Array radio Foundation's international programs, the proposed projects telescope in New Mexico, along with cooperative science activities must be fitted into the scope and the award of several contracts for continued to expand, notably with objectives of that particular program hardware. the U.S.S.R. and other East European as well. nations. Programs with the People's • Initiation of limited obser­ Certain activities of the directorate Republic of China, Japan, and Latin vations on the new 4-meter Mayall are carried out under contracts or American nations were also at a high Telescope at Kitt Peak National interagency agreements, for level of activity. International Observatory, the second largest example, the support for the five projects in energy research and operating telescope in the world. National Research Centers, the Deep development received special Sea Drilling Project, and the logistic • Delivery of three new ski- attention, including a series of visits support for the U.S. Antarctic equipped LC-130R transport aircraft by U.S. scientists to countries Research Program. These typical for use in the antarctic program and engaged in the exploration of alter­ aspects of the directorate's activities transfer of the specially constructed native forms of energy.

NATIONAL AND SPECIAL RESEARCH PROGRAMS

Several areas of research are of mine that organizational need are: tions. Research programs and such broad scope that they require international cooperation, research support activities falling in special organization to assure the coordination with other agencies of this category are designated by the planning, management, funding, and Government, a relationship to a Foundation as National or Special logistics essential to their success. specific geographic region, and inter­ Research Programs and are reported Among the factors that may deter­ disciplinary scientific: investiga­ here. 44 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

Table 3 carbon, and energy flow through National and Special Research Programs representative systems. For example, Fiscal Years 1972, 1973 and 1974 at the level of gross primary pro­ duction there are major differences in [Dollars in millions] productivity of contrasting Fiscal year 1972 Fiscal year 1973 Fiscal year 1974 ecosystems—highly understand­ Number Amount Number Amount Number Amount International Biological Program 38 $ 9.44 30 $ 9.20 36 $ 8,82 able as a result of differences in Global Atmosptieric Researcli Program 37 2.39 55 3.45 51 3.86 temperature, available water, etc. International Decatie of Ocean Exploration 102 19.67 92 16.94 116 13.79 Arctic Researcli Program 61 3.54 52 3.43 46 3.87 But much of the captured solar U.S. Antarctic Research Program 139 27.00 130 44.00* 110 24.74 Oceanographic Facilities and Support 65 14.52 62 10.99 18.23 energy must be used to maintain the Ocean Sediment Coring Program 8 9.26 24 9.59 11.08 community and is lost in auto­ 1973 Solar Eclipse Support 2 .06 10 .68 1 .04 Experimental R&D Incentives Program 0 0 78 11.89- 70 10.55 trophic and heterotrophic respir­ National R&D Assessment Program 0 0 50 2.29 23 1.95 Science and Technology Policy Research 0 0 0 0 21 1.01 ation, leaving net ecosystem Energy R&D Policy Research 0 0 0 0 35 2.52 production values which have a TOTAt 452 $85.88 593 $112.46 603 $100.46 much narrower range than those for * Includes Supplemental Appropriation $19.74 million for procurement of three slii-equipped aircraft. gross production. The metabolic ratios suggest similar efficiencies INTERNATIONAL rapidly by Federal, State, and private and thus commonality of perfor­ BIOLOGICAL groups. As we enter an era in which mance among the divergent systems. PROGRAM* we become increasingly dependent upon national energy sources and The concern with energy flows Fiscal year 1974 was the final year wise land management practices, the through ecosystems forced attention of the International Biological scientific contributions of the IBP to the need for data on some very Program (IBPj. The program was assume a timeliness and practicality difficult components, such as root initiated under the sponsorship of a not foreseen at the initiation of the growth and turnover, which pre­ National Academy of Sciences program. viously had been largely ignored. committee in an ambitious effort to In the course of the IBP research, a Ecologists had known for some time ascertain how natural systems great deal of effort was focused on that much of the "action" in forests function and to elucidate man's role analysis of productivity, its and grasslands takes place below the within and his effects upon several environmental controls, and the soil surface, but few quantitative major ecosystems. (The results of the patterns and rates of nutrient, data were available. Measurements IBP will be reported in some detail in an Academy publication to be issued this year.) Briefly, major contri­ butions were made in a number of general areas:

• Developm.ent of a data base in several ecosystems on the pro­ duction of organic material and the fluxes and rates of matter and energy transfer.

• Development of mathematical models that contain a level of predic­ tability not previously available.

• Development of a well-trained cadre of young scientists who are committed to furthering our under­ standing of complex ecosystems.

Moreover, information developed during IBP has been put to use

* Alttiough administered by ttie Researcli Directorate, IBP is included tiere because of its The exchange of gases in photosynthesis in a deciduous forest is among the identification as one of the Foundation's thousands of measurements made in forests, grasslands, desert, and tundra as National and Special Research Programs. part of the International Biological Program. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 45 from the biome studies show below- because of the alkaline nature of the GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC ground activity significantly higher soil and low levels of microbial RESEARCH PROGRAM than anticipated. For example, in one activity, much of the nitrogen is lost (GARP)* eastern deciduous forest current data to the atmosphere as ammonia. indicate that more than 50 percent of The concept of a single, huge model the new photosynthetic production is of a forest or grassland to answer all The major effort of this program utilized below ground for root scientific and practical needs has during fiscal year 1974 was prepara­ growth. Even more of the annual long since given way to the under­ tion for the GARP Atlantic Tropical energy and nutrient flux in these standing that models must be built at Experiment (GATE) that began on forests is accounted by root turnover, a scale of complexity and temporal June 17, 1974. The scientific organic root exudates, and microbial and spatial resolution needed to test objectives of GATE are to: (1) activity. a specific hypothesis or answer a estimate the effects of small-scale In the more arid shortgrass prairie, specific question. One important tropical weather systems such as co-dominance of two grass species strategy that has been widely used, cumulus cloud clusters on large-scale which utilize different photo­ especially with larger models, is the circulations, especially the general synthetic pathways (C3 and C4] preparation of modules or submodels circulation of the atmosphere, and (2) leads to more efficient use of that can be combined in various ways advance the development of resources and greater total forage and modified without the necessity numerical modeling and prediction yields than would be possible with of altering the entire model. models to improve weather fore­ either species alone. The over­ The proof of these models is, of casting, particularly in the mid- whelming importance of the course, in their usefulness in science latitudes. decomposer subsystem, a sector (structuring information and testing The tropics are unique for there, in highly sensitive to temperature and hypotheses) and in problem the oceans, most of the heat received moisture, in processing organic solving—such as assisting in from the Sun as short-wave radiation debris and making nutrients avail­ resolution of land management is stored. This energy is transferred able points out the critical nature of conflicts. They have proved valuable into the boundary layer of the atmos­ understanding how environmental in both roles. For example, phere as latent heat in the form of stresses, such as those associated productivity and carbon cycling water vapor. The redistribution of with energy and water, affect these models for several biomes were the energy in the boundary layer ecosystems. The role of the littoral, or utilized to examine the effects of occurs in spurtlike fashion through near-shore, zone in the overall climatic changes such as might be the atmosphere in cumulus clouds productivity of lakes is apparently associated with an SST fleet. All that become embedded in larger scale analogous to the relationships that performed well and provided similar systems. The study and under­ estuaries bear to the ocean. That is, answers, although validation of their standing of these cumulus systems so the littoral zone supplies most of the predictions would, of course, be they can be characterized for use in plant organic matter upon which the difficult. A hydrology-nutrient atmospheric general circulation various lake food chains are based. transport model developed by the modeling is at the heart of GATE. IBP findings in the area of nutrient eastern deciduous forest biome is NSF's role iri the U.S. partici­ cycling are as wide ranging and being used to examine lead pation in GARP is to provide support important as they are in ecosystem movement and accumulation in to the academic community, where productivity. Strategies vary widely ecosystems. Models developed in the much of the scientific expertise lies. among ecosystems. In forests, desert and tundra biomes have been About two-thirds of the awards nutrients are generally tightly used to predict the effects of made in GARP this year were in conserved, but contrasts exist increased off-road vehicular traffic. support of GATE. This GATE between coniferous forests, which The Foundation plans to continue activity included support for 20 fulfill a substantial proportion of four of the five biome studies at a universities and research groups, as their nutrient requirements by decreased level of support for one or well as funds to place radar (operated internal redistribution within more years beyond the official end of by MIT), upper air, surface, and individual trees, and deciduous IBP. New research in ecosystem subsurface observing systems and forests, which cycle a much larger analysis can be expected to draw associated data processing proportion of their nutrients through very heavily upon the massive data the annual litterfall-decomposition- base, concepts, and personnel uptake linkages. In deserts, nitrogen developed in order to explore the * Alttiougli administered by the Research Directorate, GARP is included here because of fixation is high (in great part due to many opportunities for research its identification as one of the Foundation's blue-green algae in the soil) but, provided by this pioneering program. National and Special Research Programs. 46 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

Huge amounts of atmospheric and oceanic data from a 16,800,000-square-miIe segment of the world stretching across Ihe Allanlic Ocean from Africa through South and Central America were accumulated in the summer of 1974 under Ihe international GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment. NSF-funded experiments were concentrated in the ocean area west of Dakar.

equipment on the University of experiment, the Air Mass is in its fourth year of providing Miami ship RV Gilliss and to place a Modification Experiment (AMTEX), support for large, multidisciplinary, boundary layer system and data took place in the East China Sea international research projects on processing equipment from the during February 1974. This living and nonliving marine University of Virginia on the USCGC Japanese-led experim.ent had U.S. resources, ocean circulation, and the Dallas. Support was provided to the participation from the University of effect of the oceans on a global University of Oklahoma to help the California, San Diego, Purdue climate and marine environmental National Center for Atmospheric University, Texas A&M University, quality. Research [NCAR) in its U.S. aircraft Woods Hole Oceanographic The Seabed Assessment Program data management program. GATE Institution, and NCAR. Another field supports studies on continental also has been supported by NCAR phase will be conducted in February margins, deep seabeds, and mid- and NSF's Office of Oceanographic 1975. Other activities supported by oceanic ridges in order to identify Facilities and Support. GARP in fiscal year 1974 included new locations and processes that GATE is truly an international modeling of the general atmospheric produce natural resources, endeavor—from its initial planning circulation and clouds, studies of particularly petroleum and hard to its execution and ultimate turbulence and predictability, and minerals. Fieldwork for geophysical analyses of data. It represents the climate research. and geological surveys of the African best, most integrated example of continental margin was completed in international big science to date. It is 1973. Scientists mapped large sedi­ too early to report on definite INTERNATIONAL DECADE ment-filled basins and belts of salt scientific findings, but early OF OCEAN EXPLORATION diapiric structures, some of which indications are that many were previously unreported, and unexpected results are turning up. The Office for the International none of which has been completely A much smaller GARP field Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) mapped before. These are identified NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 47

as potential sources for future Researchers in the Climate: Long- that there are major and minor petroleum production in deep water. Term Investigation, Mapping and climatic cycles at intervals ranging Complementary work under way in Prediction (CLIMAP) program are from 85,000 to 2,000 years and, early 1974 off Brazil and Argentina seeking clues to past climatic trends perhaps, even shorter periods. has also identified geological by examining the historical changes The International Southern Ocean structures associated with large- in ocean current patterns, water Study (ISOS), initiated in fiscal year scale oil accumulation. mass properties, and sea-surface 1974, will focus on the Antarctic Understanding the origin of temperatures in the world's oceans. Circumpolar Current. This current is metalliferous ores and metal-bearing Reconstruction of past sea-surface the main vehicle for exchanging heat, sediments is the goal of projects on temperatures from fossil evidence in mass, and nutrient chemicals active spreading zones in the deep deep sea sediment cores suggests between the Antarctic and the ocean, including the mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise. Highly metalliferous sediments, a potential source of heavy metals, have been identified in the Bauer Basin, located near the East Pacific Rise. Studies indicate that these sedi­ ments may consist of distinct manganese, or iron-rich phases, as well as nickel and cobalt. Pre­ liminary site surveys and initial dives by French submersibles were completed on the mid-Atlantic Ridge during the summer of 1973 and resulted in a preliminary geologic picture of the research site. First­ hand observations, direct sampling, and photographs taken by teams of American and French scientists during approximately 50 dives in the summer of 1974 are under laboratory study. Results from the Environmental Forecasting program will provide the basis for improved and extended forecasts of weather, climate, and ocean circulation. For example, investigators in the North Pacific Experiment (NORPAX) found that it was possible to anticipate the onset of El Nino, the long-term warming of surface waters off Peru, by 3 to 8 months by identifying conditions associated with fluctuations in equatorial ocean circulation. Medium-scale eddies in general ocean circulation are thought to play a key role in the effect exerted by the oceans on weather and climate. Data from the Mid-Ocean Dynamics (MODE) field experiment, completed in mid-1973, have made it possible to describe an eddy roughly 80 miles in diameter with speeds 100 times An ocean bottom measuring device is lowered from a research vessel during the faster than the average circulation of Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment (MODE) to help determine the circulation of the deep Atlantic Ocean. eddies in the Atlantic Ocean. 48 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. countries sought to understand the changing role of Alaskan natives In the Environmental Quality key features driving and controlling concentrated on problems of program, the Pacific phase of the the upwelling process so vital to the migration to urban areas. And Geochemical Ocean Sections Study world's fisheries. The goal of this political studies, dealing with the (GEOSECS) was completed in June Living Resources project is to enable changing character of Alaska's 1974, having taken water samples prediction of the upwelling political economy and culture, and direct measurements at 180 ecosystem by monitoring specific focused on Federal public land locations between the Aleutian biological, physical, and policies. The Institute of Social, Islands and the Antarctic and meteorological variables. Economic, and Government between Tokyo and San Diego. During 1973, a number of IDOE Research, University of Alaska, is Radioisotopic and trace element data projects, including the Mid-Ocean carrying out the program in are providing the basis for Dynamics Experiment, GEOSECS, cooperation with other institutions. quantitative studies of ocean and selected projects in marine The objective of the Greenland Ice diffusion and mixing against which geology and geophysics, formed the Sheet Project, to construct a record of future distribution of fission and basis for several projects included in past climate, is similar to an other waste products in the sea can the U.S./U.S.S.R. Agreement on objective of the antarctic program. be evaluated. Studies of the World Ocean. Main elements of this international Projects designed to identify the project are ice core drilling, radar mechanisms controlling the rates and POLAR PROGRAMS sounding of ice thickness, sampling paths by which pollutants enter the of gases trapped in the ice, and pceans have found concentrations of In the Arctic, the Tundra Biome measurement of ice movements. A mercury, cadmium, and lead in the project of the International Bio­ 400-meter ice core drilled in 1974 will water, biota, suspended particulates, logical Program completed its fourth enable reconstruction of seasonal and marsh sediments of the inner and final year in 1974. Its objective temperature variations over the past continental shelf stretching from has been to develop a predictive several thousand years. South Carolina to Florida. Highest understanding of how the tundra The Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint concentrations were found in the operates and to bring environmental Experiment (AIDJEX) continued sediments. Trace metals, petroleum, knowledge to bear on problems of preparation for the main experi­ and chlorinated hydrocarbons were degradation, maintenance, and ment, which starts in spring of 1975. detected in the North Atlantic air and restoration of the temperature-sen­ Objective of the project, which began water. Tar lumps, suspected to sitive, cold-dominated tundra and in 1971, is to forecast ice movement originate from tanker washings, taiga ecosystems. Workshops in the and deformation and ocean- were also found, as was Freon, which United States and an international atmosphere heat exchange from a is used as an aerosol propellant. symposium at Abisko, Sweden, network of meteorological obser­ Plastic cylinders suspended in the capped the project, whose major vation points. Preparation in 1974 for sea will provide controlled results will be reported in three the main experiment included environments for examining the volumes over the next 2 to 4 years. development of data buoys, a study effects on marine organisms of The Man-in-the-Arctic project is of cracks (leads) in ice floes off persistent low-level exposure to producing social and economic data Barrow, Alaska, and development of pollutants in the Controlled to help Alaska cope with its rapidly mathematical models. Ecosystem Pollution Experiment developing industry and with such Since the 1957-58 International (CEPEX). Preliminary results from far-reaching social changes as those Geophysical Year, when the United 1/4-scale models indicate that the caused by the Native Claims States and other nations began full-scale enclosures (10 meters in Settlement Act. In 1974, following a continuous research programs in the diameter by 30 meters deep) will be year of planning, studies got under south polar region, scientists have suitable for enclosing communities of way in four areas. Economics been accumulating evidence that bacteria, phytoplankton, and zoo­ research, aimed at identifying and climatic fluctuations in Antarctica plankton identical to those in the quantifying the structure of the have major influence on global natural environment. Full-scale Alaskan economy, included study of climatic changes. The ice-covered enclosures are under construction the major Alaskan industries and continent, part of a single, earthwide and will be launched in 1974. their interrelationships. Demo­ thermodynamic machine, cools The JOINT-I field experiment, a graphic studies, to develop popu­ arriving tropical air and sends it large-scale oceanographic- lation baseline data and to project north to heat again. The great meteorological study of coastal changes, included census data antarctic circumpolar ocean current, upwelling off the coast of West processing and determination of chilled by ice shelves, extends arms Africa, was completed in June 1974. growth trends by age, sex, and ethnic of cold water beyond the Equator. Scientists aboard ships from nine group. Ethnographic study of the The ice thus markedly affects the NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 49

atmosphere and the oceans. Its free valley for 3 miUion years. The pheric constituents, including variation is in fact both a cause and remeasurement showed that the pollutants. an indicator of climatic variations. glacier has begun retreating, Physical and biological oceano­ probably only in the last 10 years. At graphic research in the southern Antarctic projects in glaciology, the present rate of decay, this ancient ocean had been curtailed in 1972 oceanography, and meteorology are glacier would vanish within 750 when a budget cut triggered discon­ aimed at analyzing this ice-ocean-air years. tinuation of cruises by the ice- system. The objectives are to learn Analysis of deep cores drilled into strengthened research ship USNS the history of antarctic glaciation the sediments and rocks around Eltanin. An arrangement was and climate, to discover historical McMurdo Sound this year in a joint completed with Argentina, however, climate patterns, and to predict Japan-New Zealand-United States for joint operation and shared global climate through special project verifies that the ice-free scientific use of the ship, and cruises observations in the polar regions. valleys of southern Victoria Land will resume in mid-1974. The ship, Glaciology in the 1973-74 austral once were marine fjords. The cores, a renamed IsJas Orcadas, will summer research season centered on key to interpreting the complex complete the circumpolar survey the Ross Ice Shelf, where researchers geology of the McMurdo region, will begun in 1962, with emphasis on the of six institutions gathered data on aid in dating the glacial history of the kinematics and dynamics of the ice thickness and movement, internal area. A fringe benefit this year was circumpolar current, the formation of structure, underlying water discovery of viable organisms in the bottom water, the budgets of heat thickness, and ocean tides. A site was frozen cores. and momentum, and marine surveyed for future drilling through To examine and quantify antarctic ecosystem analysis. the shelf to the underlying water and meteorological data, and to allow In addition to climate-oriented sediment. Study of the resulting ice preparation of global circulation programs in glaciology, core will reveal the history of ice models, investigators from eight oceanography, and meteorology, flow. Glacial geologic evidence institutions are beginning an major projects took place in upper collected in the McMurdo Sound extensive new program at South Pole atmosphere physics, terrestrial and region to date the retreat of the Ross Station. The work includes laser- marine biology, biomedicine, Ice Shelf suggests that the shelf is radar measurement of ice crystal geophysics, and geology. Three new steadily receding from its maximum distribution, acoustic profiling of ski-equipped LC-130R transport position reached at the last ice age. winds, and measurement of sky airplanes were delivered for use in Evidence of overall ice retreat was radiation. The South Pole Station the program. The U.S. Navy and a obtained through remeasurement of a also serves as an environmental civilian contractor provided logistic glacier tongue that has been in an ice- benchmark for monitoring atmos­ support.

A U.S. Navy helicopter (left) hovers while personnel of the joint Japan-New Zealand-United Stales project for drill­ ing Antarctica's dry valleys prepare a drill engine for airlifting. During 1973-74, the Dry Valley Drilling Project ob­ tained deep earth cores reaching to bedrock at eight sites in Antarctica, one of which is New Harbor (right), near Mc­ Murdo Sound. [Photos by U.S. Navy] 50 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

OCEANOGRAPHIC reciprocity arrangements. A joint The Nimitz Marine Facility Pier at FACILITIES effort by OFS and the Office of Naval the Scripps Institution of Oceanog­ AND SUPPORT Research (ONR), the other principal raphy, funded in 1972, was supporting agency, provided completed on schedule and dedicated Thirty ships operated by 15 emergency fuel to fleet ships on in March 1974. The pier is one of only academic and other nonprofit several occasions. two in San Diego harbor having research institutions make up the Construction of new ships and complete sewer and bilge water "academic fleet." These ships are improvements to the existing fleet connections to avoid pollution of used principally in the conduct of were also major concerns in 1974. harbor waters with shipboard federally supported research When ship construction funds wastes. projects. Approximately 70 percent became available early in the fiscal Several awards were made to of the total operating costs of the fleet year, an existing contract with the improve handling of oily wastes, are provided by NSF's Office of Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti­ bilges, and sewage on existing ships Oceanographic Facilities and tution for construction of a medium- to bring them into compliance with Support (OFSJ. In fiscal year 1974, sized research ship was amended to environmental protection regula­ OFS made awards totaling more than provide for the building of a second, tions. To establish priorities and $13 million for fleet operations and identical ship. The first ship, arrange for funding of upgrading of shipboard technician support. Oceanus, will be assigned to Woods this type, OFS and ONR initiated a In 1974, more than 5,000 of the total Hole upon completion in mid-1975. joint program during 1974 to survey of 8,000 ship-days scheduled by the The second ship will be completed in material condition and outfitting of academic fleet were for NSF projects. late 1975 or early 1976. The the fleet. In addition to the fieldwork of designation of an operating individual grantees, interinstitu­ institution for the second ship will be OCEAN SEDIMENT tional and international "big science" made in fiscal year 1975. Title to both CORING PROGRAM projects generated heavy ship-time ships will be retained by the Govern­ The National Science Foundation requirements. For example, five ment. funds the Deep Sea Drilling Project academic ships joined the inter­ national flotilla for Project GATE, a field project of the Global Atmos­ pheric Research Program. Multiship operations were conducted in support of such diverse projects as geophysical investigations of the Nazca Plate off Western South America and biological studies of the JOINT-I expedition off West Africa. Avv-ards v^ere also made for part- time use or charter of highly specialized facilities needed by NSF grantees. Among these were a deep submersible, an aircraft outfitted for oceanographic observations, and a ship equipped for multichannel seismic profiling. The international fuel shortage during the winter of 1973-74 posed many problems for the fleet. However, a combination of hard work, good planning, and a little bit of luck kept delays to a minimum for academic research ships. A "fuel hot­ line" was established that served as a focal point for the institutions to exchange information on the avail­ The Nimitz Marine Facility Pier at San Diego, dedicated March 1974, has com­ ability and price of fuel in various plete sewer and bilge water handling capabilities to help prevent pollution of harbor water. It is part of the marine operations facility of the Scripps Institution ports and to obtain help with of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego. [Photo by University of allocations and international California, San Diego] NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 51

[DSDP] as part of the Ocean Sediment Coring Program. The DSDP is aimed primarily at learning more about the origin and history of the ocean basins and continents through drilling and coring of the sediments and rocks of the ocean floor. The prime contract for the management of this project is between the NSF and the University of California, with the Scripps Insti­ tution of Oceanography of the uni­ versity delegated the responsibility for accomplishing the scientific objectives. The University of California subcontracts with Global Marine, Inc. (GMI) to perform the actual drilling and coring operations with GMI's ship GJomar ChaJJenger. Six years of operations were completed in August 1974. During this time, 489 holes were drilled at 332 sites in all the major oceans and seas except the ice-bound Arctic. During fiscal year 1974, 40 holes were drilled in the western, central, and eastern Pacific, the Antarctic, and the western North Atlantic Snow blankets various pieces of drilling equipment as well as the wind-break oceans. constructed around the drill floor of the research vessel, GJomar ChaJJenger, dur­ The results of drilling during fiscal ing drilling and coring operations on the Antarctic and Arctic expeditions of the year 1974 continued to help mold new Deep Sea DrilUng Project, part of the Ocean Sediment Coring Program. [Photo by concepts of the Earth's history. For Scripps Institution of Oceanography] example, evidence obtained during Leg 32 dates the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean basin with new crystalline basement. ment between NSF and the Deutsche accuracy at about 125 to 130 million Two antarctic legs [35 and 36] Forschungsgemeinschaft of the years ago. At that time, the newly found evidence that glaciers Federal Republic of Germany is forming Atlantic Ocean must have occupied Antarctica at least 20 expected to be signed in early fiscal looked very much like the modern million years ago, and established year 1975. Possibilities of similar Red Sea or the Gulf of California. that parts of the submerged Falkland future agreements with France, the Leg 33 was designed to test the idea Plateau are probably greater than United Kingdom, and Japan are being that linear island chains, such as the 600 million years old. investigated. Line Islands chain, were formed by A heave compensation system, Leg 37, west of the Azores in the the movement of the entire Pacific designed to improve core samples Atlantic Ocean, achieved the deepest Plate over fixed "hot spots." and prolong bit life, was installed penetration of crystalline basement According to this theory, as the plate aboard Challenger in October and yet accomplished (more than 600 drifted over the "hot spot," old tested at sea. Inconsistent perform­ meters] and revealed sedimentary volcanoes would move with the plate ance and technical problems pro­ layers within the basalt. and new ones would form over the longed the testing, but most prob­ "hot spot," eventually creating a long In late February 1974, a Memo­ lems had been solved at the end of the chain of volcanic islands. Data from randum of Understanding was fiscal year. A sea floor locator was three sites along the Line Islands signed between NSF and the U.S.S.R. successfully completed and tested, chain showed that the "hot spot" Academy of Sciences calling for a and a new hard-rock laboratory was theory cannot explain their origin. U.S.S.R. contribution to the Deep Sea installed aboard the ship. Design was Drilling on the Nazca Plate during Drilling Project of $1 million an­ begun on a pressure core barrel that Leg 34 encountered iron-enriched nually for a period of 5 years com­ will maintain in situ pressure of sediments above the highly fractured mencing in 1974. A similar agree­ cores throughout the coring process. 52 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

SOLAR ECLIPSE SUPPORT EXPERIMENTAL R&D fiscal year 1973. One major new INCENTIVES PROGRAM* experiment to gather information on A total eclipse of the Sun occurred incentives currently being used for on June 20,1974. The path of the total Begun in August 1972, the stimulating technology utilization in phase of the eclipse touched the Earth Experimental R&D Incentives ongoing Federal agency programs at sunrise in the Indian Ocean south­ Program was authorized by Congress was initiated. west of Australia. It traveled in a to test potential incentives which the northeasterly direction, passing over Federal Government might use to • University-Industry Coopera­ Amsterdam Island. At. the southern reduce barriers to innovation and to tive Research and Development. The latitude of 30° the path moved in a technology transfer in the civilian purpose of this experiment, begun southeasterly direction towards economy. During fiscal year 1974 with projects in fiscal year 1973, is to Australia, and the northern limit of some 70 grant and contract awards test the effectiveness of limited- the path touched the southwestern were made totaling some $10.6 duration Federal cost-sharing of uni­ corner of Australia before leaving the million. The awards were divided versity-industry cooperative applied Earth's surface at sunset south of among planning, support, and back­ research programs in stimulating in­ Tasmania. The maximum totality of ground studies ($2.2 million), and dustrial investment in research and the eclipse, 5 minutes and 8 seconds, project exploratory experiments development. Operational phase occurred over the Indian Ocean. ($8.4 miUion). Seventy percent of the awards for two experimental proj­ Totality over land masses occurred obligations were awarded for study, ects were made in fiscal year 1974. only at Amsterdam Island and design, and experiment initiation in One was to MIT for an applied Australia. Maximum totality over private sector areas, and 30 percent research program with the polymer land was 4 minutes and 13 seconds were awarded in public sector areas processing industry, and the other and occurred at Point d'Entre- of interest. The largest single award was to the MITRE Corp. to test the casteaux. West Australia. was $3.0 million in an interagency effectiveness of a university/in­ agreement with the Veterans dustry/nonprofit research institute The Foundation supported surveys Administration (VA). This award is as an institutional combination for of possible observing sites and supporting a cooperative experiment stimulating increased R&D invest­ identified those that were optimum by the NSF and the VA whereby the ment by the New England electric for conducting ground-based VA hospitals will clinically test and utility industry. experiments. Survey results and evaluate medical diagnostic ultra­ The completion of Phase I—ex­ information on the characteristics of sonography imaging instruments of periment definition—for three long- the solar eclipse were provided to advanced design submitted by term and eight short-term experi­ scientists and serious amateur as­ participating manufacturers. The mental applied research projects in tronomers. experiment will test whether Federal this area has provided the following The Foundation coordinated action to shorten the clinical testing observations and preliminary national and international U.S. period for some kinds of medical findings. efforts related to this eclipse as it did instrumentation and bring them to (1) Com.panies in specific indus­ for the 1973 eclipse. U.S. investi­ market acceptance sooner is a tries have been able to work out gators who were interested in sufficient incentive to encourage agreements for cooperative applied locating Australian scientists to medical instrument manufacturers to research projects with the three long- collaborate on solar eclipse experi­ increase their investments in instru­ term participant universities in this ments were assisted by the mentation research and develop­ experiment under the stimulus of Foundation. Two rocket-borne ment. limited duration. Federal (NSF) cost- experiments were placed under the sharing. United States-Australia Agreement Private Sector (2) The long-term participating for Scientific and Technical companies have reached agreements Twenty-three awards were made Cooperation. The path of the eclipse to commit their own funds to the by the Private Sector Office for back­ crossed only a small portion of land cooperative research agreements to ground studies, including the in southwest Australia. Only a few be spent, along with NSF cost- operational phase of two cooperative U.S. scientists conducted experi­ sharing funds, at the university or university-industry R&D experi­ ments during the eclipse, and most other institutions performing the mental proj ects that were initiated in were congregated within the small research. land area that was covered by clouds (3) Cooperative research agree­ during the period of eclipse totality. * Alttiough the Office of Expermental R&D ments (acceptable to NSF) between Incentives reports to the Office of the Director of Only one of two rocket-borne the long-term participants, where the Foundation, it is included here because of its experiments achieved marginal identification as one of the Foundation's more than one company is involved success. National and Special Research Programs. in a given research area, have been NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 53

achieved, so far, only when the university protocol, center organiza­ • Multi-State Regional Systems. participating companies do not tion and staffing). Six courses have The appropriate and effective utili­ consider themselves as directly been developed, enrolling approxi­ zation of research and development competing with each other in regard mately 75 students (graduate and for public services hinges, at least in to the knowledge generated by the undergraduate level), and all of the part, on geographic scale and density R&D efforts. When the participating centers are currently evaluating factors. This exploratory experiment companies compete with each other potential technological innovations will examine the viability of setting primarily on the basis of the innova­ submitted either internally or up a six-State mechanism to articu­ tions generated by the program, external to the centers' operation. late the Rocky Mountain regionwide cooperative R&D agreements be­ Measures have been established to R&D needs and bring regional tween a university and more than one determine the effects of the center resources to bear on these needs. company have consisted basically of activities on producing increased • Federal Technology Sharing one-to-one agreements with the uni­ technological innovation and on Systems. This project will couple a versity. These arrangements have stimulating students to seek careers Federal Laboratory complex at the not been considered compatible with in technological innovation. NASA-operated Mississippi Test the use of Federal funds under this Facility with the State governments cooperative R&D project. Public Sector of Mississippi and Louisiana to [4] The cooperative research Building on background studies examine the degree to which such an agreements which have been reached and experimental design efforts arrangement can help the States by the three long-term participants initiated in fiscal year 1973, the effectively "buy" R&D systems with their industrial partners Public Sector Office established four support through their own funding resulted in industrial commitments major exploratory experiments in sources or through national program for research and development fiscal year 1974, with parallel resources. ranging from approximately $0.80 to evaluation efforts and support $1.40 for each $1 of Government studies. These experiments, In addition, the Public Sector (NSF) funding. described below, have the near-term Office has initiated a series of field [5] Company financial commit­ goal of exploring multi-insti­ studies and natural experiments ments so far appear to be additions to tutional, intergovernmental looking at similar issues from the their planned R&D budgets. strategies for increasing the use of point of view of metropolitan areas, • Federal Incentives for R&D processes and techniques in the industry, and State legislative staff Stimulating Utilization of Civilian- management and delivery of public activities. In all cases, program Oriented, Federally Funded R&D services at the State and local level. efforts are evaluated in terms of their short-term implication for utilizing Results. Federal agencies funding • State Systems Addressed to federally generated technologies, as civilian-oriented research and Stale and Local Needs. Two well as their long-term potential development have been using a approaches utilizing State university regarding Federal policy action in variety of incentives to stimulate the systems are being explored. One support of better utilization of utilization of the R&D results. focuses on the utilization of the research and development, broadly Following a public request for University of Oklahoma's extension construed, by State and local juris­ proposals, NSF awarded a contract system as the vehicle for identifying dictions. to conduct a natural experiment to and aggregating local municipal and determine the effectiveness of these rural county needs that can be solved NATIONAL R&D incentives. through the utilization of R&D ASSESSMENT PROGRAM* • Centers for Invention and resources resident in the experi­ Innovation. The purpose of this mental area. The other will test the Through the National R&D Assess­ experiment is to test the incentive of coupling of industrial R&D capa­ ment Program, the Foundation limited-duration Federal funding of bility operated by the University of analyzes patterns of research and innovation centers at universities as Tennessee. development and technological inno­ an educational stimulus to the choice • Systems Addressed to State vation; the incentives and decisions of careers in technical innovation. Legislatures. This effort will that underlie the existing patterns; Three centers established under examine the ways and means of and the implications that a choice of cooperative agreements with the coupling locally available R&D options will have in shaping future Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ competence at Auburn University nology, Carnegie-Mellon Uni­ into the deliberations of a State • Although the National R&D Assessment versity, and the University of Oregon legislature (Alabama) to help it plan Program reports to the Office of the Director of the Foundation, it is included here because cf its are nearing the completion of Phase I and implement programs and legis­ identification as one of the Foundation's [development of course structures, lation having technological content. National and Special Research Programs.

