FUNDS- -TR -_-DT
FAO/LIB/TF 20
Rep 71-wernment of YA
IDE'«i OF TRIIEL LAN itift_ SE r-r LEMENTS PROJ CT
1
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 1969 7,IBTAW MAS-N-TRUST
FAO/LIB/TF 20
REPORT
to the
GOVERNMENT OF LIBYA
on
DEVELOPMENT OF TRIBAL
AND aETTLEMENTS PROJECT
Volume I
General Report
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome,1969 TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUMES I IV
0
GENERAL REPORT
Page CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER II BASIC CONSIDERATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 12
A. Basic Consiaerations and Priorities for immediate Action 12 Land Tenure, Land Registration and Aater Rights 18 Soil' and Aater Resources andConservation 23 Settlement Plar_ning 27 The Organization of Farming Services and Cooperatives 34 Social and Community Aspects of Settlement 37 Training of Staff and Settlers 39 CHAPTER III SETTLEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF THE LIBYAN ECONOMY 42
Transformation of the Economy 42 The Role of Land Settlement Development
CHAPTER IV DEVELOPMENT PROPOSALS FOR SlELECTED PROJECT AREAS 68
Introduction 68 Al Hania and Al Useta - New Settlements in the Pilot Area of the Jabal Al Akhdar- Eastern Governates 68 Collina Verde Settlement Project 95 Wadi Al Ajal and Traghen PropoSals fór Pilot Settlement Schemes in "Fezzae - Southern Governates 124 Umar Al Mukhtar- Development Proposals for Dry Land Farming in the Jabal Al Akhdar - Eastern Governates 149
CHAPTER V THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXISTING SETTLEMENTS INCLUDING EX-ENTE FARMS 159
Settlements in the Eastern Governates (formerly Cyrenaica) 160 Settlements in the Nestern Governates (formerly Tripolitania) 175 Summary of the General Proposals for the Improvement of Existing Settlements 184
CHAPTER VI THE ROLE OF TUE NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT AUTHORITY (N.A.S.A.) AND ITS STAFF REQUIREMENTS 191
Structure of N.A.S.A. Today 191 N.A.S.-A.'s Futuro Policy 194 Cooperation and Relationship of N.A.S.A. with the F.A.O. Team i96
APPENDICES VOLUME
SELECTED STUDIES Pag,e CHAPTER I THE PILCT AREA OF THE JABAL AL AKHDAR (EASTERN GOVERNATES)
A. Introduction 1 11. Geology and Topography 2 Climatic Conditions 4 Water Resources 7 Sellsand Land Capability 10 Present Land Use 17 Cadastral Survey, Aerial Photography and Mapping 22 The Population of the Tribal Area and their Tribal Structure 25 Land Tenure System in the Pilot Area 31 Rural Sociological Aspects 38 Institutional Services Public Services 42
CHAPTER II SURVEY OF SETTLEMENT PROSPECTS IN FEZZAN (SOUTHERN GOVERNATES) 44
Purpose of the Study 44 The People of Fezzan and their Habitations 45 Physical Features 49 Cropping and Livestock Systems 53 Land Tenure System 61 A Survey of Institutional and Agricultural Conditions. in Wadi Al Ajal 66 The Activity of the Ministry of Agriculture in Fezzan 71 Settlement Prospects 72
APPENDIX: Botanical Species Typical of Fezzan and Particularly of Wadi Al Ajal 74
CHAPTER III TI-LE] SYSTEM OF LAND REGISTRATION AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH LAND SETTLEMENT IN LIBYA 75
Method of Study 75 Purpose of the System of Registration 75 System of Land Registration in Libya 76 The Procedures and Provisions for the Adjudication of Rights in Accordance with the Law of1965 79 Relation between the System of Land Registration and Land Settlement 80 Evaluation of the Libyan Land Registration Law 82 Survaying and Mapping 83 iii
VOLUME II
FINAL REPORTS OF EXPERTS ON SOIL AND WATER SURVEYS Page WATER RESOURCES AND WATER UTILIZATION IN NORTHERN CYRENAICA based on the work of Mr. R. Leuenberger - 59 CHAPTER I Introduction and Acknowledgement
CHAPTER II Summary and Recommendations
CHAPTER III Natural Regions of Northern Cyrenaioa
CHAPTER IV Climate and Its Influence on Land Use Capability
CHAPTER V Water and Soil Conservation
CHAPTER VI Water Resources and Their Utilization
Selected References
Appendix
2. THE HYDROGEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES OF THE JABAL AL AKHDAR NORTHERN CYRENAICA based on the work of Mr. N.D. Noble 1 - 79
CHAPTER I Introduction
CHAPTER II Geology
CHAPTER III Surf ace Water Resources
CHAPTER IV Groundwater
CHAPTER V Wate Quality
CHAPTER VI Project Areas
Bu Traba Pilot Area
CHAPTER VII AdMinistrative Means of Dealing with Water Res ources
CHAPTER VIII Possible Future Hydrogeologioal Studies in Jabal Al Akhdar
3. SOIL SURVEY OF SELECTED AREAS IN THE EASTERN, WESTERNAMI) SOUTHERN GOVERNATES OF LIBYA based on the work of Mr. R.W. Price -154
CHAPTER I Introduction
CHAPTER II Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations
CHAPTER III The Pilot Area - Jaba]. Al Akhdar of the Eastern Governates (contld ) - iv -
VOLUME III (cont'd) Par,o
CHAPTER IV Soil Survey of Selected Area in Eastern Governates
CHAPTER V Soil Survey of Selected Areas in Western Governates (Formerly Tripolitania)
CHAPTER VI soilSurvey of Selected Areas in Southern Governates (Formerly Fezzan)
Appendices
Bibliography
4.IRRIGATION OF SETTLEMENT SCHEMES IN LYBIA based on the work of Mr. Dusan Cinc 1 - 51
CHAPTER I Introduction
CHAPTER II Irrigation of Land Settlement Areas in Libya
CHAPTER IIIWorks Realised by the Engineer during his Assignment
CHAPTER TV Collina Verde Settlement Scheme
CHAPTER V Irrigation in Other Settlement Projects in Tripolitania
CHAPTER VI Guarsha - Irrigation Project, to be Supplied with Water from Benghazi Sewage Purification Plant
CHAPTER VII Proposals for the Organization of the Technical Department, N.A.S.A.
Conclusions
Bibliography
List of Reports prepared by the Irrigation Engineer during his Assignment -
VOLUME IV FINAL REPORTS OF EXPERTS TNSTITUTIONAL ASPECTSOF LAN ETTLEMENT
Page
1. THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT FARMS IN THE EASTERN REGION OF LIBYA
based on the work of Dr. H. Meliczek 1 - 33
CHAPTER I Introduction
CHAPTER II Findings of the Survey of 390 Ex-Ente Farms
CHAPTER III Conclusions and Recommendations
2, LAND TENURE SYSTEM IN THE NORTHERN PART OF EASTERN REGION
based on the work of Mr. Abdul Nabi K. Radha 1 - 29
CHAPTER I Introduction
CHAPTER II The General Features of Land Tenure System in the Eastern Region of Libya
CHAPTER IIIThe Effects of the Tribal Land Tenure System and Tenure Arrangements in the Ex-Ente Government Farms on Agricultural Conditions
CHAPTER IV Land Tenure System in Selected Project Areas
CHAPTER V Towards Solving the Tribal Land Tenure Problems
CHAPTER VI Summary and Recommendations
Appendices
3.CADASTRAL SURVEY AND LAND REGISTRATION IN LIBYA based on the work.of Mr. M.S. Haider - 40
CHAPTER I The Role of Surveying and Mapping in the Planning of New Settlement Schemes
CHAPTER II A Review and Assessment of Land Registration, Cadastral Surveys and Mapping in Relation to Settlement Schemes
CHAPTER III Training of Field Surveyors and Qualified Technicians
CHAPTER IV Proposed National Land Survey Department for Surveying and Mapping
Appendix (cont'd) vi
VOLUME IV (cont'd) Page
4.LEGAL ASPECTS OP TRIBAL LANDS AND SETTLEMENT IN LIBYA based on the work of Mr. Saad Abu-Oaf - 22
CHAPTO I Introduction
CHAPTER IIThe Evolution of Legal Aspects of Land Tenure and Settlement in Libya
CHAPTER IIIAn Analysis of the Foundation of the Rights in Tribal Lands and Property
CHAPTER IV rl Situation of the Private State Farms (Ex-Ente ), Forest and Pasture Lands
CHAPTER V -6er Rights
CHAPTER VIActivities and Accomplishments of.the Expert
CHAPTER VII Recemmendations
Appendix
LAND SETTLEMENT IN WESTERN AND SOUTHERN GOVERNATES OF LIBYA based on the work of Dr. F. Cappelletti 28
CHAPTER I Introduction
CHAPTER IIThe Government Policy in Land Settlement
CHAPTER III Work Realized by the Expert during his Assignment
CHAPTER IV The Development of Land Settlement Programmes
CHAPTER V Special Aspeots in Implementing Settlement Programme
CHAPTER VI Recommendations
Appendix
EXTENSION, EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF LAND SETTLEMENTS IN LIBYA based on the work of Dr. Salah El Din Noah -68
CHAPTER I Introduction
CHAPTER II The Role of Land Settlement Projects in the Development of Viable Communities in Libya
CHAPTER IIIAspects of Land Settlements in Western and Southern Governates
CHAPTER IV The Administrativo Organization of N.A.S.A. Extension Service (cont'd) - vil
VOLUME IV (cont'd)
CHAPTER V The Emerging Community of Saadia 'B' Settlement Project
CHAPTER VI The Agricultural Extension and Settlers Training Programme for the Development of Saadia 1B' Settlement Project
CHAPTER VII Proposals for a System of "Supervised Credit" to Settlers through Co-operatives and under the Direction of the Extension Service
CHAPTER VIIILand Settlement Community Development Centres
CHAPTER IX The Pro-Service and In-Service Training for N.A.S.A. Extension Workers
CHAPTER X Conclusions and Principal Recommendations
7.HOME ECONOMICS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRIBAL LANDS AND SETTLEMENT PROJECT based on the work of Miss N. Bastavi
CHAPTER I Introduction
CHAPTER IIThe Role of Home Economice in the Agricultural Settlement Project
CHAPTER III Programme of Work
CHAPTER IV Summary of Achievements
CHAPTER V Recommendations
Appendices VOLUMEI
GENERAL REPORT
CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
Origin of Project and Terms of Reference 1 Factors Affecting the Progress of Work 3 Organization of Report 4 Adknowledgement 4 Summary of the Work of the Team 4 Appendix: List of F.A.O. Experts and National Counterparts 10
CHAPTER II BASIC CONSIDERATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 12 Basic Considerations and Priorities for Imníi. Action 12 Land Tenurev Land Registration and Water RivNts 18 Soil and Water Resources and Conservation 23 Settlement Planning 27 The Organization of Farming Services and Cooperatives 34 Social and Community Aspects of Settlement 37 Training of Staff and Settlers 39
CHAPTER III SETTLEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF THE LIBYAN ECONOMY 42 Transformation of the Economy 42 Development Planning(1962-1969) 42 Agricultural Output 44 The Agricultural Population and Productivity 46 Development Planning for1969- 1974 47 Food Demand Trends 48 The Role o2 Land Settlement Development 51 Modernisation of Tribal Sector of Agriculture 51 Land Utilization 53 Farm Patterns for.he Proposed Settlement Schemes 54 Marketing of the Settlers° Produce 60 The Need for Continuous Reappraisal of Income Targets for SeZ.clement Schemes 61 xes Estimates of Crop Production 63 2 Estimates of Livestock Population 64 3 Estimates of Crop Areas Harvested 64 4 Estimates of Crop Yields 65 5 Imports of Principal Food Items 66 6 Exports of Principal Agricultural Commodities 67
./ ix
CONTENTS (cont'd)
Pag
CHAPTER IV DEVELOPMENT PROPOSALS FOR SELECTED PROJECT AREAS 68
Introduction 68 Al Hania and Al Useta - New Settlements in the Pilot Area 0:?the Jebal Al "hdar - Western Governates 68 General Background 68 Proposed Project Plan for Al Hania 70 Proposed Project Plan for Al Useta 83 Supplementary Sources of Income to Settlers in Al Hania and Al Useta 90 Services to the Settlers 91 Proposed Steps for Implementing the Two Projects 92
Collina Verde Settlement Project 95
General Description of the Settlement Area 95 Land Tenure System 97 Soil Classification and Land Capability 100 Water Resources and Hydrology 102 Proposed Settlement Layout for the Project 104 Proposed Land Use Pattern 106 Farm Machinery 111 Water Utilization and Irrigation Plan 113 Brief Specification of Construction Work 120 Special Recommendations 121 Wadi Al Ajal and Traghen - Proposals for Pilot Settlement Schemes in "Fezzan" - the Southern Governates 124 The Purpose of Development PropoialsforSettlements on Small Pilot Scale 124 Wadi Al Ajal (Hatyia and Tanama) Pilot Settlement Schemes 125 Justification for Selection 125 The Role of Government Services in the Development of the Area 126 The Population and the Institutional Set-up 127 Hatyia Proposed Pilot Scheme 128 Tanama Proposed Pilot Scheme 131 Traghen Proposed Pilot Scheme 134 General Description of the Area 134 The Soil Survey and Land Capability Classification 134 Water Resources 137 Proposals for the Irrigation of the Area 139 .Proposals for the Organization of the Three Pilot Schemes and for their Implementation 141 Staff Requirements for the Implementation of the Three Pilot Schemes 141 Proposed Farming Structure for Wadi Al Ajal Two Pilot Schemes 142 Recommendations for the Three Pilot Schemes 144 X .°
CONTENTS (contld)
Page
E. Umar Al Mukhtar - Development Proposals for Dry Land Faming in the Jebal Al Akhdar - Eastern Governates 149 Background Information 149 Soil Conditions and Present Land Use 149 Water Supply 150 Social and Economic Conditions 150 Prospects for Settlement 153 ProPosals for Developing the Area 153
CHAPTER V THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXISTING SETTLEMENTS INCLUDING EX-ENTE FARMS 159 Settlements in the Eastern Governates (formerly Cyrenaica) 160 Agro-physical cOnditions 161 The E:isting Settlers and the Institutional Set-up 164 The Agricultural Production Situation 167 Development Proposals for Settlements in the Eastern Governates 170
Settlements in the Western Gov- e (formerly Tripolitania) 175 Wadi Caam Scheme 175 Saadia 'A' and °B° Settlement Projects 178 The Misratah Area Settlemen't Schemes 181 Summary of the General Proposals for the Improvement of E:cistin9 Settlements 184
CHAPTER VI THE ROLE OF THE NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT AUTHORITY (N.A.S.A.) AND ITS STAFF REQUIREMENTS 191 Structure of N.A.S.A. Today 191 J.A.S.A.° s FuturL Policy 194 Cooperation and Relationship of N.A.S.A. with the F.A.O. Team 196 Appendices PrEgaiVOrganization of N.A.S.A. 197 Future Staff Required by N.A.S.A. 198 Annual Budget of N.A.S.A. 202
APPENDICES
I AgreementsIrittthe Government of Libya 203 II Legi.D.lacion Promoted as a Result of the Team's Work 208 III Rules For the Selection of Settlers 232 IV List oE Reports prepared by the F.A.O. Experts 238 V Selected Bibliography 246 LIST OF TABLES
Tab e No. Paz
1 Provisional Estimates of GDP, GNP, Population and Per Caput GNP 43 2 Consumer and Government Expenditure on Goods and Services and Gross Fixed Capital Formation 44
3 Estimates of the Contribution of Agriculture to the National Income 45
4 Changes in Food Consumption 48
5 Comparison of Excess of Estimated Demand in1974over Production in1967with Imports in1967 50
6 Comparison of Major Crop Targets in1974with Production in1967(000 tons 51
7 Ube of Agricultural Land - 1960 53
8 Estimated Production and Gross Income per Farm of the Al Hania Settlement(1966) 72
9 Al Hanle.: Investments, Gross Income, Costs and Returns to Family Labour and Management 74
10 The Proposed Cropping and Livestock Patternsfor a Farm Unit in Useta(1966) 85
11 Al Useta: Investments, Gross Cash Income, Costs and Returns 86 to Family Labour and Management 12 Total Number of Springs Emerging Along Second.Escarpment of the Jebal Al Akhdar Between Gfonta and Wadi Bu Al Ghadi and Springs to be Utilized in Establishing Watering Points in the Useta Region 88
13 Present Distribution of Families According to Siso of Holdings(1960 99
14 Characteristics of the Wells Drilled in the Collina Verde Scheme 104
15 Rotational Programme for a Farm Unit of6Hectares in 1 07 Collina Verde Settlement 16 Kind and Number of Livestock to be Kept by Each Farm Family 108
109 17 Land Use, Estimated Production and Gross Income per Farm Unit 110 18 Annual Costs, Returns and Investment:per Farro
19 Government Farms in the Eastern Governates 160 xii
LIST OF TABLES (cont'd.) Table No, Page
20 Composition of Gross Income from Agriculture and Related Activities in Selected Settlements -1965 168
21 Settlement Schemes Established since1952 175
22 Proposals for the Rehabilitation of Existing N.A.S.A. Farms and for Expansion of Irrigated Land in the Misratah Settlements 182 LIST OF MAPS AND DRAWINGS
Serial Devernates Project Number Easterl Area Title = Western . Southern
1 E Al Hania Photonosaic 2 E Al Hania Soil 3 E Al Hania Present claims on ud 4a E Al l'alija Settlement layout (uoshornparl 4b E Al Hania SoLtlement layout part 5 E Al Useta Photo-mosale 6,7 E Al Usa Settlement layout au0 land capability 8 E Al Usciia Present claims on Land 9 Collina Verde Soil 10 Collina Verd Land capability 11 Collins Verde Sprinkler irricx, ion system 12 Collina Verde Settlement lajout 11 S Location of settlement projects 14 S Traghan Location of prc,jot 7nd wells 15 S Traghan Soil and land capaity 16 S Tanama Land capabili;:y 17 S Haya. Land capability 18 a E Location of eEno faxms (western par,) 18 b E Locatioa of eizEnte farms (eastern part) 19 Typical farmhouse designe 20 Location of settloment projects 21 Dafnia settlement and extension proposed. xiv -
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Govornaten Soriai (E Easturl Number Western S , Southern)
1 E Al His 79 2 E Al H 79 3 E Al Hia 80 4 E Al Hania 80 5 E Al Hania 81 6c E Al Rania 81 7 E Al Hania 82 8 E Al Hania 82 9 E Al Useta 94 10 E Al Useta 94 11 Traghan 147 12 Tanama 147 13 E T444.a 148 14 E Hatya 148 15 E Farzughah 186 16 E Batta 186 17 E F;ughah 187 18 E 187 19 E 188 20 Wadi C 188 21 Saadia B 189 22 Sabrata 189 23 Wadi 0 190 VOLUME I
GENERAL REPORT
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. riEin of Project and Termo of 17ference
Since attaining independence in1951Libya has been stvia,-vag hard to improve her agriculture. Several development pna wIswere drawn ap fcom ;;krile o re by Pro- vincial Govornmente but none of them a )ased on a systematio investigation and study of eoonomic needs and available rerionrocs. In1956a Development Council was set up to coordinate economic development 1nt progress was very slow and inadequate partly on account of multiplicity of aid-granting agencies and the lackof coordinaa tion and cooperation between them. With the disootroxy of oil a non chap-ter began im Libya's history. Capital became avaalable for the developmont of the limited physical reaourcos of arable land and votel' ni.th a view to improvtug the atandard of living of the rural population.
In1958,at the reqnost of the Government; the World Bank sent an economic ourrey mission to Libya. L/The Mission reported in 1960 and highlighted ?ivo major rural problems that needed to be tackled%
Land ownership and tenure, with particular rofe-conce to Oc nyo'bom of triba]
ownership whioh still prevails over much ();' Cyrenaica and parts ofTripoli- tania.
The supply of adequate credit to small farmers.
The wider disseminationor,knouledge of modern :"aming and livestock prac- tice0 - essentially a matter of agricultural tralairg and e7tension cervices.
Narkottna. facilities and the related questions of agrionitural prices and protection agains imports.
Government organization for the administration of agriculture.
The Misaion drew attention also to the need for reorming aoupoJ tenures settled agrioulture was to be promoted. it suggested Lbe enaumer' ofaland lai; se- curing permanent individual rights in land. It further proposed the settlag-up of a ()omission to examine the whole question of Land Raghts,to ?emulate aland polioy for the promotion of permanent settlement of the semi-aomadic popalation amad to draft tho Land Lail, The Mission also recommended aoadastral survey of alla-- cultural land and the establishment of a land survey department.
Report of tho Dank Mission formed the starting point for a big effort to formulate a long-term development plan for Libya. Assietance was soaght from the Unkted Nations and its Specia1i5cd Agencies in the formalntion of tli. first five-year
1/The Economic Development of Libya, IBRD, 1960. -2-
platwhich was presented to Parliament in1963. Out of a total of LE29,275,000 allocated to the agricultural seotor by the Plan LE10,000,000 (or a third) was ear- parked for agrioultural settlement, thus. indicating the emphasis whioh the Government placed on settlement. The general polioy the Government wished to follow was that of creating a substantial number of well equipped farms making full use of the best agrioultural land and the available water so that the standard of living of those that remained in the country-side would be adequate for the changed conditions of the Libyan economy. The Government took the view that only by making settled farm life attractive and economically viable could people be persuaded to stay on the land.
Following preliminary disoussions between the Government and F.A.O. on assistance in the field of land settlement a letter of understanding on the Development of Teibal Lands and SettlementsProject was signed in June 19622/for aF.A.O. Team of oxperts to advise and assist the Libyan Government in undertaking land settlement echemos and the redevelopment of Ex-Ente areas. It was proposed that this work should be re- strioted to the Eastern Governates of the oountry (formerly known as Cyrenaica) and it was estimated that it would take3 - 4years. The overall responsibility for the Organization of the Development of Tribal Lands and SettlementsProject rested with F.A.O. and was financed by Funds-in-Trust. T.F.94. This Project iras to cover from the etart the following functions: -
To investigate systematically the whole situation of tribal rights in land and related institutional problems.
To examine the function of existing land settlements.
To carry out cadastral surveys and establish a system of recording tnle to land.
To conduct systematic surveys of water reeources, particularly ground water and its rate of recharge, and assist in the proper utilization of water in land settlement areas.
To assist in planning and establishment of land settlements and re-settlement on sound economic, social and technological bases, beginning with suitable pilot projects.
To train national personnel in land settlement cadastral surveys and supporting fields.
To advise on the establishment of the neceesary Governmewt service to ad- minister settlement projeots and develop the work in the future.
The Team was organized in December 1962 and two experts (land settlement planning and land tenure) began work from Benghazi (Eastern GovernaCes)at idie be- ginning of 1963. Alter a series of preliminary investigations it was decided to con- centrate the work of the Team on a limited area of the Jebel Al Akhdar, to be called the Pilot Area and to carry out comprehensive studies there in relation to all aspects of e=isting and potential settlement. The Team also worked in close collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture in establishing an independent agency to be res- ponsible for all land nettlement and land development aotivities in the country. As a result the National Agricultural Settlement Authority (N.A.S.A.) warre, up by the Government of Libya under Lar No. 4 of1963. Thereafter the Team meked closely with thic Settlement Authority whioh was deeignated by the Government no the responsible authority fol. all matters coneerning the project. At the request of the Government, it ilas agreed that some of the o=perts in addition to pureuing their
2/See Appendix I (1) project could draft pc;lisìor .:,dminiowrtive dArectves for the Anthorjty. Responsibility for desgrating ,%ourtorparstaK aod foy securing services, facilities and sonplies oi bo Team52eLt,'Cui.th tUe b;ract-Ganeral of Nr.A.S.40 The Teaa LeL,Aoo ).1) collaboration lith the Alrester-6wes.al waf,to heresponsible for estab- jn Juno onc Ocomber° of aach dotailed programme oC wohk or
ol% months oi opera1;oofl, befollow+ng
In October1963,in tbe oatabl''sbmcat o;.:the National Agrioul- trpal Setttswent AnthLY0ity,and.:-.tb)ntho fawswor]:- of the Government first Five- -Leaf DeteJepwont Plan, the Goverwocoto Libya resnested 1'A, to cmtend the work of the F.A,O, Team to oovo' enHiement nrejsototboeughout tbe en tire Kingdom of 1,ftya, 3/ u nJui. oto A/anted 6 Decembc.c1961 confirmed F.A.O.'sagree- wcntt to 'thls opoi 1. P:.aonJf1Tork aoll Budget -t'or1964,1965ad 1966 was thew draw.s. no 1,,y F,AO. and upro.:.oe0y tbo Ofros.onment and tbiswafl later supplemented by e, Plan01bor17 and Budgut for ''967 and ';964711-)10)1t L 00BLa.ter agreed Lo emtend the vo;:lz of the Team nntil tbe c,nd uf 1961:',,
During the of th? Team's oneratos, lam:ports served Ath itatvarious 3,1or; oeil. no -3030:700co,;,knu?iijOhyan oamo time. 4 number cl' posts were ,:tet ffl.led %'0U110'JG ;-1('1)1.,k0i110,1); ,,r(0 :;11=1 POO'',in ag-oienitural plannin3 was postpowod 'oy th.s Covornaw- Ceo r:)me Arangements wero nade for other P, P, e.zoerte sorvia6. vtb theC O idjaC;(7,,L .,(1asutst the Team tn. a varioty OC fields thus gf,-oillp the bauef, et q,1:(--). or.poaenceVI131)needed and Lilling in come of the gaps in tho Teaw.r, wesk- eir soreiose weho90i;adequately utilized partly besause thejo terms oC r:2fe;euee ;,() -oone,,w of li_aJoon iii. Liithe Team.
B. Factors Affecting the Pro'eru of
The Team e:rpericocod gier df.fiisuity ;,11 li Ing natjoAal conntorparts to serve withmost ot:'tho empertnEA1.6ct11 tw.D:P100there were oniy7,several of of 11110a1 r,evoed bvie? '),C1j, 01)47ù-Fcui tubly qualifiedLibyanscould be )7011-11a Pellolmh3Y"! fcr,' provislen had been made. The $40:1Se of drilledooLioz-eApconne',ras euob lijo i.ILie.1..e ,Tavailablecould not be operad FYOM ;he Ir oCflcial dutef.z COY ;;Ei..0.11L:. 'DIAN prohlem mies anticipated .T.:17041 the begtaning and mc1J7ethan twunty-fon,- .'iell.coubips'ere ihotnded in the project in :the hope of trainkrg natiowei poracca,:,1 gho ice cl come arid takeover Crow the oes.perts.X, -the evat t,3 ri.j. pe7r,nwc-st ro fev woro filled. The Team cualiaocoi'; un.,ber 6L1Dffloratiou which sloucd dovn its paco of lorl:; At the aacionet w.:no lor.3 air phi' tographs vese not availablo vno Dapendable statistics of: agricultural data and in_Siato, in uoe,i,logisal 7,u0 ,rconomic conditions were also scanty, os,:th .151 Toe&7orl:e0.1 those 6eficiencios had Li be wadu good heforc risores3 oorM bo ron an;; prejcoto
It was -'6o find adequate ;JtErp-cea .;':or those members of tho Team uho did speak Arabia, ''!lx,irn wooftu h e, u transpou whAeh envorely handicapped .The: work in 17:;.CY!I AU: 0.7.4.07)0r) 110 revered, pa 11 uith tho necessary qualification.; ooald not alw-sy i700.2111 Ytiez' ijAS ujiertbej store ,'cquirod.As a result, it poove6. to th,-, t',me-table told downi.e the ProgrammeJof Work and Onf'tet stablishd Such a,obioara ,heo; r coAobrIJi:v inoscap-ble when dev)loping a imeiiy of Cov,qTment innatnt:ioa such as bigh speed, W070 tho establishment particular 'chi' authority. the '1.7()Ela bad e. elc,a1 ms,ndstefrom the Coverowent to carry out a 3ser and developed it haLInevitably to programme of slorl:, the Jr..;;i,1:-J110zl'i of the Tema rely hccx11,3/ 01 tho of thc Torw lui. a3ld two othos individual members
Sou 1)!)po:neTisc I 1;.) ;ioo'Lpnondi_; I -4-
tu holp hi carrying on part of its work as trained nationals were no t available. The Tenp ehorefore, had the problem of trying to establish a balance between following the programmo laid down and at the same time giving ad hoe aesistanco which was ofton vital to the work of N.A.S.A. and obviously olosely related to thsobjectives sot for thoTeam. Itmay perhaps have been better, viewing the project in reerospect, that the Team should have been allowed to complete its work in tho pilot area before the Government asked them to assume more general responsibilities in relation to oottlo- went programmes on a national level.
The Team has prepared about 150 reporte (listed in appendix III) on various aspecto of its work in addition to a very large number of memoranda which have alre been given to N.A.S.A. and cover a very wide range of problems. All this material forms the basis of a valuable corpus of toohnical, economic and social and logal which will be invaluable to N.A.S.A. in the years lo come. Much of it, as for example that relating to soils, water, mapping and land registration is original work carried out for the first time for agricultural development and has implications and usefulness far beyond the immediate field of land settlement.
Organization of Report
The Roport which follows is divided into4volumes. In Volume I are set o basio concepts and recommendations on settlement, the role of settlement in the co text of the Libyan economy, development proposals for selected project areas, arel role of N.A.S.A. As an Appendix to the Volume are included copies of the AgreemeY between the Government of Libya and F.A.O., legislation promoted as the result cee Team's activity, a list of reports submitted by experts on the Team, and a selecte TAbliography.
Volume II contains three selected studies: on the pilot area in theJabalAl Akhdar, the prospects for land settlement projects in the Foczan, and thesystem of land registration and its relationship with land settlement.
Volumes III and IV include some of the principal final reports submitted by experts on the Team. Those in Volume III relate to soil and water surveys: Lhoso in Volume IV relate to the social and economio aspecto Of land settlement.
Acknowledgement
Thanks of the Food and Agrioulture Organization are due to all those who have oervad both in the Team or in consultant capacitKaand the many members of the Govern- ment service who cooperated with the Toam in its -work. The thanks of F.A.O. and the membero of the Team are specially due to tho President Mr. Khalifa Abu-Shinaf, the former President Mr..0mar, El Warshafaaj, the Director-General Mr. B.M. El Wifati, the former Director-General Mr, Hamed El Jawhary and the staff of the National Agricul- tural Settlement Authority who worked so closely with the Team and indeed, by their helpfulness and cooperation made the work possible.
Summary of the Work of the Team
During its life the Teas: has been concerned with the following projeots in Libya in additioe to giving daily advice to the Settlement Authority on many other aspects of its work: -
Govern, (former Cyrenaica)
ev Projec
i. Pilot Project Area 11. Al Gawarshah -5-
Develo. e 4
Ex-Ente Areas Bu Traba
ru e (former Tripolitania)
New Projeot
i. Collina Verde Azizia iii Gianduba
ExistinSettlements
i. Wadi Caam Saadia 'A' and 'B'
Develo oposals for additiona ettlement Areas suoh as:
Naima Dafnia Sabratha Tommina Sandia 'C' Nasseria Kararim Wadi Caam South Giese West Amena
Southern Governates (former Fezzan)
New Projects
i. Wadi Al Ajal (Hatya and Tanama) iieTraghan
A brief summary of the Team's activities in all the projects is given below.
Eastern Governate o mei Cyonaioa
Pilot_Project Area -In order to cover basic information and data about the agricultural resources and social and economio oonditions of the Jabal Al Akhdar, a Pilot Area of 100,000 ha. was selected. This area lies betwe.n longitude21°45'and 21030' east, stretching from the Mediterranean in the north and extending to latitude 32°20' N in the south, a length of about 100 km and the width of about 25 km. The main reasons for the selection of this particular area were that it includes all the important agricultural sones of Che Jabal Al Akhdar (the Coastal belt, the first and second escarpments and semi-desert). It also embraces a cross seotion of high, medium and low rainfall and it lies in a region whichas thought Co be very promising from an agricultural point of view and particularly for land se;,tlement activities. The Roport is to be found in Volume HI.
Al Oawarshah - Al Gawarshah is a proposed settlement projeot south east of nghazi town. It will obtain the water for irrigation from Benghasl sewage purifi- cation plant. The project area covers both State owned land and prlvate land. It is intended to implement the projeot in two stages: i. to proeldu irrIgatjoe orter:LeyapproelmetDJe ')00 190 of which aeo State-eeeed. teed eed*Ale 110 er'e",
sewage watee supply ineveasonjAthe .ruímre te project. to about 270 ha oirpei.eatol:y eaeed :Je-ead,
The Team has completed many studies for ehe peeject inietedleg, thoee eelabieg to soil, water, irrigation and landODPILCZ,e eoeld bo compUcctod be'i,P,T; ovld ofearee a settlement echeme on ;he privately owned tend te eheveLore proponed that eabee be made available to bhe existing farmere there, The ':00 G%abc-eyned heetafec should either be used as a settlemoet peoject or ao alaege Goeeremeet faem peoducing eage- tables for Benghaei, coupled111;Al ON:i;OAS1.:Jiland aemouetration rooMLiec for aettlers from other areas.
Ex-Ente Farms of the Jabal Al Aklelaa 'Meru are1336 Ea-EnteFOYTIC, settlements of Fareuga, Batte, leeeada, Beyda, Qireada anti theter Ai Mulehtaa in the Jebal Al Akhdar. Tito huadred and.twenty-ftee of Mlem PX0included in bbe Arca in the settlements of Rassah, Bayda, LO.reada eed liner l Mukhtav. They becçn?. at the Toukrah pass about85 km oast el ikeghae+ and o:tend ea:-,twavcts tuearde Davnah. The Farms vary ia otee-coem20 -40 i. mese eie,a beiugabout 25 ha.