565-982 O - 75 - 5 54 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

patterns of research and develop­ and internal returns from tech­ Management Improvement [RMI] ment and technological innovation. nological innovation. Program in fiscal year 1973. In fiscal Work under this program can be year 1974, the RMI program awarded • Research and development, roughly categorized in three broad support totaling $2,912,400 to 25 factor inputs, and productivity of the areas. The first area examines past, projects at universities, colleges, and individual firm. present, and alternate future policies other independent nonprofit research and practices of governments and • Technological innovation and institutions. All of the supported assesses the relationships between productivity/product-quality change projects can be classified into six policy options and the processes of by firms. major problem areas of research technological innovation. Emphasis management: is placed on government policies • The effectiveness of educational (1) The administration of research manifested through expenditures, systems in facilitating adaptation to in accordance with Federal require­ the tax system, and the legal frame­ technical change. ments, regulations, policies, and work. In addition, the experience of • Economic analysis of con­ procedures. other industrialized nations in the tractual arrangements affecting (2) Management of interdiscipli­ area of science and technology policy firms' ability to capture returns from nary research projects. is studied to determine implications innovation. [3] Allocation of research for U.S. policy options. In fiscal year resources—equipment, personnel, 1974, work was undertaken on the • Effect of innovation on pro­ space, and support services. following specific subjects: ductivity in the service industries. (4) Planning and forecasting. • Tax policies for R&D tech­ The third area explores innovation (5) Alternative strategies and or­ nological innovation. for a better understanding of the ganizations for research manage­ processes and decisions involved. An ment. • The relation between market understanding of how the innovation (6) Competency-building in re­ structure and innovation. process works is necessary to search management at all levels of • Government policies and the ascertain Federal options. Included university administration. adoption of innovations in the in this area are the processes of Almost half of the projects supported integrated iron and steel industry innovation that may pertain to the private and public sector. In fiscal deal with category [2] above, the • A state-of-the-art review of the year 1974, work on the following management of interdisciplinary effects of regulation on tech­ subjects was started: research projects. nological innovation in the chemical All of the projects supported in • Technological innovation and and allied products industries. fiscal year 1973 are still under way. process development Four of them are nearing comple­ The second area in this program is • Role of the initial user in the tion—at the California Institute of the study of socioeconomic conse­ industrial good innovation Technology, Oregon State Uni­ quences of technological innovation versity, the Upstate Medical Center with the aim of establishing • Diffusion of innovation: a of the State University of New York methodologies and estimates to longitudinal study in the shoe (SUNY), and the University of measure and analyze the effects of industry Southern California. Each of the four technological changes. Specific • The adoption of innovation by is concerned with a different problem studies started in fiscal year 1974 in local government area of research management. this category are: Investigators at the California • Diffusion of technology in Institute of Technology are address­ • Study of availability and quality municipal governments ing the problem of rising costs for of national statistics on research and research support services. One study development in selected OECD • Role of consortia in the national of departmental indirect costs will countries. R&D effort yield information on ways to provide • The relationship of tech­ improved research support services nological change and the demand for RESEARCH MANAGEMENT and effect economies in academic departmental organizational struc­ and supply of raw materials. IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM tures. A second investigation, con­ • International technology trans­ Recognizing the desirability of cerned with the operation and main­ fer by multinational enterprises. improving the management of tenance of the physical plant, is an federally supported research-related analysis of functions performed, • An evaluation of alternative activities and research resources, the together with the financial support methods for measuring the external Foundation established the Research patterns of each. In a third project NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 55

investigators are studying the eco­ particular, they have been analyzing master's grantors, and about one- nomic and engineering feasibility of those management policies, tenth to colleges offering only under­ an on-site power-generation plant as practices, and structures that graduate programs. a means of offsetting the rapidly facilitate the conduct of inter­ Institutional officials decide how rising costs of electrical power. disciplinary research. From these the grant funds are to be spent. The methods of determining priorities Oregon State University is con­ data, they will develop new manage­ with respect to the use of insti­ ducting a general review, analysis, ment techniques for such research tutional grant funds vary consider­ and evaluation of its management of and test their effectiveness in on­ ably among the participating colleges research. Investigators are exam­ going interdisciplinary research and universities. There is an ining the university's central efforts at the university. increasing tendency, however, to research management activities; its vest control of the funds in special management and coordination of committees whose primary purpose research in all its centers, institutes, INSTITUTIONAL GRANTS is to set institutional guidelines and academic schools and departments, FOR SCIENCE criteria for allocating the funds and other research organizations; its within the various scientific disci­ research associations with industry; Institutional Grants for Science plines. and its research-related purchasing provide general support for science As in previous years the purchase procedures and costs. An immediate annually to about one-fourth of the of equipment and supplies (in­ result of this project will be a Nation's colleges and universities. cluding scientific books and period­ Research Handbook, designed pri­ Each grant is computed by applying a icals] accounted for. half the ex­ marily for use by university staff and graduated arithmetical formula to penditures—considerably more than faculty, but available to others too. the amount of an institution's Federal research support during the half for institutions offering only At the SUNY Upstate Medical preceding year. undergraduate programs. Salaries Center, investigators are studying In fiscal year 1974, the Foundation and stipends represent nearly 30 the feasibility of applying the made 678 institutional grants percent of the expenditures; doc­ Critical Path Method of planning to totaling $7 million. Each of the 50 toral-level institutions, many of resource allocation for research States, the District of Columbia, which use the grants to encourage projects. A theoretical model has Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Virgin their younger faculty members to ini­ been developed and is now being Islands had one or more institutions tiate research projects, spend a larger evaluated for its effectiveness and to receiving grants. The grants ranged proportion of their funds for faculty determine what benefits the method in size from $1,000 to $67,100, with salaries than do undergraduate may provide the individual investi­ the average being $10,300. Since the colleges. The physical sciences have gator, the grants administration program began in fiscal year 1961, received about one-third of the funds, staff, and the Medical Center as a over 1,100 colleges and universities and the life sciences about one-fifth. whole. have received institutional grants Percentage allocations to social Investigators at the University of amounting to $135 million. sciences and psychology tend to be Southern California have examined Three-fourths of the fiscal year higher in universities than in col­ the management of interdisciplinary 1974 institutional grant funds were leges where instructional equipment research as it is practiced at major awarded to universities granting for natural science laboratories has universities across the country. In doctor's degrees, about one-sixth to the highest priority.

NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTERS

The Foundation provides support center for research in the atmos­ tional and research institutions. for the development and operation of pheric sciences. These centers have They provide specialized equip­ five National Research Centers. been established to meet national re­ ment, facilities, and scientific Three of the centers are devoted to re­ search needs in specific areas of expertise to aid all qualified scien­ search in astronomy; one supports science requiring facilities and tists performing independent research in ionospheric physics as operational support beyond the research of their own choosing. well as in astronomy; and one is a capabilities of individual educa­ 56 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

Table 4 National Research Centers Fiscal Years 1972, 1973, and 1974

Fiscal year 1972 Fiscal year 1973 Fiscal year 1974 Research Research Research operations operations operations Capital and support Capital and support Capital and support obligations services Total obligations services Total obligations services Total National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center . . $1,90(1^00 $ 2787,500 $ 4,687,500 $ 399,000 $ 2,851,000 $ 37250,000 $ 59U'0"00 $ 2,6T0,000 $ 3,200,000 Kitt Peak National Observatory 456,000 7,243,881 7,699,881 70,000 7,780,000 7,850,000 792,000 7,008,000 7,800,000 Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory 385,000 2,115,000 2,500,000 216,000 2,484,000 2700,000 717,000 1,883,000 2,600,000 National Radio Astronomy Observatory 80,000 6,589,900 6,669,900 3,000,000 6,950,000 9,950,000 4,294,000 7,806,000 12,100,000 National Center for Atmospheric Research 1,000,000 17177,416 18,177,416 -0- 16,000,000 16,000,000 1,148,000 16,352,000 17,500,000 TOTAt $3,821,000 $35,913,697 $39,734,697 $3,685,000 $36,065,000 $39,750,000 $7,541,000 $35,659,000 $43,200,000

NATIONAL ASTRONOMY The upgraded facility will increase KITT PEAK AND IONOSPHERE CENTER by a factor of 12 the frequency range NATIONAL OBSERVATORY available for scientific observa­ The National Astronomy and Iono­ tions. Astronomers will be able to The Kitt Peak National Observa­ sphere Center (NAIC) is operated study the characteristics of inter­ tory (KPNO) is operated under a con­ and managed by Cornell University stellar molecules, pulsars, and tract with the National Science under contract to the National Sci­ remote galaxies, and to make high Foundation by the Association of ence Foundation. The primary NAIC resolution maps of the surfaces of the Universities for Research in As­ observing instrument is a 1,000-foot- planets Venus and Mercury. tronomy, Inc., a nonprofit corpora­ diameter spherical reflector located During fiscal year 1974, the NAIC tion representing a consortium of 12 at a site 12 miles south of the city of observing facilities at Arecibo were U.S. universities. The primary mis­ Arecibo, P.R. NAIC provides used by 30 visiting investigators sion of the observatory is to provide administrative, engineering, and from 15 U.S. and foreign research and facilities for frontier research in technical support for visitor and staff educational institutions. The number solar, planetary, stellar, and galactic research programs at the observing of public visitors to the observatory astronomy. Maj or ground-based tele­ site. during the year exceeded 20,000. scopes, auxiliary instrumentation. The upgrading of the 1,000-foot- diameter reflector observatory is nearing completion. Installation of the new reflector surface, consisting of 38,778 perforated aluminum panels, was completed in December 1973. Final alignment of the new surface, scheduled for completion in December 1974, will permit high performance at wavelengths shorter than 10 centimeters, well below the previous short wavelength limit of 50 centimeters. A major part of the upgrading pro­ gram at NAIC is the installation of an S-band transmitter which will in­ crease the planetary radar power level from 150 kilowatts at 430 MHz (megahertz, or a million cycles per second) to 450 kilowatts at 2.4 GHz (gigahertz, or a billion cycles per The suspended platform of the radar/radio telescope at Arecibo, Puerto Rico, second). This capability is being hangs above the newly paneled bowl below. The platform contains carriage sponsored by the National Aero­ houses, elevation rails, and a 430-inegahertz antenna. [Photo by Cornell Univer­ nautics and Space Administration. sity] NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 57

Institute of Technology to Kitt Peak National Observatory. During fiscal year 1975 production of large grat­ ings will begin. A solar vacuum telescope became fully operational in fiscal year 1974. The telescope provides daily high- resolution magnetic maps [magneto- grams), spectroheliograms, and kinetograms of the full disc of the Sun. During fiscal year 1974, the KPNO facilities were used by 257 astron­ omers, representing 78 U.S. and 48 foreign institutions from 10 count­ ries. A minimum of 60 percent of time on KPNO telescopes is reserved for visiting scientists.

CERRO TOLOLO INTER-AMERICAN OBSERVATORY The Kitt Peak National Observatory stands atop a mountain, 53 road miles from Tucson, Arizona. The new Solar Vacuum Telescope is housed in the tower at The Cerro Tololo Inter-American lower right, immediately adjacent to the McMath Solar Telescope. The Nicholas Observatory [CTIO), operated under U. Mayall 4-raeter telescope building is shown at the top. [Photo by Kitt Peak] contract with the National Science Foundation by the Association of Universities for Research in and related support facilities are photographic plate provides signifi­ Astronomy, Inc., was established in available to staff scientists and to cantly more sky coverage than any 1963 on Cerro Tololo, situated in the visiting astronomers from research previously attainable. The "science" Chilean Andes approximately 300 and educational institutions done per observing hour with this miles north of Santiago and 50 miles throughout the United States and instrument will exceed by orders of inland from the coastal city of La abroad. The observatory supports magnitude that done by the large Serena. The primary facilities of the programs at its facilities on Kitt instruments of an earlier generation. observatory are located on the 7,200- Peak, a 6,800-foot-high mountain A new program being developed at foot-high Cerro Tololo mountain. located 40 miles west of Tucson, KPNO will resolve a problem that With its dry, stable air and dark sky, Ariz. The observatory headquarters astronomers have faced for many Cerro Tololo offers what has been in Tucson provide office, computing, years: the production of large diffrac­ judged to be the best atmospheric and engineering facilities for visiting tion gratings. The gratings are used "seeing" conditions for astronomical and staff scientists. to separate, by diffraction, the many research available anywhere in the The major effort of KPNO during different wavelengths forming a world. fiscal year 1974 was to bring into beam of light. With larger gratings Situated at a southern latitude of operation the 4-meter [158-inch] astronomers will be able to study the 30°, CTIO provides ground-based Mayall Telescope, the second largest Sun and stars in greater detail than telescopes, auxiliary instrumenta­ operating telescope in the world. ever before. For many types of tion, and support facilities for This powerful instrument, with its studies an increase in the size of a studies of astronomical objects in fast prime focus, permits astron­ grating has the proportional effect of that part of the sky not visible from omers to obtain photographs of faint an increase in the size of the telescope the Northern Hemisphere. These in­ objects in practical exposure times. primary mirror. Thus the same re­ clude the southern Milky Way and Objects such as faint quasars and sult may be achieved by using either our nearest external galaxies, the pulsars, as well as radio and X-ray a 150-inch telescope with a 24-inch Magellanic Clouds. sources radiating in the visible spec­ grating, or a 300-inch telescope with During the past year, the 300-ton trum, are now within optical reach. a 12-inch grating. In January 1974 a mount for the 4-meter [158-inch) The telescope's prime focus also has a grating ruling engine capable of rul­ telescope on Cerro Tololo was wider field of view than any other ing gratings up to 32 inches wide was erected and balanced. Grinding and major instrument. Consequently, one transferred from the Massachusetts polishing of the CTIO 17-ton Cer-Vit 58 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

mirror blank was completed at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Tucson, Ariz. The mirror blank is the largest Cer-Vit blank ever figured and has the fastest focal ratio of any large mirror in existence. While the quartz mirror for Kitt Peak's 4-meter Mayall Telescope re­ quired over 3 years of grinding and polishing, the CTIO blank was more accurately figured after only 24 months, with an additional 6 months for final polishing. Through the development of new and improved testing procedures pioneered in the KPNO optical shop, final testing has shown an optical resolution of better than 0.1 arc seconds—the most accurately figured large mirror blank ever produced. The primary mirror is scheduled to arrive for installation at Cerro Tololo in early fall 1974 and "first light" should be acquired shortly afterward. This 4-meter tele­ scope will be the largest telescope Technicians of the Kitt Peak Optical Department position reference scales on the operating in the Southern Hemi­ new 4-meter mirror that is now installed at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American sphere, and along with its sister 4- Observatory in Chile. The scales being used are part of a critical Foucault test necessary for final acceptance. [Photo by Kitt Peak] raeter telescope at Kitt Peak Na­ tional Observatory, it will be the second largest telescope operating surface and pointing tolerances that anywhere in the world. NATIONAL RADIO ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY make it suitable for operation in the The observatory also completed millimeter region of the radio erection of a 1-meter instrument, an The National Radio Astronomy spectrum. f/10 Ritchey-Chretien telescope of Observatory [NRAO] provides the The spectral line capability of the high optical quality, on loan from facilities and equipment necessary to Green Bank interferometer has been Yale University. This telescope assure a strong national program in enhanced with the addition of a should reduce substantially the pres­ radio astronomy. It is operated for digital delay system. A 500 to 700 sure for observing time on the the Foundation by Associated MHz parametric amplifier receiver observatory's 1.5-meter telescope, Universities, Inc., a nonprofit has been added to the "front ends" which is now over-subscribed by corporation formed by nine north­ [input electronics) available at Green more than 100 percent. The first eastern universities. Bank. Four new 256-channel filter re­ plates were taken with the 1-meter in NRAO headquarters are located in ceivers have been added at the 36- December 1973, and by mid-January Charlottesville, Va. The principal foot telescope. it was operating routinely on a observing site is at Green Bank, W. Very Long Baseline Interferometer temporary pad. In early May 1974 the Va. In addition, there is a radio tele­ [VLBI] experiments are conducted instrument was installed in the com­ scope at the Kitt Peak National using stations located throughout the pleted building. Observatory in Arizona. The Very world. The NRAO Mark III VLBI tape Large Array [VLA] radio telescope, processor is being upgraded to in­ During fiscal year 1974, 110 currently under construction, will be clude more correlation channels and astronomers from 46 U.S, institu­ located near Socorro, N, Mex. to allow simultaneous processing of tions and 10 foreign institutions con­ The principal instrumentation at tapes from three telescopes. A new ducted observation programs at Green Bank includes a 300-foot meri­ hydrogen-maser frequency stand­ CTIO. A minimum of 60 percent of dian transit telescope, a 140-foot tele­ ard is being installed at Green Bank the time available on CTIO tele­ scope, and a four-antenna radio to improve phase stability for VLBI scopes was reserved for visiting interferometer. The instrument at experiments. scientists. Kitt Peak is a 36-foot telescope with At the 36-foot telescope at Kitt NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 59

Peak, the data collection system was replaced in fiscal year 1974 by a DDPll/40 computer, a high-speed multiplexer, and a new family of wide-band, ultrastable filter banks. The astrodome was recovered with new fabric. The central IBM 360/50 computer was upgraded to an IBM 360/65 system in March 1974. The VLA, located on the Plains of San Augustin, 50 miles west of Socorro, will consist of 27 antennas, each having a diameter of 82 feet and weighing 210 tons. Each antenna is movable along a system of railroad tracks arranged in the shape of an equiangular "Y." Contracts for the antennas and antenna transporter vehicles have been awarded, and railroad construction materials have been obtained. Right-of-way ease­ ments for the five tracts of land re­ quired for the initial phase of site construction have been obtained, and construction has been initiated. Subcontracts have been awarded for On the Plains of San Augustin, 40 miles west of Socorro, New Mexico, 27 anten­ the synchronous and asynchronous nas, each with a diameter of 82 feet and weighing 210 tons, will move along a subsystems, which comprise the system of railroad tracks in the shape of a Y. When completed in the early 1980's, continuum computer, and for the this system of interconnected radio telescopes, called the Very Large Array or VLA, will be the most advanced radio telescope in existence. critical telescope components, including focusing feed mounts, sub- reflectors, and Cassegrain feeds.

NATIONAL CENTER FOR activities involved 175 visiting scien­ test the feasibility of using cloud ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH tists and graduate students. Facility seeding as a tool to reduce hail support was provided to 487 scien­ damage. Some significant research The National Center for tists from approximately 180 institu­ accomplishments in the hail experi­ Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in tions. ment are discussed under "Research Boulder, Colo, has two primary mis­ During fiscal year 1974, a great Project Support Activities" earlier in sions: deal of NCAR's effort was centered this volume. • To plan and conduct, in coopera­ on two major field research pro­ NCAR's principal efforts in the tion with universities and other grams: the National Hail Research GARP program have been the organizations, atmospheric research Experiment and the Global Atmos­ development of global, three-dimen­ programs beyond the scope of pheric Research Program (GARP) sional models of the atmosphere, and individual universities. Atlantic Tropical Experiment participation in GATE, discussed • To develop and operate selected (GATE). A third major effort in­ under "National and Special Re­ research facihties in support of volved observations of the solar search Programs." The scientific air­ atmospheric research programs con­ corona with the NCAR White Light craft plan for GATE was developed ducted by the Nation's scientists. Coronagraph Experiment on board by NCAR scientists, working closely NCAR is operated for the Founda­ NASA's SKYLAB orbiting labora­ with colleagues in the United States tion by the University Corporation tory. and other countries. NCAR also for Atmospheric Research, a non­ The National Hail Experiment has developed an aircraft data manage­ profit corporation formed by 42 U.S. two major goals: to gain an improved ment plan for the experiment, and and 2 Canadian universities. During understanding of the microphysics established a team to handle the data. calendar year 1973, NCAR research and dynamics of hailstorms and to More than 40 scientists, technicians. 60 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

engineers, flight crew members, and support people from NCAR partici­ pated in GATE field operations, which centered on a 200-square-mile area of the tropical Atlantic Ocean and were directed from an inter­ national control center in Dakar, Senegal. During the 3 manned SKYLAB mis­ sions, the NCAR White Light Corona­ graph obtained about 36,000 photo­ graphs of the solar corona, as well as high-quality photographs of comet Kohoutek. Some excellent photo­ graphs were obtained of the solar corona during both quiet periods and eruptions, and of the December 24 annular solar eclipse. Digital analysis of the photographs is ex­ pected to yield valuable new know­ ledge of the structure and evolution of the solar corona.

During the three manned Skylab Apollo missions, NCAR's white light cor­ onagraph obtained about 36,000 photographs of the solar corona, including this photograph of an unusually large solar prominence erupting from the Sun on June 10, 1973. [Photo by NCARJ

SCIENCE INFORMATION ACTIVITIES

Early in fiscal year 1974, priorities development of improved, generaliz­ tion. Two new programs were added were established for five programs able forms of science communica­ during the year: the User Support for the Office of Science Information tion. Program, which brought much Service. These were: Research Sup­ needed emphasis on understanding port, National Information, User Of the five programs, the major the requirements of users as the basis Support, Economics of Information, emphasis remained in the Research for developing improved services; and Foreign Science. At the same Support Program. The National and an Economics of Information time, funding for new publications, Information Program was re­ Program, which introduced a sys­ including periodicals, was directed toward building capa­ tematic effort to gather data on the terminated, and funds were devoted bilities for computer-based ex­ costs and benefits of science exclusively to support of research or change of bibliographic informa­ communication activities. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 61

Research Support Program dealing with the current energy tion in the United States, and a state- shortage. The effort, which will con­ of-the-art review of what is known During fiscal year 1974, NSF gave tinue at least through fiscal year about the economics of transferring final support to the university- 1976, was initiated with a pair of information from one place to centered information systems at planning workshops. Participation another. Also started was a basic Pittsburgh and Ohio State. These and by producers, processors, and users assessment of the economic and similar systems at the University of of energy R&D information, from policy issues related to public versus Georgia, University of California, both public and private sectors, private responsibility for assuring Los Angeles, and Lehigh University resulted in specific recommenda­ economic viability of science are continuing development and tions for program actions. information activities. operations at their own expense. Final support was also provided for Foreign Science Program the development of the New England User Support Program science information network under Three important activities under Studies and experiments were the auspices of the New England this program in fiscal year 1974 originated in order to produce Board of Higher Education. Other re­ included: information for developing services search included initial work on ways that will be more responsive to user to retrieve specific data or facts from — Establishment of a needs. One approach consisted of texts of reports and, with MIT, work U.S./U.S.S.R. Joint Working Group on ways to search dissimilar biblio­ studies designed to increase under­ on Scientific and Technical Informa­ graphic data bases. Research com­ standing of the characteristics and tion. The U.S./U.S.S.R. joint activi­ pleted by the Illinois Institute of requirements of users, with ties are focused on: (a) development Technology's Research Institute pro- emphasis on needs of scientists and of a common format for the machine vided improved methods for engineers working in industry. Data exchange of bibliographic data manipulation of large data bases, are sought that can be used by between systems in the two coun­ such as those involved in the managers of services to introduce a tries; (b) improvements in methods of preparation of computer-based wider range of information services forecasting developments related to abstracting and indexing publica­ that are self-supporting and scientific and technical information tions. responsive to user needs. Another services; and (c) analyses of the costs approach focused on finding ways of and benefits of such services. Dur­ National Information Program reaching classes of users not now ing October 1973, 11 top Soviet served by existing services. For science information managers and Final funding was provided for example, in cooperation with public researchers participated in a seminar development of improved computer libraries in the San Francisco Bay on these topics in Washington, D,C., processing capabilities for chemical area, the Lockheed Corp, is bringing and then toured U.S. science information provided by the Chemi­ on-line computer searching of nearly information facilities. cal Abstracts Service (CAS). 20 scientific and technical informa­ Computerization of CAS has already tion files to users who could not, by — Initiation of U.S./Japanese yielded a fourfold expansion themselves, afford computer termi­ seminars, held in Tokyo on March 11- capacity (twice the coverage in half nals, A similar activity is being spon­ 13,1974, focused on the future of pri­ the time) since the project was under­ sored in Pennsylvania under the mary or hard-copy scientific taken in 1965. The program's new Pennsylvania Science and Engi­ journals. emphasis on developing operational neering Foundation. compatibility among private and — Formation of a U.S. Federal science information systems Economics of Information Committee on International Scien­ was underlined in April 1974 by a Program tific and Technical Information Pro­ conference of national leaders in the grams at the National Academy of field of bibliographic control. Out of The first task under this new pro­ Sciences. This committee replaces the conference came specific gram was the development of a two existing committees and will recommendations for the develop­ quantitative description of the scien­ also serve as the U.S. national com­ ment of standards considered essen­ tific and technical information enter­ mittee for UNISIST, which is a non- tial for the emergence of a national re­ prise in the United States. Activities representational acronym for the source sharing network. included initial development of a set Joint International Council on Scien­ Another program initiative was to of science information indicators, a tific Unions-UNESCO study of the locate diverse and scattered informa­ description of the production and Feasibility of a World Science tion resources likely to be useful in distribution of scientific informa­ Information System. 62 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIVE SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITIES

During fiscal year 1974, the Na­ tional Science Foundation was Bilateral Science and Technology Agreements named executive agency for a Sci­ Number of Approved Activities FY 1974 ence and Technology Agreement with New Zealand; it also assumed Visiting Scientists Cooperative Research the role previously given to the Office Country U.S. Foreign Seminars Projects of Science and Technology as execu­ Argentina .... 2 — — tive agency for the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Australia 5 — 7 1 Agreement on Cooperation in the Brazil 7 — 1 9 Fields of Science and Technology. Rep. of China . . 12 4 6 This brings to 14 the number of France 16 13 — 1 bilateral science agreements for Hungary 6 2 1 5 India — — which NSF has management respon­ . 14 18 Italy S — 4 24 sibility. Of these, the U.S.-Japan Japan 8 — 28 29 Cooperative Science Program, NSF's Mexico 9 — — 7 oldest bilateral activity, and the new New Zealand . . — — — — U.S.-U.S.S.R. Science and Tech­ Romania . 13 17 2 13 nology Program, are particularly Spain — — 5 18 active. The Japan program con­ USSR . — — 2 65 tinued its high level of interaction, Total . 100 50 54 178 with cooperative projects and semi­ nars on energy research and environ­ Special Foreign Currency Program mental pollution. The U.S.-U.S.S.R. Summary of Projects by Country program, with the Director of NSF serving as U.S. Chairman of the Joint Translation Commission in his role as Science Projects Adviser, has initiated activity in all Country Research Grants Travel Grants (Contracts) of the program areas previously Egypt 12 19 agreed upon for cooperation. These India 6 35 include chemical catalysis, applica­ Pakistan 8 1 tion of computers to management, Poland 10 30 energy, m.icrobiology, water Tunisia 3 9 resources, scientific and technical Yugoslavia 2 4 information, science policy, forestry Total 41 98 research and technology, metrology and standardization, electro­ U.S.-U.S.S.R. and metallurgy, intellectual property, East Europe Academy Exchange Programs and special topics in physics. NSF made 65 awards in support of ap­ Visits Each Way* proved programs. United States Foreign In addition to the 14 formal bi­ Country Scientists Man-Months Scientists Man-Months lateral science programs, the U.S.S.R 27 61 36 117 Foundation worked informally with Bulgaria 5 5 8 23 the Bulgarian and Czechoslovak Czechoslovakia 19 31 7 14 Academies to develop approved pro­ Hungary 15 27 11 29 grams. Also, as part of a new Poland 13 22 5 15 Cooperative Science Program with Romania 12 16 9 15 Yugoslavia 7 7 7 21 Latin America, NSF supported cooperative projects with scientific Total 98 169 83 234 institutions in Colombia, Costa Rica, *For the period May 1, 1973 to April 30, 1974. Venezuela, and Guatemala. The latter set of projects, in fact, intro- NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 63

duces the concept of cooperation NSF does not financially support the search, especially solar and geo­ through regional programs in BSF, it has provided staff assistance thermal. countries where formal bilateral sci­ to the Director in his Board respon­ ence agreements do not exist. sibilities and has provided reviewers The Foundation's support of the for proposals being considered by the Special Foreign Currency National Academy of Sciences' BSF. Program for Scientific (NAS) international activities con­ The Foundation supported NAS Research and Related Activities tinued. In particular, the exchange of membership and participation in the scientists programs with the People's The Foundation's Special Foreign International Council of Scientific Republic of China and with the Currency (SFC) Program for Scien­ Unions and other international scien­ Academies of the U.S.S.R., Bulgaria, tific Research and Related Activi­ tific organizations. The Academy's Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, ties, using U.S.-owned excess cur­ membership in and support of the Romania, and Yugoslavia have been rency, has supported cooperative re­ International Institute for Applied maintained and, in some cases, en­ search projects, seminars, and Systems Analysis (IIASA), located larged. During the year five groups of translations in Egypt, India, in Austria, continues with funds pro­ U.S. scientists visited the People's Pakistan, Poland, Tunisia, and Yugo­ vided by NSF. The Foundation has Republic of China and six groups of slavia during the year. The SFC pro­ developed an in-house group of Chinese scientists reciprocated. gram in Yugoslavia terminated this reviewers to study IIASA programs These exchanges are undertaken year, however, because the U.S.- and proposals and to assist NSF in through the Committee on Scholarly owned excess currencies in that decisions relating to its policies and Communication with the People's nation have been exhausted. In fiscal direction. Republic of China for which the year 1974, the Foundation awarded Foundation provides partial sup­ The increased emphasis on energy 41 grants for cooperative research port. Similarly, 98 U.S. scientists problems resulted in funds being and made 98 travel awards for activi­ visited the U.S.S.R. and Eastern made available to NSF to foster inter­ ties in these countries. Translation European nations under NAS ex­ national cooperation in energy re­ support was given to five projects. change agreements. In turn, the search and development. In coopera­ Under this program, the Founda­ United States received 83 scientists tion with the Department of State tion supported the visit of a U.S. team from that part of the world. and other U.S. Government agencies, of specialists to Pakistan to partici­ During the fiscal year, the United NSF initiated a program of visits of pate with members of the new Pakis­ States-Israel Binational Science U.S. scientists to countries actively tan Science Foundation (PSF) in Foundation (BSF), with NSF's engaged in exploring alternative developing plans and priorities for Director serving as its first Chair­ forms of energy. Also, a program was its operation. The PSF is expected to man of the Board, undertook its first initiated of binational and inter­ play a major role in the advancement full year of operation. Although the national seminars on energy re­ of Pakistani science and technology.