The Ex-Ente farms oocupy the best agedoultueete land of the Eaeteea Jabal. and are suitable for the productioo oi a variety of evope erel fruit. The::- are all dry farmed being dependent on einter eaiAfall eed the preoipitatioe ranges from 300 mm to 600 mm.
The Team has undertaken numerous studies on the Ex-Ente farms most particularly on those which lie .in the Pilot Area. These related to social aed ooenomie condi- tions, soil and water resources, horticulture, lieeeotect, crop huebandvy, cadae;ral survey, aerial photography and land reclamation. The mojority of the faeno aye ab a very low level of production having been poorly 'Ele.modsiuce the deparbure of the expatriate settlers and the great majoejte oítbe ,'arm houcoe areJ]eompletc, dis- repair.
Bu Traba'- The Bu Teeba site eoesete of a strip of eoastal plain. eCeout 10 km long and from 2 to 3 km wide between Tceikeeeein the eest and Tulooebhah in the east. The new Toukrah-Tulmaythah read easees theough bhe middle of hearea liaking et eith Benghazi.
The Team carried out extensive suvieee3 on a range of subjects preparatory to preparing a settlement plan. Bocever, toJaeds the end e.t' the aork it became apparent from the water studies that eater suppleton are eoanby aed uf poor qvaliy. In addition, the area has a rainfall which is very close to the limit for dry farming. It is therefore believed that tile oaljproopects -DeeeettJemenb here will depend on the desalination of sea water at some stage in. tho future. Pince the settlement is very close to the sea this might be possible.
Western Governates (formar
Collina Verde. - Work i.e no in pvogrerj1 oneheestablishmentof a laed setble- ment project 6 km to bho south ofTripoli whioh ut1.1 rece ve irrigation caber from the Tripoli sewage purification planb. The Teem mu-Toyed and mapped come 1,200 ha, and prepared plans for reclamation and bhe organinatioa of the settlemenb and farming. Investigations were aleo undertaken on is:ad tenere and e repon teasprepaved for the project. There will be 100 cettlees in the projoci oach vith about 6ha0of laud; the total storage capacity of the :easel-Toles rorerigatiee. Olt he 809000 en. meteos.
Azizia This proposed nattlement Project 1ioe cite:a to Azizia village some 50km to the south of Tripoli on the mejn eead to GheJyan,The total area of state property -7-
is 3,000 hectares.
The Team has completedsurvey, mapping, and soil work into social and economic as well as inveetigations aspects preparatory to eettlement; it was originallyproposed that there should be 300settlers each with a farm of settlers will have to be 10 ha., but the number ofthe reduced following the lesefavourable results than expected from the drilling. The settlement will be dry water for domestic land farming but there isadequate purposes and livestock from the been sunk. artesian wells which have already
Gianduba,- This area is about 105 km south of Tripoli, 10 km beyond Gharyan. It covere some 5000 ha of State owned land which itwas thought would make a suitable site for a settlement. The Team's work started with aerial photographs and mapping. However, as soon as the soil and water work was begun it became evident that infact the soil is very unsatisfactory and of very shallow depth and there is totally in- adequate water for settlement purposes. The Gianduba settlement project is a classic example of a case in which firet impressions were not born out by subsequent scien- tific studies.
Wadi Caam - This project was started in1955under the aegis of United States A.I.D. which continued to help itupto 1963. It was handed over to N.A.S.A. in1964. The settlement is located 165 km east of Tripoli and consists of about 120 small farms of 2 ha. each. Almost the entire area of each farm is under irrigation.
The Team has been concerned mainly in advising on two problems: firstly the pre- vention of sea water intrusion into the wadi which has become a major problem and has for some time coneiderably reduced the effectiveness of the settlement,and secondly the possibility of supplementing each holding with about 6 ha. of State owned land olose by for the production of rainfed oereals.
Saadia 'A' ana 'B' This project was started by N.A.S.A. in 1963 and it lies about35km south of Tripoli on the Gharyan roaa. The farm unit is4ha. and the to- ial number of farms is 112. Saadia 'A' contains54settlers all of whom are Libyans returned from Tunisia. The remaining58were settled.in Saadia 'B' in September1967. The Team has cooperated in physical, economic and social studies and has paid parti- cular attention,to Saadia 'B'inPreparing a comprehensive plan for the social and economic development of the settlement giving special emphasia toextensionwork and settlers' training programmes. The intention of the Team was to make a model job of the social and economic) aspects of development by helping N.A.S.A. to avoid as far as possible the mistakes made in other settlement areas. The development plan is di- rected towards the establishment of a sound crop rotation which will faoilitate the individual and collective use of land and irrigation facilities and allow for the overall organization cf the58farms as one economic unit. The plan included the or- ganization of a Cooperative Society and the adoption of a supervised credit system. Considerable attention was paid to particular demonstration and farmer training programmes.
Dovelo.ment of Additional Areas - The Team has cooperated with the Settlement Authority in investigating the possibilities of improving a number of existing settle- ments in the Western Governates, many of them Ex-Ente farms. Members of the Team have carried out studies covering a wide range of subjects. These additionalarean include:
Naima Dafnia Sabratha Tommkna Sandia 'C' Nasseria f:dos and West Amena
Southern Governatce (-Po 7.7,r_11
Wadi Al Ajal -Ya.e17V begins 50 1-.:m weet of Sabhah. It extends about150km west towards and beyond Ubafi. The Team has undeectaken A aumber of investigations particularly on soil and water with a viewo preparing a scheme for the development of farming in the Wadi. Two areas, Hatya and Tanama, ofl:ored good prospects and deep artesian wells have already been sunk there. Proposals ,7or Improving the existing settlements particularly to increase the siso of holdings and provide water for irri- gation have been pcepared.The Team's report on these areas in the Fezzan will be found in Volume II (Chapter4).
Traghan - This is an important oasis in the Wadi of Murzuq, 80 km south of Sabhah. There is a demonstration farm of the Ministry of Agriculture in Traghan village. The Settlement Authority selected an area of 600 ha0 for a land settlement project in1965. A start was nade on drilling deep artesian wells in 1967 and the drilling is now completed. The underground water situation is not entirely certain but the Team has completed soil investigations. The Team's proposals are contained in Volume II (Chapter4).
Other Work of the Team
Formulation of the second Five-YeaPlan - The Team has assisted N.A.S.A. and the Ministry of Agriculture in the formulation of the second Five-Year Plan particularly in relation to the order of priority for settlement projects and for studies and sur- veys and the order in which work should be executed.
Mapping and Ca al Surv The Team has carried out a thorough study of the present land registration systemand has given general guidelines for aerial survey and mapping carried out by a firm under contraot to the Government. It has also made proposals for starting a National Survey Department, work on which has already begun and details of which will be found in Volume II as will a reporL on Systems of Land Registration and its Relationship with Agricultural Setnemento
Legal Affairs - The Team has collaborated with the legal advisers at the Ministry of Justice in the preparation of various rorms of legislation relating to settlement including the water 3au, the draft executive regulations of the water lam, revision of the draft land registration law and the revision of tho law relating to the National Agricultural SeLtlement Authority. These will be found in the Appendix to this Volume.
Trainin of S - The Team in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture has o ganized in-service training programma: in extension work, has helped to establish three home economics training centres and has put forward general recommendations for the training of settlers.
Training of Staff - Over the period of the Team's work many members of the staff of the Ministry of Agriculture and N.A.S.A. have had the opportunity of working with individual experts and thus gaining experience. For example, one of the land settle- ment experte in conducting his survey work in the Jebal Al Akhdar was assisted by thirteen extension officers who worked with him for periods ranging from two months to one year. All of them thus gained experience in methods of field investigation. The position was very similar with other experts, both the cadastral survey export and the rural sociologist had Libyans working with them who thus gained training in their particular subject. Indeed the impact of the Team in helping to train staff has been considerable. 9
Followshlos It has oaroady ocen notodbhatpro71.:don van mode for more thav EolloUships durinc tho poPloa of 1,Lo Team's mo&e Those mero rwailableiha mido varietyorsubjects. For examplo0 thero yore place's iv Soil Soienoo9 Animal Hunbandey Dortioulture, AgTioultaro Adminisrotionand Agrioulture EduootiontvtUniversity level. Thoro was also provision for LJending N.A.S.A. oMcials for furtilor training in.tho Arab Staten Community DovolopmenCentre (A.S.F.B.C.) in ho U.A.R. lt in unfortunate that no Com of these uvero takon ip. It ohoutd bo pointed ouyhowevorp that it to otil] possible for 1,ho C4ovornment to CM these fellol:shpo durinc1969.
Development Centre on Land Policl:,and Settlement for the Nea This F.A.O. Regional Seminar vas held in Tripoli, from 16obrro1965. This provided an exoellent opportunity for the staff of the Ministry of Agriculture:11(1the Settlement Authority to get together with tho members of.1.10Team -i,(1 discuss Land Settlement Policy with representatives of othor conutribs. it von attendod by reprosentatives of 13 countries of the Near East Region and a number of members of tho F.A.O. Hoedquar,... tors and Regional Staff.The proceedings of this Rogional meeting have nou been published by F,A,O5Jthe totaT coot of 77hieh wefi mo.1; by Ulo Government of Libya.
and Policy in the Near Flast' F.A.O. 1967 -10-
APPENDIX
F.A.O. Counterparts
F.A.O. Experts, Duration
Mr, A. Ezzat Abdel Wahab, (U.A.R.), Projeot Team Leader and Land Settlement Planning Expert Dec.1962 -Dec.1968
Dr. A.S. Alwan, (Iraq), Land Tenure Expert Dec.1962 -Sept.1963
Mr. R. Leuenberger, (Switzerland), Water Utilization Expert Aug.1963 -Sept.1965
Mr. P. Hubert, (Belgium), Soil Survey Expert Sept.1963 -Aug.1964
Mr. J. Harrop, (U.K.), Cadastral Survey Expert Sept.1963 -Apr.1965
Dr,I. Selim, (U.A.R.), Rural Sociology Expert Dec.1963 -Apr.1965
Mr, G.D. Agrawal, (India), Farm Management Expert Apr.1964 -Mar.1965
Mr, S. Abu-Oaf, (U.A.R.), Legal Expert Mar. 1964 -Dec.1968
Mr. H. Meliczek, (F.R. Germauy), Associate Expert and later Junior Land Settlement E::.pert May1964 -June1966
Mr, R.W. Price, (U.K.), Soil Survey E::por;; Sept.1964 - July 1968
Mr. D. Cirio, (Yugoslavia), Irrigation Expert Nov. 1964 -Dec.1968
Mr, N.D. Noble, (U.K..), Ground Water Expert Jan.1965 - July 1968
Mr. A.N.K. Radha, (Iraq), Land Tenure Expert Feb.1965 -Juno1966
Dr. F. Cappelleid, (Italy), Land Tenure a:pert Feb.1965 -Deo.1966
Mr. N.S. Haider, (Iraq), Cadaseral Survey Expert Mar.1965 -Dec.1968
Mr. H.Singh, (India), Farm Management Expert July 1965 -Aug.1968
Miss N. Bastawi, (U.A.R.) Horno Economics Experts Dec.1965 -Deo.1968 DP.S. RI Din-Noah, (Sudan, Agricu)i,ural E:,:tonsicso z'Ird Troining Export July 1966 - Deo. 1968
Dr, A. Zabor, (U.A.R.), PouItry Corisnitant Sept.1966 -Jan.1967 Mr., E. YnCio, (U.A.R.), Poultry Consultant Sept. 1966 - Jan.1967
Mr, K.D.S.Baldwin, (U.K.), Appraisal Economist Jan.1969 -Mar. 1969
NATIONAL COUNTERPARTS
of the Coi'., e of the 77.i :pert
Mr. .M. El Wif, - 1963) Mr, M. E,57.ai; Uabah, Terwil Ladra- ond La s0 SoMomont r1,wa9t1.7.3 E:zpor',I1
Mr, Saad Cuida (reeigned fx 1966) Mr,, A.N.TZ. Radho, band TounveE-27.-per
Mr. A.H. Hassadi Mr. F. gubert, So-t1 SurveyE.5rpor'6
Mr, Mi the 71:1fr of 1:7.ture Mr., R. Louenberge%. in Water UWetoatiooE77.per
Mr. Mortadi Shari Mr. U. Mr:flAc5o1z, AzIcoetaLc E-,:peot aod later F.A.O. Junior Lvnd Scfutlemeni;
Mr., Fathy Hamad Mr, S, Abr-Oaf, Legal Fpert
Mr, Fadel Mana Dr, A. Zaber Consulant tn Poultry
Mr.Abdel Salam Abu Rolla Dr.Imam Selim Rural Sociologist Mr.Mehammed Zorghani
Mr.Muftah Ghamati
Mr.Abu Baker Abu Shahama 12
CHAPTER II
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Basic Considerations and Priorities for Immediate Action
1. Basic Considerations
The basic dilemma which faces Libya is how to manage the agricultural sector of the economy when the greater part of its national income is derived from the exploit- ation of oil. Nevertheless, about a third of the total population (estimated at 1,710,000 in 1967)still derives its living from agriculture but 60 percent of the National Income is derived directly from oil. The fact has to be faced that agri- culture as an industry has poor prospects in the foreseeable future unless there is a positive policy which aims at encouraging agricultural production along clearly defined lines.
There are three principal arguments for the development of agriculture including
land settlement. , The first is that about a hird of the population still lives and works in the rural areas; the creation of viable units of production and the moder- nization of the traditional tribal sector of agriculture is vital to the welfare of his large segment of the population. The second is that the production of food as a reserve to meet the domestic requirements is essential to the country. The present availability of oil revenue which permits the importation of food and which may not last for ever, should not allow the agricultural economy to run down. Thirdly, in a country where capital formation is in sectors other than agriculture and where it seems to the man in the street and even to some of those in positions of authority, that there is sufficient money to buy all the food that the country needs, it becomes necessary to provide balanced planning for the rural sector. Libya is fortunate that the oil sector can provide the necessary capital not only to support agricultural production but also to provide employment opportunities in rural areas.
It is difficult to ascertain exactly the size of the settlement prospects which iSone of the principal facets of Libyan agricultural development. It was estimated in1960that there were something like 140,000 farming households in the country which had an average of about six members each including those of all ages. By1964,the number of farming households had dropped to about 110,000 and it is almost certain that there has been a further reduction since then. Clearly the majority of those remaining do not have any permanent homestead at the present time. The Second Five- Year Plan beginning in1969makes provision for the building of some 60,000 rural homes by1974at the end of the fiveyear period. This programme should, therefore, in itself provide permanent homes for at least 60 percent of the rural population and if the rural population will continuo to decrease the gap by1974between those for whom new houses are to be provided and the remainder will be very small.
It is assumed in the Plan that the houses will be built at a cost of about LE 1,300 each. The total number of houses including those in urban areas that it is planned to build is 100,000. If the average contract price per house is greatly in excess of LE 1,300 (as has been reported for one settlement project), the number of houses that can be built may have to be reduced,unless the total development funds can be augmented to meet the excess. - 13 -
One of the main rea so for the settlement policy which i i pursued by theGOVOVP- ment in to encourage farmers to ntay in agriculture and co off ev tanm an attrective aorm of living.Whereas thistz an enctrely appropriate aim of eny settlement programme, L. mat be recognized that the drtfe to the torna continuen asatdoes in every other counery undergoing rapid development,ninthe comparntively small pcoportion of the population saill remaining in agriculture (by tile standardn of the Near East) the numbea caa people to ba affected by settlement projectq vill never be great. It is nloo che case that as the coud:ny- side develops, mobility is easier nnd many of the families living in ',lanai arcos will be bound to depend to some eavent on incoas ennned in che tonns. Fov example, if in o given family there are two wage earners it is very latelythatone. o? then rill work in e torn. As more people find work in urban centres the cendnncv for their families to join them from the farms will certainly increese, The attractiveness of z: aettlement as the aole, ovCVOD principal, means of earning the family living dependn on making the sett/ement scheme sUfficiently attractive both nocinlly and economically in the neat 20 years. There Is danger that, by creating farms of fined sise wichao settlements the denelopment of tne countryside will be fossilized and the evolution of farms giving an economic income be inhibited.
With the radical changes that are taking place in the economy now and will contiene in the foreseeable future it is only right thnt cereal/a conaideration should be given to the concept of settlement as an instrument in cleYelopment. However satisfactory this may have appeared to be at the outset, it has to be atressed that the sonntions that seemed right in 1962 or 1963 do not necessarily apply to the connitions of 1969. This aeans that in planning settlement schemes in 1969, income targets for che oat:tiers, Government cervices and infrastructural development in settlement areas for providing anciractive living condi- tions have to be different from those planned in 1963 as a consegmeace of the rapid changes In the Libyan society. The Team, :or instance, made provisions foe future expansion in the area to be cultivated under irrigation for each settler in Collina Verde and Al Hania when the water resources become more available.