Research Apphcations

RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 67

Research Apphcations

In fiscal year 1974 the Research specifying guidelines for prepara­ environmental management prob­ Applications Directorate completed tion of unsolicited RANN proposals. lems such as land and coastal zone the third year of operation of its The national energy crisis stim­ uses. It also is aimed at threats to the RANN—Research Apphed to Na­ ulated considerable expansion of this manmade environment from earth­ tional Needs—program. During this component of RANN research, and quakes, fire, and other natural ha­ year RANN was pointed sharply to­ significant results were registered. zards. ward national problems in energy, Perhaps the most noteworthy was Productivity efforts were pointed environment, and productivity. the constructit/n and operation of toward public sector productivity, An important purpose of this pro­ experimental solar energy systems to including a whole spectrum of work gram is to shorten the time between augment the heating plants of four aimed ^ better use of human and the discoveries of science and their public schools at different locations institutional resources, particularly application in meeting human needs. in the United States. In addition, two in State and local government. Re­ Thus, RANN provides a key bridge solar heating and cooling labora­ search in private sector productivity between the Foundation's basic re­ tories were constructed, an experi­ focused attention on opportunities search programs and the develop­ mental solar house was built, and for industry to use modern tech­ ment and operating programs of the three major feasibility studies of nology more efficiently in producing Federal mission agencies and other solar heating and cooling were com­ goods and services needed by a important elements of the user com­ pleted under contract with in­ growing population, so as to inhibit munity, including industry and dustrial corporations. The results of inflation and improve the U.S. posi­ government at State and local levels. these efforts were reported to more tion in world trade. RANN projects frequently are highly than 500 representatives of the interdisciplinary efforts involving building industry, architects, Planning during fiscal year 1974 technologists, environmentalists, bankers, and city and State officials resulted in a decision to establish a social scientists, and other special­ at a national workshop in June 1974. fourth focus of RANN research, that ists working as teams to serve the Energy research in the RANN pro­ of resources. This area will include needs of decisionmakers repre­ gram also focused on other applica­ research aimed at increasing re­ senting all classes of users. tions of solar energy as well as a newable resources such as fiber and Because of the importance to number of other promising oppor­ food and nonrenewable resources RANN of the user community, a tunities in geothermal energy and in such as minerals and fossil fuels. By complementary program. Inter­ approaches to more efficient and establishing arrangements for governmental Science and Research nonpolluting ways to meet growing special attention in this area, the Utilization, is also carried out in the energy needs. Foundation intends to emphasize the Research Applications Directorate. RANN research in the environ­ research efforts already under way Research utilization activities were ment is aimed at threats to the and to utilize existing RANN broadened and strengthened during natural environment, such as trace relationships and techniques to en­ the year. Research utilization was contaminants resulting from man's courage significant growth of these also emphasized in a publication activities, weather modification, and activities.

Table 5 Research Applied to National Needs and Intergovernmental Science and Research Utilization Fiscal Years 1972, 1973, and 1974

[Dollars in millions]

Fiscal year 1972 Fiscal year 1973 Fiscal year 1974 Number Amount Number Amount Number Amount Research Applied to National Needs 338 $53.77 616 $69.88 589 $75.08 Advanced Energy Research and Technology —0- -0- -0- —0- 215 28.11 Advanced Technology Applications 163 18.35 262 28.94 131 15.60 Environmental Systems and Resources 98 19.45 148 22.50 112 17.17 Social Systems and Human Resources 25 11.28 122 13.35 74 10.40 Exploratory Research and Problem Assessment ... • 52 • 4.69 84 5.09 57 3.80 Intergovernmental Science and Research 43 1.08 54 1.00 26 .96 Total 381 $54.85 670 $70,88 615 $76.04 68 RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

ENERGY

The need to use the Nation's de- posed research projects. A multi- future policies by the New York City pletable energy resources more disciplinary approach is employed to Interdepartmental Committee on wisely has increased the urgency to examine the technical, environ­ Fuels and Pubhc Utilities, as well as strengthen innovative and imagina­ mental, economic, societal, regula­ by other groups. tory, and legal aspects of energy. tive research on alternative re­ Research of a more direct nature in­ These endeavors—in the program sources to meet our energy require­ cludes studies by Richard Stein areas of resource analysis, energy ments. Consequently, the NSF in Associates, in conjunction with the fiscal year 1974 established a conservation, data base and system New York City Board of Education, modeling, comparative systems separate division to direct the Energy on energy conservation in school analysis, and regulatory and policy Research and Technology Program. buildings. In spite of the initial high options—result in an analysis and This program supports research efficiency of energy utilization for assessment of the policy and regula­ focused on ensuring the availability this school system, the study showed tory options through which the most of essential energy alternatives in that retrofitting existing school effective uses of energy for meeting selected applications before the end buildings can reduce energy our national needs may be provided. of this decade and on a substantially consumption by 28 percent and that expanded scale in the next decade. the careful design of new school Results of a number of these re­ These activities are integral ele­ buildings can reduce energy search projects in energy systems ments of the total Federal energy consumption by 50 percent. The have already provided substantive effort. significance of these savings input to energy policy decisions, and Major progress was made during prompted the New York City Board others promise to do so in the near fiscal year 1974 in systems studies of Education to provide funds for two future. In its consideration of the and analyses of U.S. energy produc­ proof-of-concept demonstration consequences of alternative regula­ tion and use, in showing the poten­ experiments. Information on these tory policies for dealing with the tial of solar heating and cooling, and results has been provided to other natural gas shortage, the Congress in advancing the technology of solar school districts. In another conserva­ included specialized assessments energy as a practical energy re­ tion study, research by Aero­ made on the basis of a model for source. Rapidly expanding research Vironment Corporation using full- natural gas policy studies that was in geothermal energy increased scale road tests and scale model wind developed at the Energy Laboratory understanding of the vast potential tunnel tests at the California Insti­ at the Massachusetts Institute of of this little used resource. Research tute of Technology show that a 17- Technology. The State of California in a variety of other energy tech­ percent improvement in miles per adopted during fiscal year 1974 a nologies pointed clearly toward gallon at a speed of 55 mph is pos­ landmark State Energy Resources opportunities to increase the effi­ sible as a result of relatively simple Conservation and Development Act ciency and effectiveness of U.S. streamlining. The full potential that incorporates many of the energy utilization. In parallel with savings in this area are one billion recommendations made by the Rand these studies, progress was made in gallons of fuel per year. A respect­ Corp. from its evaluation of meas­ undertaking energy-related tech­ able portion of this appears ures for conserving energy. The close nology assessments and in under­ achievable in the near future. standing the environmental, social, coordination of such energy systems and intergovernmental impacts of activities with other portions of the A final class of achievements re­ energy on our national life. Federal energy program is evi­ lates to the dissemination and ex­ denced by the fact that both the change of information between the Energy Systems Environmental Protection Agency research and user communities. and the Federal Energy Administra­ Typical of this activity is the publica­ Research on energy systems is sup­ tion are now sponsoring extensions tion of a 550-page compilation of the ported in order to identify new re­ of this initial effort. Cooperative supply, demand, conservation, and search targets; establish research efforts of Brookhaven National institutional concerns of energy that priorities; recommend ways in which Laboratory and the State University resulted from a conference at MIT. available resources should be ap­ of New York to analyze the produc­ Another conference, held at the Ohio plied to research needs; recommend tion, distribution, and consumption State University and based on the re­ appropriate modifications to on­ of energy for the New York City re­ sults of research on energy conserva­ going research; and establish means gion produced results that were used tion in residential, commercial, and for integrating established and pro­ for evaluating and establishing industrial buildings, was attended RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 69

by more than 300 people from in­ the largest solar heating systems in The two laboratories were con­ dustry, trade organizations, govern­ existence. They are as follows; structed to accelerate the collection ment, and universities. of data on solar heating and cooling. • Timonium Elementary School, One, the size of a single-family dwel­ Timonium, Md., 5,700 square feet of ling, is at Colorado State University Solar Heating and solar collectors. Contractor; AAI, at Fort Collins, Colo. It is being Cooling of Buildings Inc., Cockeysville, Md. operated to obtain a calibrated base­ Major strides were taken in fiscal • North View Junior High School, line system and to test advanced sub­ year 1974 toward proving the con­ Osseo, Minn., 5,000 square feet. Con­ systems. The second laboratory is cept of supplying substantial tractor: Honeywell, Inc., Minnea­ transportable and contains a com­ amounts of the Nation's energy needs polis, Minn. pletely integrated solar heating and by utilizing the heat of the Sun for hot water system, two types of • Grover Cleveland Junior High heating and cooling of buildings. The cooling systems, and a weather sta­ School, Boston, Mass., 4,500 square significance of this potential tion. This laboratory collects feet. Contractor: General Electric Co., contribution is seen in the fact that information on the availability of Valley Forge, Pa. these uses account for about a usable solar energy for heating and quarter of the energy consumed in the • Fauquier County Public High cooling under a wide variety of United States, at an annual cost of School, Warrenton, Va., 2,500 square weather and environmental condi­ more than 20 billion dollars. feet. Contractor: Inter-Technology tions at various locations in the During the year, three major feasi­ Corp,, Warrenton, Va. United States, bility studies of solar heating and These data and the results of proof- cooling were completed under con­ Follow-up year-long studies were of-concept experiments will make it tract with industrial corporations; initiated to obtain information on the possible to design systems through­ large experimental solar heating sys­ performance, economics, and social out the United States to meet special­ tems were installed in public schools and environmental factors relating to ized performance requirements on a at four different locations in the the four systems. Special attention large-scale basis. United States; and two solar heating was placed on the implications of The Foundation and the city of laboratories were constructed. In these experiments for retrofitting of Colorado Springs, Colo., jointly addition, an experimental solar solar heating and cooling systems sponsored the evaluation and testing house was constructed as part of an into existing buildings. of a solar house, followed by system effort to determine whether its tech­ nology could supply an answer to a building moratorium stemming from one city's lack of appropriate energy sources. The feasibility studies, carried out by teams under the direction of General Electric Co., TRW Systems Group, and Westinghouse Corp., assembled comprehensive economic, social, environmental, and technical information on the potential utiliza­ tion of solar heating and cooling in all types of buildings and all climates within the United States. The three concerns also recommended experi­ ments to prove the concept and the viability of solar heating and cooling and to stimulate its widespread use. The results of the studies were re­ ported to more than 500 representa­ tives of the building industry, archi-. tects, bankers, and city and State officials at a workshop held in The Timonium Elementary School near Baltimore, Maryland, one of four schools lhal experimented with NSF-sponsored solar heating sysleiris last year, was Ihe Washington, D.C, in June 1974. first school in the Nation healed by solar energy. Solar heal is collected in water The experimental systems in­ flowing through the rooftop panels, pumped inlo a storage tank, and then used lo stalled in the four schools are among heat classrooms. [Photo by Aircraft Armaments, Inc.]

56.5-982 O - 75 - 6 70 RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

comparing results of separate investigators working at different locations and institutions. Twenty-three grants and con­ tracts were awarded for innovative research projects on subsystems and systems for the application of solar energy to heating and cooling of buildings. These were the first awards made from 448 formal pro­ posals that resulted from a widely distributed solicitation issued during fiscal year 1974.

Other Solar Energy

The solar energy program also sup­ SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT ports research aimed at supplying • ARKLA SYSTEM significant contributions to national energy needs through wind energy, solar thermal conversion, biocon- version, photovoltaics, and ocean thermal energy conversion. Design of the largest wind energy system initiated in the United States in the past 30 years was begun with NSF support during fiscal year 1974 by the Lewis Research Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, The University of Oklahoma con­ structed and began testing of a field modulated generator, capable of producing constant voltage and con­ stant frequency output regardless of This mobile solar-heated and -cooled laboratory, built and operated by windmill speed. Other projects Honeywell of Minneapolis, is now collecting data on solar radiation and climate started include Princeton Univer­ at different locations in the United States. These data will be useful for future sity's testing of a Sailwing rotor, a designers of structures using solar energy. low-cost metal and fabric rotor for small wind systems, and an initial assessment of the status of wind data and prediction capability and testing and evaluation. The city distributed to design engineers for requirements with the joint support initiative was stimulated by the need use in calculations and preparation of the National Oceanic and Atmos­ for alternative energy sources to end of drawings. pheric Administration and NSF. a building moratorium. A new fea­ The National Bureau of Standards Heavy response was received to pro­ ture being tested in this system is the developed standardized test proce­ gram solicitations for wind area re­ use of a solar-augmented heat pump dures to permit comparison of solar search and for the preliminary de­ with large-scale energy storage. collectors and storage devices. The sign of wind energy systems The American Society of Heating, standards were documented in a generating up to 3 megawatts of elec­ Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning publication to be distributed to trical power. Engineers (ASHRAE) completed a investigators of NSF-supported proj­ In solar thermal conversion, comprehensive study of currently ects concerned with improvements to testing began of a scale model para­ available solar heating and cooling solar collectors and storage devices. bolic trough collector module with an design data and published it in the Their use in recording and collecting aperture of 4 feet by 14 feet. 1974 edition of the ASHRAE Guide, data will improve the possibility of Construction of a prototype helio- RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 71

Stat began and design efforts were Studies of ocean thermal power the Dunes Anomaly in this valley re­ initiated for a thermal cavity heat re­ conversion indicated that satis­ vealed knowledge of the physical and ceiver of the most promising concept factory net efficiencies and competi­ chemical mechanisms by which geo­ identified for a station generating tive costs could be achieved in large thermal fluids, such as hot brines, 1,000 megawatts. Research led to floating powerplants generating circulate in these zones. proof of a technique to apply anti- more than 100 megawatts of elec­ A major geothermal drilling proj­ reflection selective coatings to heat trical power. A parametric design ect was completed at Kilauea Vol­ collecting units by chemical vapor system study was begun and heavy cano in Hawaii, The test hole, drilled deposition. response was received to a program more than 4,000 feet deep on the flank In bioconversion, an NSF-sup­ solicitation inviting proposals in six of the volcano, provided data on sub­ ported study by the Stanford Re­ categories of ocean thermal re­ surface temperature and structure search Institute indicated that syn­ search. for use in assessment of the geo­ thetic natural gas and electric energy thermal potential of Hawaii. A might be produced on "energy farms" Other Energy Research unique laboratory, installed at Stan­ for costs on the order of $2 to $3 per and Technology ford University, began experiments million British thermal units (Btu's). on the flow of hot brines, hot water, This is approximately equivalent to In addition to its interest in energy and steam through typical reservoir $12 to $18 per barrel of crude oil. The systems and solar energy, the NSF rocks to evaluate the effects of costs might be significantly de­ Energy Research and Technology aquifer stimulation techniques. creased by using such a facility to Program includes work on geo­ In energy resources, attention was produce food and industrial chemical thermal energy, energy resources, placed on coal, the most abundant byproducts at the same time. energy conversion and storage, U.S. fossil energy resource. Expertise Economic and engineering feasi­ energy and fuel transportation, and in the extraction, conversion, and bility studies were completed on the advanced automotive propulsion. utilization of coal was brought conversion of urban organic solid In geothermal energy research, the together at a workshop on advanced wastes to methane gas. Results indi­ Foundation in fiscal year 1974 was coal technology. The results in­ cated that methane can be produced assigned the role of lead agency for cluded definition of gaps in the data in quantities and at costs that would coordination of Federal activities. An base and fundamental information be attractive to the natural gas in­ interagency panel was established and recommendations of research to dustry. A proof-of-concept experi­ with representation from the Depart­ be undertaken. Very high yields of ment was designed to provide the ment of the Interior, the Federal benzene were obtained in experi­ basis for defining a pilot plant Energy Administration, the Atomic ments on high-temperature, short facility that in operation would Energy Commission, the Federal contact time hydrogenation of coal. verify process feasibility and estab­ Power Commission, the Environ­ Toluene and xylene, constituents of lish the basis for constructing full- mental Protection Agency, the Coun­ high-octane gasoline, were observed scale facilities. cil on Environmental Quality, the as products in the process, pointing In photovoltaics—the use of solar Department of Defense, and the NSF to the possibility of converting coal cells to generate electricity—signifi­ Geophysical tests confirmed the economically to more usable fuels. cant achievements included the existence of thermal anomaly near A major laboratory for fluidized successful growth of continuous rib­ Marysville, Mont., and the drilling of bed research applicable to coal bons of crystalline silicon. Both the a deep test hole was initiated. conversion technology was estab­ rate of growth and the suitability of Temperature logs from 174 wells in lished at City College of New York. the resulting crystal for solar cell New Mexico and adjoining States re­ Experiments conducted in the facil­ production represent major ad­ vealed a zone of high heat flow ity showed that fast fluidized bed vances over existing methods. It is [greater than 2.5 heat flow units) run­ technology may significantly im­ anticipated that this method lends it­ ning the length of the Rio Grande prove coal gasification reactions over self best to streamlined processes for depression on its west side. These re­ slow bed processes. low-cost production of solar cells, sults were made available to the U.S. In energy conversion and storage, possibly less than $500 per peak kilo­ Geological Survey for an assess­ research results during fiscal year watt of capability. In another proj­ ment of the geothermal potential of 1974 point to significant opportuni­ ect, a team of researchers at South­ that region. ties for improving the efficiency of ern Methodist University and Texas A joint project with Federal, State, the utilization of the world's scarce Instrument Co. successfully and local government agencies pro­ energy and fuel resources. Progress fabricated p-n junction polycrystal- vided first- and second-order topo­ was achieved in defining new bat­ line solar cells on metallurgical graphic surveys of California's Im­ tery concepts, waste heat manage­ silicon with greater than 2 percent perial Valley. Geophysical, geo­ ment, improvements in topping and efficiency. chemical, and petrologic studies at bottoming cycles for central power 72 RESEARCH APPLICATIONS station operations, and combined- most 25 percent of the U.S. energy able policies on energy production. cycle power station operations. consumption is by the automobile. Significant problems under examina­ Testing of a full-scale welded cell tion relate to the environmental for a high-temperature lithium-sul­ Energy Technology Assessments impacts of fuel sources extraction, fur battery was completed at the Ar­ processing, energy generation, and gonne National Laboratory. The Ford To give policymakers a better consumption, with special attention Motor Co., working with the Univer­ understanding of energy resources, to land use and water resources plan­ sity of Utah and the Rensselaer Poly­ several assessments of energy tech­ ning to minimize the economic, technic Institute, made importajnt_ nologies were initiated. The Futures social, political, aesthetic, and eco­ progress in solving the problems of Group in Glastonbury, Conn., began logical disruption. The program, failure of the alumina solid electro­ a technology assessment of geo­ coordinated with other Federal agen­ lyte of the sodium-sulfur battery. A thermal energy resource develop­ cies concerned with this problem, working laboratory model was pro­ ment. Terrestrial solar energy tech­ covers pollutant analysis, transport duced of a battery system based on nology was the subject of an assess­ and fates, ecological effects and lead and lead oxide. This system is ment undertaken by Arthur D. Little, control, regional issues, and the im­ pointed toward the "burning" of coal Inc., of Cambridge, Mass. These proj­ pacts of production of coal, shale oil, in an electrolyte that will retain all ects were directed not only toward petroleum, gas, and solar and geo­ ash and sulfur impurities, with effi­ public policy analysis and advice, thermal energy. ciencies about the same as those of but also to providing capability for Results during fiscal year 1974 of present powerplants. more sophisticated analyses of com­ previously initiated work in this area plex technological options. Shakedown operation began at include: Investigation of the implications of Oak Ridge National Laboratory of a alternative methods and strategies of potassium boiler-furnace module, • Findings by researchers at the conserving energy was initiated by using water as the working fluid, University of New Mexico that the Braddock, Dunn, & McDonald of which would increase the overall accumulation of mercury in large Vienna, Va. Alternative physical efficiency in conventional turbines predatory fish had reached the public technologies are being considered, as from 40 percent to more than 50 per­ health danger level and might be in­ impacted by regulation, taxes, incen­ cent, thus reducing waste heat and creased further if a coal-fired plant tives, subsidies, or other strategies fuel consumption. under construction were not prop­ and methods. The study explores not erly designed, In energy and fuel transportation, only the efficacy of the various Brookhaven National Laboratory, strategies, but also their derivative • Completion of an assessment of using superconducting tapes of an downstream impacts on work, lei­ the environmental effects of oil shale alloy of three parts niobium and one sure, life styles, and institutions. production. part tin [NbaSn] reduced by a factor The impacts of using hydrogen gas of five the energy losses in al­ • Use of an air pollution predic­ or liquid as a major fuel inter­ tion model, produced by NSF-sup­ ternating current transmission mediary were studied by the Stan­ below those measured previously ported researchers, by the San Fran­ ford Research Institute. One of the cisco Bay Area Pollution Control using such tapes. The achievement of interim conclusions is that there is this milestone removes a major District to guide local and regional little or no feasibility of using hydro­ decisionmaking. impediment to the use of this alloy, gen as an automotive or other which is superconducting at relative­ "portable" fuel because of the very Social Systems Impact ly high temperatures. large impact on the technological of Energy During fiscal year 1974, the infrastructure. In other words, Foundation initiated a program society would have to change so Information on public responses to directed toward the combustion and much to utilize hydrogen exten­ the energy shortage that became material problems in automobile sively that it is virtually precluded acute in the winter of 1973-74 was engines. Under grants to univer­ from portable uses for some time to obtained with NSF support in con­ sities, investigators are examining come. nection with the Continuous Na­ alternative fuels, emulsified fuels, tional Survey, conducted by the Na­ and the stratified charge approach. Environmental Effects of tional Opinion Research Center. Re­ The new program stimulated broad­ Energy sults of interviews with national ened discussions among combustion samples of the U.S. population experts of the automotive manu­ A new program initiated during showed that a large majority of the facturers and the universities. The fiscal year 1974, Environmental public reacted to the energy short­ potential for contributions in this Effects of Energy, focuses on studies age by curtailing uses of electricity area is indicated by the fact that al­ leading to environmentally accept­ and automobiles. Substantial major- RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 73

trips to work remained high with S.F. BAY AREA AIR POLLUTION very little evidence of major attempts STUDY PROJECT (HIGH ALTITUDE PHOTO) at carpooling or other arrangements. Intergovernmental Impact of Energy The National Governors' Confer­ ence undertook in fiscal year 1974 the Governors' Energy Project to estab­ lish and implement a mechanism to coordinate State efforts in energy with relationship to each other and to the Federal Government. The proj­ ect is supported jointly by the Department of the Interior, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the NSF, with the Foundation supplying the leadership within the Federal Government. During its initial months, the project made major contributions to the energy-related amendments to the Federal Clean Air Act, to fuel allocation formula regulations, and to the nationwide automotive speed limit regulation. Significant research reports pub­ lished during the year included assessment of the implications for State governments of the Atomic Energy Commission's Plowshare program to utilize underground nuclear explosions for civil pur­ poses. The research was performed by the Western Interstate Nuclear In a project leading to environmentally acceptable policies on energy production, Board. high altitude photos of the San Francisco Bay area are used to study the pollution In Minnesota, NSF-supported re­ of the area and to help develop an air pollution prediction model. search resulted in assessment of alternative methods of energy utility taxation, in the development of State legislation to implement the findings, ities felt that the energy shortage seriously over the next 5 years. and in studies of the economic and would affect them over the ensuing 6 Reductions in driving were largely environmental implications of months. About 40 percent felt that in the use of cars for recreation and proposed mandatory bottle deposit the shortage would affect them pleasure; tha use of automobiles for legislation.

ENVIRONMENT

Threats to the Natural and documented by several pro­ was also examined. Environment and Environmental grams supported by the Environ­ The National Hail Research Management mental Systems and Resources Pro­ Experiment during fiscal year 1974 gram. The environmental altera­ successfully completed the second of Changes in natural environments, tions were nearly all brought about five planned field sessions. During some of them detrimental to pres­ by human activities. Possible con­ the first two summers there were 27 ently perceived values, were studied trol of the changes by human actions hail days, of which 14 were seeded 74 RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

present height] at its lead smelter to NATIONAL HAIL RESEARCH EXPERIMENT 28.5 FOOT 10 CM RADAR ANTENNA disperse emissions more effectively in the New Lead Belt of Missouri. Consultation and sharing of data be­ tween the industry-operating superintendents, the university team, State regulating agencies, and U.S. Forest Service personnel led to agreement on additional necessary operational improvements in the Missouri Lead Belt. The success of this university-State-Federal relationship resulted in a decision by the British Zuckerman Commission to use this program as a base for England's action in developing the lead ore reserves in that country's na­ tional parks.