There are a number of possibac alternativos in rural development, the argumenta for and against which should now be gavea much greater netention, Firstly, the tendency ia neveral developedCCODOMiCShas been towards large-scale commerciel favmang. This 5s important in relation to modern technology and the economiesoalarge-scale production and marketing. In n relatively spnrsely populntea countny with a hxgh level per capita of CNT it is mornhwhile giving senious thoughi to the posnibiltty of eatablishing farming business on a sufaiciently inrge-neale.to be alenible innheface of changing economic conditions. Thts could be applied to the development of creas where aatev resources are available and where theve is vary /c) rate of poaulation aressure on lnnd. These conditaonn, for example, enise in the Taweeglin once near Tlisnetn in the Western Govennates and the iaattara Valley in the Eastern Governates after the compleaaon of the dams planned for conatruction.
It is possible that in ten yaces time, whin) the Libynn per capitn GNP will be aevy nigh by any standards, o man wouia nather be n W0.6 workevODa five-and-a-half day week on a large agricultural farm, living la an vrnan community npdtraveliing to his place of rorh, than be bound so a small-holding of bin own with the possibility ofuncertnau. income prospects and with ell the nisks that this involvcn. 'che argument againstchis is that It might give rise to concentnation os anndownership in the hands of asmnal number of lendorners rimo could benome unduly rich ann powerful and in nposition co en7ploit their workers.
The main work. o2 theTOFM1',Ina been dirccten toravds developing lsnd settlements nlong lines whichseemed obvious when t4c project ras conceived. Under 'che presentconditions of the Libyan economy there in a great deal to ae sniaL'o' pnoviding each tripe Canny rith ailindividual house and farm and with the opportunity to Jead non theairst tine a nettled and comrortableilac.On the irrigated sentlements in Collinn aerde andAi Hania the prospects for continuing pronperity fol.' some yearn nreNobably rialto good. Fvontan work which the Teem hns done it in reny clean thae mnuyfanailen now living ara unnettlea - 14 -
existence will have the opportunity of earning much better incomes on a setticc1 will lso have the opportunity of acclimatizing themselves to an entirely new folv.i of 1.L!'e
$, of livelihood which will be vastly different from anythin4 they have known be2voe. Indeed, it is possible to envisage the settlement project as an instrument for the more commercial farming.
Another course of action widen the Government might e:/amine Isto inwestigate die -possibility of wider Integrated rural development projectsin which land settlement would, constitute an integoaL pact. These would cover both a lzrger area atORQtime and brill() perhaps more limited facilities but to a largei numberofpeople rather than continue neawr Investment in building itere eladarate complete settlement projects,Such c pcoject still follows the settlement coucent wowid involve a wide variety of activities including malcing roads, providing water apd electricity supplies, bulding pcoper dwel/ings (wany of which will already have ueen provided forlirld.C5.^the Development Plan). There should also be provision for improved education, health and other social services. The question of 1 d rights and land tenure would have to he carefully considered. In addition, there would need to be n substajiz:.c.c? e::ceusion and trainipg drivetoImprove the whole oasis of agriculture lo introduce new techniques and ideas. The development oC such a !arger project area, althoughcarrie6it interm3 oC the possibilities in the immediate arca wust be related to the more major prospects ?or the whole oegion.
It isDOLsuggestcJ that an integrateddevelopment proposal orthis 2:ind is particularly cheap tocarryout, but for a givea amount of capitalinvestmentalarger number of people will benefitthan is possible under a smallsettlementproject in c limited area. Before final decisions are m,Ce op the choice of particular settlement and devewpment schemes comparative cost/benerit studies oC the alternatives need to be made toensurethat the country is obtaining the best results, both economically and socially, for its
Planning and implementingo3'!and settlement as a development scheme ll.be any agricultural development -0./heme snould Follow four staqes whichítYeparticularly important in che Libyan conte;ctn
The initial foymulation of the project and preliminary assessment of its feasibillLy; the researcb and e):perimentatioa that may be found necessary to fill in any gaps in essential in2ormation both in the scientific and economic fields; (iii)the pilot si7agc when all U/e esse»tialInfoimatioli isbvouotttogether and tested on n smallscale In ordep co see what difficulties arise; (i)) the final implementation of the fullsc le project.
These stages are'inescapable and any attempt to omit either stage f or i,tage 3 or toth will lead to unsuccessful projects andCluancial loss.The iyticialformulation of the project (stage 1) Involves the setting uut of the aims and objects of the project and theproposals for its Implementation In general terms. Thesecond stage Inaolvesthe e:camlnation forplanningpurposes of the iele-wat available ek-mta on soil and voter pesources, the general ecology, laud tenure, mapping, agronomy, farm management and so on. Wherethisinformation is pot obtained from the locality of the proposLd project, it Is essentialthat cheinformation that it ir proposed to use be chekthedb!, trials to obtain answers to particular problems on thc spot. This applios not only in thescientific fields in relation to 7.gronomy or ,miimal husbandry bat it is equall-, import,int in the economic and social rieldand especially so iu (2arm management. When, and only when, the results of the research and e.zperimentation are available can oil this essential jriformation be brought together. Tc15 at this point chat a pilot settlement sclleme (stape 3) on a genuinely smallscale shonld be caviled ouc. The resul.:s ei ic:.olated reserch proje-cts and enquiries uhen broughr together fi-eqwently z;howIncompatibflity. Ihey way Indicate sLch problems as that, though itis lechnically 2easible to you a partioalar cvop Isolation, such a. crop cannot b/-f integrated intoL2. husbaildry oye teaVhen this has been compl.eted -15-
satisfactorily and its success can be clear': esastrated, then it is possible to proceed to fullscale implementation (stage 4).
The foregoing argument is not intended to constitutedP.eacyse for delaying action oa the establishment of settlement projects; in fact, it shows quiteapecifically the need for immediate action for carrying out these stages tf effectivesettlement is Lo be undertaken in Libya.
Since the Team began its work the aim has been to develop Cullascalesettlement projects. The Team has done a great deal o2 preparatory work Co' several lidsettlement schemes and even now there are unknown factors to be able to '7ormulete compleseprojects for immediate implementation. What is needed is a pilot stage or expenimentationwith the construction of a few settlement farms along the lines set out by the Team, in ovder Lo discover, at pilot scale, whether the production system works, whether it is posiblefor the farmer to obtain a living from the size of holding proposed, and even perhapsmore fundamental aspects such as whether it is possible Lo mainiain viable caop husbandry under existing conditions on a particular soil and water resources. At the pilot level, eeperience must be gained in extension and training and in the provision of services. From such a pilot project NASA would learn a great deal about its own.particular role in land settlement and would also have an opportunity to train its own people.
Proper applied research and adaptive research are needed to be careled out. Too little seems to be known yet, Cur eaample, about the baeeds of cattle and the varieties oL' crops suitable for particular settlements. A great deal of investigation has beea dona on crops suitable for Libyan agriculture. Most of this, however, has not been talen further by research and experiment in experimental stations in several areae of diSferent ciimatic and soil conditions. The climatic tolerance of erop vaaieties ts not always great, and it does not follow that a variety vhich proves ideal at qidi Mesro will necessarily prove useful at Al Hania. In this connection it appears most unfortunate that the Government research stations at Zurdah and Qase al Qarabulli have recently been closed down.
With crops and livestock there is the further problemoaadaptive oesearch. Havina established that an animal vill flourish or that a cpop will grow under the general climatic and ecological condittons o? Zurdah, it is still necessary to experiment ytth the human and management problems involved in 'cransaerring it to settlement scale. From an economic point of view there is a desperate shortage o2 inYormation on many aspects of settlement husbandry ohich could again be obtained ac the pilot level. These relate to such matters as dhe work time involved for hand cultivation or for mechanized culti- vation for faeming systems under raInfed, partially irvioaced or fully irrigated conditions.
Many of the answers to settlement problems cannot be obtained quickly and the argument for immediate pilot action is therefore very cogent. Experience of modern arable land farming in Libya tends to be reatvicted to the more favourable areas. Much future settlemeot will take place in areas which are in one way on aaother marginal. The original farming of the Italian settlemeats was on 'the whole fairly extensive. The type 02 faeming aow being proposed even for the dryland settlements, taking advantaoe of the technological changes of the last 30 or 40 years, is of a move intensive 1-id.
Settlement by any standards ia a alow business. The first years of most settlements require considerable effonts and capital investment with little iwmediate resnits to show. Only aRter che first 5 or 7 years can one begin to see that something is being achieved. Orteshould not be discouraged by early apparent failure when the effort put into creatina a settlement is only beginning. The starting o2 a settlement ia probeblv the amaller part o2 the total effort that has to be pnt In by 14.A.S.AarsZ the settlees to cneate an affective erasal cosemunity sud a viable sy,;i:ez-a of husbandry. - 16 -
The National Ageieulterel Settlement Authoeicy has only beea la existeuce eince 1963. Duriag this short period has grovA very fast and probably faster then can be consolidated in the framework of present conditions iu Libya. Due to the Government's pviority 2ov egri- culteral settlement the Authoity has leten over responsibility foe a very great dealor ma. and as a result ithos had Lo grow fee Zoo quickly, desperately /aching national expertise in almost every department. A lerge pert oC die ee7perience has come either Crom the membere of the FAO TeamOPfrom ceepateiates on W./\.S.A.'s own staff. ln the neen. five yearsN.A.S.An will have to determine its internal staff policy and to decide what wort it can really vedeetete effectively. Leeee though its responsibility is, it is unlikely to provide a satiseetory career whieh will attract the technicians to work for it. There must be continual interchange o2 staff between N.A.S.A. and other departments and it is desirable that the specialists such as hydrologists or soil scientists needed by N.A.S.A. should be seconded from other appropriate departments of the Ministry of Agriculture rather than expect to make their career in TI.A.S.A.
It will be some yeare beenee 'alert: are su2ficient adeeua1ely eeperienced Libyans co 3'1111D.A.S.A. effectively eithout eepstriatehelp, but JALDe immediace fsuture noopportunity must be lost to obtain propee Ivaining for tile staff even if it means for a short period employing more expatriates. The Team hes eetlmeted the man-power requirements for N.A.S.A. which is considerable as vili be seen latee. Fellowships abroad can be very useful but the best place to train Libyan nacionals in settlement wor?.: is in Libya and ao effort should be spared to obtain help if need be for the international agencies in providing training centres and national seminars which will gradually develop the experience of the staff.
It is no over-statement to see chat the success of existing and planned settlements in checoming years will depead to a large cetent on the efficiency of both staff and settlers training andcC ehe obility ofthe extension service to helpthesettlers to adept to their new copdielons and eurroundings. The Teemhascontinually laid enphaeis on these issues which ere discussed.111greaCer detail later.
Durine the past yearschaTeas has been partly iniolved inthesurvey and the development oC existing and new seCcleseat Projeces anít pavtle involved in giving day-to-day advicetotheN,A.S.A. Thereshould be a cleae distinction becueen expatriates whether recruited theotigh internetioaol agencies oe other soueces lo fill executive posts such as those provided undee tih OPEX terms and those who come to train personnel or to advise on programmes of work and policy. Now that N.A.S.A. is established there is no longee a clear need for the second kind of appointment except perhaps from time to time in special fields.
The limnediace need be relation Lo settlement policy ts not at the Settlement Authority level but et the Coveenment level. It world seem necessavy in order to mate sense of the settlement policy proposed for theDC:Ck,5 yeare to investieate much more clearly than appeers to have been don,: so )?ae the whole basis of agricultural policy, rural development and sett1ement and to fit these toeethee in e way uhich will provide a cogent and dynamic opproach Por ehe futuce eericulture in the conteet of the Libyen economy. 2. Priorities for Immediate Action
Following what has been said above emphasis must be placed on the need for priority for immediate action in regard to settlement projects in seven particular aspects. (i) Trainin of Staff and Settlers Immediate action must be taken to strengthen and improve the whole arrangements for the education and training of staff at all levels and the proper organization of the extension services. In several placee in the Report, e.g. Volume I Chapter 2 and Chapter3and Volume IV - it has been stressed that no progress in settlement oanbe made without properle qualified personnel at all levels particularly at intermediate level to fill the admioisirebivo, technical and settlers training posts. This is not 17
a matter which tho Settlement Authority can solve on its own for, indeed, it requires a thorough examination at national Jovel of the facilitieo for training available at university, intermediate and vocational levels.
(ii) Rehabilita Settlements Including ExEnte Farms
A start has already been made on the rehabilitation of the exEnte farms in Jebel Al Akhdar and in Western Governates, but this should be combined with actionsfor solving the land tenure problems. A conflict on ownership would destroy the confidence of settlers in their continued occupation and the resolutiou of the tenure problems is therefore a sine qua non. The layout of the farmholdings, their cultavators and the houses already exist. It will not be a difficult matter to develop farming units provided that adequate advice is available for settlers and provision is made for assistance in the organization of farming. Existing settlements such as Wadi Caam, Saadia and Misuratah are not progressing due to lack of technical support and inadequate supervision. Policies in regard to both technical and economic factors in these settlements need to be reconsidered in the light of the development proposals set out in Chapter5of this Report.
Implementation of Al Hania and Al Useta Settlement Schemes astern Governates
A start should be made at once on small pilot projects of a few farms at Al Benin and Al Useta. Until experience has been gained on a pilot scale it will be impossible to develop the proposed fullscale settlement. Basic data for these two schemes ale set out in VolumeII Chapter 1 and factors required for establishing economically viable units are discussed in Volume I Chapter4.
Develo ment of Umar Al Mukhtar Ar a Eastern Governa
A development project should be initiated at Umar Al Mukhtar. An essential pre- requisite is to solve the problem of tribal tenure by giving aecure titles to the existing farmers. The general line for developing this area is proposed in the Report ( ee Volume I Chapter4). Collina Verde (Western Governates)
Work has already begun on the settlement at Collina Verde. A considerable effort must be made to ensure that adequate provision is made for the selectioa of settlers and their training and that this is coupled with the developmen't of proper organiaatioa for farming, the extension services and for training of national techeicians to crp7ao the project. For further details seo Volume I Chapter4. Pilot Settlement Schemes in the Southern Govern
Inthe Southern Governates wells have already been st1H_ at Traghen and Wadi Al Ajal (latyia and Tanama). It is necessary to proceed with provision for the use of this water by the proposed pilot schemes. The prospects for land settlement projects in the area are set out in Volume II Chapter 2 and the proposals for developing three pilot schemes in the area in Volume I Chapter4.
Ex erimental Farms and Research
The development of existing and new settlements requires experimentation and demoastration. Experimental farms on pilot scale in settlement aras cvro needed on which the farming patterns and services propoeod for settlements can be tried out. Experimentation is required to eneure thai; cropping and stocking preposals nh be viable in oertain settlement areas. Coupled with this should be ae urgeut attempt to obtain reliable and accurate farm Management data for the use of tho settlements on a continuing basis. These problems are discussed in detail in Volume I Chapter3and Volume IV Chapter 6. - 18 -
B. Land Tenure Land Registration and Water Rights
A large part of the land likely to be used for settlement, especially in the Eastern Governates, is in tribal hands and no progress can be made unless there is a clear understanding of the nature of tribal tenures and of the methods of solving the problems associated with them. This vital subject received the primary attention of the FAO Team of Experts which prepared detailed field studies on the tribal land tenure system.11
These studies, as well as the detailed investigation in Al Useta and Al Hania in the Jabal Al Akhdar, indicate that the rights of possession on tribal lands are vague and the ownership of much tribal land is disputed between the tribes and the state. The Land Registration Law of1965recognized that the land is jointly owned by the tribes residing on it. However, it is widely recognized that the rights of the occupiers are only the rights of usufruct while the state holds the property title known as Rakbah. Furthermore, tribal lands are not registered in either the name of the state or in the name of the resident tribe. Whatever the precise legal position may be, much confusion exists about tribal property and the rights of the present occupiers. Even if the ownership is vested in the state, when dealing with tribes, subtribes and individual tribesmen, all claiming rights of long standing usufruct, the question of ultimate ownership becomes academic.
Only by very detailed and careful study of each individual land tenure situation is it possible to find a solution; this is what the Team has done in the Pilot Area of the Jabal Al Akh,lar. But the solution proposed for one area does not necessarily apply to another in a different neighbourhood. The problem is too complex to be solved by one particular general recommendation.
The situation over water rights is no more satisfactory than that of land rights. Private ownership is still claimed over many water sources and fees are charged by the "socalled" owners. So far, the provisions of the Water Law of September1965on the registration of water rights have not been effectively implemented. The situation over water rights will not be satisfactory until the Government agrees to declare all water resources public state property.