Information on dispersal of lead in automotive emissions and a detailed chemical analysis of automotive ex­ hausts for specific lead compounds, performed at the Colorado State University, provided data of value to A 10-centimeter radar antenna monitors meteorological developments during the National Hail Research Experiment. the Colorado Air Pollution Control Commission, the Colorado Gover­ nor's Science Advisory Committee, and the U.S. Environmental Protec­ tion Agency. An associated study at the University of Illinois illumi­ nated the relationship of highway events that were systematically University and given to Federal, development and lead pollution in studied. In addition, there were more State, and local government agen­ the vicinity of rights-of-ways and in than 100 penetrations of hailstorm cies for such uses as the formulation nearby watersheds. Still another cores with armored T-28 aircraft, of weather modification legislation. report, from a project at the Univer­ which yielded important informa­ sity of California, Los Angeles, indi­ tion about the behavior and com.posi- Rainfall and other weather pheno­ cated that atmospheric lead contrib­ tion of storm updrafts. This knowl­ mena in the St. Louis urban area were utes about 30 percent of the total lead edge will be utilized in subsequent studied by a group of researchers intake of a person living in an urban field seasons and in ultimately de­ from various universities and environment with an atmospheric vising better ways to suppress hail. organizations during the summers of 1971-72. Researchers found an in­ lead concentration of 2 micrograms The first comprehensive economic crease of 20 to 30 percent in precipita­ per cubic meter. analysis of hail loss on regional, tion downwind of the area. Showers State, and national scales to give over and downwind of the city were Effects of various air pollution con­ good estimates of the magnitude of distinctly bigger, longer lasting, and trol programs on the emission pat­ loss in geographic and time dimen­ greater rain producers than those terns of the Chicago area, and the sions was completed by the Illinois that did not cross city areas. These benefits and costs of alternative State Water Survey. The informa­ factors are important considera­ transportation control strategies that tion was transmitted to State and tions to urban planners in designing may be used to reduce air pollution, Federal agencies supporting hail and runoff channels, waste water facili­ helped the Illinois Environmental agricultural research and to hail in­ ties, and homesite codes. Protection Agency to evaluate surance companies for assessing several policy options relevant to losses and for rate-setting decisions. As a result of research at the energy and transportation. Policy alternatives on the legal University of Missouri at RoUa, the aspects of weather modification were AMAX Corp. decided to build a new Research at the University of developed at Southern Methodist 400-foot smelter stack (double its Washington showed that mercury RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 75

levels in bottom sediments of Belling- studies matured with significant and county agents in developing farm ham Bay have been diminishing payoffs in fiscal year 1974. As and ranch management plans for rapidly since a local plant reduced its examples, research by the Univer­ greater efficiency in livestock and mercury discharge in mid-1970. A sity of Texas on bay and estuarine crop production. Research results at loss of about 50 percent of the mer­ management provided direct input the Hawaiian Environmental cury from estuarine sediments in 11? for enactment of three Texas coastal Simulation Laboratory, University months is a strong indication that laws covering sand dune protection, of Hawaii, enabled the Hawaiian dredging of the bay need not be administration of navigation Department of Accounting and undertaken, with considerable districts, and coastal zone manage­ General Services to simulate the economic relief to industry and cost ment. Colorado State University environmental consequences of savings to public agencies. devised a range management model selecting sites for State construction Environmental management to aid the Soil Conservation Service projects. 76 RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

the majority of which are in Cali­ COASTAL MARSH DREDGING ACTIVITIES (GULF OF MEXICO) fornia. These instruments measure the motion of ground and structures when they are subjected to earth­ quake shocks. With support from several Federal, State, county, and city agencies, progress was made during fiscal year 1974 in expanding this survey into a National Strong Motion Network. With NSF support, several strong-motion instruments were placed in upstate New York by Columbia University. On July 31 and August 3, 1973, the first strong- motion records were made for earth­ quakes east of the Rocky Mountains. This is a first step in obtaining the data set ultimately required to under­ stand properly the extent of the earthquake engineering design applicable to eastern areas. The NSF Fire Research Program in fiscal year 1974 supported research that developed understanding of the Coastal marsh dredging activities along the Gulf of Mexico are under study as mechanisms of fire ignition, part of research by the University of Texas on bay and estuarine management. spreading, and extinguishment. Data were sufficient for significant improvements in fire safety in homes and urban areas, including tall struc­ tures with special problems. Studies included the modeling of fire proces­ Threats to the methods of mitigating disaster ses, effectiveness of fire fighting sys­ Manmade Environment effects. tems, and the deleterious effects of Research on threats to the man- The Earthquake Engineering Pro­ smoke. gram develops methods that allow made environment focused in fiscal A multidisciplinary project at the decisionmakers to control the conse­ year 1974 on earthquake en­ University of California, Berkeley, quences of earthquake occurrences. gineering and fire research. As part on Fire Safety in Urban Housing led Research projects are under way to of this effort, common features for to several very important find economically feasible design diminishing the hazards due to earth­ accomplishments of special interest and construction methods for build­ quakes, fires, floods, hurricanes, and to the Department of Housing and ing earthquake-resistant structures other extreme meteorological events Urban Development. One of these of all types. Also, procedures are were identified. The NSF project on provided fire safety criteria for being determined for integrating Assessment of Research in Natural single-family residential units, information on seismic risk with pro­ Hazards, at the Institute of Be­ which the Department is incor­ cesses of land use planning. The havioral Science, University of porating into its Minimum Property social and economic consequences of Colorado, completed a social scien­ Standards for housing. Experience individual and community decisions tific description of several basic has shown that a flammability test on earthquake-related issues are alternative methods that can lessen currently specified by the American being studied and results are pre­ the impact of various natural pheno­ Society for Testing Materials is un­ sented in forms that can be used by mena upon man. In addition to reliable for some plastic materials. the potentially affected communi­ examinations of 15 types of hazards, Work at the University of California ties to control their vulnerability to the investigators prepared working on a new test of fire in a room corner earthquakes. papers on land use management, can be a promising complement to or warning, relief and rehabilitation, in­ The Seismological Field Survey replacement of present tests for the surance, and distributional effects of maintains more than 1,000 earth­ establishment of fire safety of resi­ alternative public policies as quake strong-motion instruments, dential units. RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 77

In a large-scale, interdisciplinary system developed in that project ground command and control sys­ project at the University of Utah con­ permits rapid and accurate tem was completed with the coopera­ cerned with the toxicological and determination of the different tion of the Hillandale, Md., Volun­ physiological effects of smoke from chemicals in smoke. teer Fire Department. An advanced polymeric materials, a combustion model which couples a microfiche chamber was modified to permit the At the Johns Hopkins University reader to the tactics case was also measurement of the optical density of Applied Physics Laboratory a evaluated as a prototype system by smoke. A computerized analytical display case of tactics of the fire the College Park Fire Department.

PRODUCTIVITY

Public Sector Productivity Under a grant to The Futures • Various forms of gambling can Group, a monograph was published substitute for one another, and broad The fiscal year 1974 priorities of detailing the social and economic legalization of gambling may lead to the Social Systems and Human Re­ aspects of what is known about legal­ saturation of the gambling market. sources Program were on the ized gambling. This issue is of partic­ Research conducted at the Univer­ organization of service delivery in ular current importance because a sity of Georgia on the effects of metropolitan areas, decision-related number of States have made provi­ population distribution showed that studies of local government manage­ sions for lotteries and other States the historical pattern of massive ment, the use of technology in local are considering such legislation. The outmigration from the South to the government organizations, and the analyses suggested that: North and West that had been design of programs to use characteristic of the United States in telecommunications in delivering • Lotteries and off-track betting earlier decades no longer existed in social services. (OTB) are not likely to be significant the decade 1960-1970. In that period, In the area of State and municipal sources of government revenue in the South became a net importer of finance, NSF-supported work at the relation to total revenues. white population. However, the University of Oregon carried out a outmigration of blacks from the detailed analysis of the current sys­ • Lottery expenditures are a small South persisted at relatively high tem of issuing municipal bonds with part of the players' budgets, and levels over the 1960-1970 decade. The particular attention to the calcula­ participants do not devote signifi­ research emphasizes the implica­ tion of interest rates. The research cant time or energy to playing the lot­ tions of population redistribution for showed that through improvements tery. There probably are not governments that must provide in the calculation of interest rates, it meaningful economic effects on the services to growing or declining would be possible for governments to players or their families. populations. save substantial amounts of money Results from research concerned • State lotteries and OTB are not by calculating interest rates that took with improving the delivery of urban likely to affect adversely the into account the time value of money. services included: Since general revenue sharing is an personal, familial, or work situa­ important innovation in Federal- tions of the average bettor. • An analysis of the efficiency and State-municipal relations, a re­ effectiveness of the treatment of acci­ search program was begun in which • Lotteries and OTB have not dent victims in Boston, using tech­ awards were made for a national significantly reduced the total niques that can be applied in other survey of the attitudes of State and volume of illegal gambling, and hence cities (MIT), local government officials towards do not appear ta have reduced the • The development of a system to revenue sharing, for interviews with potential for corruption of public evaluate the effectiveness of sanita­ a sample of the general population to officials nor freed law enforcement tion services in New York City (State provide information on the degree to resources from antigambling law University of New York at Stony which local government officials' enforcement. Brook). views of general revenue sharing cor­ responded to the views of residents • Federal taxation of gambling • Techniques for ensuring the of the same areas, and for the winnings inhibits efforts of the security and safety of residential preparation of computer software States to compete with tax-free units by developing and testing programs to be used in the analyses illegal gambling. Federal restric­ alternative designs for the use of of the effectiveness of general tions on lottery and OTB promotions space (Center for Residential revenue sharing. are less of an inhibiting factor. Security Design). 78 RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

• The development of computer second, and with the enzyme ribo- The Excavation Technology Pro­ modeling techniques for more ac­ nuclease immobilized on the glass gram emphasizes methods for in­ curate forecasts of manpower needs fibers kills about 99.9 percent of the creasing excavation rates and re­ (Ohio State University). viruses passing through. Tests ducing the cost of subsurface excava­ showed that the enzyme is stable for tion. Research supported at Martin • An analysis of how the benefits at least 100 days and is effective Marietta enhanced drilling rates by and costs of tax systems and service against eight types of viruses, in­ controlling the chemical environ­ delivery systems are distributed in cluding those involved in the com­ ments at the drill bit-rock interface. Washington, D.C, Standard mon cold and the London and Hong A series of hardness tests were run Metropolitan Statistical Area (The Kong flu. on quartz with the surface wet with Urban Institute). In the Extractive Metallurgy Pro­ various alcohols. With dilute al­ gram, the magnetic separation re­ cohols such as heptanol and decanol, it was found that when the surface Private Sector Productivity search at the National Magnet Laboratory, Massachusetts Insti­ charge is reduced to zero, the hard­ Several programs are directed at tute of Technology, led to testing of a ness is increased to a maximum. In improving productivity in the pri­ full-scale device for economically either of those alcohol environ­ vate sector: enzyme technology, recovering iron from semi-taconite ments, the drilling rates are 12 to 14 extractive metallurgy, excavation ore. Since there are huge deposits of times faster than those in water technology, instrumentation tech­ this lower grade ore in the United environments. nology, and industrial automation. States, a more productive process of Considerable progress was made The Enzyme Technology Program recovering iron from it could signifi­ on thermal fragmentation of rock at is working to increase national cantly affect dependence on imports. the University of Missouri at RoUa. productivity by application of en­ The Hanna Mining Company began In this technique, a series of holes are zymes in new and improved chemical studies pointed toward proof-of-con­ drilled to a prescribed depth and pat­ processes. At the Massachusetts cept experiments. tern. Electrodes are inserted in the Institute of Technology, an inter­ disciplinary group of chemists and genetic scientists took five amino acids, two enzyme fractions, and a cof actor and produced, in a two-step THERMAL - MECHANICAL FRAGMENTATION OF ROCK enzymatic reaction sequence, 1/2 [UNIV..OF MO. - ROLLA] gram of Gramiciden-S. The ability to produce such complex organic mole­ cules with enzymes outside a living cell should make it possible to in­ troduce reactants into a system which could not penetrate a cell and thus produce modified molecules not found in nature. Research supported at Iowa State University used a two-step en­ zymatic reaction sequence to produce a mixture of glucose and fructose (invert sugar) from cornstarch. The sugar mixture can be used con­ veniently as syrup and provides a productive use of the Nation's great resource of corn as an alternative to sugar imports. A group of engineers at the Univer­ sity of Virginia used enzyme or electrochemical methods to reduce the transmission of air- and water- borne virus diseases in public places such as hospitals, schools, or In studies of thermal-mechanical fragmentation of rock at the University of Mis­ souri at RoUa, holes are drilled in the rock, electrodes are inserted, and the rock is theaters. An ordinary air filter with a rapidly heated until it fragments. This method results in removal of carefully particle residence time of about 1 predetermined sections of rock. RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 79

holes and the rock rapidly heated. Research at the Charles S. Draper using hot steel. The Case Western Proper control can result in removal Laboratory at MIT delineated the group constructed a one-sixth-scale of carefully predetermined sections first systematic analysis and prob­ computer-controlled bending device. of rock. Precise fracturing is faster lem definition of industrial assembly This device is hydraulically operated and more accurate than conven­ and the research issues associated and uses cold steel. In operation the tional drilling and blasting, and with a new class of advanced assem­ steel is bent slightly, the bending therefore reduces cost. bler systems, organized about sensor force is released, the steel springs The Instrumentation Technology arrays for measuring forces in­ back, and transducers measure the Program supports efforts to apply volved in assembly. A conceptual amount of the bend. The computer new instrumentation concepts for breakthrough was the breakdown then compares the actual bend with . providing increased functional capa­ and categorization of assembly the desired bend, and the operation is bility, greater sensitivity, broader operations into three basic types of repeated until the correct bend is ob­ coverage, and more rapid response at motion—gross, interface, and fine. tained. The project was coordinated reduced cost. Projects are under way This provides a framework for re­ with the Maritime Administration in use of highly ionizing radiation for lating past and future work and and the Naval Architects and Marine cancer therapy and application of allows a concentration on the heart of Engineers organization. A private new instrumentation concepts to the the assembly problem—fine motion. company plans to build a full-scale general diagnosis and treatment of Research at Case Western Reserve bender for shipyard use. disease. Also, superconducting tech­ led to a significant advance in the At the University of Rochester, a nology is being used for medical technology of making ship frames. university-industry team made pro­ instruments, and work is under way The existing bending operation is a gress in developing the knowledge on radiographic and radioisotopic machine-assisted manual procedure base necessary to manufacture imaging, ultrasonic diagnostic instruments, and other innovative instrumentation applications in industrial processes. The MIT National Magnet Labora­ tory completed a device using a superconducting magnet to maneuver a magnetic catheter through the arterial system into remote areas such as the brain. The 1^ Massachusetts General Hospital undertook development of tech­ niques for its use and secured the necessary clearances for clinical trials. The Industrial Automation Pro­ gram works on methods to stimulate the evolution of key segments of U.S. industry to use technologically ad­ vanced systems. Projects encourage research that addresses major prob­ lems in manufacturing and service areas, and emphasis is placed on solving problems that have a signifi­ cant impact on productivity. Key seg­ ments of American industry are en­ couraged in strengthening their science base to complement their already strong experience-based sys­ tem, and rekindle research involve­ ment so that stronger relationships Worl^ing under RANN's program to help improve productivity in the private sec­ tor, researchers at Case Western Reserve constructed a one-sixth-scale steel ben­ between American universities and ding device that is controlled by computer and functions automatically. With this industry in major industrial prob­ hydraulically operated mechanism, cold steel is gradually bent to desired forms lem areas are established. for ship frames. 80 RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

automated parts. Metal removal innovation in energy, medical The Citizens Conference on State operations were represented in terms services and technology, quality of Legislatures during fiscal year 1974 of a mathematical model that con­ work, and new business entre- initiated programs to enhance the tains all the necessary descriptive preneurship. development of State health policy information on parts. Work pro­ With NSF support, the National and the legislative organizations gressed in the design of an inter­ Governor's Conference initiated the needed to do this work, and to estab­ active graphics system embodying Governors' Energy Project de­ lish model legislative committee the model which can be used to scribed in the Energy section of this staffs in the area of drug abuse and generate blueprints and designs for report. alcoholism. The programs, which the parts. The model can be useful in Support for State legislative grew out of earlier efforts supported planning and controlling the opera­ activities during fiscal year 1974 led by the NSF in the establishment of its tions necessary for automated manu­ to the institutionalization of the Cali­ model committee staff program, are facturing of parts. fornia Assembly Science and Tech­ supported by grants of $2 million nology Committee, the establish­ each from the Robert Wood Johnson ment of a position of Legislative Staff Foundation and the Department of Intergovernmental Science Scientist in Illinois, and the creation Health, Education, and Welfare. of an Action Council responsible for Working with local government, a The Intergovernmental Science analysis of environmental and "Consortium for Technology Initia­ Program (ISP), established in fiscal economic development policy for the tives" was organized to bring to­ year 1970, links Federal, State, and Kentucky Legislative Research gether the Nation's 26 largest cities local government through activities Commission. All three activities are and 6 large urban counties to aggre­ to improve the use of research and now fully State funded. gate a market for research and tech­ technology to solve State and local The New York Assembly Science nological solutions to urban needs. problems. These activities are and Technology Staff with NSF catalytic in nature, utilizing seed support held a workshop attended by The 2-year California Four Cities funding to initiate and establish legislators and representatives of project, involving Anaheim, Fresno, capabilities for efforts that can be professional societies in science, Pasadena, and San Jose in experi­ evaluated and carried forward by technology, and public administra­ mental use of science and tech­ others having operational responsi­ tion. Of the 37 pieces of proposed nology advisers with the support of bilities. legislation recommended by the NSF and NASA, was successfully During fiscal year 1974, ISP workshop, 20 bills passed the completed, and plans were set in focused on activities to develop assembly and 8 ultimately became motion to expand it to a prototype institutional strength in State execu­ law. Also with NSF support, the Cen­ statewide urban innovation net­ tive branches, State legislatures, and ter for the Study of Science Policy at work. local government, and to utilize the the Pennsylvania State University With NSF funds, the city of experience residing in Federal completed a fundamental study on Tacoma, Wash., initiated a study to laboratories to address needs of the the development of scientific and determine whether fire depart­ civil sector. technological capability in State mental costs might be converted from Work to realize the potential of legislatures. support by the property tax to a remote sensing moved forward with NSF is providing support, through charge paid by all users, including NSF support in California through a the National Legislative Conference, tax-exempt institutions. coordinating function undertaken by to an agency serving the 7,600 legis­ Local government research and its Office of Science and Technology lators of the 50 States. The profes­ technology achievements supported and in South Dakota when the Gover­ sional staff of the Conference's by NSF during fiscal year 1974 in­ nor established a special office. The Committee on Science and Tech­ cluded assistance in transforming a Hawaii State Center for Science nology carried out projects to relate sludge lagoon to an environmentally Policy and Technology Assessment, science and technology to policies of acceptable interstate highway, the established following earlier NSF the States, to assess mechanisms in development of an instrument support, played a major role in pre­ the Legislatures for doing so, to enabling firefighters to "see through" paring a State report on issues of ur­ operate a clearinghouse for perti­ smoke, a police heliport location gent concern regarding the utiliza­ nent information, to examine tech­ model, a management-by-objectives tion of resources in the neighboring nology transfer activities in the manual, selection of a new and bet­ sea areas. In Ohio, the State im­ States, to survey relationships be­ ter fireboat for port patrol and safety, plemented planning efforts sup­ tween Legislatures and land grant and methods for dealing with graffiti. ported by NSF by creating a Develop­ colleges, and to improve contacts be­ ment Center with a $1 million initial tween State and Federal agencies in In the utilization of Federal labora­ appropriation to develop centers of science and technology. tories, the Department of Defense RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 81

(DOD] issued a new policy, non-Defense agencies. Interagency Department of Defense and the developed with NSF support, that funding of these efforts exceeded $12 Foundation also institutionalized the allows for an expenditure of up to 3 million in fiscal year 1974 for proj­ experimental assignment of a percent of the professional man- ects in areas such as fire and safety, representative of a Federal research years of any DOD laboratory on non- environment, health, law enforce­ and development laboratory with the defense work if specified criteria are ment, transportation, instrumenta­ Foundation, as a jointly funded met. All projects must be funded by tion, and analysis and testing. The assignment.

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH AND PROBLEM ASSESSMENT

The program of Exploratory Re­ nology, was distributed to govern­ evidence, insufficient determination search and Problem Assessment ini­ ment officials, trade associations, of causation, and inadequate tiates studies on selected problems electronics and appliance in­ certification of experts. The report, that have potential for major na­ dustries, and consumer organiza­ Product Liabihty: An Interaction of tional impact. Gaps in the spectrum tions. The research team concluded Law and Technology, was published of existing research relevant to na­ that while service needs on ap­ in the Duquesne Law Review. tional needs are approached through pliances have diminished, service re­ A significant problem assessment problem assessment and definition mains an important part of operating was made of consumer information studies and through exploratory re­ costs, and thus of the overall cost of processing research in relation to search projects. the product. Another finding was public policy needs. Bill Wilkie of the Considerable emphasis is placed that warranties have had a large Marketing Science Institute con­ on technology assessment, which effect in leading to greater reliability cluded that the field is under­ may be defined as the systematic of appliances. developed and inadequate to meet the study of the effects on society that An interdisciplinary team of two needs of public policy. may occur when a technology is lawyers and two engineers at Carne­ R. David Pittle, former principal introduced, extended, or modified, gie-Mellon University identified a investigator on an NSF project to im­ with special emphasis on the im­ number of serious defects in the form prove consumer safety through pacts that are unintended, indirect, and substance of product liability innovative consumer education, was and delayed. In fiscal year 1974, litigation. These defects include appointed a member of the Con­ work was begun on comprehensive, inadequate preservation of physical sumer Product Safety Commission. in-depth assessments of nine high- priority technologies, including those in the energy area reported earlier. In addition, studies were ini­ tiated on electronic funds transfer systems, biological pesticides, inte­ grated hog farming, alternative work schedules, earthquake prediction, and metrication. In addition, the pro­ ceedings of a conference on pre­ paring environmental impact state­ ments were published and distrib­ uted to practitioners in Government and the private sector. The report contains commissioned papers on specific techniques, including com­ puter modeling and cross-impact matrices for improving the percep­ * Based on the year 1972 and discounted to time of purctiase. tion of environmental consequences. Another report, entitled The Productivity of Servicing Consumer A study of tfie real cost of consumer appliances, done al MIT, shows thai con­ Durable Products, prepared by the sumer appliances carry unrecognized costs in terms of service and power over their life cycle. Coiriponents of life-cycle costs of color television sets lleft] show Center for Policy Alternatives at the large differences in lertns of service and power costs from those of refrigerators Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ (right). [After Consumer Appliances; The Real Clost] 82 RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

The project will be continued and of the values and aspirations of rural policy, and technology transfer. Pre­ completed by his colleagues at southern blacks. liminary assessment was completed Carnegie-Mellon University. At Navajo Community College, and major research and problem Tsaile, Navajo Nation, Ariz,, a prob­ areas were identified on the changes In minority group problems, issues lem assessment was started to identi­ in the status of women. related to accountability in special fy the problems facing the Navajo revenue sharing/block grant pro­ Nation with regard to industrial With NSF support, a research grams were explored at a conference development and major research and group at the Institute of Society, held at Stanford Research Institute. policy issues associated with the Ethics, and the Life Sciences, The proceedings were distributed to management, utilization, and Hastings-on-Hudson, N.Y., pub­ policymakers in Government and conservation of natural resources on lished a book resulting from its community organizations. Navajo lands. investigation of the ethical, social, Research needs of rural blacks was Two problem definition studies and legal issues involved in the the topic of a problem assessment were completed in technology-re­ applications of behavior control project completed at Mary Holmes lated international problems. Re­ technologies. The book. Operating on College, West Point, Miss. Among search priorities included interna­ the Mind; The Psychosurgery Con­ those needs identified through a tional aspects of energy policy, flict, includes guidelines for the survey and conference were studies environmental management, oceans regulation of psychosurgery.

RESEARCH UTILIZATION

The RANN Research Utilization and restoring the environmental activities throughout the Federal Program works to assure that re­ values of the Lake Tahoe Basin under Government. search is directed toward users and the direction of a California and • Establishment of a joint univer­ that the results are tested against Nevada bi-State agency. sity-industry research group under their needs. An important step to­ • Initiation of activities by re­ the leadership of a North Carolina ward this goal was the issuance, searchers at Iowa State University State University scientist to review during fiscal year 1974, of the NSF- and representatives of corn syrup the potential of high-energy radia­ RANN Guidelines for Preparation of manufacturers to use NSF-sup­ tion techniques in the textile in­ Unsolicited Proposals. These guide­ ported research results on an en­ dustry. lines specify the required details on zyme process for converting corn­ utilization plans, which must in­ • Initiation of an effort by the starch to sugar. clude user group identification, user American Institute of Architects Re­ demand description, utilization e Tests by the Tri-State Genera­ search Corp. to develop a master plan process description, and a utiliza­ tion and Transmission Company of for computer-based systems for tion budget. computer-controlled electric substa­ building codes and thejr administra­ Utilization activity progress tion operational techniques re­ tion. during the year included the comple­ sulting from research at the Univer­ The Research Utilization Program tion of proof of the concept of an sity of Missouri. environmental extension system pat­ also conducted extensive activities terned after the Agricultural Exten­ • Coordinated planning by the pointed toward broad dissemination sion Service. The feasibility experi­ steel industry to evaluate and utilize of documented research results to ment was conducted in the States of Purdue University research results users and potential users. During Oklahoma, Colorado, and Tennes­ on automated steel processing. fiscal year 1974, a major symposium see, with the cooperation of State on RANN research results was at­ governments, universities, the • Initiation at Indiana University tended by more than 1,500 persons Department of Agriculture, and the of preparation of a manual for in­ from business and industry, govern­ Environmental Protection Agency. dustry on the characteristics of ores ment, national organizations, foreign Some of the other research utiliza­ of 50 metals with respect to high-gra­ embassies, and the research com­ tion results included: dient magnetic separation and munity. The proceedings of this sym­ beneficiation techniques. posium were published and distrib­ • Substantial progress toward the uted widely. development of a master plan of re­ • Publication of a basic source A RANN Document Center was search pointed towards preserving document on technological transfer established for the dissemination of RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 83

research reports. The center, located the subjects of geothermal energy, studies in solar heating and cooling in the Foundation's offices, is open to solar heating experiments, efforts to was attended by more than 700 per­ the user and research communities reduce environmental pollution asso­ sons representing the construction and the public. An initial bibli­ ciated with lead mining and smelting, industry; manufacturers; architects; ography of RANN energy research and automated ship frame bending. banks; planners of new communi­ reports in this center was published. A workshop on the results of re­ ties; Federal, State, and local govern­ Four films were produced covering search and industrial feasibility ments; and the research community.

SCIENCE EDUCATION 87

Science Education

Fiscal year 1974 marked the first service sectors of the economy students; (2] increase substantially full year of operation of the NSF requires that all citizens, non- the number of persons who make Education Directorate's restruc­ scientists as well as scientists, have effective use of the processes and tured program of Science Education an understanding of the impact of results of science in their work and Improvement activities. While science and technology on their personal lives (whether or not they earlier NSF education activities have careers as well as their daily lives. are engaged in scientific or technical had a marked effect on science The rate of change has become so occupations) and who understand education in the United States—and rapid that obsolescence with respect public issues involving modern tech­ many countries abroad as to employment imposes a need for nologies; (3) develop and implement well—some of the problems toward continuing education in many forms new instructional strategies and which they were directed, such as a for many people. The increasing methodologies; and (4) disseminate general shortage of scientific costs of education require research the knowledge gained from research research manpower, now have been into and implementation of more on the processes of learning and reduced, to be replaced by others of effective kinds of organization and education. growing importance. Certain of these management structures and instruc­ problems have been identified as tional methods at all levels of • Find ways to increase the impact being relevant to the Foundation's education. New ways must be found and effectiveness of the Foundation's mission and capabilities. to bring the results of research and Science Education Programs through The changing nature of our society experimentation into direct, regular research and problem assessment and its economy has created a need use in schools and colleges. which can point to necessary future for a range of scientific and technical In recognition of these factors, the program directions. competencies well beyond those major objectives of the Foundation's possessed by individuals whose fiscal year 1974 Science Education Program activities were structured academic preparation is primarily Improvement activities were to: around four major themes: for pursuit of careers in basic research. The student body of the • Help assure the Nation of an • Improvement of education for Nation's schools, colleges, and appropriate variety, flexibility, careers in science universities is much more varied now quality, and amount of scientific and than in previous generations. • Development of science literacy technological manpower with Institutions must be responsive to a greater participation of minorities • Increasing the effectiveness of broader spectrum of student and women. educational processes abilities, talents, and needs. The increasing technology-based • Improve science education to: (1) • Problem assessment and character of both the production and meet the needs of a broader range of experimental projects.

Table 6 Science Education Improvement Fiscal Year 1974 Summary of Obligations

Improvement of Education for Careers in Science $28,676,587 Improvement of Education for Scientific Literacy 23,635,267 Increasing Effectiveness of Educational Processes 13,934,528 Problem Assessment and Experimental Proiects 1,464,227 Total $67710,609 88 SCIENCE EDUCATION

IMPROVEMENT OF EDUCATION FOR CAREERS IN SCIENCE

Program support activities in 1974 for the Biomedical Inter­ new modes of delivering science fiscal year 1974 were addressed not disciplinary Curriculum Project, instruction; development of options only to the problem of maintaining which is designed for the potential to the traditional type of under­ the quality of training in the biomedical technologist. Other graduate and graduate degree traditional science disciplines, but current curriculum development programs; development of new and also to the development of new, projects contain significant career- improved science research and flexible instructional patterns oriented portions, usually as technology; enhancement of the leading to a wider variety of modules or units probing a subject in competence of college teachers in scientific and technical career greater depth, which can be focused those interdisciplinary areas options. Efforts supported in fiscal on the potential scientist. concerned with national needs and year 1974 included course material Implementation activities are more issues for which course materials development and implementation at fully described in the Science and instructional modes may be the secondary through continuing Literacy section of this report. In introduced into the undergraduate education levels, as well as some fiscal year 1974, 11 implementation curriculum; and use of new experimental models at under­ projects supporting 610 secondary instructional scientific equipment to graduate and higher levels. Another school teachers and resource help colleges and universities approach to curricular change was personnel were devoted exclusively improve the content and focus of through the Student-Oriented to advancing the student oriented their undergraduate courses. Program, aimed at demonstrating the toward an eventual career in science. value of increased student research These projects were involved Instructional Materials and Modes participation in the learning process. principally in aiding school districts and Alternative Degree Programs The Ethnic Minorities and Women in to introduce new mathematics Science program was created to find curricula in their high schools The three areas of special concen­ ways to increase the disproportion­ through the provision of special tration in material and modes ately low number of people from training in the use of the new development in fiscal year 1974 have these groups who form a portion of instructional materials and methods. been projects to provide instruc­ the Nation's scientific and tech­ tional materials in problem-related nological manpower supply. Alternatives in Higher areas of special national need, the Education exploration of cooperative develop­ Secondary School Program ment and distribution systems, and Through support of Alternatives in the continuance of materials Since motivation toward a Higher Education, the Foundation's development for introductory and scientific career or one in a tech­ Education Directorate seeks to core science technology studies. nological support area first becomes maintain existing strengths in Virginia Polytechnic Institute, in evident in most children during the college- and university-level science cooperation with a number of electric adolescent years, it is essential to education while at the same time power companies, is developing a give attention to this phase of a encouraging a closer matching of series of learning modules to cover student's development. Much of the academic training with the the principles of nuclear power support given by the Foundation in broadened range of scientific engineering. These modules will curriculum development in the 196G's functions and abilities needed in extensively use computer modeling was directed more toward the society today. Project support is in simulation and will be tested and academically oriented, potential directed towards encouraging a form revised in conjunction with science student than toward the of higher education that prepares a engineering departments' at other student with less specialized cadre of scientific manpower more academic institutions. interests. Therefore, a relatively flexible in their subject-matter usage Work in several national small portion of the NSF education than has been typical in the past, and curriculum projects continued allocation has been spent in this better prepared to work in problem- toward the development of a large program for the past 3 years, with the related situations. bank of instructional units in core major effort shifting to science The 1974 program has focused on science disciplines. Thus, the literacy to compensate. However, the following: development of course Computer and Laboratory-based funding was continued in fiscal year materials and experimentation with Calculus [CALC] project at the SCIENCE EDUCATION 89