The main issue in the settlement projects is how to convert the present variety of situations both of land and water tenure and ownership into secured titles for the new settlers. At the same time it is necessary to maintain and exploit the good features of tribal organization in creating settlement and strengthening the community and social aspects of life in new settlements. In other words, solving the land and water problems must not be equated with the destruction of the tribal system as a social institution. The experience of the Team shows that it would be difficult to plan settlement without gaining the confidence of the tribesmen from the very beginning, and in fact, many progressive tribesmen are anxious to cooperate with the government in solving these problems. Registration and confirmation of tribal rights and in some cases of individual rights is very important in the tribal areas also. The development of commercial riculture in settlement areas will prove impossible until rights are properly sorted out and registered; progress should therefore be made in the development of the land registration system as proposed by the Team.2
See: a) "The Pilot Area in the Jabal Al Akhdar" and "The system for land registration and its relationship with land settlement" in Volume II.
b) The final reports of Mr.AbuOaf on "Legal aspects of tribal lands and settlements" and Mr.Radha on "The land tenure system in the Northern part of Eastern Region" in Volume IV,
1/See Chapter3of Volume II on "The system of land registration and itirelationship with land settlement". See also the Final ReporteMt. Saad Ahu-,,Oafon"LegalAspects U. Tribal Lands and Settlements" in Valume IV. 19
Recommendations
Tribal Tenure
All future settlement projects must bepreceded by teurc oLudio such as those prepared by the Team for the Pilot Area in the JabalAl Akhdarp.L/ rcmust be dolermined uhel;her the land is claimed collectively by the tribe or whenler the exislingcultivalor claims rights of ownership. Crucial problems examined by thc Team in thisrespect include theldorabitin tribes' rights in land,the definition of boundaries oZ farm land under triba] occupation, registration of farm landunder tribal occupation, registration of in.heritance rights of men and women, and thedefinition of the rights of ownership between the State and the tribes. Recommended solutions for these problesmare set out in the following sections.
Priority in settlement should generally be given to theexisting cultivator of the :land provided he fulfills the agreed conditions for theselection of settlers proposed by the Team and approved by NASA..4/ The paramount aim must be to give each settler adequate title to the'land he will farm and also to make certain thathe has defined rights to the necessary water supply.
(ii) Land Settlment Law
The Team strongly recommends the promotion of a law on land settlementpolicy. A proposed draft of such a law will be found in Appendix II (iii) to thisVolume. The draft sets out:
the rights of cultivators on land to be settled;
provision for the registration of rights of cultivators in accordance with the Land Registration Law;
the conditions for the selection of settlers;
the rights and obligations of the settlers;
that the price of the farms is to be determined by the Board of NASA;
the future relationship between the state and the individual cultivator6 on land now held by right of usufruct;
thal forest and pasture lands are stale properly (unless located on private ]and) hiU provides fOr permits for imdivid.ual use of such land.
(iii) Land Reistration
compulsoFy land regjsraion should be initiated in the propooed settlement aras along.alelineo of the reports submitted by the Team on land registration1/and in IccocclEmeewin.;;bc Land Registration Law. This programme should cover and record all rights and claims in land includinL those relating to state and private property and rights claimed in common according to whether they are rights of ownership,usufruct, etc.
3/ See Chapter IV of this Volume and the selected studies in Volume II, 2/ See "Rules for the Selectióa of Settlers"contained in Appendix III, Volume I
See Chapter III of Volume II and Mroliaider's final rapo:et on "C 1 Survey and LancI Registration" contained in VoLamo IV oC Lhis Rcportc, 20
Most of thettatelands are not registered and prior to the transfer of ownership tosettlers, it is necessary to have a valid title in the name of the state. Private.Y etate 'property Should be registered in all likely settlement areas, in accordance with Articles38and 39 of the Land Registration Law,Article 110 of the Law requires the Minister of Justice to issue the Executive Regulations of the Law. This has so far not been done. As this affects the efficient implementation, it is recommended that the Executive Regulations be issued as soon as possible.
Adjudication of Ri_hts
In order to establish rights in land, adjudication should be carried out in accordance with the Land Registration Law. The present system of adjudication of rights is optional. The Department of Land Registration has no power to impose the registration of any land without prior application from the parties concerned. The adoption of a compulsory registration is strongly urged. The branches of the Department of Land Registration in the Covernates are inadequately staffed and unable to cope effectively with their work. It is therefore recommended that mobile field adjudication committees, responsible for carrying out land. registration, should he set up.Commissions for settling disputes over land registration were established by LawNo.9of1959. The decisions of these commissions should be registered but so far this has not been done. It is strongly recommended that they should be in the future, otherwise the same disputes may be expected to arise again.
Strontherinthe Department of Land Registration
The Department of Land Registration in the Ministry of Juetice is short of legal and technical staff and is not well equipped to carry out its work. It is recommended that this department be strengthened by two deputies to the DirectorGeneral; one for teohnical and one for legal affairs.These men should have university degrees and not less than five z,ears experience in the subject. At the time of writing this report
( April1969)there is no one in the Department with a university degree in law and it is urgent to strengthen the work of the Department by obtaining qualified lawyers. Indeed it is recommended that in future the heads of all branches and offices should have university degrees in law.
(e.) Land Surve and Ma g Department
The Survey and Mapping Department in the Ministry of Planning, established with the advice and assistance of the Team, should be strengthened and provided with adequate staff and facilities to carry out its work. Without the efficient operation of this Depa-etment the development of tribal land. and settlement projects is impossible. The Depaetment should begin by collecting all the survey data and maps from foreign agencies and private enterpuises includine: the vork done during the Italian, British and French AdminislraHons,,11(1by the Amerioen Aymy Map Service and racently by NASA and the Mineetry of Municipalities. Alloriginal survey materiale.,;.euch as films, diapositives, map treuisparencies oed original ,1'ie1d books still in the ltends of these agencies, should be taken over by the DepaiMentauda photo-map library eeith proper records and indexes established. Copleo of ,7.11Lhesee materials should be made. An aerial photographic processinglaboratory and an offset printing press should be set up.
"Priv te Stato and owned by the State which is subject to all legal provisio o of individual private land, such as sale, lease, mortgage, donations etc. This is in contrast to "Public Sta-te Property" like airports, streets, and public parks, which are assigned for public use boL cannot be subject to the above mentioned provisions of individual property. Thc o:7Ente farms come under private State property. - 21 -
The Department should set a long term plan tocover the whole country bylo re and medium scale topographic maps (1:50,000/1:100,000/1250,000). These are essential for carrying out the study of geology and hydrogeologyand are also useful for reconnaissance and military purposes. The Department should carry out a programme to evaluate present ground control nets established by the AmericanArmy Map Service in Libya and to establish more nets to give closercontrol for large scale and detailed surveys.
All survey work such as aerial photography, ground control and mapping for topographic, cadastral and engineering purposes should be carriedout by the Department on behalf of all Government agencies. In future all Ministries should refer their requirements and needs for survey materials to the Department. The Department should work out the technical specifications and general conditions for the preparationof aerial photography, ground control and mapping on different scales and for differentpurposes, in order to base all the future work on these specificatione.
The Settlement Authority should work out a plan, in close collaboration with the Department of Land Registration and under the technical guidance of the National Survey Department, to establish the boundaries of farms under its control in the Eastern, Western and Southern sectors of the country. These boundaries should be set accurately so that any lost or damaged farm boundary mark could be re-established immediately if required.
The Survey Section of NASA, established in1964with the assistance of the Team, should be headed by a qualified Cadastral Survey Engineer, to workvery closely with the newly established Surveying and Mapping Department in the Ministry of Planning and Development. Problems relating to farm boundaries and land tenure should always be referred to the Department of Land Registration and State Property and solved jointly.
(vii) Gran i. es
In settlement projects the initial title generally granted to beneficiaries is one of lease rather than of outright ownership. Initial leases can always be converted to ownership after a certain period. Once a title becomes absolute the structure of a settlement becomes rigid and the opportunity for adjusting farm size etc., is reduced. It is recognised that the Government has reasons for wishing to give absolute titles to settlers. For some years the tenants of ex-Ente farms have been promised ownership in place of insecure leases by the Government and to change this now might create difficulties. The mere mention of the word "lease" in Libya is sufficient to dissuade settlers from making a serious attempt to earn their living from a A7arm and may encourage them to leave their farms for other subsidiary occupations. It is yecommended, therefore, taat beneficiaries should be given titles completely consistent with the concept of conditional ownership which remain valid so long as certain restrictIve covenants are observed. These apply to the proper use of soil and water, the principles oC good husbandry and restrictions on sub-letting, sub-division, mortgaLeaW6c0 As regards the ex-Ente farms, the Team recommends that for practical reasons they should be distributed to the present occupiers.
(viii) Regulation of Water Rieghts
The Team has advised the Government on the drafting of he Water Law and has also drafted the Executive Regulationsand Internal Regulations of the SupremeWater Board. It is of the utmost importance that the implementation of this Laube properly controlled and supervised if the best use is to be made of ,rater and If vaste mis-use, overpumping and the intrusion of sea-water - is to be avoided. The present law requires the licensing of all water supplies but in the opinion of ihe Team Lhis lawis inadequate and it urges, - 22 -
as it has already done in preparing the draft water law in1965,that all water resources, with the exception of supplies constructed by private individuals (whichwould still require licensing), be declared public state property. Only the acceptanoe of this principio will enable the Government to enforce the requisite proper and effioient control, though it will aleo be necessary to make practical operational arrangements for administer- ing water resources, otherwise the Water Law provisions will remain ineffective.
en at'on of Existing Laws.
Many of the provisions of the approved Laws relating Lo land tenure and land settlement aro not observed. Most of the real rights on land ara not registered, despite the existeece of the new Land Registration La w of1965.Also, many peraons are still digging vans without obtaining a licence from the Ministry of Agriculture in accordance with the Water Law oî1965. Furthermore, the now settlere of the Sandia Project were no t soloctod in accoedanco ljth the ru]es approved by the Board of Directors of NASA..
This state nf 'fnine creates a gap between 7-inlation eed implementation. The reasons for this si*, ,n Aould be studied to ,:: Aidl whetlet it is caused by insufficient staff t' 11,1 Y the laws, whether tt, pooplo sre not familiar with the law's provisions or it is duo to any other reason, In all cases, provisions of these legislations should be strictly adhered to and supported by the highest Government authorities to g-uarantee their efficient execution. -23-
O. Soil and Water Resources andConservation
Soil and water conservation ie a basic requirement inachieving increased agricultural production. In the long-term, a much better knowledge ie requiredof the potential resources and this can only be obtained byproper ;econnaissance survey work covering all the possible settlementareas in the country.j/ In the short-term however, much can be done by paying proper attention toneoessary oonservation measures and also by ensuring that they are underetood by the settlers- and indeed by others already farming and grazing land- for the coneervation of soiland water cannot be effective if it is restricted solely to one settlementarea. The destruction of forest many kilometres away may influence run-offin a Bettlement area as may the incorrect cultivation of soil. It is therefore important that conservation be considered at least on a regional scale and that the activities of NASA be closely integrated with those of other responeible governmentdepartmente.
In a country in whichBoiland water resources are so limited the future of settlement, and indeed of all agricultural production, depende basicallyon the detailed investigation of resources and on their proper use. The present standards of soil management throughout Libya are very low &e1 the most determined effort is required to educate farmers and graziers alike if great damage such as that done by unrestricted grazing and by the use of the wrong kind of cultivation machinery are to be avoided. With more intensive farming in settlements the damage will be greater still if serious efforts are not made by NASA and the Ministry of Agriculture to ensure that soil resources are carefully husbanded.
One may also point to a similar critical situation in water resources and water supplies. The settlements are only being planned (or have already been made) in areas where there is likely to be adequate water for human and livestock needs or in some cases for irrigation. Even so, water is always in limited supply and the most stringent efforts must be made to ensure that the little that exists is most carefully and fruitfully used and that such things as over-pumpin, and carelees storage are avoided. It is surprising when water is such a scarce commodity that so much is allowed to go to waste.
The soil and water studies carried out by the Team have necessarily been carried out in limited areas but they do provide valuable information. It is, however, urgently necessary for the government to commission detailed soil and water studies covering the whole country - or at'least those parts of it suitable for cultivation. Without these much needed resource surveys the planning of settled agriculture and the proper use of soil and water is quite impoesible and the present situation of waste and prodigality will continue.
It must be remembered in dealing with soils that different soils require different husbandry techniques and that the field staff supervising Bettlemente must understand fully the needs of a particular soil. Terra Rossa soils for example, ehould be lightly stirred before the rains to increase moisture penetration whereas Rendzina soils permit infiltration more readily. There is abundant evidence all over the country of the way in which the use of disc and mouldboard ploughs instead of chisel ploughs is leading to the erosion of soil by windblow and by water. Small scale erosion on one holding can quickly load to more serious .../
I/Seefor example individual experts' Final Reports: 'The Soils of Northern Cyrenaica',1964; 'Water Resources and Water Utilization in Northern Cyrenaica', 1965and 'Hydrology and Groundwater Resources of the Jabal Al Akhdar',1966among other examples-of such work carried out by the FAO Team. 24
gulley erosion on a wider scale affecting much other property if it remains unchecked. There is aleo too little understanding of the practice of contour cultivation (in which all cultivation is carried out along the contoure of slopes) which can reduce much water erosion. One of the difficulties is that 'slopes' are often not easily visible to the naked eye and therefore dieregarded. Summer cultivation is a very effective method of increasing rain infiltration into the soil by breaking up the compacted layer of surface soil prior to tho rains, in consequence reducing erosion.
A further cause for concern is the careless clearance of land from scrub. An example may be eeen in the proposed Al Useta settlement scheme (Eastern Governates) where private enterprise clearing by the wrong techniques has already destroyed the productive potential of part of the area.
Before contemplating the development of new water sources more caro should be taken to look after those that exist. Work has already begun in the Jabal Al Akhdar on the reconstruction of Roman cisterns which are another important means of conservation particularly for domestic and livestock supplies. New cisterns should also be built at carefully selected spots for there is no doubt that, in a country in which rainfall is restricted to two or three months a year, much water is wasted by running into the sea that could otherwise be saved, quite apart from the serious loss of soil that such running water causes. More attention should be paid also to the proper development of springs by collecting all seepages and discharges. Such water should be stored in tanks with at least twelve hours discharge capacity to prevent waste at night. All domestic supplies should be piped.
A further source of waste arises on fully irrigated land where settlers may tend to think of water as plentiful simply because it flows from the pump at a flick of the switch. It is important to teach farmers how to use it efficiently and to guard against inevitable overpumping which will either cause wells to dry up, or, on the coastal plains, induce salinity.
Recommendatio No settlement project should be contamplated until a'proper survey of the entire soil and water resources of the area hasbeencompleted and the land capability map prepared. The Team has prepared a number of soil and water surveys to projected settlement areas which will form the basis for further studies.
Soil Resources Survey
A National Soil Survey Department should be established with offices both in Tripoli and Benghazi. This Department should be responsible for surveying all soil resources of the country and carrying out detailed investigations of the areas suitable for agricultural development. The Department should publish soil maps and aim ultimately at producing a complete soil map of Libya. The soil maps and soil analysis data prepared by the Team should constitute the base for this work.
a er Reso rces Invento
The Soil and ',later Conservation Department of the Ministry of AgriculturoslrulA begin workon a Jator resources inventory, starting with the area of the Jabal Al Akhdar following i.he work begun by the Team. This inventory should provide a clear picture of o_Astios water resources springs, wells, oisterns etc, and each oxistins source of any importance should be recorded on maps. A file on eaoh water source containing information on capacity, quality and reliability should be made aloos the linea followed by the Team. -25--
Uridortround Water Su lies and Control
Many more studies are needed on undergroundwater supplies. In the areao whioh the Team has studied a great deal of materialhas been collected but a wider national programme is required which would investigate waterresources in relation o °oil types and land capability. It is recommended that a team of experiencedgeologists and geophysicists should complete the workwhich has been begun in the Jabal Al Akhdar by the Team and provide a full reporton underground water availability.
The Supreme Water Board created by the Water Law and itsregulations, must have access to important data concerning waterresources and it must take careful note of the existing situation in any area before grantinepermite for the drilling of new wells, allowing increased pumping from existing wells,or permiting the use of springs. The Board should ensure that safe-pumping limiteare not being exceeded. Only by such means can underground water supplies be protected from over-exploitation and eventual exhaustion.
Supervision of Resource Use
There is already in existence a Water Law. It is now recommended that a similar law be formulated to safeeuard soil from over-exploitationor incorrect cultivation methods. Neither the Water Law nor a Soil Law will be of value unleso the Government is seriously prepared to enforce them and to implement supervisory and disciplinary action. It is, therefore, recommended that qualified field supervisors ahould be recruited, trained and given the necessary powers to ensure that farmers understand the regulations and that they are enforced; but above all they should attempt to educate farmers in improved conservation techniques. These eupervisors should have the power to inspect all water sources, field aultivations and anti-erosion devices. They could also be empowered to prevent excessive tree-felling and the indiscriminate burning of brush vegetation where necessary in conjunction with the Department of Forestry. They could also supervise land clearance for eettlement to ensure that operations are correctly carried out.
Maintenance of Structures
A more systematic approach must be made to the maintenance of the existing structures for eoil and water conservation and control. Where possible farmers should be encouraged to do what they can themselves but NASA and the Ministry of Agriculture should provide advice on what to do and how to do.it. They should give direct help when it is beyond the resourcee of the farmer. This applies not only to the many dikes, retaining walls, wells, cisterns etc., _from antiquity but% also to new structures such as flood control and water spreading devicee in ;radio which have fallen into dierepair.
Water SøreadinA and P e on
These are simple techniques of which far greater use should be made. Tu water spreading, stream water is diverted from its bed to prevent it being uaebed by running into the sea. Its main use is in the improvement of pastures. Pre- irrigation refers to the control and use of water spreading by which ground is well soaked by using the winter flow of wadi° uhen it is too groat to be stored in tanks or cisterns. In addition to wabering the ground for cultivacion the practice also leaches out dangeroue saits from bhe soil. Both bheoe techniques could make use of large quantities of water that at the momentco 60waste.
Flood Control in Big Wadis
The Government has called for tenders for flood control schemes for the Wadi Meganin (Western Governates) and the Wadi Gattara (Eastern Governates). It is - 26 -
recommended that feasibility studies should be unj.íi to assese the possibilities of utilising stored flood water for establishing Le1 agriculture.
Desalinatibn
There is little immediate prospect of the desalination of sea water proving economic for irrigation; however, it is more than poesible that in some years' time desalinized water could be available for irrigated farming in Libya and if so, it would transform the entire prospects for Libyan agriculture. It is, in the meantime, well worth examining the possibilities of using desalination for the produetion of water for domestic purposes (for example, to serve the DabuSsia-Al Marj pipeline). Desalination has already been used for domestic supplies in other countries of the Near and Middle East and experience is therefore available. Such a project would require a considerable subsidy but the stakes are high and there would be every advantage in gaining experience in the proceso in the hope that ultimately use could be extended beyondimmediate domestic purposes. In any case the shortage of water in parts of Cyrenaica is such that the use Of Government funds on quite an extensive Beale would appear to be justiTied.
' bsion Control
The indiscriminate felling of trees causes severe hill-side erosion and loss by run-off to the plain below. An extensive forest control and reafforestation programme should therefore be developed particularly for the steep Lithosols soils (thin rocky soils developed over hard rocks). Provision must be made to enforce control on planted land and reduce the danger of damage by felling or fire. The indiscriminate felling and burning of forest trees must be prohibited by law and the law enforced.
Windbreaks are an essential form of erosion control. The virtues of windbreak planting can be seen in many old established settlements. It is essential to plan and plant windbreaks before cultivation begins on any settlement in order to prevent significant soil loss,
Overgrazing
The overgrazing of pasture land and the general depredation caused by uncontrolled livestock have long been a source of soil erosion in Libya. A much greater head of stock could be carried if the present grazing areas were properly controlled. In tribal areas of the Eastern governateo there are substantial difficulties in contr:olling the use of grazing until land claims have been properly examined and property rights registered. Strong measures, therefore, should be taken at once to control overgrazing particularly in the Jabal Al Akhdar where animal husbandry is the main type of agricultural activity with the exception of Bayda. The importance also should not be overlooked of allowing grasses to come to seed for regeneration. This would involve restricting grazing altogether in some areas for certain periods.
Additional eteoro al Stations
There is a lack of accurate meteorological data in Libya. Isohyets, for example, are based on the work of Fantoli during the1930s, Local detailed climatic data relating to project areas would be of great help in predicting agricultural potentialities. It is recommended that meteorological stations with automatic recording instrumente be set up by the settlement authority at carefully selected sites. This would also entail the training of suitable pe'reonnel to control these stations. -27-
D 4# ement Planning
Settlement planning is a discipline and it is necessary to makea systematio approach to it from the very beginning. Chapter IV of thio Volume contains selected settlement projects formulated by the Team to serve as an e.N.ample of the basio studies required for andthe techniques of settlement planniag. Reporte on other settlement areas prepared by the Team were nade availableo N.A.5.A. The purpose of presenting these selected settlement projects in this Volume is to indicatethe following;
In the first place, complete surveys of the natural resources must be carried out over the broad area in which a settlement site or sites may ultimately be ohosen. With this should be coupled the preparation of basic maps for the same broadarea. As soon as the soil, water and land capability surveys are completed and interpreted, studies of land tenure should proceed and social and economic investigations of the oonditions of the people living in the area should be prepared. After this work has been done, it should be possible to select suitable sites for actual settlement and to proceed with the moro detailed planning necessary.
The examole of Gianduba in the Western Governates will serve to illustrate the. case of a sito chosen prior to a proper inveetigation of land and water capability. In fact, the sito was chosen before any soil and water studies had been carried out. Once this work was completed, it became clear that the original inUention was un- attainable. Much time and money could have been saved if these endies had been done first.
There is an understandable feeling of urgency that a proportion of the tribal population should be helped improve their economic and social conditions. Because of this, there is often a tendency to rush into agricultural land settlements with no serious appraisal of their futuro economic success. Inadequate basic research leads to land settlement projects not adequately related to reality which aro bound to fail.
Once the initial studies have been compleed, a programme of work should be drawn up giving a carefully prepared time-able for the project and indicating the staffing requirements. The individual seietlement can then be planned in detail paying particular attention to farm size, farm organisationthe selection of the various crops and livestock enterpriRes and tboin° al3p7nonTlato combination, labour requirements, income i;argets, cost and benefit, eo,
One of the main purposee of settlementiGto provide avel)lo Iced. The area of this and the size of busieeso must be rPlated to the area of grazing land and forest land available in the vicinR,y. Tribesmen are pasoralis4o by nature and it is reasonable to assume that in most settlements livestooh: husbandry17111 make an important contribution to their livelihood. The area of irvVgaed land on an indi- vidual farm must be very closely linked to available water supplies.
In the rapidly changing and dynamic economy of Libya seWomenb must provide families with an income which bearo ravounable relationehip Lo yeeban inoomes. Thought about the future earning from the faum businees must be givenat ;he Lime of actual settlement planning. These income argets should be adjneed aceording to rapid increase in urban sectors' incomes. The determination of the size of farming units and incomostosettlers in inter- related with the national economic conditions. -28-
In the present situation in Libya, incomes are rising rapidly. Food pricee, however, have not risen at anything like the same rato. Because of the sheer physical impossibility of increasing local production to the extent required to meet the greatly increased demand, food imports have increased considerably and will oontinue to do so in the near future. At the same time prices of local products have tended to exceed those of imports. In the circumstances, it would be idle to pretend that new settle- ments can survive without a very high degree of subsidy. More than this, it is essential that subsidies, grants and price structure together are combined in such a way as to give settlers a real incentive to work and increase their produotion. It must be made clear to the prospective settlers in a most realistic and practical way that the hard work that they put in will give them an income which will make it worth their while to remain in farming. If this is not done the settlers will inevitably consider their farms to be a base from which to seek other forms of income. In other words, the whole concept of full-time family farming will tend to be replaced by a system of part-time small holdings whioh may in time be desirable. The main issue is that the objective must be completely clear.
The provision of grants and subsidies to farmers as incentives to adopt inno- vations and improved methods of farming is accepted practice in the majority of countries. In countries such as Libya, in which capital formation is in the non- agricultural sectors, capital must be fed back from them to help the development of agriculture. The costs of this support may be very high but the major objectives of subsidies and grants are threefold: -
To overcome the farmers' fears of risks and uncertainties which in Libyan climatic conditions are very real indeed;
as an inducement to adopt improved technology;
(iii)to reduce costs so that the products can be marketed at competitivo prices;
(iv) to ensure reasonable income levels to the producers.
All these factors must be taken into account when planning subsidies for settle- ment projects.
Much more thought needs to be given to thehole series of inter-related problems of grants, subsidies and price level. In drawing up farm plans even though these may be tentative and left sufficiently flexible to meet changing future conditions, it is essential to try to estimate the likely costs and returns to the farmers over a period of years. This then enables the assistance that may be necessary in the early years to be determined in a far more reliable way. The whole question of how a settler obtains a reasonable income to meet the needs of his family must be closely examined and related to the Government's overall plans for economic development and the agricultural sector in particular.
At present the assistance is not operated in a rather systematicmanner. Direct money payments are in themselves thoroughly unsatisfactory and desixoy initiative. If the settler is to make regular payments as a charge for the provision of his holding and for the services with which he is provided such as cultivation and irrigation then his income potential will have to take this into account. Likewise careful thought must be given not only to the possible markets for his produce but also to the appropriate system necessary to get his produce to the markets at competitive prices. It is little use suggesting that a man can grow new varieties of vegetables under irrigation if there is no likely market within reach. There is no reason to assume that all settlements should be treated in exactly thesame way. Income and subsidy may well vary from settlement to settlement. -29
Though land and water may be the basio ofsettlement, it is people who are being settled. In all planning, therefore, great attentionmust be paid to the sociological aspects and to finding out from preliminary studles howpeople live and how they want to live in the future. The prevailing rural conditions of pastoraliemare undergoing a complex process of vital changee due to the heavy and demandingimpact of techno- logical advance. These circumstances have shown the fact thatagriculture is gradually ceasing to be the principle way of life for rural people. Hence the development of settlement schemes must aim not at subsistence farmingbut at commer- cialized viable farming with proVision for both selfperpetuatingcapital investment and capital fOrmation.
Much of the land settlement work carried out in the earlier part ofthis century in Libya was well done. There is the danger, however, of following the conception and traditions of settlement carried out under totally different circumstances from the settlement of tribesmen. The ExEnte houses, for example, built by Italians for the needs of foreign settlers can be modified to suit Libyans, buteven so, they have the disadvantage of being very isolated. In Libyan circumstances there is no excuse for not bringing the tribesman into the project at a very early stage in order that he is involved in the whole process of developing the settlement both as a live- lihood and as a community. Increasingly people want to live in communities, even if quite small ones, and yet there has been a tendency to follow the old pattern of individual houses on recent settlements. If group housing is acceptable for the settlers it has the further advantage of cheapening public services and giving greater flexibility to the change of farm size in the future.
In determining likely income levels in initial planning it is recommended to adjust relationship between crop and livestock prices to ensure that settlers are not tempted, for example, to give up crop production because of the relatively greater profitability of livestock. This also in:volves careful planning to ensure that the subsidies do not result in overproduction of some particular line. It is, therefore, necessary to be forward looking and to keep a close watch on the likely prospects of economic changes say for the next ten years with particular reference to the likely chanEes in demand.
The aim must be to attract the farmer to stay on'the land and the income he obtains and the life he leads must be attractive and comparable with the opportunity of income from other sources of employment and other opportunities offered in urban communiti es.
In the land settlement projects particular attention should be paid to the income capacity of the farms. Thd size of farms should be large enough not only to satisfy income requirements determined by present dynamic changes of opportunities outside of agriculture, but to satisfy income requirements after 10 to 15 years of economic growth. The productlon organization and proposed size of new farms for settlement schemes need to be revised taking account of increasing future income requirements.
Recommendations
(i) Integration of Settlements with the Tribal Economy in the Eastern Governates
Settlement planning must be built within the peculiar dynamics of theLibyan economy. The purpose of settlement planning is to create viable units of produotion and to modernise the traditional tribal sector of agriculture. The new settlements should provide the settlers with an income at a level which can be comparedfavourably with per capita income in the nonagricultural sector. The dynamic nature of the Libyan economy requires that planned settlement schemes should providefor the increase in income levels of the settlers through flexibility inthe organization of production structure by expanding the holdings coupled with increasein produotivity and through payment of government subsidies to settlers. - 30 -
Settlement° ./o Veoteau Uevernateu muut ho inogratodwinlthe i,Abat eeolow outside the oettlocieet elehemee 4lirough pasture ImprovemenL, ereeIng managemotsi,, improvement of aatmel husbandry, prey-1E11E1n Of watorleg points Cer cheep ad ceet;:le of the nomadic and inminomadtoj.ibal popriatioe livieG %u the noighbouheed settlement echemee.
Farm 'noono Po;oir.jal In planning a nettlement oareful attention muet be given to incomepotential. Target incomes are normally based on the aseumption of reasonable standaede of efficiency and of technical achievement being attained. During the initial period incomes will be low though they should increaseas levels of efficiency improve. In the case of fruit trees no return will be obtaiueblc until the troce come into bearing which may involve a period between 4 and 10yeaee according to the type of tree. It is, therefore, etrongly reoommended that in drawing up farm plano these should show not only the target income but the expeeted changos in inoome to the settler as his efficiency improves and where appropriate when his trees come into bearing. Income and expenditure projections must be Lept under constant review in the light of experience in the succeedingyears asidtakiee full account of changes in techniques and perhaps more important in the national price structure. It may well be found a few years after the implementation ofa settlement project that economic conditions have become completely different and the original forecasts quite out of date. There is the further problem of ensuring that technical targete eet are in fact achievable. Only if all these factors are taken into ccount will it be poseible to determine an equitable correction of theinitial low incomes by careful contrived subsidy and prjce manipulation.
Choice of S ttlement Sites
In the choice of settlement cites, the Agricultural Settlement Authority (N.A.S.A.) should look for the most favourable areas in the country which have the greatest scope for production, satisfactory rainfall and other favourable conditions as the Team has done in the Pilot Area of the Jebal Al Akhdar. In other words, it is necessary to concentrate nn the very good areas rather than seread settlement work over the whole country. It is also important to resist undue political pressure in the choice of sites and to avoid undertaking settlement merely to placate regional plans and demands. Programme for Implementation
After a particular settlement area is chosen, it is then essential to draw up a detailed programme for every stage up to including the implementation of the pee- ject. This should include provision for the physical, agricultural and social aspects of the proposed settlement, for the adjudication of load, rights and vegis- tration and acquisition of land for the layout and preparation of settlementor This programme should include a detailed schedule of staff requifemonts for the ohoie period of the programme of work in order that it can be determined exactly %that experts and technicians, at what stage of programme el:ecution and for what pe»ions of time are needed. This will enable them not oaly to plan the individual settle- ment needs but to fit in the staffing requirements sith their overall settlement programme. Budget Specifications and Tenderinei A careful and realistic budget should be preneied hearins in mind future price trends both for the capital cost of settlement and ioe the annual recurrent costs of operation. The strictest contfol must be e]ceroised °vol.'bontha capital und current budgets. The dangevs lio not so much in small cr.oesses of espendituo bui; in that, because uf civeumstances that were not foreseen bu t should hoNe boon,tho cost becomes two ur thpee Limos as much. Provision JhouJd, of course, he made ';'we contingencies but. where these funde have to be useda oluae e:.planaionehould be provided. No tendering work relatione to a se1,tlemont pojeet shonld be undeetekon until a propey technical speeince.tion has bcon propaeod Iv properly quallried per- oonnel. The ao3istance of expatriate experto to undertales thie work mieht be needed particularly in the not fii,u yeare. (vi) Selection of Setb1e
Viable settlement pojecLQ clepondto a great extent on tho earei2u1 of the prospeotive nettlers. soloctioh Some settlements have not beenou0000sfulbcoauso farme were given to settlers who wore agedQr inexperienced or oven had farmo elsewhere or followed another occupation. It ts essen,i o begin a cettlement with a balanced population etructuro with all settlers iu the productivo age group. Careful neleotion is aleo necossary to ensure that oet,tlers focm a homogeebus cecialgroup. In general it is importanL that in the selectionof settlerspriorityohould be given, all other things being equal, to those whoare literate aed potentia3ly prepared for future intensive training in agriculteralpeoductioe, The rulos and procedures for the selection of the settlers prepared bytheTWAaed approved by the N.A.S.A. Board of Directors should be enforced.
It is essential that settlers be oeloctedvery early in any project. As sooa as a project has reached the planniag stage, the beneficiarieeehould be ohosen and involved in the discussions. There areth.eeemein reasons for this: the first is to start their training as settled faemees; the eaeuadis to give them a feeling of being intimately concerned witli the development of thepeojoct and the the third is to obtain the benefit of the' prefereacen aad desiresconcerutag the settlement proposals. Indeed there ao much to be said for taking tho settlersand paying them a wage to a6sist in the constructioe of the settlement whoa work actuallybegins. In this way they can take part la sech tachoae building, hedge, elaaLing, pipe laying. The experience of working together in making a settlement willease the task of forming a cooperativo ohee farmiag beglon.
The Committee which chooses settlers fora project must not be composed entirely of Government officials. Local people ropreeenting both the local authorities and the tribesmen:must be carefully repreeented .,7or they are in a much stronger position to advise about the local population ehan anybody else. The list bf settlers chosen by the Committee must be submitted for approval to the Settlement Authority.
(vii,) Or anizationqfSettlers
From the moment when the settlers are chosen the Settlers' Committee should be formed. It will be a function of this Committee to discuss with the N.A.S.A, the planning of the settlement. Once farming starts, the organization of cooperative society should commence. It will in the early years be necessary to exercise some official form of control and supervision in runnihg the settlement but the ultimato aim should be to reduce it to a.minimum and to prepare and train the settlers to manage their affairs and not to be run by officials. A great deal of help and guidance and oven compulsion will be needed but it is essential for the settlers to feel that they are taking part in the major decisions and not being directed. It is not unreasonable to say that of all the operations involved in creating a settlement that of guiding settlers in theriOatdirection and teaching them how to do their job in an ostentatious yet firm manner is the most critical.