Education Development Center Two projects initiated this year conversion, air pollution control, approaches college mathematics will develop nonresident master's transnational policy issues, and the from intuitive and problem-solving degree programs which offer multi- health sciences; to prepare computer- examples drawn from many fields of disciplinary, problem-solving assisted instructional materials for interest. In biology, the minicourse curricula. A program at Carnegie- courses in the physical and the social development project directed by Mellon University in transportation sciences; and to adapt instructional Samuel Postlethwait at Purdue is is designed as an alternative to the procedures for low-achieving or finishing its work on some 250 traditional procedure of uninter­ culturally deprived undergraduate multimedia packages on core rupted education through graduate students of science. concepts in modern biology, and school without benefit of intervening Project Biotech has begun its final periods of employment or other phase of development of skill- nonacademic experiences. A some­ Faculty Fellowships in Science oriented modules, emphasizing what similar program in format, but Applied to Societal Problems operational techniques. in the field of telecommunications, In order to help 2- and 4-year being developed at the University of The Tech-Physics project entered college and university science Pennsylvania, stresses the its final phase with grants to the teachers increase their competence in educational benefits of cross- American Institute of Physics, areas concerned with our Nation's disciplinary work and internships Florissant Valley Community societal problems and their possible with various governmental, College, the Technical Education solutions, the Foundation awarded commercial, and public interests. Research Center, and the State 91 Faculty Fellowships in Science A project was funded this year for University of New York at Applied to Societal Problems in the development of an innovative Binghamton. Some 20 modules are fiscal year 1974. Awardees were master's degree curriculum in art being developed in which physical selected from among 683 applicants conservation. The University of principles are developed through the for tenures ranging from 3 to 9 Delaware is developing a broad- detailed examination of common months. In addition to a salary- based master's degree program for pieces of equipment—an approach matching stipend, the Foundation museum conservators, in collabor­ which is closely related to that of the provided the fellowship institution ation with the Winterthur Museum, CALC project. with an allowance to assist the and with joint funding from NSF and institution in meeting tuition and Alternative Degree Programs have the National Endowment for the other costs. emphasized the exploration of Arts. This program will couple the curriculum prototypes which lead to physical and analytical chemical Faculty Research Participation a wider variety of career options. techniques necessary for restoring Highest priority is given to those and conserving art and other cultural To encourage and assist teachers in projects in which there is a signifi­ objects with the requirements of a reevaluating the relevance of their cant element of experimentation and deep understanding of art history. course material to the needs and a meaningful departure from requirements of students, oppor­ traditional degree structures. tunities are provided for college College Faculty Workshops teachers to participate in the ongoing Support was continued into the research activities of industrial final 2 years of an experimental In addition to the course material laboratories and research institutes program at Illinois Institute of development accomplished in the engaged in the application of scien­ Technology for a totally restructured projects described above, practicing tific know-how to the solution of undergraduate engineering program. college teachers were involved in the problems of national interest and Primary emphasis in this program is development of modular instruc­ concern. The 61 projects supported in placed on the development of tional materials through the College fiscal year 1974 involved problems of problem-solving abilities and the Faculty Workshop Program. Selected engineering construction, storage, traditional curriculum of courses is college faculty contribute their conversion, and use; food pro­ replaced with a series of problems talents as teachers and their knowl­ duction: industrial waste, pollution, drawn from a spectrum of appli­ edge of the requirements and capa­ and environmental toxicants; cation areas to be solved by student bilities of students to the work of development and production of new teams. Students working on these research scholars in developing and materials and resources; and aquatic problems develop a need to know testing curricular materials for ecology. specific information and skills; these undergraduate students of science. are provided by a bank of several The initial group of workshops, Instructional Scientific Equipment thousand self-instructional modules supported in fiscal year 1974, are to and a series of special-topic develop curricular materials on This fiscal year, 373 awards were seminars. topics in astrophysics, energy made to assist in implementing 90 SCIENCE EDUCATION

specific course and curriculum effective ways to continue the a period of participation in a college improvements through the professional education of scientists or university research project. acquisition, on a matching-fund and engineers in the nonacademic Projects in Student Science Training basis, of necessary instructional labor force. In the past the Founda­ for high-ability secondary school equipment. Awards were made to tion has supported several experi­ students may be directed to those both 2- and 4-year colleges; the mental approaches to continuing students with conventional science majority of the awards were for education in which universities have training or to those whose back­ equipment to improve curricula and cooperated with local industries in grounds are limited by the facilities teaching laboratories in the physical offering specialized instruction to and instruction of their schools. sciences. practicing scientists and engineers in Thirty-one of the 79 projects the area. In this fiscal year, as supported in 1974 were planned for Science and Engineering Technician another approach, the Foundation this latter group. A special group of Education has funded a professional society to seven projects brought both high To assist in providing the trained develop a prototype continuing school teachers and students technical personnel for research and education program. The American together in testing ways to adapt this technology, particularly in those Chemical Society (ACS) is type of format and experience as a areas in which manpower is needed developing continuing education regular feature of secondary school to help solve contemporary national material in chemistry, designed to offerings. In all, some 3,500 student problems in fields of science and facilitate individual use and to participants were involved. engineering, the Foundation in fiscal accommodate to a short course year 1974 initiated the Science and format. Modes of instruction to be Undergraduate Research Engineering Technician Education developed will include computer- Participation Program. Four grants have been assisted materials, color video- awarded for the development of new cassettes augmented by audio- Support provided through Under­ and improved prototype programs cassettes, films, and printed graduate Research Participation for technical support personnel. The materials. Tests devised by the allows undergraduates who have grants share the following common Educational Testing Service will completed a substantial portion of features: attempt to determine whether satis­ their requirements in science to work factory mastery of the material is full-time directly with the faculty • Adaptation of, and addition to, achieved, and field testing will be members on research projects. In nationally developed core science done within industry, Government 1974 the projects in this master- curriculum materials. agencies, and also by some local ACS apprentice program were restricted • Production of new modules in chapters. An important element is to to those dealing with the energy specialized technological areas. be the extensive documentation and problem or with the management appropriate software which will be and/or utilization of renewable • Exploration of new curriculum made available to other professional natural resources. The 173 projects at and program structures emphasizing societies that might wish to initiate 144 colleges and universities adaptation to diverse student needs. similar programs. included 1,300 participants. • Involvement and collaboration Student-Oriented Programs with other institutions in develop­ Student-Originated Studies ment and testing. The three activities of the Student- Through Student-Originated The projects at the University of Oriented Programs are directed Studies (SOS), undergraduates or Texas at San Antonio and the toward science-talented students. In graduates, or combinations of the University of Wyoming are in the all three situations, the objectives are two, who organize their own groups, area of chemical technology, while to foster increasing independence of may obtain support to carry out their that-at the Junior College District of the students, to identify future own research activities with minimal St. Louis concentrates on instru­ leaders, to conserve scientific talent, faculty supervision. Proposals mentation and the preparation of and to place upon students more considered by SOS are conceived and general engineering technicians, and responsibility for guiding their own written by groups of students. Those that at Oklahoma State is for learning. groups whose proposals are electrical power technologists. successful then carry out and manage Student Science Training Continuing Education for the projects proposed. Most are Scientists and Engineers Through Student Science Training designed to provide data useful to a limited number of advanced local governmental agencies in Efforts are directed toward secondary school students receive planning or administering public developing and demonstrating special instruction in science and/or programs. In 1974, 135 awards to 115 SCIENCE EDUCATION 91

Under NSF's Undergraduate Research Participation Program, students and faculty work in close coordination. At left, Gary Froehlich, senior electrical engineering student at Texas Tech University, talks over his laser research pro­ ject with his faculty adviser, Larry Burton. At right, California State University, Sacramento, physics professor Charles Newcomb works with undergraduate Al Young on ultrasonic measurements in superconductors.

colleges and universities supported of these projects will focus on the high schools of the greater Norfolk,' the work of 1,200 students. utilization of computer-based Va., area. A unique exploratory A survey of the impact of Student- instructional systems. study at Stanford University will Originated Studies projects on the In support of initiating scientific investigate and compare curriculum teaching patterns of the host insti­ research by faculty members of variables and mathematics learning tutions is nearing completion. The ethnic minority institutions, 47 by "Chicano" and "Anglo" contractor has presented an outline grants were made in fiscal year 1974 elementary and secondary school of his findings and a full report will to scientists in 22 institutions. students. be delivered early in fiscal year 1975. In addition, 10 experimental projects were initiated this year to Minorities in Science Studies test promising solutions to the Ethnic Minorities and and Experimental Projects Women problems associated with increasing Five studies to identify and assess the number of ethnic minority group factors which are barriers to the members in scientific and tech­ Minority Institutions Science participation of ethnic minorities in nological careers. Three of these Improvement scientific careers were initiated in experiments will explore ways of To capitalize on a unique national fiscal year 1974. Three of the studies preparing otherwise highly qualified resource and to help provide equal deal with aspects of engineering high school students to meet educational opportunities, grants are education, including problems academic requirements for college made to colleges and universities associated with attracting pros­ entrance. Two of these three projects . serving ethnic minorities for pective engineering majors, the involve black Americans in urban upgrading these institutions and validation of admission standards, high schools and one—at the their course offerings. In fiscal year and the retention of ethnic minority University of North Dakota—will 1974, 26 grants were made to students in engineering curricula. involve 20 American Indian high individual institutions, including 3 One study, at Wayne State school students. Four projects will established to serve Native University, will obtain data which experiment with various ways in American students. In addition, two will indicate the kind and relative which colleges and universities could interinstitutional grants were made influence of variables affecting the identify, counsel, and ' prepare for support of activities to assist the career choices of minority under­ minority students for science and faculties of minority institutions in graduate and graduate students. engineering careers, and two other more effectively developing, Another study will examine the projects will evaluate and compare selecting, and using instructional educational and psychological methods of increasing science career media and strategies in the teaching barriers influencing participation in awareness among minority junior of the sciences and mathematics; one science by minority students in the high and high school students. 92 SCIENCE EDUCATION

Women in Science Studies been available—was accorded to an for example, 19.7 percent of the and ExperimentaJ Projects additional 1,859 of the applicants. applicants for new fellowships were Each of the fellowships was Twenty-three grants were women, while only 11.1 percent of the awarded for 3 years of graduate awarded in fiscal year 1974 to 21 awardees were women; in 1973, the study to beginning graduate stu­ institutions for 13 problem assess­ percentage had risen to 27 percent dents. The fellowships may be used ment studies to identify and study women in the applicant population over a 5-year period, which permits those factors that affect the number compared to 24.1 percent women students to fit into their education of women in scientific and tech­ awardees. This development over the programs other valuable scientific nological careers and for 10 experi­ past several years represents a and academic experiences. Each mental projects to test various ways twofold improvement—in overall fellowship carries a stipend of $3,600 to increase the number of women in numbers of women applicants and per year for full-time study, and an science. awardees and in the ratio between Eleven of the studies are designed education allowance of $3,000 to the the two categories. U.S. institution in lieu of tuition and to determine what factors influence This year, due to the annual- women in making decisions about fees. ization of the Foundation's approp­ education and careers in science, Fellowship awards were in the riations, a new fiscal arrangement following fields: 12 percent in mathe­ mathematics, and engineering; one has been initiated whereby all matics, 12 percent in engineering, 20 will be concerned with the effects of Fellows attending a given U.S. insti­ percent in physical sciences, 28 cooperative education experience on tution are supported through an percent in social sciences and college women majoring in science annual Fellowship Support Grant to psychology, and 28 percent in and engineering; and one will that institution pursuant to a Fellow­ biological sciences. Twenty-eight attempt to measure the current ship Support Agreement between the extent of participation of women in percent of the fellowships were institution and the Foundation. awarded to women this year, in a their pre-college or freshman college competition in which women consti­ years, and are designed to develop Traineeships tuted 29 percent of the applicant techniques or materials that can be population. This represents a rise in used by many institutions. To help meet the Nation's future the percentage of women making energy research needs, the Founda­ application for and receiving NSF tion also awarded grants to 39 insti­ Graduate Student Support graduate fellowships, and a greater tutions for a total of 172 Energy- balance between awards and Related Graduate (ERG] Graduate Student Support has as applicants by sex. In fiscal year 1967, Traineeships, which provide 3 years its primary objective to provide a reasonable and continuous flow of highly talented individuals into science careers. Other objectives are to strengthen the technical com­ Table 7 petence of scientific and engineering Improvement of Education for Careers in Science manpower, specifically to help meet Fiscal Year 1974 the Nation's energy problems, and to improve the access of graduate Number Net of Awards Obligations students attending historically Improvement of Education for Careers in minority colleges and universities to Science-Total 1,061 $28,676,587 careers in science and technology. Secondary School Program 17 1,517,084 Materials 6 1,123,084 Implementation 11 394,000 Graduate Fellowships Student-Oriented Program 387 5,130,313 Secondary 79 1,374,976 In fiscal year 1974, 525 new Undergraduate Research Participation 173 2,021,961 Student-Originated Studies 135 1,733,376 Graduate Fellowships were awarded Alternatives in Higtier Education 432 10,706,855 to students in the sciences, mathe­ Materials 38 3,441,122 Alternative Degrees 17 3,122,773 matics, and engineering, with Technician Education 4 1,002,445 Undergraduate Instructional Equipment 373 3,140,515 selection based upon ability. More Continuing Education and Professional Development 184 4,715,280 than 5,700 students applied for these Faculty Worlishops and Chautaugua 25 1,307,790 NSF Fellowships, and the awards Science Faculty Fellowships 91 1,484,365 Faculty Research Participation 65 919,440 represent a success ratio of slightly Continuing Education for Non-Academic Scientists and Engineers 3 1,003,685 over 9 percent. Honorable men­ Ethnic Minorities and Wfomen in Science 41 6,607,055 tion—defined as status fully worthy Minority Institutions 28 6,001,835 of a fellowship had sufficient funds Minorities and Women in Science Projects 13 605,220 SCIENCE EDUCATION 93

of support for advanced studies areas: coal/oil shale, solar energy, or ships to 7 such schools. Each award leading to doctoral or masters' geothermal energy. provides for 3 years of support. degrees. Each ERG Traineeship The Minority Institution Graduate Appointments are made by the insti­ provides a stipend of $3,000 per year Traineeship fiscal year 1974 program tutions to individuals enrolled in and a $3,000 per year allowance to helped to improve the access of advanced degree programs in the the institution in lieu of tuition and students attending minority colleges sciences and engineering; emol­ fees. ERG Traineeships will focus on and universities to careers in science uments are identical with those for one of three significant research through the award of 30 trainee- the ERG Traineeships.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE LITERACY

The Education Directorate's fiscal Elementary School Program Additional funds were made avail­ year 1974 emphasis on science able for the combined science-mathe­ literacy recognized the importance of matics project Unified Science and Materials and Instruction increasing attention being given to Mathematics for Elementary Schools Development the problems of improving the (USMES), directed by Earle Lomon general level of scientific literacy of a In mathematics, four conference of MIT, at the Education Develop­ broader segment of the population. reports, available as a result of fiscal ment Center. This project is nearing The goal of the science literacy year 1973 activities, provided a par­ the end of its development phase and activity is to increase substantially tial reassessment of mathematics moving rapidly into implementa­ the number of persons who are able education in the country and pointed tion. Another aspect of the elemen­ to make use of the methodologies of directions for the Foundation's next tary school program is illustrated by science as well as the results of steps in attempting to attain mathe­ a grant to Antioch College for an im­ scientific discovery, in their work matical competence among the Na­ pact assessment of the elementary and personal lives, whether or not tion's students. In response to the social studies course, Man; A Course they are engaged in scientific or major recommendations of these re­ of Study. technical occupations. ports, a number of grants were made, As our society becomes more and all designed to study more closely the Instructional Improvement more technologically oriented, more teaching and learning process. Two Implementation individuals are becoming engaged in of these, one to Eugene Nichols at activities or in making decisions that Florida State University, the other to A major restructuring of require a scientific or technical back­ George Springer at Indiana Univer­ implementation activities at the pre- ground, and there is an increasingly sity, will provide for development of college level was accomplished in wide range of jobs at all levels for materials at the elementary school fiscal year 1974. Attention is now which science training is highly level that should overcome some of focused principally on bringing inno­ useful, if not essential. the difficulties recently encountered vative curriculum materials into the Concurrently, the Nation desires to in using content from earlier develop­ classroom and orienting the educa­ make the benefits of more education ment efforts along with a close study tional staff of schools and school available to more of its citizens. Our of children's performance in the new districts in the appropriate use of the schools are now accommodating materials. The use of Teachers' Cen­ materials they have chosen. almost the entire school-age ters as reinforcement for the teaching Implementation grants are cate­ population and are thus faced with process is being investigated at gorized as: [1) orientation of educa­ an increasing diversity of talents, Southern Illinois University, the tional leaders—involving teams from capabilities, and career aspirations. University of Denver, and the selected regions to become thor­ To meet the needs of these students a University of Wisconsin at White­ oughly familiar with one or two of the wider variety of teaching materials water. Investigations of mathe­ major curriculum projects sup­ must be developed, including matical learning in children are being ported by NSF so that local training materials that can be matched to the undertaken by Edward Begle, Stan­ can be handled by members of these learning abilities of both the theore­ ford University; Joseph Scandura, teams, and familiarizing education tically inclined student who learns Research for Better Schools, Inc.; system decisionmakers with new readily from the printed page and the Robert Davis, University of Illinois; curriculum developments to in­ more practically oriented student Max Bell, University of Chicago; and crease their understanding of their who learns best from "hands-on" Hassler Whitney, Institute for Ad­ options for improvement of instruc­ materials and tangible models. vanced Studies, Princeton. tion in the sciences and in mathe- 94 SCIENCE EDUCATION

Under the combined science-mathematics project of Unified Science and Mathematics for Elementary Schools (USMES), a fifth grader in his classroom is learning about the many difficulties encountered when attempting to control variables in tests that involve human subjects.

matics; (2) school system-centered This year grants were awarded secondary school level. Grants to projects—for school systems com­ costing $5.9 million for elementary Boston University (Uri Haber- mitted to full implementation of one school implementation activities. A Schaim, Director] and the Univer­ of the new curricula in their class­ total of 17,587 teachers, supervisors, sity of Oregon [Alan Hoffer, Direc­ rooms, in collaboration with local and other resource personnel in tor] will provide prototype materials. colleges to strengthen the quality of science and mathematics partici­ In addition, an analysis of mathe­ teacher training; and (3] teacher-cen­ pated in 157 projects. matics achievement of secondary tered projects—to permit individual school students will be performed teachers who have leadership roles in Secondary School Program through the Conference Board of the their own schools or school systems Mathematical Sciences. Materials and Instruction to gain thorough background in one In the social sciences a behavioral Development or two curricula so that they may try science curriculum project has been out the materials in their local situa­ The mathematics developments initiated with an award to the Ameri­ tions prior to a commitment for wide­ described under the Elementary can Psychological Association; the spread adoption. School Program extend to the director is John Bare, of Carleton Col- SCIENCE EDUCATION 95

In NSF's Instructional Improvement Implementation project for elementary schools, attention is being focused on bringing innovative curriculum materials into the classroom and teaching the teachers how best to use them. In this case, a teacher is using a modern projector for showing brine shrimp.

lege. The development phase of the science project Comparing Political example, the Individualized Science interdisciplinary course Exploring Experiences was awarded addi­ Instructional System, started in Human Nature is being terminated tional funds for further development fiscal year 1973, received major with this year's grant, and activities of instructional materials. funding this year for development of to aid implementation of the Interdisciplinary content charac­ interdisciplinary modules for grades materials in schools and school terizes current projects for materials 10 to 12. The Human Sciences Pro­ systems have begun. The political development in the sciences. For gram combines material from the 96 SCIENCE EDUCATION

biological and behavioral sciences gram are the same as have been de­ secondary school science and mathe­ for the middle school. scribed above under the Elementary matics were supported through these In order to aid in the dissemina­ School Program. They were sup­ implementation projects to aid in tion of information about new ported by 246 grants at a cost of $8.8 bringing innovative curriculum instructional materials and methods, million. A total of 17,860 teachers materials into secondary school a new edition of the booklet Course and other resource personnel in classrooms. and Curriculum Improvement Pro­ jects was published by the Founda­ tion in fiscal year 1974. This booklet Table 8 describes all of the significant pro­ Improvement of Education for Scientific Literacy jects, conferences, and studies Fiscal Year 1974 dealing with course materials and instructional development since the Number Net of Awards Obligations inception of these activities in NSF. Improvement of Education for Scientific All pre-college grade levels are in­ Literacy—Total 4.90 $23,635,267 cluded in this publication. Elementary School Program 169 7,940,900 Materials and Instruction Development 12 2,050,777 Instructional Improvement Implementation 157 5,890,123 Instructional Improvement Secondary School Program 271 13,482,110 Implementation Materials and Instruction Development 25 5,087,080 Instructional Improvement Implementation 246 8,395,030 Restructured implementation Public Understanding of Science 50 2,212,257 activities funded under this pro­

PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING OF SCIENCE

The Foundation's long-standing Science and the British Broad­ tion at that station of several pro­ commitment to enhancing public casting Corporation, and supported grams on science reflecting the in­ understanding of science and tech­ by grants from the Foundation, the terests of the San Diego community. nology was strengthened in fiscal Corporation for Public Broad­ A number of regional and com­ year 1974 with the support of 50 casting, the Carnegie Corporation of munity public forums and con­ awards totaling $2.3 million. The pri­ New York, and Polaroid, the series ferences were supported in fiscal mary objective of the Public Under­ was an innovative representation of year 1974, many of which dealt with standing of Science Program is to the diverse world of science. Highly the interrelated subjects of energy, stimulate and encourage communica­ recognized by both the critics and the economics, and the environment. The tion between scientists and the pub­ public, the 13 hour-long shows of the American Association for the lic on the role, substance, potential, first season of NOVA dealt with such Advancement of Science continued and limitations of science and tech­ topics as the Colorado River, the to conduct a series of forums on nology. Many projects supported in search for life in outer space, the energy in such communities as prior years reached the operational discovery of anesthesia, medical Chicago, San Diego, Tucson, and stage during fiscal year 1974, and ethics, nuclear fusion research, and Portland, Me. A major series of with activities initiated during fiscal chimpanzee language. A second environmental symposia was ini­ year 1974, a comprehensive public series of 22 shows is being produced tiated at the Spokane International communications program is now in for the 1974-75 television season. Exposition dealing with energy, progress. Other television projects re­ agriculture, health, human settle­ A most exciting development in ceiving support during fiscal year ments, population, and natural re­ public understanding of science 1974 included a new public tele­ source management. Other projects during the past year was the pre­ vision series on economics, to be pro­ included three international sym­ miere of the weekly NOVA science duced by Emmy-award winner posia on global concerns with the series televised nationally over the David Prowitt in conjunction with environment; three northern Cali­ Public Broadcasting System. Pro­ The National Economists Club of fornia regional workshops on duced by WGBH TV in Boston, in Washington; the establishment at ecology, economics, and population cooperation with the American KPBS TV, San Diego, of an Office of growth; and in Tampa-St. Association for the Advancement of Scientific Affairs; and the produc­ Petersburg, Fla., a series of public SCIENCE EDUCATION 97

around the country. The process of communicating information on science to the public can, in large part, be only as effec­ tive as the capability of the communications media to deal with the complex issues and substance of science. Several projects were there­ fore supported, in cooperation with the journalistic profession, to im­ prove the dialogue between scien­ tists and journalists on topics of common interest and concern. The Council for the Advancement of Science Writing received support for the development of an educational program in the social sciences for leading journalists and editors. The program will provide updated information on the latest social science research findings and the process of research itself in the social sciences. Also supported was work by the School of Public Communica­ Washoe, the chimpanzee that learned to communicate with human beings with tions at Boston University on a sign language, relaxes with a friend. A film of Washoe's language development comprehensive science journalism was televised nationally as part ot the weekly NOVA science series. [Photo by program at the graduate level, in­ Psychology Today] cluding provision for special intern assignments for young science forums on population and growth, tion to the general public on science journalists in various media outlets ecology, and energy. and technology, the program sup­ throughout the New England region, Recognizing that museums are ported a number of exhibits and and the development of new educa­ major communicators of informa­ science demonstrations at museums tional courses in science journalism.

INCREASING EFFECTIVENESS OF EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES

While the question of cost- Technological Innovation in many hundreds of students at all effectiveness is a consideration in all Education levels of education, using radically science education grants, the innovative technology; and the Foundation supports two major ap­ Support has been provided for the TICCIT [Time-Shared Interactive proaches to attaining a better balance development and field evaluation of Computer Controlled Information between costs and educational technologies, techniques, and Television) system, designed to pro­ productivity. One, Technological systems of instruction at all levels of vide cost-effective CAI in mathe­ Innovation in Education, involves education. matics and English to a cluster of support of the application to the Two and one-half years ago, the roughly 100 community college stu­ educational process of technological Foundation committed itself to dents simultaneously, using mini­ devices such as computers and developing and field-testing two computers and television tech­ television; the other, Educational markedly different systems of com­ nology. Program Restructuring, focuses on a puter-assisted instruction [CAI]: the Good progress was made in both few major models of new ap­ PLATO [Programmed Logic for the PLATO and TICCIT projects proaches to the organization, Automatic Teaching Operations] during fiscal year 1974. Over 500 management, and delivery of the con­ system, designed to serve as an PLATO plasma panel student con­ tent of education. instructional computing utility for soles have been installed, and it 98 SCIENCE EDUCATION appears that the University of Illi­ music in an experimental elemen­ persons other than project staff or nois PLATO system will be serving tary school. Thomas Dwyer of the NSF staff) has been completed that nearly 1,000 consoles by 1976, the University of Pittsburgh is shows that the Purdue program en­ termination date for the field-tests developing a computer-based mathe­ hances the intellectual growth of stu­ which start in September of 1974. matics laboratory at the high-school dents. The Indiana University proj­ The system has been demonstrated level, and Alfred Bork of the Univer­ ect, being implemented on some 30 extensively in the United States and sity of California, Irvine, is studying other campuses, is the subject of an abroad [including an extensive, in­ the use of computer graphics for extensive third party evaluation. vited demonstration in Moscow in insfrucfion in physics at the level of 1973], and is widely regarded as a higher education. During fiscal year 1974, the singular technological accomplish­ Support was also provided during Foundation made 10 awards, totaling ment. More than a dozen corpora­ fiscal year 1974 for an extensive over $2.6 million, for systems proj­ tions have announced their inten­ field-test of a system of interactive ects. These are experimental proj­ tions to market devices based upon guidance and information [SIGI], to ects which are attempting to find the PLATO technology, and many be conducted at several community more effective means of coordina­ universities have procured consoles colleges. This system promises to be tion among all the agencies and for their own use. a very useful tool not only for institutions involved in pre-college developing decisionmaking skills, science education within a specified The MITRE Corp., contractor for but for studying students' decision­ region. Statewide projects were con­ the TICCIT system and field-test, has making processes as well. SIGI has tinued in Delaware, Oregon, and Ok­ built and installed a small system at been developed by Martin Katz of the lahoma, with the general goals of im­ Brigham Young University, where Educational Testing Service, which proving the quality of science, the CAI lessons are being prepared. A is located in Princeton, N.J. mathematics, and earth science complete system was installed in the instruction, respectively. Two new summer of 1974 at the TICCIT field- projects, initiated in New York City test sites in Arizona and Virginia. and Lakewood, Colo., are working to TICCIT has also attracted a good deal Educational Program develop models for improving of interest and attention in the United Restructuring science instruction at the middle- States and abroad. The U.S. Navy school level and for a computer- has purchased one system, and may Educational Program Restruc­ managed system for mathematics purchase a number of them if turing aims to improve effectiveness instruction, respectively. Third TICCIT's performance objectives are and efficiency in science education party evaluation of systems projects met. The first field use of TICCIT through the design, development, was begun with a grant to Western began in the fall of 1974, and will con­ and evaluation of major models Michigan University to study the tinue through the spring of 1976. encompassing the organization, management, delivery, and content Delaware and Oregon projects, The TICCIT system, based as it is of education. The program involves A new program activity. Restruc­ upon television technology, is also three principal areas of effort: pre- turing the Undergraduate Learning being considered as a delivery service education of science tea­ Environment, was initiated in fiscal system for CAI and other interactive chers; State, regional, or urban sys­ year 1974 to encourage the develop­ services into the home. During fiscal tems of science education; and ment of major alternative institu­ year 1974, MITRE completed an restructuring the undergraduate tional approaches to the style, extensive study of the feasibility of learning environment. such an undertaking and published a organization, and content of under­ seven-volume report of the findings. Pre-Service Teacher Education graduate science. This activity sup­ Support was also provided during funds were devoted to continuing ported five major projects totaling fiscal year 1974 for especially prom­ support of eight projects and initia­ $2,1 million, and six design projects ising applications of technology for tion of evaluation activities at four totaling $125,000. Two of the major educational purposes. For example, major projects. Earlier evaluations projects are: support was continued at several have resulted in withholding the locations for the development and funds originally intended for the • Wesleyan University, Middle- study of technologically based later stages of a few of the projects. town, Conn., will establish its inter­ mathematical laboratories. Sey­ Current evaluation, which has a more disciplinary College of Science in mour Papert of MIT is applying prin­ positive goal, aims at identifying and Society where students will enjoy a ciples from artificial intelligence documenting the outstanding fea­ relatively unstructured opportunity theory, as well as computing tech­ tures of four of the projects to facili­ to study science relative to its inter­ nology and simulations, to instruc­ tate their transfer to other institu­ action with social institutions and tion in mathematics, science, and tions. A "third party" evaluation [by personal values. SCIENCE EDUCATION 99

• Simon's Rock, Great Barring- Table 9 ton, Mass., aims to become the Na­ Increasing Effectiveness of Educational Processes tion's first 4-year science bacca­ Fiscal Year 1974 laureate degree-granting college de­ Number FY 1974 signed for early entrance. After of Awards Obligations Increasing Effectiveness of Educational completion of the tenth grade, stu­ Processes—Total $13,934,528 dents may enter two broadly based Technological Innovation in Education 7,431,568 interdisciplinary B.A, degree pro­ Educahonal Program Restructuring 6,502,960 grams, premedical or environmental Pre-Service Teacher Education 13 1,569,800 Systems Projects 10 2,462,500 studies, with the expectation of Restructuring the Undergraduate teaming 2,470,660 graduation in 4 years. Environment

PROBLEM ASSESSMENT AND EXPERIMENTAL PROJECTS

The Problem Assessment and munity into undergraduate class­ ment of doctoral education. In Experimental Projects program was rooms. another study, the American Insti­ begun in fiscal year 1974 to initiate tutes for Research will look at career studies and experimental projects on The staff-identified experimental guidance factors that affect the specifically identified problems in projects areas included: development of high school stu­ science education. The program's dents' scientific potential to deter­ • Developing techniques to in­ aims are: to gain knowledge about mine what high school students crease the number of ethnic minority possible solutions to specific prob­ know about careers and what they group members and women in lems and to explore and develop tech­ need to know. science, and niques to alleviate those problems; to At the University of North Dakota, formalize an analytical and quantita­ • Increasing availability of high in a project partly funded by the tive approach to program and proj­ school student project activity as an Bureau of Reclamation, students ect evaluation and planning, and to integral part of high school science proficient as pilots will be trained in synthesize the results of problem programs. the technical and scientific back­ assessment studie's and experi­ ground needed for weather modifica­ mental projects to provide guide­ In addition to the staff-identified tion research. Brigham Young lines for the creation of program study and experimental project University will carry out a project in alternatives responsive to projected activities, the program handled a association with the Entomological as well as current needs of the science variety of proposer-identified proj­ Society of America to investigate education community. ects and studies. In the course of the barriers to teaching of new materials , Problem areas in which staff- year, the group considered 285 pre­ and modes of instruction in ento­ identified studies were initiated in liminary proposals and 95 formal mology. fiscal year 1974 included: proposals, and recommended sup­ The NSF Chautauqua-type short port of 69 activities. Among these courses for college teachers received • Current state and effectiveness was a major study of graduate educa­ continued support in fiscal year 1974 of continuing education in the United tion being carried out by the Council through grants to 12 field centers for States for nonacademic scientists of Graduate Schools in the United operating costs, and one additional and engineers, States that will develop reliable grant was made to the American • Barriers to the movement of instruments and procedures that can Association for the Advancement of women and ethnic minority group be used for evaluation and improve­ Science for intercenter coordination. members into science and tech­ nology careers, Table 10 • Barriers to implementation of Problem Assessment and Experimental Projects newly developed teaching materials Fiscal Year 1974 and modes of instruction, and Number FY 1974 of Awards Obligations • Effective means of moving new Problem Assessment and Experimental Projects—Total 29 $1,464,227 knowledge from the research com­ 100 SCIENCE EDUCATION

SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES

Science Resources Studies develop steadily over the past 5 years at an all scientists and engineers, it is quantitative information on the Na­ average rate of 9.1 percent. During important to have information on the tion's scientific and technological re­ the fiscal year 1969-74 period, the types of employers, work activities, sources. Appendix E includes a com­ civilian portion of the Federal R&D and other characteristics of this plete listing of such studies issued by budget increased considerably faster major part of the scientific work the Foundation during the year. than the space and defense com­ force. Development of a new survey These were supplemented by ponents, although the latter two still was started with the Census Bureau, numerous reports published by con­ represent about two-thirds of the which will carry out this survey for tractors. Highlights of the fiscal year estimated fiscal year 1974 Federal NSF starting in fiscal year 1975. 1974 program are outlined below. R&D expenditures. Funds One major new program in the specifically obligated for research manpower area was initiated by the Summary Reports and development in the area of Foundation as a direct result of the energy development and conversion recently experienced energy crisis. Two summary reports were re­ increased by nearly 14 percent be­ With plans under way for major new leased. One of these was the Founda­ tween fiscal year 1973 and fiscal year energy initiatives by both the Fed­ tion's annual report, National Pat­ 1974. The increased emphasis on eral Government and industry, it is terns of R&D Resources, 1953-1974. civilian R&D funding is expected to important to identify possible bottle­ The other involved a comprehensive continue into 1975. necks in the implementation of these analysis of the Nation's scientific and new energy thrusts. Scientific man­ technological affairs and was pre­ Scientific and Engineering power could be one of these. Conse­ sented in February in the National Manpower quently, the Foundation started a Science Board publication. Science program of study and analyses of In the manpower area, important indicators, 1972. This report pro­ information related to current and new NSF initiatives are beginning to vides under one cover a summary of prospective utilization of scientific produce results. The Manpower data compiled from science re­ and engineering manpower in Characteristics System, which took sources studies carried out pri­ energy-related activities. Because of the place of the National Register of marily by the Foundation. Cur­ the urgent need for this information, Scientific and Technical Personnel, rently, efforts are being directed to initial fiscal year 1974 and fiscal year became operational in fiscal year improve existing indicators and 1975 efforts involve rough, rapid 1974. Initial results from one of its develop a system of output mea­ surveys of industry and the Federal three components, the Doctorate sures including: quality of leader­ Government to determine the num­ Roster of Scientists and Engineers ship indices based on literature cita­ ber and characteristics of scientists (m.aintained for NSF by the National tions, patent and economic per­ and engineers engaged in energy Research Council) were released. formance relationships, indices of activities. At the same time, steps They showed that in 1973 there were U.S. international positions in re­ have been taken to develop large- about 230,000 doctorate scientists search underlying major new tech­ scale, regular surveys which will and engineers in the U.S. labor force. nologies, etc. These efforts will con­ provide similar information on a Among these, the unempldyment rate tinue into fiscal year 1975. regular, annual basis so that in future was 1.2 percent in mid 1973. Survey years timely information will be results also showed that 6,000 of Federal R&D Funding available for important energy policy these doctoral scientists held post­ by Function decisions. doctoral appointments, 21,300 were Since the contributions of re­ women, and 15,200 were members of Other Studies search and development to the minority groups. achievement of national goals is an Another major step towards im­ Studies of academic science re­ important consideration, the proved manpower information was sources showed that Federal Foundation has annually analyzed the resumption of the annual survey academic science obligations de­ the Federal R&D budget in terms of of scientists and engineers em­ creased by about 8 percent in con­ major national functions. The latest ployed by industry. This survey stant dollars between academic report, An Analysis of Federal R&D which was previously carried out by years 1972 and 1973. In doctorate- Funding by Function, FY 1969-74, the Bureau of Labor Statistics had granting institutions, full-time shows that Federal support for been inoperative since 1970. With in­ science and engineering graduate civilian R&D programs has risen dustry employing about 70 percent of student enrollments dropped 3.3 per- SCIENCE EDUCATION 101

cent between 1972 and 1973, while utilization of resources. One im­ largest industries and documents the the number of federally supported, portant study culminating during way chemistry pervades the full-time graduate students fell to 52 fiscal year 1974 involved a Founda­ economy. The ACS made a number of percent of the fiscal year 1967 level. tion-sponsored effort. Chemistry in recommendations dealing with While science resources studies the Economy, which was published various topics such as manpower concentrate on the accumulation and in book form by the American studies, nonquantitative studies of analysis of statistical information, Chemical Society (ACS]. This study science and society, education in they are also concerned with factors describes the accomplishments of chemistry, and industry interphase that influence the availability and chemistry in 20 of the Nation's with other sectors of the economy.

SCIENCE POLICY STUDIES

Activities of the search and education in the field of Objective I: Director's assumption National Academy of Sciences materials. It attempts to advance of responsibilities as the President's and National Academy further the effort made in earlier Science Adviser, assigned by of Engineering COSPUP reports to find ways of Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1973, to identifying priorities in a field of re­ provide policy and program guid­ search. ance and assistance concerning the The National Science Foundation Liaison also continued with the achievement of national goals continued to support and utilize the National Academy of Engineering's through science and technology. advisory services of the National Committee on Public Engineering Academy of Sciences' Committee on Objective II: Increase the contribu­ Policy (COPEP). The committee cur­ Science and Public Policy tion of science to society. The status rently consists of 20 members, distin­ (COSPUP]. Among the committee's of progress in attaining these ob­ guished in engineering, research, or current activities are examination of jectives was reported regularly to the administration. COPEP identifies, the need for additional special Executive Office of the President develops, and undertakes studies of studies in the areas of mathematics, during the year. Substantial pro­ emerging issues of technology and re­ the geophysical sciences, and gress was made in both cases. lated public policy and provides ad­ astronomy. A study of criteria for The fiscal year 1974 NSF vice on the utilization of science and determination of safety is being Authorization Act required, for the technology to achieve public pur­ coordinated with the Consumer first time, that a quarterly report on poses. Two major tasks undertaken Protection Agency. In cooperation the status of funding and programs this year were a study of Federal with the American Institute of be provided to Congress, NSF pre­ management of technology utiliza­ Physics, COSPUP is working on an pared four such quarterly reports tion programs and preparation of a analysis of manpower information in during fiscal year 1974 containing report on the uses and limitations of astronomy and areas of physics re­ information on recent research re­ technology assessment. Both of these lated to astronomy. COSPUP also sults, changes in planned activity, are expected to be released in the near provides oversight to the joint U.S.- and highlights of interesting pro­ future. U.S.S.R. cooperative interchange in gram developments. science policy. In cooperation with the Advanced Research Projects Other Policy Activities Evaluation Activities Agency, Department of Defense, the Foundation sponsored a comprehen­ Evaluation activities provide ob­ sive assessment of the field of In April 1973, the President re­ jective analyses of the effectiveness, materials science and engineering, quested that each Department and impact, and adequacy of the Founda­ undertaken by a committee of Agency Head seek a sharper focus on tion's programs and plans. Such a COSPUP, the Committee on the the results that the various activi­ study is the one undertaken of the Survey of Materials Science and En­ ties under his or her direction are NSF Institutional Science Develop­ gineering (COSMAT]. The resulting aimed at achieving. In response, NSF ment Program. While this extensive report, Materials and Man's Needs, identified two Presidential-level ob­ program has been completed, its was published in December 1973. jectives during fiscal year 1974 as achievements are being evaluated The report stresses national needs in part of the Management by Ob­ and its management philosophy is this area and their implications for jectives Program. These objectives being studied as a model for future the organization and evolution of re­ were: programs. 102 SCIENCE EDUCATION

Under the International Biological nonfaculty personnel supported, importance of highly cited papers in Program, NSF supported studies in graduate students supported, and several disciplines, with the field of several distinct biomes (major permanent equipment purchased, by chemistry already completed. This habitat types). Three of these biome discipline, by institution, or by State. study will establish the utility of programs are being evaluated in The factors have now been extended citation frequency as an indicator of regard to the scientific findings, the to all other Federal agencies spon­ quality or importance of research re­ impact on scientists, and the manage­ soring academic research so that the sults. Under an NSF grant, the ment of the projects. impact of alternative budgetary deci­ University of Illinois is analyzing the A computerized allocation and im­ sions can be assessed. quality of graduate education and re­ pact model was developed and is search in science and engineering. operational. This model allows direct The impact of research may be The study will assess changes in the assessment of the impacts of changes evaluated by the frequency with quality of the leading institutions, in in NSF project budgets on faculty which resulting publications are the quality of their graduates, and man-years, principal investigators cited by scientists. A study is at­ how these graduates progress in the supported, postdoctoral and other tempting to establish the role and job market. APPENDICES 103

Appendix A National Science Board, NSF Staff, Advisory Committees and Panels

NATIONAL SCIENCE BOARD L. DONALD SHIELDS, President, California State University at Fullerton, Fullerton, Calif. JAMES H. ZUMBERGE, Chancellor, University of Nebraska at Lincoln, Lincoln, Neb. Terms Expire May 10, 1976

H. E. CARTER, Coordinator of Interdisciplinary Programs, Member, Ex Officio University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. ROBERTA. CHARPIE, President, Cabot Corporation, Boston, Mass. *H. GUYFORD STEVER, (Chairman, Executive Committee), Director, LLOYD M. COOKE, Director of Urban Affairs and University National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. Relations, Union Carbide Corporation, New York, N.Y. VERNICE ANDERSON, Executive Secretary, National Science Board, ROBERT H. DICKE, Cyrus Fogg Brackett Professor of Pfiysics, National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. Department of Physics, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J. DAVID M. GATES, Professor of Botany and Director, Biological Station, Department of Botany, University of Michigan, Ann NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION STAFF Arbor, Mich. ROGER W. HEYNS, President, American Council on Education, Director, H. Guyford Stever Washington, D.C. Deputy Director, Raymond L. Bisplinghoff *FRANK PRESS, Chairman, Department of Earth and Planetary Special Assistant, Donald E. Cunningham Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, NSF Historian, J. Merton England Mass. Special Assistant, Charles Maechling, Jr. F. P. THIEME, Special Consultant to the Board of Regents and Special Assistant, Philip M. Smith Professor of Anthropology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. Science and Technology Policy Office

Terms Expire May 10, 1978 Director, Russell C. Drew Special Assistant, Hylan B. Lyon, Jr. W. GLENN CAMPBELL, Director, Hoover Institution on War, Special Assistant, William F. Herwig Revolution, and Peace, Stanford University, Stanford, Calif: Senior Policy Analyst, F. Gilman Blake *T. MARSHALL HAHN, JR., President, Virginia Polytechnic Institute Senior Policy Analyst, Edward J. Burger, Jr. and State University, Blacksburg, Va. Senior Policy Analyst, Robert E. Hughes ANNA J. HARRISON, Professor of Chemistry, Mount Holyoke Senior Policy Analyst, A. Carl Leopold College, South Hadley, Mass. Senior Policy Analyst, S. Victor Radcliffe HUBERT HEFFNER, Chairman, Department of Applied Physics, Policy Analyst, Ernest F. Powers Stanford University, Stanford, Calif. Policy Analyst, Joel Rosenblatt WILLIAM H. MECKLING, Dean, The Graduate School of Policy Analyst, A. Wade Blackman Management, The University of Rochester, Rochester, N.Y. Policy Analyst, Carroll L. Pegler WILLIAM A. NIERENBERG, Director, Scripps Institution of Policy Analyst, Richard L. Stone Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, Calif. Office of National R&D Assessment *RussELL D. O'NEAL., (Vice Chairman, National Science Board), Executive Vice President, KMS Fusion, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich. Director, Leonard L. Lederman JOSEPH M. REYNOLDS, Boyd Professor of Physics and Vice President Deputy Director, Thomas Ubois for Instruction and Research, Louisiana State University, Deputy Director for Science and Technology, Harold Glaser Baton Rouge, La. Senior Staff Associate, Rolf R. Piekarz Senior Staff Associate, Dennis D. Schiffel Senior Staff Associate, Alden S. Bean Terms Expire May 10, 1980 Office of Experimental RfcD Incentives JEWEL PLUMMER COBB, Dean, Connecticut College, New London, Conn. Director, C. Branson Smith *NORMAN HACKERMAN, (Chairman, National Science Board), Deputy Director, Arley T. Bever President, William Marsh Rice University, Houston, Tex. Head, Private Sector, (Vacant) W. N. HUBBARD, JR., President, The Upjohn Company, Head, Public Sector, John E. Mock Kalamazoo, Mich. SAUNDERS MAC LANE, Max Mason Distinguished Service Professor Office of Planning and Resources Management of Mathematics, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. GROVER E. MURRAY, President, Texas Tech University and Texas Director, Joel A. Snow Tech University School of Medicine, Lubbock, Tex. Deputy Director, Jack T. Sanderson DONALD B. RICE, JR., President, Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Budget Office, Walton M. Hudson Calif. Programming Office, Syl McNinch Evaluation Staff, Harry J. Piccariello Planning ir Policy Analysis, G. Michael Montross •Member, Executive Committee Program Review Office, Lewis P. Jones 104 APPENDICES

Office of Equal Employment Opportunity National Center for Atmospheric Research Scientific Coordinator, Don L. Boyer Director, Lewis A. Gist NSF Global Atmospheric Research Program Deputy Director, Joan Humphries NSF GARP Coordinator, Eugene W. Bierly

Office of Energy R&D Policy Earth Sciences Section Director, Paul F. Donovan Head, William E. Benson Deputy Director, Paul P. Craig Geochemistry Program Program Director, Bevan M. French RESEARCH Geology Program Program Director, Richard G. Ray Assistant Director, Edward C. Creutz Geophysics Program Assistant to the Assistant Director, Wayne R. Gruner Program Director, Roy E. Hanson Deputy Assistant Director, Edward P. Todd Executive Assistant to the Deputy, Jerome H. Fregeau Oceanography Section Senior Staff Associate, Enoch L. Dillon Head, M. Grant Gross Senior Staff Associate, Joshua M. Leise Staff Associate, Michael L. Healy Special Assistant, Leonard F. Gardner Physical Oceanography Program Staff Assistant, Edward W. Hilton Program Director, Glenn A. Cannon Office of Energy-Related General Research Biological Oceanography Program Head, Frederick A. Abernathy Program Director, Richard B. Williams Deputy Head, M. Kent Wilson Submarine Geology and Geophysics Program Program Director, Robert E. Wall

Division ot Computer Research Head, John R. Pasta Division of Biological and Medical Sciences

Computer Research and Engineering Section Division Director, Eloise E. Clark Deputy Division Director, John W. Mehl Head, Kent K. Curtis Planning Officer, William J. Riemer Theoretical Computer Science Program Acting Program Director, Val Tareski Cellular Biology Section Software and Programming Systems Program Head, Herman W. Lewis Program Director, Thomas A. Keenan Developmental Biology Program Computer Systems Design Program Program Director, William A. Jensen Program Director, John R. Lehmann Genetic Biology Program Computer Applications in Research Section Program Director, Rose M. Litman Human Cell Biology Program Head, D. Don Aufenkamp Acting Program Director, Herman W. Lewis Networking for Science Program Program Director, (Vacant) Ecology and Systematic Biology Section Techniques and Systems Program Head, (Vacant) Program Director, Howard Moraff Ecosystem Analysis Program Software Quality Research Program Program Director, Jerry F. Franklin Program Director, (Vacant) General Ecology Program Computer Impact on Society Section Program Director, John L. Brooks Systematic Biology Program Acting Head, Fred Weingarten Acting Program Director, William E. Sievers Computer Impact on the Individual Program Biological Research Resources Program Program Director, M. Granger Morgan Program Director, William E. Sievers Computer Impact on Organization Program Program Director, (Vacant) Molecular Biology Section Acting Head, Eloise E. Clark Division of Environmental Sciences Biochemistrj' Program Division Director, A. P. Crary Program Director, Roy Repaske Executive Assistant, John F. Lance Biophysics Program Program Director, Martin P. Schweizer Atmosptieric Sciences Section Physiological Processes Section Head, Fred D. White Aeronomy Program Head, (Vacant) Program Director, Manfred H. Rees Regulatory Biology Program Meteorology Program Program Director, James W. Campbell Program Director, H. Frank Eden Metabolic Biology Program Solar Terrestrial Program Program Director, Elijah B. Romanoff • Program Director, Robert H. Manka Psychobiology Program Interdepartmental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences Executive Secretary, Hugh W. Albers Program Director, Jacob Beck APPENDICES 105

Neurobiology Program Astronomy Section Program Director, James H. Brown Head, Robert Fleischer National Astronomy Observatories Division of Engineering Scientific Coordinator, Michael M. Davis Solar System. Astronomy Program Division Director, Tfiomas P. Meloy Program Director, Harold H. Lane Deputy Division Director, Israel Warshaw Stars and Stellar Evolution Program Acting Program Director, Robert Fleischer Engineering Chemistry and Energetics Section Stellar Systems and Motions Program Head, K. D. Timmerhaus Program Director, Harold H. Lane Chemical Processes Program Galactic and Extragalactic Astronomy Program Program Director, Robert M. Wellek Program Director, James P. Wright Heat Transfer Program Astronomical Instrumentation and Development Program Program Director, Robert J. Schoenhals Program Director, (Acting) Peter B. Boyce Plasma Dynamics and Nuclear Engineering Program Chemistry Section Program Director, R. E. Rostenbach Thermodynamics and Mass Transfer Program Head, (Acting) O. William Adams Program Director, Marshall M. Lib Chemical Analysis Program Program Director, Arthur F. Findeis Mechanics Section Chemical Dynamics Program Head, M. P. Gaus Program Director, Donald A. Speer Civil and Environmental Technology Program Chemical Instrumentation Program Program Director, C. A. Babendreier Program Director, Richard S. Nicholson Fluid Mechanics Program Chemical Thermodynamics Program Program Director, G. K. Lea Program Director, Thomas W. DeWitt Industrial Technology Program Quantum Chemistry Program Program Director, M. S. Ojalvo Program Director, William H. Cramer Solid Mechanics Program Structural Chemistry Program Program Director, (Vacant) Program Director, O. Williams Adams Synthetic Inorganic and Organometallic Chemistry Program Electrical Sciences and Analysis Section Program Director, Oren F. Williams Head, Mohammed Ghausi Synthetic Organic and Natural Products Chemistry Program Control and Automation Program Program Director, John S. Showell Program Director, Norman Caplan Mathematical Sciences Section Devices and Waves Program Program Director, Leonard M. Magid Head, William H. Pell Electrical and Optical Communications Program Algebra Program Program Director, Elias Schutzman Program Director, Alvin 1. Thaler System Theory and Applications Program Applied Mathematics and Statistics Program Program Director, George N. Saridis Program Director, Barnett R. Agins Classical Analysis and Geometry Program Division ot Social Sciences Associate Program Director, John C. Wells Division Director, Howard H. Hines Modern Analysis and Probability Program Special Assistant, Bertha W. Rubinstein Program Director, William G. Rosen Anthropology Program Special Projects Program Program Director, Iwao Ishino Program Director (Acting) William H. Pell Economics Program Topology and Foundations Program Program Director, James H. Blackman Program Director, Ralph M. Krause Geography Program Physics Section Acting Program Director, Howard H. Hines History and Philosophy of Science Program Head, Marcel Bardon Special Consultant, Dudley Shapere Atomic, Molecular and Plasma Physics Program Law and Social Science Program Program Director, Rolf M. Sinclair Program Director, Walter Probert Elementary Particle Physics Program Political Science Program Program Director, Alexander Abashian Program Director, G. R. Boynton Intermediate Energy Physics Program Sociology Program Associate Program Director, David A. Jenkins Program Director, Donald R. Ploch Nuclear Physics Program Social Psychology Program Program Director, Gerald T. Garvey Program Director, Roland W. Radloff Theoretical Physics Program Special Projects Program Program Director, (Vacant) Program Director, Murray Aborn Associate Program Director, Boris A. Kayser Science Policy Research Program Associate Program Director, Richard A. Isaacson Program Director, (Vacant) Division of Materials Research Division ot Mathematical and Physical Sciences Division Director, Paul G. Shewmon Deputy Division Director, Howard W. Etzel Division Director, William E. Wright Engineering Materials Program Executive Assistant, Andrew W. Swago Program Director, Robert J. Reynik 106 APPENDICES

Solid State Chemistry and Polymer Science Program Division of Advanced Productivity Research and Technology Program Director, Paul H. Lindenmeyer Solid State and Low Temperature Physics Program Director, F. Thomas Sparrow Program Director, Joseph 1. Budnick Deputy Director for Public Sector Productivity, James D. Cowhig Materials Research Laboratory Section Deputy Director for Industrial Productivity, Head, Roman J. Wasilewski Lewis G. Mayfield Staff Associate, William Bernard Program Manager, George W. Baker Program Manager, Arthur Konopka Program Manager, Gilbert Devey Program Manager, William W. Hakala RESEARCH APPLICATIONS Program Manager, John Surmeier Program Manager, Bernard Chern Assistant Director, Alfred J. Eggers, Jr. Program Manager, Allen M. Shinn Deputy Assistant Director, Richard J. Green Program Manager, George C. Eads Deputy Assistant Director for Science and Technology, Program Manager, Richard O. Mason Ali B. Cambel Program Manager, Lawrence C. Rosenberg Deputy Assistant Director for Analysis and Planning, Program Manager, Lynn P. Dolins Harvey Averch Program Manager, Trudi Lucas Special Assistant to the Assistant Director, John B. Talmadge Office of Intergovernmental Science and Research Utilization Office of Programs and Resources Director, M. Frank Hersman Director, Thomas W. Aiken Deputy Director, Robert C. Crawford Deputy Director, Roland T. Tibbetts Deputy Director for Research Utilization, (Vacant) Program Analyst, James P. Maher Program Manager, Thomas H. Pretorius Program Analyst, Elmer G. Havens Program Manager, David Richtmann Program Analyst, Paul Herer Program Manager, Joseph E. Holmes Program Manager, Ward Wright Office of Systems Integration and Analysis Program Manager, Russell H. Strange II Special Assistant, Louis D. Higgs Director, William H. Wetmore Deputy Director, (Vacant) Division of Advanced Energy Research and Technology Program Manager, Joshua Menkes Program Manager, Thomas Anderson Director, Donald A. Beattie Program Manager, Seth Tuttle Deputy Director, H. Richard Blieden Program Manager, Myron F. Uman Director for Advanced Solar Energy Research

Problem Assessment and Experimental Projects Group Special Assistant, Christof N. Schubert Group Director, Lafe R. Edmunds Research Management Improvement Program Experimental Programs Group Program Direclor, Jean T. DeBell Group Director, Alphonse Buccino Projects Manager, Donald O. McGuire Technological Innovation in Education Group Office of Polar Programs Group Director, Erik D. McWilliams Project Manager, Andrew R. Molnar Acting Head, Kendall N. Moulton Project Manager, Lawrence H. Oliver Student-Oriented Programs Group Polar Planning and Coordination Staff Group Director, Alfred Borg Program Manager, Alexander J. Barton Chief, James E. Heg Planning Officer, Alexander J. Schwarzkopf Division of Pre-College Education in Science Polar Information Service Division Director, Howard J. Hausman Materials and Instruction Development Section Director, Guy G. Guthridge Section Head, Lawrence O. Binder Instructional Improvement Implementation Section Polar Science Section Section Head, Walter L. Gillespie Acting Chief Scientist, George A. Llano Program Manager, Michael M. Frodyma Polar Atmospheric Sciences Program Program Manager, William E. Morrell Manager, Raymond R. Heer, Jr. Polar Biology and Medicine Program Division of Higher Education in Science Manager,. George A. Llano Polar Earth Sciences Program Division Director, Francis G. O'Brien Manager, Mortimer D. Turner Materials and Instruction Development Section Section Head, Jerome S. Daen Polar Operations Section Instructional Improvement Implementation Section Section Head, James W. Mayo Manager, Price Lewis, Jr. Program Manager, Reinhard L. Korgen Associate Manager, Kendall N. Moulton Fellowships and Traineeships Section Section Head, Douglas S. Chapin Office of International Programs Program Manager, Marjory R. Benedict Program Manager, M. Hall Taylor Head, Bodo Bartocha Acting Deputy Head, Henry Birnbaum Division of Science Resources Studies

Division Director, Charles E. Falk Asian and Atrican Section Staff Associate, James J. Zwolenik Science Indicators Unit, Regional Manager, Max Hellmann Unit Head, Robert W. Brainard U.S.-Australia & U.S.-India Exchange Programs Manager, Max Hellmann R&D Economic Studies Section U.S.-Japan & U.S.-China Programs Manager, J. E. O'Connell Section Head, William L. Stewart Scientists and Engineers in Economic Development (SEED) Government Studies Group Manager, Gordon L. Hiebert Study Director, Benjamin L. Olsen University & Nonprofit Studies Group Study Director, Richard M. Berry European and American Section Industrial Studies Group Regional Manager, Richard R. Ries Study Director, Thomas J. Hogan U.S.-France & U.S.-Italy Programs IVIanpower Studies Section Manager, Henryk M. Uznanski U.S.-Romania, Academy Exchanges & East European Programs Section Head, Robert W. Cain Manager, Robert F. Hull Manpower Utilization Studies Group U.S.-U.S.S.R. Programs Study Director, Norman Seltzer Manager, John R. Thomas Manpower Characteristics Studies Group U.S.-Spain fe Latin American Programs Study Director, J. James Brown Manager, Duncan Clement Science Education Studies Group International Organizations Program Study Director, Charles H. Dickens Manager, Warren E. Thompson Special Foreign Currency Section Manager, R. R. Ronkin NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS NSF/Tokyo Science Liaison Staff Assistant Direclor, Thomas B. Owen Deputy Assistant Direclor, T. O. Jones Head, Manfred J. Cziesla Executive Assistant to the Assistant Director, Lawrence Cohen Executive Assistant to the Deputy Assistant Direclor, NSF/Bucharest Science Liaison Staff K. G. Sandved Special Assistant, John P. Giacomini Science Liaison Officer, Sidney G. Smith 108 APPENDICES

Office of National Centers and Facilities Operations Assistant to the General Counsel, Douglas K. Olson Assistant to the General Counsel, John H. Raubitschek Head, Daniel Hunt Assistant to the General Counsel, Norman A. Wulf Ocean Sediment Coring Program Field Project Officer, A. R. McLerran Assistant Project Officer, C. Wylie Poag National Centers for Astronomy OFFICE OF GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC PROGRAMS Project Officer, (KPNO, CTIO), Ronald R. La Count Project Officer, (NAIC), Gerald F. Anderson Director, Theodore W. Wirths Project Officer, (NRAO), Claud M. Kellett Deputy Director, Jack Kratchman Field Project Officer, (VLA), Orville J. Stanton Associate Director for Public Programs, Theodore D. Drury National Center for Atmosptieric Research Executive Associate, R. Lynn Carroll Project Officer, Giorgio Tesi Congressional Liaison Office Solar Eclipse Coordination Head, Patricia E. Nicely Coordinator, Ronald R. La Count Public Affairs Office Head, Alfred Rosenthal Chief, Public Information, Jack Renirie Office for Climate Dynamics Public Information Specialist, Nathan Kassack Head, Joseph O. Fletcher Public Understanding of Science Office Special Assistant, Uwe Radok Program Manager, Richard E. Stephens Publications Resource Office Head, Theodore D. Drury Office of Science Information Service Deputy Head, Bruce R. Abell Senior Science Writer, Stanley D. Schneider Head, Lee G. Burchinal Senior Staff Associate, Andrew A. Aines Staff Associate, Robert S. Cutler Coordination Staff Group Program Director, Eugene Pronko ADMINISTRATIVE OPERATIONS National Information Program Program Director, Harold E, Bamford, Jr. Assistant Director, Eldon D. Taylor User Support Program Deputy Assistant Director, (Vacant) Program Director, Joel D. Goldhar Special Assistant, John E. Kirsch Research Program Program Director, Edward C. Weiss Administrative Services Office Administrative Services Officer, Howard Tihila Office for the International Decade of Deputy, John T. Harrigan Ocean Exploration Head, Feenan D. Jennings Audit Office Special Assistant, Engineering and Technology, Robert Devereux Special Assistant, Marine Science Affairs, Lauriston R. King Audit Officer, Robert B. Boyden International Affairs Officer, Louis B. Brown Deputy Audit Officer, Warren J. Hynes Science Programs Senior Audit Manager, Frances E. Carlson Environmental Forecasting, Program Manager, Curtis A. Collins Senior Audit Manager, Louis Siegel Seabed Assessment, Program Manager, Edwin M. Davin Senior Audit Manager, James L. Stennett Living Resources, Program Manager, Deane E. Holt Environmental Quality, Choo-Seng Giam Grants and Contracts Office

Office for Oceanographic Facilities and Support Grants and Contracts Officer, Wilbur W. Bolton, Jr. Head, Planning and Policy Staff, Robert D. Newton Head, Mary K. Johrde Grants Administrator, Gaylord L. Ellis Special Assistant, Sandra D. Toye Section Head, George B. Bush, Jr. Facility Acquisition Program Contracts Administrator, Leonard A. Redecke Program Manager, Frank R. Alexander Section Head, Stephen J. Franko Operations Program Section Head, Morris T. Phillips Program Manager, Albert G. Greene, Jr. Section Head, James L. Vitol

Health Service OFFICE OF THE GENERAL COUNSEL Director, James W. Long, M.D. General Counsel, Charles F. Brown Deputy General Counsel, Maryann B. Lloyd Management Analysis Office Assistant General Counsel, Donald W. Frenzen Assistant to the General Counsel, Lewis E. Grotke Management Analysis Officer, Fred K. Murakami Assistant to the General Counsel, Arthur J. Kuzinski Head, Management Surveys ir Systems Section, Craig Snyder Assistant to the General Counsel, Jesse E. Lasken Head, Management Services Section, John Mostakis Assistant to the General Counsel, Martin Lefcowitz Committee Management Coordinator Staff, R. Gail Anderson APPENDICES 109

Management Information Office Public Sector

Management Information Officer, George Pilarinos Emanuel S. Savas Deputy Head, Harold D. Sye Professor of Public Systems Management Columbia University Personnel Office Antonina R. Uccello Personnel Officer, Robert T. Preston Director of Consumer Affairs Section Head, Herbert Harrington, Jr. U.S. Dept. of Transportation Section Head, Andrew Conver.sano, Jr. Washington, D.C.