(viii) Cash Paymento to Settlers In principle cash payments to sotaers aro un desirable in that they are destructive of initiative and have the same demoralteing effects of any other formordole. During the initial period of setaemenL preparation, however, settlers should be paid a wage related to the work they undertake. If it is Mond that during the initial stages of farming operations the settlers are poorly off until their income begins to come in, it would be preferable that they should be assisted as far as possible in kind. If this is impossible and cash payments have to be made, they should be made on a selective basis and in the form of loans. The repayments of these loans, if any, must be enforced and taken into account in the projected budgets of the settlers but so phased that they do not beoome burdensome. It is important that these obligations should be made clear to the settlers and that they are not left with any impression that they have the right to an income without -32-
work. As soon as the cooperativo society begins to function a proper system of supervised credit, related to crop loans and seasons, should be instituted. The farmer should be discouraged from taking up seoondary ocoupations providing a sash wage so that he may reali that his farm is his principal source of livelihood.
(ix) Level of Subsidx - For each settlement a careful assessment should be made of the real costs of all the services provided to the settlers; in particular it is essential that the coots of all the mechanical and irrigation facilities are fully assessed including provision for repairs, maintenance and depreciation Thereafter a further assessment must be made of the proportion,if not the total amount, of the oosts which it may reasonably be expected that a settler can be charged for the capital provision and services which he receives. Payment must be made for every- thing that is provided even if on occasion it is notional. The settler must not be under any impression that he is entitled to receive anything free or that the Government is the universal provider. There is, however, no reason why the subsidy level, or indeed the price structure, need be the same on all settlements. Detailed analysic of farm costs and returns would be needed to administer a differential system of subsidies and price guarantees.
Trainin- of Settlers in Farm Budotine- Every effort should be made to ensure that the sett er un 'orstands that thesuccess of his farm depends primarily on him- self alone. The Settlement AUtherity must give him all thenecessary support and be clearly seen to be»deing.so, 'The-settlermust be encouraged from the beginning to prepare income and expenditUre accounts even if in simple formand to be assisted in preparing rough eOtimates of his future budgets. Provision must be made within the extension cervices for assistance relating tofarm management so that settlers may be trained in farm budgeting and in planning theirresources. Field Supervision of Settlement Projects
For each settlement project that is undertaken a supervisor should be appointed in complete charge of the site. His financial and administrative responsibilities should be defined in advance in relation to responsibilities of other local officials, and he should be in a position to take local deoisions without too many references to N.A.S.A. Headquarters. This is a key position in the efficient administration of settlement schemes. Duration of N.A.S.A. Responsibility
The period for which N.A.S.A. should be responsible for supervising settlement schemes should be carefully examined. N.A.S.A. should be responsible in conjunction with the proposed Settlers Committee for the establishment phase of any settlement scheme. Thereafter, once actual farming has begun, the organization of a cooperative society should start 'gTadually and take over the running of the settlement under the guidance of the N.A.S.A. project supervisor who remains responsible for the coordi- nation of the servicrAprovided to the settlers from other ministries and agencies. Then later comes a stage, after a period of years, when the whole settlement may be regarded as viable and at this point it is sug&ested that N.A.S.A. withdraw oompletely and that the setblers should receive services (extension, etc.) from the Ministry of Agriculture and other Goverement departments in the same way as dny other farmers. By this time the Board of Directors of the Cooperative Society should have gained experience in running the settlement. Marke A reportonthe marketing of fruit and vegetablesinLibya asa whole has been submitted by P.A.O. under separate oover J, In so far as the settlements are conoerned,their production plans should be carefully integrated with a marketing policy. Every effort must be made to ensure that farmers are fully informed of the potential markets and the ohanges in prices for their products. Proper faoilities must also be provided for the bulking of the small amounts used by individual farmers into larger quantitiee oonstituting am adequate load to be trans- ported to the market. This will also involve ensuring that the farmers receive immediate but fair payments for their products. In general it is reoommended that the market arrangements in any particular settlement scheme should be in the hands of the cooperative society.
Evaluation
After the initial phase of any settlement has been completed - say after five years - a careful evaluation of the projeot must bemade. This should cover both the social, economic and technical aohievements. It must not be undertaken by people who have been associated with that particular projectbut by properly qualified eoonomists and sociologists engaged for the purpose(for example from the University of Libya or F.A.00). The result3of the evaluation should be treated oonfidentially for informing the Director-General and the Board of Directorsof N.A.S.A. about the weak and the strong elements in the work that has been done. Suoh reports are in- tended mainly for internal use in the Government.
Marketing Report on the Marketing of Fruit andVegetables in Libya by F.A. Shah, FAO Y Economics, Ministry of Agriculture Adviser, Department ofPlanning and Agricultural ana Animal Veslth, December1960. - 34 -
E. The Oranization af Farmin Servicesd Coo.eratives
People who are being provided with farms in the new settlements have any effective experience of intensive arable farming. The success of the settlir depend to a lar extent on his ability to adapt himself to oompleteiy new forms agriculture, such as the grawing of fruit trees in the Jabal Al Akhdar which is a specialized and skilled operation.The Settlement Authority, therefore, has a large responsibility for ensuring that settlers are properly trained and have available to them the services they need. The extension family farm demonstration established in Saadia B settlement area wite the assistance of the Team could serve as a guide in the ttlers training programme. It is equally important to be certain that once farming starts, adequate and efficient services are organized to provide at the right time the right seed, plant protection aeds,, machinery, feed fertilizers, etc., over and above the organization of an effecee.7e extension service.
Very careful thoughthaa to be given to assisting the settlers to adapt themselves to new farming conditions and to follow new techniques. For this reason, it is recommended that the Settlement Authority, before proceeding with the implementation of a settlement programme on a large scale, experiment with the cropping and stocking programme proposed in the settlement plan on a small scale both to see that it is feasible from a husbandry point of view and also to ensure that the plan can work in terms of the labour and facilities available.
There is a serious shortage throughout Libya of reference information for farm management and production economees in agriculture. Little is known, for example, about the existing yields and kinds ofe yields that could actually be obtainable under different farm conditions. The Planningevision of NASA should undertake a research programme which requires mounting to obtaen "yardsticks" for farm planning work. The purpose of this programme should be to get comparative figures of crops performance, production of each crop, farm operating coste, and estimates of farm incomes which may be expected under different climatic and ecological conditions. Matevial frem e=perimental stations, though useful, should be suppltemented by field studies in eelected farms. The Team undertook a farm management ErLady in some settlemeaaraae and eeepared a Farm Account Book which was used la Saadja "D" and translated in,o Arabic for wider use in other areas.
One of the best ways of servicing settlers is to ensure eeat an effective cooperative society is formed from the beginning of tfie settlement. Cooperation in a settlement will only succeed if the settlers have learnt during the preparatory -period to work together and to understand the advantages of helping each other. If the cooperative is to be effective, membership must be a condition of obtaining a farm eath a very careful guidance and supervision from the Settlement Authority and from the cooeeeative officers of the Ministry of Social Affairs. Settlement cooperativee should ere'eebly, in tho first instance, restrict their aceierities to buying,Ir10,11,credit and various social and community aspects.,They sheald not take over machenery servicee until they have gained
considerable experience, le is essential that thee are linked - naLional or regional central cooperativo societies. In a tribal rural society it i mportant for the cooperative to make use of eraditional tribal attitudes of eooe 'ative ways of thinking.
Recommendations
(i) Farm Management Data
It is recommeeded 'uhat the Planning Division of NASA organizes studies for collecting farm management infsemation and establish farm records and account books in conjunction with selected eettlere on different settlements on the basis of the data preparedbythe Team. 35
It is alre eacominded to set upo farm monagemeat eection inthe Ministry of Agri. (nature to apply tiLeae fa rm manaeomant technique:reon national level asid to work clooely with NASA in the fEem plea:fling of sottloments,
Agricultural Coo eration
It should be a oundiliono7obtaining a farm that a settler joino the cooperative. All the members'of tho settlement ohould take paet to bilefullInthe cooperative ;tivities. Compulsion in joining a 000peratkoc ie jueeifiod In the interestsof oottlers to Individually would be eeak and unorgani.aed, Vttention in drown;;QFAO Teohnical LeAsLanceReport 2466 oct Coopeoattwes which cont4ns general recommendations for the jMprovement of cooperation in Ltbyap agricT,Iture.2/ Among thcmoro tmportant propooals that cooperative societies at the local levet should be multipurpoae,eachwitha tr ined manager and a competent clerk;thatthere should be central societies in each of the lree main regions; the% teere ohonld be awholesaleagrievitural cooperative at national level. In addition it is racommended .11.a:c;the new cooperative law already submitted to the Ministry of SocialtLif,IrC1should be implemented as sooa as poseibie. The Settlement Authority should recruit andTWAReaongh offielais for adequate snpervision for all the multipurpose onnutivee LaLite oottlement aria
Elo11.0
The development of intensive farming on settlement farms is virtually impossible without substantial credit provision. Taference is made elsewhere to the policy of unrestricted loans and credit being glean to settlers. Thecooperative shouldprovide the obvious mechanism for paqvUtin6 o',-aduletedservicing credit system. Every attempt should be made to ensure thet ceadet,ts givea for specific neyposes whieh are fully understood by the settler and that it iaoroperlyused, The settlers must also bo made aware of the condiaJons tel.at:ng to loans and to the type of amounbs of loans that ara available. The local settlement cupeeeilsor ahould ba in a position to advise the cooperative on the desirability e-f according credit ao particular farmers.
Machinery Services,
Most of the settlement have been planned on assumption that due to labour shortage, machinery will ele major role in farm ni:- It is, theoafoao, necessary for the machineeo :es to be run effie' d for the organf_aetion of a machinery contract s: ice to ensure that the tmachines are in the right place at the right time with their operators, is very difficult and requires a measure of high organizational ability.
In tile early years of a eettlement BASA will have to provide those services for the settlers and will indeed need to look verycloeeTyat their management. The ultimate am m must be for the so,tlers'cooperativo to take oveethe maohinery services. Before this can be done,however; theoettlero will need a great. deal of experience. NitSA muut tearafore, Crow the baginylee of the sottlemeat, nonduct training for set-Lloro In the correct maletenance end operation ofagriculturalmachinery ;ma In the running of the macnery service in order to prepare them for ultimate responsibility.
oduction
Tba Government should yromote the multiplLeation of suitable poultry breeds for distribution to settlement facmere and asoist them in theestablishment of small poultry flocks. Their production oall Ile intended mainly Cor the improvement o7 the nutritional lovel of the aebtlers and partly foe a source of additional income. 9/"The Cooperativo Movemeet Lu Libya" FAO Report No. TA2166,Romo1968 - 36 -
(vi) Staff Servi the Settlers
A oettlemelii; supervisor?¡The chould be a higilly skilled man, canot bo an e.xpert in cd1 the problems lbat arise and ther,) must be a readily available agricultural w:Lonsicnist as woll,Provision must be mnde forspecialist staff from the Ministry of Agrieulturo to advise settlers In specialised oxtonolon aspects - livestock cropsp arm planning? hey,tiouituro, homo economics9uator and soil conservatiou? etc, -37-
F. Social d Co As.ects of Se
For settlement projects, social investigation of theconditions and needs of the people living in the area should be made first. This should not be a mere collection of statistics on the current situetion but shouldbe a properly designed rural social study which will enable the investigators to determinethe living conditions of the inhabitants, their social organization, customs, preferences?3osires and aspirations as already done, by the Team in the Jabal Al Akhdararea in1965. The survey should be designed and supervised by a qualified sociologiste'7en if he is assisted in the field by relatively untrained staff.
The economic and socialbasis of a new community cannot be properly determined if the basic social information is not available. For eeample, it might be decided in a hypothetical case to develop farms of a size that would requiretwo male adults to work the holding; yet a sociological survey could reveal that in fewfamilies in a particular area were two male adults available. Questions in such a survey must be carefully constructed to avoid data irrelevant to the settlement problem. The1965 Social Survey conducted by four Libyan officials under the Team's supervisionserves as a guide for future social investigations. The development of local leadership, social responsibility and community feeling must be promoted through the earlyyears of the settlement project. Extension work with men and women and rural community service are therefore of importance from the beginning.The amount of money avilable for settlement projects and the comparative freedom with which it is disbursed by the Libyan Government tends to give settlers the feeling that the Government will do everthing for them automatically. In the existing settlements the people are inclined to sit back and wait for NASA or the Ministry of Agriculture to do things for them. It is important to help settlers to feel involved in the progress of their settlement. The settlers' participation in discussions and preparatory works will help to give them the sense of responsibility for their community and will have: a considerable sociological effect in developing self-reliance.To have discussed with specialists about the design of their houses, to have participated in the decision on crops to cultivate, to nave worked together in the planting or perennial crops, to have atended training sessions in demonstration farms to learn new techniques will increase to only their own under- standing of the newconditionsunder which they will be living but their understanding of the new social system in which they have to take part. Creating a settlement is not merely a technological achievement.The aim of those ieeol-A in the Settlement Authority, whatever their particular role, must be to c-eeete 3ettled and contented community-
The process of settling or resettling rural people from their traditional environment to new conditions demands a tremendous readjustment on the part of the individual, and can only be achieved through a,conscious understanding by NASA of the cultural problems involved. When ':/ie larmers concerned have been accustomed Lo a semi-nomadic life, the problem of adjusting to s settled lifo io infinitely greater, The orientation of settlers must be co directed that i4 makes use of their traditional outlooks and the useful features of joint tribal life, To stabilise a settlement7 to maintain continuity, careful attention must be paid to the development of community self-belonging and self-help in order to stimulate and encours.ee local leadership. -38-
Recommendations
Social Suree
No settlement or dü iI;i ,tyi hould be plamwd ia cAy dotai/ unti e pro)JDrly designed rural social survey has been carried out nudor 1ic ',)sponsibilii4 and euper7isie;.1 of a sualiflod rural sociologist, Tho ques%ieumairds ew) 't.,,blesehthofJocl,'7.7 :_uret) (translated Luto Arabic) carried out by the Team in the ?ilot LreT, of the a5a1 al. Akhdar should servo as a guide foi similar work io ether oettlemen
Sociological Training
All personnel involved in extension work e)hemes should have some training in the sociological aspects of rural life ' eheJ):Je, them to understand the farmers' problems, to identify them, and help in their solution.
Careful attention must be paid to the seleetion of therts'etDer:Kernel a..e the field level for settlement work who ites the righ attithdeihdealing eith farme:ce and who are willing to live with them- Social øg1.Jcn
In all commune'e. work care M1A2 be -%aken ze praseevetheuelf-1xip and joint responsibilities of tribal institutions while t he same Vme enuaring tha t undve influence is not exerted on settlers as a result of unsatisfactory 'ibal relationships. In other words, the economic dependence of the weaker on the stiee: eraloces of the tribe must be diminished while tribal cohesion can be used to good in the development of cooperatives and village councils, etc0 in the SE
The creation of proper social organization In setUemeni v,pe,,z in a neceEealy pro-requisite for the satisfactory introdualoe of improved farming ukills and eeeonome innovation. The development of eommullty orgayLlzaiouo 011 enable settlere e take on positions of responsibility in village councils and oosperet'vesv ord to Ccavy on responsibilities and consutai;lons uj.th goorement of;ioeals ehd eart5cularly NASA.
Women's Home Economic
The involving of-the oeie.uouive he settlere'DPOEMWAIG contribute to its success. The settlera' wives and do:Lighters need te be given eeery opportunity to become knowledgeable about their oppoytunf.ties and eeeponsibilities in the settlement scheme. Improved meal praparatioho care uf childral aterage and processing of agricultural crops, and training in sewing sad embroiUeey, ara all benefits that imprete the living conditions end healt'4 o; the oettlere. The threo Home Economic Training Centres for Women organieed with the help e-f the Team in Oongbasi Tripoli and Sebha sho:uld be strengthened tu unsure peactical training of girlcpad women In home economics activities. -39 -
G. Tra' 'n o and Se e
As mentioned earlier under baoic considerations and prioritiesfor immediate action, the training of staff and settlers is a keymeasure for developing an effective settlement programme. This was the main concern of the Team since they startedtheir work in Libya. Their activities to meet this situation covered: in-servicetraining of the small number of counterparts; training of45land surveyoro; enabling Libyan technicians to otudy abroad under the F.A.O. fellowshipprogramme; initiating a training programme for farmers through the establishment ofa pilot demonstration and extenoion centre at Saadia B and training the rural girls from settlementareas in horno economics work in centres established at Benghazi, Tripoli and Sabha; and assisting the Ministry of Agriculture in sending 120 secondary school graduates for training abroad in Agriculture and Veterinary at universities in neighbouring Arab countries who would return to Libya in1970.