Raymond J. Waldman Assistant Secretary for Transportation and Telecommunications ADVISORY COMMITTEES Department of State AND PANELS Washington, D.C.

OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR ADVISORY COIWIMITTEE FOR PLANINING ADVISORY PANEL FOB EXPERIIVIENIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS R&D INCENTIVES John D. Baldeschwieler Arthur Obermayer (Private Sector) Department of Chemistry and President Chemical Engineering Moleculon Research Corporation California Institute of Technology Cambridge, Mass. Olaf P. Bergelin Charles R. Steward (Private Sector) College of Graduate Studies Professor of Economics University of Delaware George Washington University John E. Cantlon Provost Teddy F. Walkowicz (Private Sector) Michigan State University Rockefeller Family & Associates New York, N.Y. Clifford Grobstein Vice Chancellor for University Percy Pierre (Public Sector) Relations Dean University of California, San Diego College of Engineering Howard University H. S. Gutowsky Director, School of Chemical George Kozmetsky (Private Sector) Sciences College of Business Administration University of Illinois University of Texas, Austin Albert Lepawsky Private Sector Professor of Political Science University of California, Berkeley Harvey Picker Dean Franklin A. Long (Chairman) School of International Affairs Director, Program on Science, Columbia University Technology and Society Cornell University E. G. Heizer President Richard W. Lyman E. F. Heizer Company President Chicago, 111. Stanford University

Albert J. Kelley Richard R. Nelson Dean, School of Management Department of Economics Boston State College Yale University

Julius Rothman William S. Partridge President Vice President for Research Human Resources Development Institute University of .Utah Washington, D.C. David S. Potter William C. Norris Assistant Secretary of the Navy for President Research and Development Control Data Corporation Pentagon Minneapolis, Minn. Washington, D.C.

565-982 O - 75 - 8 110 APPENDICES

George L. Simpson, Jr. William E. Gordon Chancellor College of Science and Engineering University System of Georgia Rice University ,

Robert L. Sproull David W. Krogmann President Department of Biochemistry University of Rochester Purdue University

Robert C. Stephenson John J. McKetta, Jr. Center for Marine Resources College of Engineering Texas A&M University University of Texas

Emily L. Wick Nicholas C. Metropolis Dean of Faculty and Professor Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory of Chemistry University of California Mount Holyoke College Los Alamos, N. Mex.

Walter E. Meyerhof Chairman, Department of Physics Stanford University RESEARCH Charles W. Misner Department of Physics & Astronomy ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR RESEARCH University of Maryland

Peter Blau Laura Nader Department of Sociology Department of Anthropology Columbia University University of California, Berkeley

Wallace Broecker Ruth Patrick Lamont-Doherty Geological Academy of Natural Sciences Observatory Philadelphia, Pa. Columbia University Robert C. Prim Geoffrey Burbidge Communication Principles Division University of California, San Diego Bell Telephone Laboratory Murray Hill, N.J. Amador Cobas Condominio San Rafael David E. Reichle Miramar, Puerto Rico Oak Ridge National Laboratory

W. Dale Compton Elmar R. Reiter Ford Motor Company Professor, Department of Atmospheric Dearborn, Mich. Science Colorado State University Stanley Corrsin Department of Mechanics Stuart A. Rice Johns Hopkins University Department of Chemistry University of Chicago Edward C. Creutz (Chairman) Assistant Director for Research National Science Foundation Alex Rosenberg Department of Mathematics Michael R. D'Amato Cornell University Department of Psychology Rutgers University Howard K. Schachman Department of Molecular Biology William R. Dawson and Virus Laboratory Department of Zoology University of California, Berkeley University of Michigan

Nancy D. Fitzroy Eleanor Bernert Sheldon President, Social Science Research General Electric Research and Development Center Council New York, N.Y. Schenectady, N.Y.

Gertrude S. Goldhaber Alan Stephen Tetelman Brookhaven National Laboratory School of Engineering Upton, L. 1., N.Y. University of California, Los Angeles APPENDICES

Tjeerd Hendrik Van Andel Earl L. Muetterties Oregon State University Department of Chemistry Cornell University Sterling Wortman Vice President, Rockefeller Foundation Royce W. Murray New York, N.Y. Department of Chemistry University of North Carolina

John Ross ADVISORY PANEL FOR ASTRONOMY Department of Chemistry Massachusetts Institute Bernard F. Burke of Technology Massachusetts Institute of Technology William A. Steele Icko Iben, Jr. Department of Astronomy Department of Chemistry Pennsylvania State University University of Illinois

Dimitri M. Mihalas Barry M. Trost National Center for Atmospheric Department of Chemistry Research Lfniversity of Wisconsin Boulder, Colo. ADVISORY PANEL FOR MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES Donald C. Morton Department of Astrophysical Sciences Hyman Bass Princeton University Observatory Department of Mathematics Columbia University William J. Welch Radio Asnronomy Laboratory Robert King Brayton University of California, Berkeley International Business Machines Research Laboratory Jack B. Zirker Yorktown Heights, N.Y. Institute of Astronomy University of Hawaii Felix E. Browder Department of Mathematics University of Chicago

Robion C. Kirby ADVISORY PANEL FOR CHEMISTRY Department of Mathematics University of California, Berkeley Fred C. Anson Department of Chemistry Arthur P. Mattuck California Institute of Technology Department of Mathematics Massachusetts Institute of John I. Brauman Technology Department of Chemistry Stanford University Anil Nerode Henry M. Fales, Chief Department of Mathematics Cornell University Laboratory of Chemistry National Heart and Lung Institute National Institutes of Health Ingram Olkin Department of Statistics Bethesda, Md. Stanford University Mary L. Good Department of Chemistry Allen L. Shields Department of Mathematics University of New Orleans University of Michigan William A. Guillory Fred B. Wright Department of Chemistry Department of Mathematics University of Utah University of North Carolina

Robert S. Hansen ADVISORY PANEL FOR PHYSICS Department of Chemistry Iowa State University Eric G. Adelberger Department of Physics Eddie Hedaya University of Washington Senior Group Leader Union Carbide Corporation Marcel Bardon (Chairman) Tarrytown Technical Center Head, Physics Section Tarrytown, N.Y. National Science Foundation 112 APPENDICES

Benjamin Bederson ADVISORY PANEL FOR BIOPHYSICS Department of Ptiysics New York University Robert L. Baldwin Department of Biochemistry Noemie Benczer-Koller Stanford University Department of Physics Rutgers University Thomas C. Bruice Department of Biochemistry Peter L. Bender University ot California, Joint Institute for Laboratory Santa Barbara Astrophysics LTniversity of Colorado C. H. W. Hirs Division of Biological Sciences Gerald E. Brown Indiana University Department of Physics State University of New York F. Scott Mathews at Stony Brook Department of Physiology and Biophysics John R. Klauder Washington University Bell Telephone Laboratories Murray Hill, NJ. ADVISORY PANEL FOR DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY J. Horst Meyer Department of Physics Dorothea Bennett Duke University Department of Anatomy Cornell University Allan M. Sachs Department of Physics David Epel Columbia University Marine Biological Research Division Scripps Institution of Oceanography J. Robert Schrieffer University of California, San Diego Department of Physics University of Pennsylvania E. W. Hanly Department of Biology Gerald A. Smith University of Utah Department of Physics Michigan State University Peter K. Hepler Department of Biological Sciences Stanford University

Eric Holtzman ADVISORY PANEL FOR BIOCHEIMISTRY Department of Biological Sciences Harvey F. Fisher Columbia University Research Department Veterans Administration Joe L. Key Hospital Department of Botany Kansas City, Mo. University of Georgia

Peter R. Gilham Harvey F. Lodish Department of Biological Department of Biology Sciences Massachusetts Institute Purdue University of Technology

David R. Sonneborn Arthur Kowalsky Zoology Research Building Department of Biophysics University of Wisconsin Albert Einstein College of Medicine ADVISORY PANEL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY Dieter Gerhard Soli Department of Molecular Frank B. Golley Biophysics and Biochemistry Director Yale University The Institute of Ecology University of Georgia Robert E. Webster Department of Biochemistry William E. Hazen Duke University Medical Department of Biology Center San Diego State College APPENDICES 113

George S. Innis Paul Berg Wildlife Science Department Department of Biochemistry Utah State University Stanford University

James R. King Donald D. Brown Department of Zoology Department of Embryology Washington State University Carnegie Institution Baltimore, Md. Edwin L. Schmidt Department of Microbiology Richard L. Davidson University of Minnesota Harvard Medical School Medical School Children's Hospital Medical Center

Lawrence B. Slobodkin Gerald Edelman Department of Biology Rockefeller University State University of New York at Stony Brook Leroy E. Hood Division of Biology Boyd R. Strain California Institute of Technology Department of Botany Duke University Herman W. Lewis (Chairman) Head, Cellular Biology Section Richard H. Waring National Science Foundation Forest Research Laboratory Oregon State University Brian J. McCarthy Department of Biochemistry School of Medicine ADVISORY PANEL FOR GENETIC BIOLOGY University of California, San Francisco

Edward A. Adelberg Phillips Robbins Department of Microbiology Department of Biology Yale University Massachusetts Institute of Technology David Botstein Department of Biology Bernard Roisman Massachusetts Institute Department of Microbiology of Technology University of Chicago

Allan M. Campbell Matthew D. Scharff Department of Biological Sciences Department of Cell Biology Stanford University Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University Alvin J. Clark Department of Molecular Biology Herbert Weissbach University of California, Berkeley Roche Institute of Molecular Biology Hoffmann-La Roche, Inc. Bernard N. Fields Nutley, N.J. Department of Medicine Albert Einstein College of Medicine Norton Zincter Rockefeller University Dan L. Lindsley Department of Biology University of California, San Diego ADVISORY PANEL FOR METABOLIC BIOLOGY Robert Metzenberg Department of Physiological Richard A. Dilley Chemistry Department of Biological Sciences University of Wisconsin, Madison Purdue University

Allen D. Shearn Department of Biology Franklin Harold Johns Hopkins University Division of Research National Jewish Hospital and Research Center ADVISORY PAIVEL FOR Denver, Colo. HUMAN CELL BIOLOGY

Bruce M. Alberts Jack Preiss Department of Biochemical Sciences Department of Biochemistry Frick Chemistry Lab and Biophysics Princeton University University of California, Davis 114 APPENDICES

D. Rao Sanadi William K. Estes Department of Cell Physiology Mathematical Psychology Laboratory Boston Biomedical Research Institute The Rockefeller University

Helen Stafford Beatrice T. Gardner Department of Biology Department of Psychology Reed College University of Nevada, Reno Portland, Oreg. David H. Krantz Salih J. Wakil Department of Psychology Department of Biochemistry The University of Michigan Baylor College of Medicine Texas Medical Center Robert W. Sekuler Cresap Neuroscience Laboratory George A. Zentmyer Northwestern University Department of Plant Pathology University of California, Riverside Norman E. Spear Department of Psychology ADVISORY PANEL FOR NEUROBIOLOGY State University of New York at Binghamton David H- Cohen Department of Physiology John E. R. Staddon University of Virginia Department of Psychology School of Medicine Duke University

William W. Dawson Department of Ophthalmology University of Florida College of Medicine ADVISORY PANEL FOR REGULATORY BIOLOGY Gary S. Lynch Department of Psychobiology Stella Y. Botelho University of California, Irvine Department of Physiology School of Medicine Richard E. McCaman University of Pennsylvania Head, Section of Molecular Neurobiology Division of Neurosciences Victor J. Brookes City of Hope National Medical Center Department of Entomology Duarte, Calif. Oregon State University

Jeffrey F. McKelvy William H. Dantzler Department of Anatomy Department of Physiology University of Connecticut College of Medicine Health Center University ot Arizona

Peter J. Morgane Calvin A. Lang Worcester Foundation for Department of Biochemistry Experimental Biology Health Sciences Center School of Medicine Dominick P. Purpura University of Louisville Scientific Director, Rose F. Kennedy Center for Research in Mental Robert D. Lisk Retardation and Human Development Department of Biology Albert Einstein College of Medicine Princeton University

A. O. Dennis Willows Charles S. Nicoll Friday Harbor Laboratories Department of Physiology-Anatomy Friday Harbor, Wash. University of California, Berkeley

ADVISORY PANEL FOR PSYCHOBIOLOGY Albert A. Nordin Section on Immunology Edwin M. Banks Gerontology Research Center Department of Ecology, Ethology, National Institute of Child Health and Evolution and Human Development University of Illinois at Baltimore, Md. Urbana-Champaign Robert R. Wagner Howard E. Egeth Department of Microbiology Department of Psychology School of Medicine Johns Hopkins University University of Virginia APPENDICES

ADVISORY PANEL FOR SYSTEMATIC BIOLOGY Andrew F. Nagy Space Physics Research Laboratory Herbert C. Dessauer University of Michigan Department of Biochemistry Medical Center Joanne G. Simpson Louisiana State University Department of Environmental Sciences University of Virginia William B. Heed Department of Biological Sciences Warren M. Washington University of Arizona National Center for Atmospheric Research Boulder, Colo. James A. Hopson Department of Anatomy Harold Zirin University of Chicago Department of Astrophysics California Institute of Technology Alan J. Kohn Department of Zoology ADVISORY PANEL FOR University of Washington EARTH SCIENCES

Robert W. Lichtwardt Thomas J. Ahrens Department of Botany Division of the Geological Sciences University of Kansas California Institute of Technology

Robert Ornduff Alfred G. Fischer Department of Botany Department of Geological and University of California, Berkeley Geophysical Sciences Princeton University David L. Pawson Department of Invertebrate Zoology Bruno J. Giletti Smithsonian Institution Department of Geological Sciences Washington, D.C. Brown University

Peter H. Raven, Director Eugene T. Herrin, Jr. Missouri Botanical Garden Department of Geological Sciences St. Louis, Mo. Southern Methodist University

Philip B. Tomlinson Clifford A. Hopson Harvard Forest Department of Geological Sciences Harvard University University of California, Santa Barbara

B. L. Turner Amos M. Nur Department of Botany Department of Geophysics University of Texas Stanford University

Ward B. Watt Lloyd C. Pray Department of Biological Sciences Department of Geology and Geophysics Stanford University University of Wisconsin, Madison

Charles A. Salotti Department of Geological Sciences University of Wisconsin ADVISORY PANEL FOR ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES Lynn R. Sykes Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory Reid A. Bryson Columbia University Institute of Environmental Studies University of Wisconsin Norman D. Watkins Graduate School of Oceanography Alexander J. Dessler University of Rhode Island Department of Space Physics and Astronomy Rice University ADVISORY PANEL FOR OCEANOGRAPHY

William B. Hanson, Head Wolfgang Berger Division of Atmospheric Sciences Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of Texas at Dallas University of California, San Diego

James E. Jiusto Thomas A. Clarke Atmospheric Sciences Research Center Department of Oceanography State University of New York at Albany University of Hawaii 116 APPENDICES

Dennis E. Hayes Bernard Widrow Department of Submarine Topography Department of Electronics Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory Stanford University Columbia University M. S. Ghausi, Chairman John J. Lee Electrical Sciences and Analysis Section Department of Biology Engineering Division City College of New York National Science Foundation

Carl J. Lorenzen George Dodd Department of Oceanography Assistant Head University of Washington Computer Science Department General Motors Research Laboratory Frank J. Millero, Jr. Warren, Mich. Institute of Marine & Atmospheric Science K. S. Fu University of Miami Department of Electrical Engineering Purdue University David R. Schink Department of Oceanography Laveen Kanal Texas A&M University Computer Science Department University of Maryland Lawrence F. Small School of Oceanography John McCarthy Oregon State University Department of Electrical Engineering Stanford University Robert L. Smith School of Oceanography Eugene McVey Oregon State University Department of Electrical Eiigineering University of Virginia John P. Sutherland Duke University Marine Lab. Marvin L. Minsky Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Donald J. P. Swift Massachusetts Institute of Technology Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Bertram Raphael Adminisuation Artificial Intelligence Center Miami, Fla. Stanford Research Institute

Carl I. Wunsch Patrick Winston Department of Earth & Planetary Science Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Massachusetts Institute of Technology Massachusetts Institute of Technology

ADVISORY PANEL FOR ELECTRICAL SCIENCES AND ANALYSIS ADVISORY PANEL FOR ENGINEERING CHEIVIISTRY Bob Blesser AND ENERGETICS School of Engineering Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute James R. Fair, Jr. Central Engineering Department Moise Goldstein Monsanto Company Department of Biomedical Engineering St. Louis, Mo. The Johns Hopkins Medical School John McKetta, Jr., Fred Grodins College of Engineering Chairman, Department of Biomedical Engineering University of Texas at Austin University of Southern California Arthur E. Humphrey Theo C. Pilkington Department of Chemical Engineering Chairman, Division of Biomedical Engineering University of Pennsylvania Duke University Vern W. Weekman Robert Plonsey Research Manager Department of Biomedical Engineering Mobil Research Corporation Case Western Reserve University Paulsboro, N.J.

L. S. Rotolo David B. Greenberg National Biomedical Foundation Professor of Chemical Engineering Washington, D.C. Louisiana State University APPENDICES

Robert A. Schmitz H.W. Paxton Department of Chemical Engineering Dirc< tor of Research University of Illinois Carnegie-Mellon University

James G. Knudsen Roger S. Porter Associate Dean, School of Engineering Polymer .Science and Engineering Oregon State University Goessman Laboratory University of Massachu.setts Robert J. Schoenhals, Chairman Acting Section Head Rustum Roy Engineering Chemistry and Energetics Section Materials Research Laboratory Division of Engineering Pennsylvania State University National Science Foundation Maurice J. Sinnott Abraham Hertzberg, Director Associate Dean Aerospace Research Laboratory College of Engineering University of Washington University of Michigan

Robert E. Uhrig Dale Franklin Stein, Head Florida Power & Light Company Department of Metallurgical Engineering Division of Nuclear Affairs Michigan Technological University Miami, Fla. Jack Wachtman ADVISORY PANEL FOR Chief, Inorganic Materials Division ENGINEERING MATERIALS National Bureau of Standards Department of Commerce George S. Ansell Dean James L. Walker School of Engineering General Electric Research & Development Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Center

Geoffrey Richard Bel ton Schenectady, New York 12301 Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science Watt W. Webb College of Engineering Department of Applied Physics University of Pennsylvania School of Applied & Engineering Physics Cornell University Rolf Buchdahl Doris Kuhlmann Wilsdorf Central Research Department Department of Materials Science Monsanto Company University of Virginia St. Louis, Mo. ADVISORY PANEL FOR Mildred S. Dresselhaus ENGINEERING MECHANICS Department of Electrical Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lynn S. Beedle, Director Fritz Engineering Laboratory Robert M. Fisher Lehigh University Manager, Physics/Physical Metallurgy Research Laboratory Raymond Cohen, Director United States Steel Corporation Ray W. Herrick Laboratories Monroeville, Pa. School of Mechanical Engineering Purdue University Julius J. Harwood Sciendfic Research Staff Daniel C. Drucker, Dean Ford Motor Company College of Engineering Dearborn, Mich. University of Illinois

H. D. Keith Steven J. Fenves Bell Telephone Laboratories Department of Civil Engineering Murray Hill, N.J. Carnegie Mellon University

Niranjan Parikh Michael P. Gaus (Chairinan) Research Institute Head, Engineering Mechanics Section Illinois Institute of Technology Engineering Division National Science Foundation Earl Parker Department of Materials Science Kurt H. Hohenemser and Engineering Department of Mechanical and Hearst Mining Building Aerospace Engineering University of California, Berkeley Washington University 118 APPENDICES

Chester C. Kisiel Edward Gramlich Department of Hydrology and The Brookings Institution Water Resources Washington, D.C. University of Arizona Saul H. Hymans E. H. Lee Department of Economics Department of Applied Mechanics University of Michigan Stanford University Robert E. Lucas Professor Benjamin W. Niebel, Head Graduate School of Industrial Industrial Engineering Department Adrninistration - The Pennsylvania State University Carnegie-Mellon University

T. Francis Ogilvie Sherwin Rosen Department of Naval Architecture and Department of Economics Marine Engineering University of Rochester University of Michigan Christopher Sims Lymon C. Reese Department of Economics Civil Engineering Department University of Minnesota University of Texas at Austin ADVISORY PANEL FOR HISTORY Robert H. Scanlan AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Department of Civil and Geological Engineering Stephen Brush Princeton University Institute for Fluid Dynamics and Applied Mathematics Lawrence Talbot University of Maryland Department of Mechanical Engineering University of California, Berkeley Adolf Grunbaum Center for Philosophy of Science University of Pittsburgh ADVISORY PAISEL FOR ANTHROPOLOGY Howard H. Hines, (Chairman) John Buettner-Janusch Division of Social Sciences Department of Anthropology National Science Foundation New York University Isaac Levi Michael D. Coe Department of Philosophy Department of Anthropology Columbia University Yale University Arnold W. Thackray Richard G. Fox Department of History Department of Anthropology and Sociology of Science Duke University University of Pennsylvania

Nancie Gonzalez Marx W. Wartofsky Department of Anthropology Department of Philosophy Boston University Boston University

Arthur J. Jelinek Leonard G. Wilson Department of Anthropology Department of History of Medicine University of Arizona University of Minnesota

Stephen A. Tyler Department of Anthropology ADVISORY PANEL FOR Rice University POLITICAL SCIENCE

Ronald Bruner Department of Political Science ADVISORY PXNEL FOR ECONOIMICS University of Michigan James H. Blackman, (Chairman) Economics Program James N. Rosenau Division of Social Sciences Department of Political Science National Science Foundation Ohio State University

Robert J. Gordon Robert Salisbury Department of Economics Department of Political Science Northwestern University Washington University APPENDICES

Roberta Sigel ADVISORY PANEL ON Department of Political Science THE MATERIALS RESEARCH LABORATORIES State University of New York at Buffalo Leo Brewer Joseph Tanenhaus Department of Chemistry Department of Political Science University of California, Berkeley State University of. New York at Stony Brook Richard S. Claassen Engineering Research Building University of Wisconsin

ADVISORY PANEL FOR SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY George J. Dienes Brookhaven National Laboratory Roland W. Radloff, (Chairman) Associated Universities, Inc. Social Psychology Program Division of Social Sciences David H. Dolphin National Science Foundation Department of Chemistry University of British Columbia Norman H. Anderson Department of Psychology Mildred S. Dresselhaus University of California, San Diego Department of Electrical Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology Dorwin Cartwright Research Center for Group Dynamics Michael E. Fisher University of Michigan Department of Chemistry Cornell University Jonathan L. Freedman Department of Social Psychology Frederick Fowkes Columbia University Department of Chemistry Lehigh University Bibb Latane Department of Psychology Hans Frederickse Ohio State University Solid State Physics Section National Bureau of Standards Kelly G. Shaver Washington, D.C. Department of Psychology College of William and Mary Arthur J. Freeman Department of Physics Northwestern University

ADVISORY PANEL FOR SOCIOLOGY John B. Goodenough Massachusetts Institute of Technology Donald R. Ploch Lincoln Laboratories Sociology Program Division of Social Sciences J. J. Harwood National Science Foundation Scientific Research Staff Ford Motor Company Vernon K. Dibble Dearborn, Mich. Department of Sociology Wesleyan University R. W. Heckel, (Chairman) Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science Charles B. Perrow Carnegie-Mellon University Department of Sociology State University of New York . at Stony Brook Larry L. Hench Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Sheryl Lynne Roberts University of Florida Department of Sociology University of Washington Arnold Kahn Solid State Physics Section Richard L. Simpson National Bureau of Standards Department of Sociology Washington, D.C. University of North Carolina Jack L. Koenig Halliman Winsborough Division of Macromolecular Science Department of Sociology School of Engineering University of Wisconsin Case Western Reserve University 122 APPENDICES

Lucius P. Gregg, Jr. Donald J. Hillman President, First Chicago University Director Finance Corporation Center for Information Science Chicago, 111. Mart Library Lehigh University Nathaniel Karol Vice President for Finance • David Z. Robinson and Management Vice President Hebrew Union College Carnegie Corporation of New York Leon_S.ch.w.attz Associate Director for Robert J. Wedgeworth Administration Executive Director National Institutes of Health American Library Association Bethesda, Md. Chicago, 111.

Lee G. Burchinal William H. Starbuck Head International Institute of Office of Science Information Management Service Griegstrasse 5-7 National Science Foundation Germany Martin M. Cummings Linda Wilson Director Assistant Vice Chancellor National Library of Medicine for Research Bethesda, Md. Washington University Dr. L. Quincy Mumford Raymond Woodrow The Librarian of Congress Special Assistant to the Washington, D.C. Chairman University Research Board Joseph F. Caponio Princeton University Director (Acting) National Agricultural Library U.S. Department of Agriculture ADVISORY PANEL FOR Beltsville, Md. SCIENCE INFORMATION COUNCIL

W. Conyers Herring (Chairman) Research Physicist Bell Telephone Laboratories EDUCATION Murray Hill, N.J. ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR Jordan Baruch SCIENCE EDUCATION Lecturer in Business Administration Harvard Business School Richard DV AiTderson Department of Mathematics Herman R. Branson Louisiana State University President, Lincoln University J. Myron Atkin William D. Carey Dean of Education Vice President University of Illinois Arthur D. Little, Inc. Washington, D.C. M. Ann Grooms President Educational Services Institute, Inc. C. L. Coates Cincinnati, Ohio Head School of Electrical Engineering Jean P. Johnson Purdue University Fridley, Minn.

Robert Karplus Rita R. Colwell Lawrence Hall of Science Department of Microbiology University of California, Berkeley University of Maryland Bernard Luskin Warren J. Haas Vice Chancellor Vice President for Information Educational Development Services Coast Community College District Columbia University Costa Mesa, Calif. .PPENDICES 123

Joseph B. Piatt (Chairman) Gerald Holton President Professor of Physics Harvey Mudd College Harvard University

Eleanor Sheldon Robert Morison, M.D. President Richard J. Schwartz Professor Social Science Research Coimcil of Scient e and Society New York, N.Y. Cornell University

Dorothy M. Simon Benjamin H. Read Vice President and Director President Corporate Research of AVCO Corp. German Marshall Fimd Greenwich, Conn. Washington, D.C.

John G. Truxal Rustum Roy Dean of Engineering Profes.sor of Engineering SUNY, Stony Brook Pennsylvania State University

Carl M. York, Jr. Alberta Siegel Denver, Colo. Department of Psychiatry Stanford University ADVISORY COIUMITTEE ON ETHICAL AND HUIVIAN VALUE IMPLICATIONS Laurence Tribe OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Professor of Law Harvard University John Diebold (Chairman) The Diebold Group, Inc. Harriet Zuckerman and Diebold Institute for Center for Advanced Study in Public Policy and Studies, Inc. Behavioral Sciences New York, N.Y. Stanford, Calif. 124 APPENDICES

Appendix B

Organization Changes and Staff Appointments

ORGANIZATION CHANGES: The Office of Energy-Related Research was established in February 1974. OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR The International Magnetospheric Study Coordination Office was established in the Division of Environmental Sciences in June The following staff changes occurred in the immediate office of 1974. the Director. Theodore D. Drury, Special Assistant to the Director, to Associate Director for Public Programs in the Office of Govern­ ASSISTANT DIRECTOR FOR EDUCATION ment and Public Programs. Philip M. Smith, formerly Acting and Deputy Head, Office of Polar Programs, to Special Assistant to the In February 1974, the Special Analytical Section in the Division Director. of Science Resources Studies was dissolved and its resources reallo­ The following activities were organized, reporting to the Office of cated to the Manpower and R&D Economic Studies Section to allow the Director: for the assumption of additional responsibilities relating to energy. The Ethical and Human Value Implications of Science and Science and Technology Policy Office Technology Program was transferred from the Office of the Direc­ The Science and Technology Policy Office in July 1973, in sup­ tor to the Assistant Director for Education in May 1974. port of the Director's role as Science Adviser to the President and as Chairman of the Federal Council for Science and Technology. The ASSISTANT DIRECTOR FOR NATIONAL Office is responsible for matters of national civilian science and AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS technology policy, developing policy options for solution of na­ The Office of Science Information Service was reorganized in tional civilian problems, appraising effectiveness of Federal and na­ November 1973. tional R&D efforts, interacting with the total science community in The Office for Climate Dynamics was established in May 1974. matters of science policy, and providing advice and assistance in furthering U.S. international science and technology objectives. ASSISTANT DIRECTOR FOR RESEARCH APPLICATIONS International Scientific and Technical Activities The Division of Advanced Energy Research and Technology was, established in September 1973. The international scientific and technical activities performed by the Office of Science and Technology became ttie responsibility of ASSISTANT DIRECTOR FOR the Director in July 1973. ADMINISTRATIVE OPERATIONS NSF Office of Energy RirD Policy The Directorate for Administrative Operations was established, in June 1974, replacing the Directorate for Administration. The NSF Office of Energy R&D Policy in August 1973, respon­ The Equal Employment Opportunity Office was established in sible for providing an independent source of advice and analysis of February 1974. energy R&D and other energy-related programs to the Director, in The Personnel Office was reorganized in June 1974. support of his role as Science Adviser to the President, for use by the The Mail and Communication Unit of the Administrative Executive Office of the President. Services Office, was transferred from the Supply, Space and Communication Section to the Central Processing Section in June National Science Foundation Energy Council 1974. The Supply, Space and Communication Section was redesig­ The National Science Foundation Energy Council in May 1974, nated the Supply and Space Management Section. to coordinate energy-related problems within NSF as they pertain to NSF programs and in regard to NSF energy activities carried on to­ OTHER STAFF CHANGES: gether with other government agencies. In addition to those in the Office of the Director, the following staff changes were also announced during the year. Office of Planning and Resources Management The Office of Planning and Resources Management in June 1974. The Office consists of the Office of Budget, Programming and APPOINTMENTS Planning Analysis and the Program Review Office, transferred from the Assistant Director for Administration. Paul F. Donovan, Director, NSF Office of Energy R&D Policy Paul P. Craig, Deputy Director, NSF Office of Energy R&D Policy ASSISTANT DIRECTOR FOR RESEARCH Russell C. Drew, Head, Science and Technology Policy Office Jack Kratchman, Deputy Director, Office of Government and Pub­ The Biological Research Resources Program was established in lic Programs the Division of Biological and Medical Sciences in November 1973. Norman A. Wulf, Assistant to the General Counsel, Office of the The Office of Computing Activities was reorganized in Novem­ General Counsel ber 1973, and redesignated the Division of Computer Research, in Frederick H. Abernathy, Head, Office of Energy-Related General February 1974. Research APPENDICES 125

M. Kent Wilson, Deputy Head, Office of Energy-Related General Elisha C. Freedman, Head, Public Sector Office, Office of Experi­ Researcli mental R&D Incentives, left the Foundation to accept a posi­ Ttiomas P. Meloy, Director, Division of Engineering tion as City Manager of Rochester, New York. Paul G. Sliewmon, Director, Division of Materials Research Lowell J. Paige, Assistant Director for Education RETIREMENTS Charles E. Falk, Director, Division of Science Resource Studies Kendall N. Moulton, Deputy Head, Office of Polar Programs Thomas E. Jenkins, Assistant Director for Administration Joseph O. Fletcher, Head, Office for Climate Dynamics Keith R. Kelson, Special Advisor to the Assistant Director for Education Manfred J. Cziesla, Head, NSF Tokyo Sidney G. Smith, Head, Science Liaison Office, Bucharest, TRANSFER Romania Richard J. Green, Deputy Assistant Director for Management and Ernest R. Sohns, Deputy Head, Office of International Programs, to Utilization the State Department Ali B. Cambel, Deputy Assistant Director for Analysis and Planning Donald A. Beattie, Director, Division of Advanced Energy Research NOMINEES TO THE NATIONAL SCIENCE BOARD and Technology Frederick T. Sparrow, Deputy Director, Office of Systems Integra­ Dr. Jewel P. Cobb, Dean, Connecticut College, New London, tion and Analysis Connecticut Charles R. Hauer, Director, Office of Public Technology Projects Dr. Norman Hackerman, President, William Marsh Rice Univer­ Lewis G. Mayfield, Acting Director, Division of Advanced Tech­ sity, Houston, Texas nology Applications Dr. W. N. Hubbard, Jr., President, The Upjohn Company, Kala­ Martin Lefcowitz, Assistant to the General Counsel, Office of the mazoo, Michigan General Counsel Dr. Saunders Mac Lane, Max Mason Distinguished Service Profes­ Robert D. Lauer, Deputy Director for Program Management, Divi­ sor of Mathematics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois sion of Advanced Technology Applications Dr. Grover E. Murray, President, Texas Tech University, Lubbox, Robert Rabin, Deputy Director for Energy Effects on the Environ­ Texas ment, Division of Environmental Systems and Resources Dr. Donald B. Rice, Jr., President, Rand Corporation, Santa Kenneth E. Brunot, Deputy Director Geothermal Energy Projects Monica, California Lewis A. Gist, Director, Equal Employment Office Dr. L. Donald Shields, President, California State University at Fullerton, Fullerton, California Dr. James H. Zumberge, Chancellor, University of Nebraska, Lin­ RESIGN A TIONS coln, Nebraska Holt Ashley, Director, Division of Advanced Technology Applica­ Drs. Hackerman and Murray have just completed full terms on the tions, left the Foundation and returned to Stanford University. Board. 126 APPENDICES

Appendix C

Financial Report for Fiscal Year 1974

Salaries and Expenses Appropriation Fuiid Availability Fiscal Year 1974 appropriation *^^5'?59'995 Unobligated balance carried forward from fiscal year 1973 ^'•'^J'?!? Adjustments to prior year accounts °",505 Fiscal year 1974 availability $641,310J22 Obligations Scientific research project support: ,, ,,c Atmospheric Sciences • lf236,370 Earth sciences W&Ali Oceanography IJotc'S^S Biochemistry and physiology r?'T,S'„,J Cellular biology Ecology and population biology si'ZII'??; Physics 36,729,130 Chemistry 26,645,070 Astronomy Mathematical sciences '^'SSS'i?* Social sciences ?5'H2IS1 Engineering 28,088.502 Materials research ^5'55?'?J5 Computer research 9,76Z,5I» Subtotal, scientific research project support $289,846,330 National and special research programs: Global atmospheric research program • o'Soo'Sl; International decade of ocean exploration , Ocean sediment coring program I'occ'opc Arctic research program ,,';M'?55 U.S. Antarctic research program ?J'o,,'ioi Oceanographic facilities and support ' ••'"'JS Solar eclipse support , 3^^ National R&D assessment program .i'^'il; Experimental R&D incentives Science and technology policy research i'51i',;„ Energy R&D policy research 2,524,450 Subtotal, national and special research programs $91,641,465

National research centers: National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center $3,200,000 Kitt Peak National Observatory vfSS'S™ Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory 2,600,000 National Radio Astronomy Observatory i?'i55'2?? National Center for Atmospheric Research 17,500,000 Subtotal, national research centers $43,200,000

Science information activities $8,077,358

international cooperative scientific acnvities $6,274,234

Research applied to national needs: Energy $28,110,966 Environment ?l'5^?'352 Productivity 15.703,727 Resources Exploratory research and problem assessment 3,801,092 Subtotal, research applied to national needs $75,079,165

Intergovernmental science and research utilization $964,290

Institutional improvement for science $9,992,863

Graduate student support $12,998,699

Science education improvement $67,710,609

Planning and policy studies *2'S56^

Program development and management $31,657,311

Subtotal <639,998,974 Unobligated balance lapsing from 1974 appropriation Unobligated balance carried forward to fiscal year 1975 *°55.505 Total $641,310,122 • APPENDICES 127

Speciil Foriegn Currency Appropriation Fond Availability Fiscal year 1974 appropriation *3'922'225 Unobligated balance carried forward from fiscal year 1973 2,655,584 Fiscal year 1974 availability $5,655,584 Obligations Total obligations for fiscal year 1974 '''^5?'m? Unobligated balance carried forward to fiscal year 1975 $^'912 Total $5.655,584

Trust Fund Fund Availability Unobligated balance brought forward from fiscalyea r 1973 ,!S'?55 Receipts from non-Federal sources 1,309,704 Fiscal year 1974 availability *1'316,489 Obligations Nabonal and special research programs: Ocean sediment coring program J250,uuo Graduate student support: NATO fellowship program IM.oJ* Gifts and donations iiii Subtotal $360,817 Unobligated balance carried forward to fiscal year 1975 $955,672 Total ».316,489

Appendix D

Patents Resulting from Activities Supported by the National Science Foundation

During fiscal year 1974 the Foundation received 89 invention dis­ phone Lines" issued on July 17, 1973, in the names of Jack Stifle closures and made rights determinations in 59 inventions, some of and Michael Johnson arising from research supported by a grant to which were submitted in previous fiscal years. The determinations the University of Illinois; included decisions to dedicate the inventions to the public through Patent No. 3,770,012 entitled "Random Access Selection Appa­ publication in 36 cases, to permit the inventing university or organization to retain principal commercial rights in 14 cases, and ratus" issued on November 6, 1973, in the names of Donald L. Bit- to transfer NSF's rights to other interested agencies in 7 cases. These zer et al arising from research supported by a grant to the University agencies have either allowed the grantee to retain principal rights or of Illinois. This invention relates to an information retrieval con­ have filed patent applications on behalf of the Government. The trol device for a computer-based education system. Foundation took title to 4patent applications. In one case, a univer­ sity retained principal rights to an invention pursuant to the provi­ LICENSE sions of an Institutional Patent Agreement.

During fiscal year 1974 the Foundation received licenses under 17 Patent No. 3,748,755 entitled "Circuit Base Model" issued on July patent applications filed by grantees who had been allowed to re­ 19, 1973, in the names of Robert Karplus et al arising from research tain principal rights in their inventions. supported by a grant to the University of California. The invention relates to a model to teach children the principles of electricity, In addition, the Foundation was notified that four patents have magnetism, and elecuochemistry; issued during fiscal year 1974 on the following inventions in which the Foundation acquired rights as specified below; Patent No. 3,789,519 entitled "Rotoplane Platform Energy Source" issued on February 5,1974, in the names of Marshall Mont­ TITLE gomery et al arising from research supported by a grant to the University of California. The invention relates to educational Patent No. 3,746,794 entitled "Modulator Demodulator Appa­ equipment to demonstrate the principles of mechanical energy ratus for Communication of Digital Data over Voice-Grade Tele­ storage and conversion. 128 APPENDICES

Appendix E

Publications of the National Science Foundation, Fiscal Year 1974

1 U.S.-REPUBLIC OF CHINA COOPERATIVE SCIENCE PROGRAM (NSF 30 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Immigrant Scien­ 73-14) tists and Engineers Decline in FY 1972, Physicians Increase 2 Mosaic, Vol. 4, No. 3 (NSF 73-15) Sharply" (NSF 73-311) 3 COOPERATIVE SCIENCE PROGRAMS IN LATIN AMERICA (NSF 73- 31 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Federal R&D 16) Funding Shows Little Change, Though Priorities Shift" (NSF 4 SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 73-312) PROGRAM (NSF 73-17) 32 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Federal R&D Sup­ 5 RESEARCH MANAGEMENT IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM port to State and Local Governments Gains in Emphasis" (NSF ANNOUNCEMENT (NSF 73-18) 73- 313) 6 SUMMARY OF AWARDS, 1973, DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL 33 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Continued Growth SYSTEMS AND RESOURCES (NSF 73-19) Recorded for Federal Civilian R&D Programs" (NSF 73-314) 7 STUDENT-ORIGINATED STUDIES, 1972, ABSTRACT REPORTS (NSF 34 GRADUATE SCIENCE EDUCATION, STUDENT SUPPORT AND 73-20) PosTDocTORALS, FALL 1972 (NSF 73-315) 8 LIST OF PUBLISHED STUDIES WHICH EVALUATE RESEARCH 35 AN ANALYSIS OF FEDERAL R&D FUNDING BY FUNCTION, FISCAL PROGRESS AND OPPORTUNITIES BY MAJOR FIELDS (NSF 73-21) YEARS 1969-74 (NSF 73-316) 9 RESEARCH ON THE SUBSYSTEMS AND SYSTEMS FOR THE 36 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Industrial Research APPLICATION OF SOLAR ENERGY TO THE HEATING AND COOLING and Development Approaches $20 Billion in 1972" (NSF 73- OF BUILDINGS, PROGRAM SOLICITATION (NSF 73-22) 317) 10 ENGINEERING RESEARCH INITIATION GRANTS, 1974 (NSF 73-23) 37 CHEMICALS AND HEALTH. REPORT OF THE PANEL ON CHEMICALS 11 FRANCE-UNITED STATES EXCHANGE OF SCIENTISTS PROGRAM AND HEALTH OF THE PRESIDENT'S SCIENCE ADVISORY ANNOUNCEMENT (NSF 73-24) COMMITTEE, 1973 (NSF 73-500) 12 INTERNATIONAL DECADE OF OCEAN EXPLORATION. PROGRAM 38 TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT, 1973, NATIONAL SCIENCE DESCRIPTION/DEFINITION, SECOND REPORT (NSF 73-25) FOUNDATION (NSF 74-1) 13 NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION GRANTS ADMINISTRATION 39 GRANTS AND AWARDS, 1973, NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION MANUAL (NSF 73-26) (NSF 74-2) 14 DECISION-RELATED RESEARCH IN THE FIELD OF LOCAL 40 NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION DATABOOK (NSF 74-3) GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT, PROGRAM SOLICITATION (NSF 73- 41 DECISION-RELATED RESEARCH ON TECHNOLOGY UTILIZED BY 27) LOCAL GOVERNMENTS, PROGRAM SOLICITATION (NSF 74-4) 15 MUNICIPAL SYSTEMS, OPERATIONS AND SERVICES: EVALUATING 42 Mosaic, Vol. 5, No. 1 (NSF 74-5) THE ORGANIZATION OF SERVICE DELIVERY IN METROPOLITAN 43 UNITED STATES-JAPAN COOPERATIVE SCIENCE PROGRAM (NSF AREAS, PROGRAM SOLICITATION (NSF 73-28) 74- 6) 16 IMPROVING THE DISSEMINATION AND USE OF SCIENTIFIC AND 44 NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION GUIDE TO PROGRAMS, FISCAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION (NSF 73-29) YEAR I974(NSF 74-7) 17 Mosaic, Vol. 4, No. 4 (NSF 73-30) 45 DESIGN STUDIES FOR EXPERIMENTAL APPLICATION OF TWO-WAY 18 SUMMARY OF AWARDS, FISCAL YEAR 1973, DIVISION OF .SOCIAL CABLE COMMUNICATIONS TO URBAN SOCIAL SERVICE DELIVERY SYSTEMS ANDD HUMAN RESOURCES (NSF 73-31) AND ADMINISTRATION, PROGRAM SOLICITATION (NSF 74-8) 19 UNITED STATES-INDIA EXCHANGE OF SCIENTISTS (NSF 73-32) 46 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION, PROGRAM SOLICITATION 20 EXPERIMENTAL R&D INCENTIVES PROGRAM, EXPERIMENT (NSF 74-9) ANNOUNCEMENT, NO. 55, MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION (NSF 73- 47 SUMMARY OF AWARDS, FISCAL YEAR 1973, OFFICE OF COMPUTING 34) ACTIVITIES (NSF 74-10) 21 DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS AND RESOURCES (NSF 73- 48 RESEARCH ON WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS, PROGRAM 36) SOLICITATION (NSF 74-11) 22 RESEARCH APPLIED TO NATIONAL NEEDS, GUIDELINES FOR 49 SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT PREPARATION OF UNNSOLICITED PROPOSALS (NSF 73-37) PROGRAM (NSF 74-12) 23 OCEAN SEDIMENT CORING PROGRAM INFORMATION BROCHURE 50 IMPROVED MANAGEMENT OF LARGE-SCALE INTERDISCIPLINARY (NSF 73-38) RESEARCH PROJECTS, PROGRAM SOLICITATION (NSF 74-13) 24 INTERGOVERNMENTAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH UTILIZATION 51 IMPROVED MANAGEMENT OF LARGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES REPORTS TO THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (NSF 73-39) AND LARGE SPECIALIZED RESEARCH FACILITIES, PROGRAM 25 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Selected Charac­ SOLICITATION (NSF 74-14) teristics of Five Engineering and Scientific Occupational 52 THE GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION, A Groups, 1972" (NSF 73-306) CHALLENGE (NSF 74-15) 26 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Federal Support to 53 GRANTS FOR IMPROVING DOCTORAL DISSERTATION RESEARCH IN Universities and Colleges Rises to |4.1 Billion in FY 1972" THE SOCIAL SCIENCES (NSF 74-16) (NSF 73-307) 54 OFFICE FOR OCEANOGRAPHIC FACILITIES AND SUPPORT, 27 SCIENCE . RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Academic R&D PROGRAM BROCHURE (NSF 74-16) Expenditures Reached |3.3 Billion in 1972" (NSF 73-308) 55 SUMMARY OF AWARDS, FISCAL YEAR 1972, OFFICE OF 28 FEDERAL SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND HEALTH PERSONNEL, 1971 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH AND PROBLEM ASSESSMENT (NSF 74-19) (NSF 73-309) 56 ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT, PRODUCTIVITY—PROCEEDINGS OF 29 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Graduate Science RANN SYMPOSIUM, NOVEMBER 1973 (NSF 74-19) Enrollment Declines 2 Percent From 1971 to 1972" (NSF 73-310) 57 Mosaic, Vol. 5, No. 2 (NSF 74-20) APPENDICES 129

58 THE EFFECTS OF INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY TRANSFERS ON 67 NATIONAL PATTERNS OF R&D RESOURCES, 1953-74 (NSF 74-304) THE U.S. ECONOMY (NSF 74-21) 68 FEDERAL SUPPORT TO UNIVERSITIES, COLLEGES, AND SELECTED 59 RANN DOCUMENT CENTER ENERGY RESEARCH AND NONPROFIT INSTITUTIONS, FISCAL YEAR 1972 (NSF 74-305) TECHNOLOGY INTERIM BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ABSTRACTS (NSF 74- 69 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Academic R&D 22) Expenditures Up 9 Percent" (NSF 74-306) 60 UNITED STATES-AUSTRALIA COOPERATIVE SCIENCE PROGRAM 70 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Federal Funding in BROCHURE (NSF 74-23) Higher Education: Academic Science Shows Decline in Fiscal 61 INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF PROPOSALS REQUESTING Year 1973" (NSF 74-307) SUPPORT FOR OCEANOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT (NSF 74-24) 71 INITIAL REPORTS OF THE DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT, VOL. 17 62 INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF PROPOSALS REQUESTING (NSFSP-17) SUPPORT FOR MARINE TECHNICIANS (NSF 74-25) 72 INITIAL REPORTS OF THE DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT, VOL. 20 63 FEDERAL FUNDS FOR RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, AND OTHER (NSFSP-20) SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITIES, FISCAL YEARS 1972, 1973, and 1974, VOLUME XXII (NSF 74-300) 73 INITIAL REPORTS OF THE DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT, VOL. 21 64 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Federal Scientific (NSFSP-21) and Tecfinical Personnel Increase Slightly in 1972; Health 74 INITIAL REPORTS OF THE DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT, VOL. 22 Personnel Gain Sharply" (NSF 74-301) (NSFSP-22) 65 SCIENCE RESOURCES STUDIES HIGHLIGHTS: "Immigration of Scientists and Engineers Drops Sharply in 1973; Physician In­ 75 INITIAL REPORTS OF THE DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT, VOL. 23 flow Still Near 1972 Peak" (NSF 74-302) (NSFSP-23) 66 A LISTING OF PUBLICATIONS, DIVISION OF SCIENCE RESOURCES 76 INITIAL REPORTS OF THE DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT, VOL. 25 STUDIES, MARCH 1974 (NSF 74-303) (NSFSP-25)

Appendix F

National Research Centers Contractors

Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI) University of California Gerald F. Tape, President University of Chicago National Radio Astronomy Observatory Harvard University David S. Heeschen, Director Indiana University University of Michigan AUI Member Universities: Ohio State University Columbia University Princeton University Cornell University University of Texas at Austin Harvard University University of Wisconsin The Johns Hopkins University Yale University Massachusetts Institute of Technology University of Pennsylvania Cornell University Princeton University W. Donald Cooke, Vice President for Research University of Rochester Yale University National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center Frank D. Drake, Director, Ithaca, N.Y. Association of Universities fdr Research in Harold D. Craft, Director, Observatory Astronomy, Inc. (AURA) Operations, Arecibo, Puerto Rico Gilbert Lee, President University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) Cerro Tololo In ter-American Observatory Francis P. Bretherton, President Victor M. Blanco, Director Kitt Peak National Observatory National Center for Atmospheric Research Leo Goldberg, Director Francis P. Bretherton, Director

AURA Member Universities: UCAR Member Universities: University of Arizona University of Alaska California Institute of Technology University of Arizona 130 APPENDICES

California Institute of Tecfinology University of Missouri University of California University of Nevada The Catholic University of America New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology University of Chicago New York University Colorado State University State University of New York at Albany University of Colorado Ohio State University Cornell University University of Oklahoma University of Denver Oregon State University Drexel University Pennsylvania State University Florida State University Purdue University" Harvard University The Rice University University of Hawaii Saint Louis University Iowa State University Stanford University The Johns Hopkins University Texas A&M University University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign University of Texas University of Maryland University of Toronto Massachusetts Institute of Technology Utah State University McGill University University of Utah University of Miami University of Washington University of Michigan University of Wisconsin University of Minnesota Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Appendix G

Criteria for the Selection of Research Projects

SUMMARY — To bring about prompt, effecdve performance of applied research and problem-oriented basic research—insofar as The National Science Foundation administers several different specific needs for these can be foreseen—in the light of current programs of research support corresponding to several legislatively understanding. assigned objectives. To the maximum degree possible, these activities are designed to utilize and enhance existing scientific The National Science Foundation research potenual and institutions. Purposeful adjustments are made when indicated. It is not possible to make the distinction between basic and applied research a sharp one, and the Foundation is one of several In the selection of individual projects a number of widely Federal agencies that supports research of both kinds. The understood and acknowledged criteria are considered. In different Foundation, however, is unique in its mission to foster basic programs, the different criteria must be assigned different weights, research jber se and in its responsibility for future scientific research according to the objectives being pursued. Also these criteria relate capability. Thus the National Science Foundauon Act of 1950, as in different ways to the distinctive characteristics of different types amended, authorizes "programs to strengthen scientific research of research-performing organizations. potential" as well as "scholarships and graduate fellowships." The Act authorizes support both of basic and of applied research INTRODUCTION and—in combination with Presidenrial directive—use of an unrestricted range of performers. Policy Context

Public support of scientific research, specifically including basic Agency Objectives and Methods research, is an accepted feature of United States public policy. Such The Foundation thus has been charged with advancing several support has two recognized major objectives: different but interrelated major objectives: — To foster and maintain basic research as an investment toward • Accomplishment of basic research; future opportunities, as insurance against unforeseeable future dangers, and as a vital element of culture; • Accomplishment of applied research in selected areas; APPENDICES 131

• Long-term maintenance and strengtliening of potential to Category C accomplish both basic and applied research in the future. Criteria relating to utility or relevance: This range of objectives has been reflected in the development of several different program formats for NSF support of research. But 6. Probability that the research can serve as the basis for new despite the approximate correspondence of programs to objectives, invention or improved technology; it "remains true that research support actions are often taken with 7. Probable conttibution of the research to technology more than a single end in view. Thus the Foundation's method of assessment—i.e., to estimating and predicting the direct and pursuing any one objective may be modified or restricted by indirect, intended and unintended effects of existing or consideration of the others. proposed technologies.

Functions Performed 8. Identification of an immediate programmatic context and user of the anticipated research results. Where research support is concerned, functions performed by the Foundation include: Category D

— Allocation of resources to fields of science, to classes of Criteria relating to future and long-term scientific potential of scientific activity, or to areas of application; the United States: — Selection of individual projects to be supported; 9. Probable influence of the research upon the capabilities, interests, and careers of participating graduate students, — Direct establishment or adjustment of institutional structures or capabilities. postdoctoral associates, or other junior researchers; 10. Probability that the research will lead to radiation and diffusion, not only of technical results, but also of standards of workmanship and a tradition of excellence in the field;

CRITERIA 11. Anticipated effect upon the institutional structure of U.S. science. Allocation of resources to fields of science and to areas of application is not further discussed in this notice, but many of the Because none of these considerations is susceptible to precise criteria for individual project selection require only slight quantification, or even in most cases to unambiguous rank modification for use at the higher level of aggregation. Criteria for ordering, it would be more accurately descriptive to speak not of the creation or modification of institutional structures are dealt "criteria" but rather of "factors considered." Moreover, very with in a separate section. different relative weights must be attached to the dif feren t factors in The following is an enumeration of criteria employed in the the case of different agency objectives or programs, as is explained selection of research projects. To simplify later discussion, they are in a later section. grouped in four categories.

Discussion Category A The first three criteria—those relating to competent Criteria relating to competent performance of research—the execution—are given first consideration in every program. Every technical adequacy of the performer and of his institutional base: NSF-supported project is expected at the least to produce some valid 1. The scientist's training, past performance record, and new information or relationships. The best way to ensure this is to estimated potential for future accomplishment; insist upon competent scientists and adequate facilities. All other considerations which follow, then, are predicated upon the 2. The scientist's demonstrated awareness of previous and assumption that these first three criteria are universally applied and alternative approaches to his problem; that competent performance will be the normal expectation.

3. Probable adequacy of available or obtainable instrumentation Criteria 4 and 5—those relating to the internal structure of and technical support. science—summarize succincdy what the scientific community understands by the phrase "intrinsic scientific merit."

Category B Criteria 6 and 7—those reladng to utility or relevance—cannot be made entirely distinct from the preceding two, since that science Criteria relating to the internal structure of science itself: judged best by internal standards has almost invariably turned out 4. Probability that the research will lead to important discoveries in the long run to be the most useful. Valid generalizations and or valid, significant conceptual generalizations within its powerful methods of observation and measurement usually lead to field of science or (in the most favorable cases) extending to new invention, improved technology, and more confident other fields as well; assessment. Conversely, applied investigations designed to support invention, technology, and assessment tend to succeed in these 5. Probability that the research will lead to significant purposes to the extent that they do uncover valid generalizations or improvements or innovations of investigative method—again improved methods. Thus differences between the two types of with possible extension to other fields of science. criteria are mainly ones of motivational specificity and time 132 APPENDICES horizon. Research is properly termed "applied" when we visualize more passive than for the core Scientific Research Project Support using the results in a very specific context—usually defined in terms Program. of some already-formulated systems concept—or when we expect it will prove diagnostic of some already-recognized problem. Nadonal and Special Research Programs—The relative weight of the different criteria for these programs is essentially the same as for This specific relationship of applied research to a particular' the Scientific Research Project Support discussed above. But, systems concept and plan of development is made still more explici t because there are for the most part large-scale coordinated efforts, in criterion 8. often including a logistic component and requiring special planning and management, somewhat greater consideration is Criteria 9, 10, and 11—those relating to long-term scientific required for organizational and institutional factors (criterion potential—address not so much the content of the research as the II)—as is further discussed in a later section. circumstances under which it is performed. They include, of course, the quality of training of scientists, but extend beyond this to the Research Applied to National Needs—Here, criteria of utility (6, processes of scientific communication and publication, the 7, and 8) play a dominant role. Criteria of scientific merit and long- evolution of traditional scientific disciplines, the spawning of new range future potential, of course, are also considered. The udlity "interdisciplinary" disciplines, the manner in which scientific criteria 6, 7, and in most cases 8, are applied to individual grants on careers are developed, the organizational structures and settings in a project-by-project basis. To help potential investigators meet which all this goes on, and in general how the scientific tradition these criteria and to ensure programmatic coherence, the Research and the living corps of scientific capability of our Nation are Applications Directorate issues from time to time divisional maintained. While these criteria are seldom dominant in project program brochures, guidelines for preparation of unsolicited selection or program development, they are always considered. The proposals, program solicitations, and occasionally, requests for policy of the Foundation is not to undertake for short-term reasons proposals. Applicants for support are encouraged and assisted to any action which would seriously jeopardize the long-range science establish communications with potential users of their results at an potential of the Nation. early stage of negotiations.

Criteria for Actions Which Create or Modify APPLICATION TO SPECIFIC PROGRAMS Institutional and Organizational Structures

As has been described, the first three criteria are vigorously Acdons of this type occur frequently in the support of National applied in all Foundation programs, and the last three also are Researcti Centers and under the National and Special Research always kept in view. More specialized emphases characterize Programs. The applicable criteria reflect greater intervendon and individual programs, as follows: responsibility on the part of the Government and decisions at a higher level of aggregation. They include: Scientific Research Project Support Criteria of Need In this core program the emphasis is overwhelmingly upon the criteria of intrinsic scientific merit (4 and 5). Consideration is also Evidence of a real scientific need and an opportunity to attack given to the utility criteria (6 and 7)—not on a project-by-project important problems in a way, or on a scale, not otherwise feasible or basis but rather as considerations influencing the general level of available. effort to be applied to entire fields and subfields of science. Evidence that the program objectives can better be achieved Considerable direct weight is also given to criteria 9, 10, and through the organization of a new structure than through use of an 11 (those relating to future and long-term potential). Projects are existing one. selected and administered not only to preserve but to enhance the essential character of proven successful institutions. Thus, it is Criteria of Long-Range Potential Foundation policy to encourage such institutional and organiza­ Formulation of a mission well enough and broadly enough tional features as: defined to hold out prospects of high scientific productivity over an • Participation in research by graduate students; extended period. Evidence that a significant number of first-class scienUsts (as • Open publication of research results in the standard literature; judged by their peers) believe deeply in the proposed activity and are willing to commit their personal scientific careers to it. • Widest possible access to unique facilities for interested and Evidence that the new structure and its programs will strengthen competent scientists; rather than detract from related work performed in other settings. • Emphasis upon originality, elegance, and economy of method in university research; and RELATIONSHIP TO SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF • Maintenance of vigorous informal communication through RESEARCH-PERFORMING ORGANIZATIONS symposia, workshops, scientific meetings, etc. NSF policy is to use and reinforce proven strengths of U.S. Energy-Related General Research is administered as a specialized scientific institudons. These institutions include organizadons of augmentation of Scientific Research Project Support. Here the different types, such as: utility criteria (6 and 7) play a major role—being decisive in • Universides and colleges; selection of scientific areas eligible for participation. Within the eligible areas, individual projects compete on the basis of sciendfic • Industrial research laboratories and in-house laboratories of merit. Criteria 9, 10, and 11 here play a role which is less direct and Federal agencies; APPENDICES 133

• National Centers and other federally funded research centers; • Industrial research laboratories and Federal agencies' in-house laboratories generally have as their mission the generation of new • Vendors of R&D services. knowledge and understanding in areas judged to be of immediate or The Foundation seeks to avoid inadvertently changing the potential concern and use in carrying out the commercial activities characteristics of proven organizations—either through individual of the parent company or the mission of the agency. actions, or as the cumulative result of many actions. Purposeful • National Centers and federally funded research centers have as changes may occasionally be encouraged for specific reasons. Some their mission the generation of new knowledge and understanding relevant characteristics of the different types of organization include judged to be needed or desirable in the public interest. These the following: organizations are generally established to provide specialized • Universities and colleges (academic institutions proper) have research environments not readily obtainable in organizations of as their two principal missions teaching and the development and the other types. propagation of new knowledge and understanding. As applied to • Vendors of RfeD services include many of the "not-for-profit" these organizations, therefore, criteria 9 and 10 may be regarded as RfcD organizations and also a number of—usually more criteria of "mission relevance." specialized—R&D companies. These organizations, in addition to • Academic organizations, traditionally, are deeply committed itiaintaining some level of independent research, are unique in the to considerations of intrinsic scientific merit (criteria 4 and 5) in extent to which they undertake contract research on topics and developing and selecting their own research programs. This is problems designated by outside purchasers. Collectively they largely a consequence of peer evaluation and peer pressure exerted constitute a reservoir of general purpose research capabilty for hire. upon the individual scientist. • Organization along disciplinary lines is a prominent feature of Discussion academic research tradition. This is an indispensable virtue insofar as it guarantees comprehensive peer evaluation of scientific Different factors tend to determine the scope and complexion of research results, but it presents some limitations for problem- the research programs in the different types of organizations. Thus oriented research. It should be borne in mind that new disciplines universities tend to be complement limited. For them the primary emerge from time to time and that the focus of established management decision is how many professional staff (faculty) to disciplines evolves continually. employ and which particular ones. Subsequently, these individuals determine program content. Industrial and mission agency in- • Academic environments also tend to place extreme value upon house laboratories are "mission determined." That is, activity is originality, methodological elegance, and upon the initiative and weighed and selected according to mission requirements. Finally, scientific judgment of the individual investigator. This R&D vendors are, at least to some extent, capability and market characteristic again presents some limitations for pi-oblem-oriented limited. Foundation policy is to recognize and, generally, to avoid research. disturbing these characteristic differences.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTmG OFFICE: 1975 O - 565-982