But this was only a beginning to create a nucleus of trained farmers and staff and this should be continued at a much higher rate and on large scale. This is because the role of education, extension and training for settlers in critical to the whole settlement process which aims at developing responsible settlers who possess the diver- sified needs and abilities essential for rapid and modern agricultural development. On the part of tribesmen, adaptation to settled life requires a significant change in the attitude of mind as it is indeed necessary for settlers and their families to learn modern farming techniques and learn to adapt themselves to the attitudes necessary for commercial farming.
There is, therefore, need for highly efficient education, extension and training programme for the settlers. The day-to-day contact at the settlement level will be very much better done by Libyans than by expatriates, no matter how competent the latter may be. There is important work to be done, though, by expatriates in helping to organize and develop the extenoion services as a whole.
The Settlement Authority will have to work in close cooperation with the ex- tension service of the Ministry of Agriculture in the development of technical ex- tension and training work and with the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs on the social sido. In order to demonstrate the technical and managerial aspects of agri- culture, it is essential to carry out demonstration within the settlement as started by the Team in Saadia B. For this purpose it is desirable that there should be an area where new techniques may be demonstrated and also a family demonstration farm where the actual effecte of farm management on settlement scale can be shown to the settlers.
The need for training the staff of the Settlement Authority is not confined only to those who are involved in extension and farmers' training work. The proposed training department of N.A.S.A., in conjunction with the College of Agriculture and the Ministry of Agriculture, must develop plans which will ensure both adequate initial training for new entrants to the service and also continuing in-service training to keep N.A.S.A. offieials of all levels abreast of new techniques.
Many of the speoialist posts will have to be filled for some years by expatriates but this should be regarded as an interim measure. It should be remembered that Libyans now training at universities at home or abroadwillnot be able to make a signifioant contribution until they have had at least some years experience after graduating. The argument that men cannot be spared for adequate training is a false one and in the last resort it is more important to limit theAuthority's commitments while the existing staff is properly trained than to plunge on largo settlement programma3with inadequately trained staff. - 40 -
RECOMMENDATIONS
Training at University Level -There ie a great need. for the College of Agri- culture to examine lto teaching and researoh programmin agriculture with a view to making it really relevant to the actual conditions and agricultural development needs of Libyan agriculture. It is particularly recommended that university level training be provided in land tenure, land economics, farm management, farm machinery and hydrology, whioh are crucial to the whole settlement programme.
The selection of Libyans required for a land se tlement programme'to be trained abroad should be according to the programme requirements and the candidates should have to prove their genuine interest in agriculture or in a particular branch of it (especially groundwater, soil and farm machinery). They should be interviewed by a selection board before being granted a seholae-ship and proof of at least two years fieldwork should be an essential qualification. On their return from abroad they should be employed in their field of training.
The Team prepared a list of staff required for N.A.S.A. during the next5years which is contained in Chapter VI of this Volume ore specific recommendationsfor particular fields of activity are contained in threlevant seotions later in this Report.
Intermediate Level and In-Service Trainin Immediate attention should be given to the provision of intermediate technical training, needed for settlement implemen- tation. The intermediate technical level staff are the backbone of the work of N.A.S.A.; in this period of using many expatriate experts, their proper training is imperative. There is no particular problem in organizing training oourses for those who join N.A.S.A. straight from technical training, but short in-service training ceurses must also be devised for older people already on the staff. Expatriate staff might be employed to design and run ad hoc courses.'
One of the most important types of training is the training of senior officers of N.A.S.A. These officers are in need of more experience to eaamine the daily problems of N.A.S.A., how to organize the work in each Department, how to getuse of all technicians working in the Department, etc. The need for this experience reflects deeply the progress qf projects in N.A.S.A. It is recommended that the senior officials of N.A.S.A. should undertake short trainingcourses in administration and related branches at the High Institute of Administration.established recently at Tripoli. They should also visit countries which adopted similar systems of land tenure and land settlement. (iii)Training of Settlers - The training of settlers requires far more serious attention than it has had so far. In the first place settlers ohould be traed in demonstration and training centres as the one initiated by the Team in Saadia BW.The training should continue for several years after farming starts. The extension/training officer must live in close proximity to each settlement so that he is in personal touch with all settlers and their problems and can advise what other specialized agricultural technical services are required from time to time. It is desirable to give advance training to those settlers of proven ability who can act as oatelysts in disseminating ideas through the area of the settlement scheme. Under dry farming conditions there are periods in the year when farmers can leave the settlement to attend farm demonstration and training courses -which may be organized centrally. On irrigated land, if it is not possible for the settler to leave the farm for an ex- tended period, short courses should be organized on the experimental farm units of the settlement soliese, (iv) TraininR of Women in Home Economics and Community Dovelooment- The pioneer programmes for training Nomen run by the Settlement Allhority'in Benghazi, Tripoli
19/"The Role of N.A.S.A. and its Staff Requirements"- Chapter VI - Volume I - General Report. ,,/For a detailed description of this settlers trainingprogramme, seo Dr. Salah 'wNoah's Final Report contained in Volume IV of this Report. and Sabha with the asaistance of the Team, indicate thepotential opportunitiea for a permanent training soheme, to strengthen the horno eoonomics trainingprogramme as it affects both family life and settlement progress.
It is proposed that an inter-ministerial committee be setup representing the departments responsible for Community Development, Adult Education, Agricultural Extension, Nutrition and Health Eduoation, and Education, to promote balanoededu- cational programmes for women and co-ordinate work both in settlements andother rural areas. Conoentrated attention needs to be directed to the development of'three training centres for women - the three already established at Benghazi, Tripoli and Sabha. Eaoh centre requires a qualified home economics training officer and counter- part. Special training programmes for the teachers at the training centres need to be considered, possibly in conjunction with the teacher training programme.
N.A.S.A. Extension Service - The present extension programme envisaged by N.A.S.A, is inadequate and should be strengthened to enable'the heavy programme of work which lies ahead on both existing and new settlements to be carried out. In developing this programme there is need for close cooperation between N.A.S.A., the Agricultural.College, the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Social Affairs for it would be most undesirable for N.A.S.A. to attempt to run an effective extension service on its own. The Settlement Authority's extension service must be a coordinating and liaison body which makes the best use of all the extension and training services available in Libya. The system followed in the two in-service training courses for the settlement projeots supervisors of N.A.S.A. carried out by the Team in 1967 and in 1968 should serve as a guide in future programmes.
In order to facilitate the coordination of extension work there should be a central N.A.S.A. committee known as the Land Settlement Extension Committee with responsibility for overall administrative planning and extension work and the placing of staff. It would be responsible for bringing together the resources of the various extension departments and the Directorate of Research of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Divisions of Cooperativos, Community Development, and Home Economics of the Ministry of Social Affairs.
Famil Farm Demonstration on Settlement Schemes - It is recommended that on each settlement project a typical farmand homestead should be available to extension workers for practical demonstration and for experimenting with new ideas and tech- niques on a farm scale. This would provide extension workers with practical means of advising settlers on management and husbandry problems. Such family farm demonstra- tionsshould be managed by the extension workers in close collaboration with the home economics extension workers in order to provide the basis of a "farm-and-home" development programme to meet the comprehensive needs of farming families. Radio and Television - The use of a special radio programme for settlers could prove an important adjunct to the extension service(though not a substitute for it). Television might also be used on an experimental basis for increasing literacy and general education and for agricultural technical extension; television would have the added advantage o'f reaching the women to promote home economics.
Special Tra Foncinand Farm Machiner- N.A.S.A. owns a considerable number of heavy farta machines and groundwater pumps which are costly. Development of settlement schemes proposed by the Team requires fencing of fruit treesparticularly in the Jebal Al Akhdar. There is therefore a pressing need for practioal training of tractor drivers Skilled workers in maintaining and repairing farmmachinery and water pumps, as well as for fencing. -42-
CHAPTER TII
STPTLEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF THE LIBYAN ECONOMY
A. Transformation of the EoonomL
The transformation of the Libyan economy under the impact of petroleum exploration and development has been dramatic. Oil exports beginning in 1961 have risen rapidly and are expected to continue to do so for the next few years:-
Value of oil e o LÎ million
1961 4 1963 117 1967 428 1968 668 1969 850(projectel
1970 . 1000 (projected
After some seven and half years Libya has become the second largest producer in the Near East ranking after Saudi Arabia. By the end of 1969 Libya should be the third largest oil producing country in the world, and the greatest exporter, with a crude oil capacity of approximately 3.8 million barrels a day.
1. Development PlanningC1962 1969)
When it became evident in the early sixties that Libya would soon be one of the important oil producers in the world, all assumptions and priorities in planning had to be fundamentally altered. As agriculture had been the basis of the economy, it had previously been necessary to promote agricultural production for export in order to earn foreign exchange in particular to purchase capital goods needed for investment. The export of oil made it increasinEly possible to purchase whatever imports were needed without any increase in aericultural production or for
that matter in any non-Oil exports. The activities generated by oil exploitation . also led to rapid urbanization with all the social and economic complications that it causes. In this new situation the Government introduced in 1963 its first Five-Year Plan, the central feature of which was the creation of the necessary infrastructure for sound economic and social development.
Planning has evolved from capital budgeting to more comprehensive plannine with greater attention to the formulation of sector programmes and projects. Even the First Five-Year Plan involved essentially the selection of a number of projects in the public sector only and there was no coordination of them into an integrated development plan for the economy as a whole. In the circumstances of the time this is quite understandable as it was obvious that the major emphasis had to be on the modernization of the infrastructure. The First Plan covering the period 1963-1968 made provision for allocations for development totalling LE169,000,000. Owing to the increased money that became available in the course of the Plan period the original allocations were almost doubled.The combined effect of the rapidly extending oil activity and the large-scale programme of public investment led to a most impressive growth of the economy as a whole.
When the First Plan ended in 1968, it was decided to add another year to it in order to permit more detailed discussions on the draft proposals for the next Plan -43--
and to give time for the completion of a number of unfinishedprojects. For this purpose another LZ143,000,000WRE3allocated bringing the total allocation for the six years to LE480,000,000. Two-thirds of the total expenditurewas devoted to the modernization of the physical infraetructure suchas roads, harbours, airports, electric power, urban water supply, sewage, housing, schools and hospitals. Provision was also made in the Plan for the initiation ofan extensive programme of economic and social subsidies the basic aim of which was to stimulateagricultural production and promote social juetice. Accordingly, between 1963 and 1968 more than 1E32,000,000 was spent on the development of agriculture particularly for agricultura],credit, price support and the subsidization of farm machinery and fertilizers.
Between 1963 and 1967 GDP (at constant prices) grew atan average annual rate of 24.0*percent due almost entirely to petroleum development and itsmultiplier effect on the economy. In 1967 the oil sector alone accounted for about 60 percent of GDP. GNP (also at constant prices) during the same period 1963-1967grew at about 19 percent per annum. As the population appears to have been increasing at about 3 percent per annum, the caput rate of growth of GNP has been about 16 percentper annum. In 1967 GNP per caput was about L300 or US 1840, the second highest only to Kuwait in the Near East.
TAPE 1
PROVISIONAL ESTIMATES OF GDP GNP POPULATION AND PER CAPUT GNP
As) -erage onus xro 196 1965 1967 natal° 1963-67 GDP rE. million 263.2 477.6 624.6 24.0 GNPLE million 253.4 399.4 512.7 19.3 Population (000 518 1,610 1,710 3,0
GNP Per Caput . (Lk) 166.9 248.1 299.8 15.8
(Source: Department of Statistics, Ministry of Planning,. Tripoli, Libya)"
During the period 1957-1962 there were larger deficits on commodity trade owing to the larger imports necessary for the oil companies to carry on their programmesof exploration and development. In 1963 the situation changed with the rapid rise in oil exports and an increasingly favourable balance on commodity trade has been recorded since rising from about LE73,000,000 in 1964 to about 1E172,000,000 in 1967. Government revenues from oil rose from about 1E2,000,000 in 1962 to about LE170,000,000 in 1967. Since 1963 70 percent of oil revenues has been set'aside by law for development.
Consumer expenditure on goode and servicee (at current prices) grew by 21 percent per annum between 1963 and 1967, and gross fixed capital formation by 29 percent per annum. -44-
TABLE 2
CONSUMER AND GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON GOODS AND
SERVICES AND GROSS FIXED CAPITAL FORMATION
(at current prices LE million)
1965, Average Annual Growth Rate % 1963-67
Consumer Expenditure on goods and services 145.2 207.1 310.6 21.0
Government Current Expenditure on goods and services 32.2 62.4 105.1 34.0
Gross Fixed Capital Formation 69.2 140.8 190.5 29.0
(Source: Department of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Tripoli, Libya).
The figures in Table II take no account of the rises in prices due to the inflationary effects of the impact of receipts from oil. The rise in investment took place primarily in the oil industry and through government expenditure. The dynamic factor has been essentially the former which, in turn, has stimulated the other sectors - construction, transport, commerce and services. Direct employment in the oil industry has however been small. According to the Industrial Census of 1964 the total number of employees in petroleum mining was.9,657.constituting only 2.5 percent of the economically active population, a proportion which is not likely to change significantly,in the next five years.
While the growing receipts from oil have relieved the economy of the burden of raising capital for development, there have been serious constraintson development, the most important of which has been the lack of trainedmanpower. Out of the total population of about 1.6 million in 1967, the economically active population has been estimated to be about 422,000. The dearth of persons for skilled occupations has been particularly marked and the degree of illiteracy is still high. Development of non-oil induetry other than agricultura], processing has been further handicapped by the lack of known raw materials and by the limited size of the domestic market.
2. Agricultural Output
At constant prices it appears that the output of the agricultural sectorhas increased by about 25 percent over the period 1962-1967 but asa proportion of the national income it has fallen from 11 percent to about 5 percent. 45
TABLE3
ESTIMATES OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURE TO THE NATIONAL INCOME (Million LZ)
1962 120_ ]966, Current Prices Agriculture 14.9 15.1 25.0 27.1 30.3 National Income 131.8 194.4 384.5 478.1 574.5 Constant Prices Agriculture 17.3 17.2 22.8 21.7 21.5 National Income 159.6 230.5 364.8 421.8 468.4
(Source: Agricultural Planning and Economics Depar ont, Mini of Agriculture and Animal 'Wealth, Tripoli, Libya)
The estimates of agricultural production,thoughsubject to wide fluctuations because of the limited and variable rainfall, show an upward trend since1960for many of the principal crops notably wheat, groundnuts, olives, onions, tomatoes and dates. Other crops show little chango or slight falls. The estimates of the nurnbercf livestock kept have aleo shown steady increases since1960with the exception of animals kept essentially for work purposes. The latter group increased up to 1965and since then has fallen sliTtlyprobably reflecting the increased use of mechanical traction and implements.'" Though no proper assessment surveys have been made, there can be no doubt that increased irrigation facilities and supply of fertilizers, pesticides and other inputs at subsidized pricee have played a great part in raising production. The Government's policy in making available tractors and machinery must also have had a great effect especially in more recent years. This higher produotion has been achieved by enabling the farmer to cultivate and harvest more land, especially that under wheat. The doubling of production of wheat was largely due to doubling the area cropped but there has been little change in the yield per hectare. There were no great changes in the areas under other crops. Yields per acre fOr barley, ground- nute and tomatoes apparently increased by about 50% over the last six years 1961-1967. Little change in yield is indicated for sorghum and potatoes and the yield of maize decreased. All the figures must be treatedwi2;t4caution as the methods of estimation are subject to a wide margin of error..-! Yields are also heavily dependent on the very, considerable variations in rainfall.
The changes in production must be reviewed against the overall background of higher incomes leading to increased demand for foodstuffs. Though production has increased it has not kept pace with the total increased demand. This trend is reflected in the greatly increased imports of food, supplies of which are often cheaper and more regular and which have been possible as there have been no foreign currency problems. Only wheat, among the principal food items, has fallen but this has been replaced by increased imports of wheat flow. The increase in numbers of sheep, lambe and goats imported has also reached very high levels indeed.
For detailed estimates of crop production and livestock populationfor1960 to 1967sse Tables I and II respectively in the statistical annexto this chapter. IV respectively !../ For details of estimates of areas and yields see Tables IIIand in the statistical atInex. -46-
Imports of milk and cream which it is difficult to express in oveyntitative terms have inoreased in value neRrly fivefold between1960and1966.21
Exports of agricultural products both in terms of quantity and of value have fallen off due partly to the high prices obtainable locally and partly to the emergence of easier ways of obtaining cash returns. The exception has been hides and skins which have increased as the result o the greater number of livestock consumed, both locally produced and imported.
3. The Agricultural Population and Productivity
The increRse in agricultural output has been achieved despite a fall in the farming population.
The petroleum development and its impact on the other sectore of the economy has accelerated the migration from .ple rural to the urban areas. According to the Agricultural Census the farm population in1960was about 855,000. Those above 15years of age who regarded agriculture as their principal occupation were stated to be nearly 280,000 of whom about 190,000 were males. In1964according to the Population Census there were about 147,000 who were recorded as stating that farming and similar activities were their principal occupations. Of this total 143,000 were male and 4,000 female. These figures, however, referred to those aged6years and above. As the total number of those aged between6and15recorded as engaged in all occupations was relatively small it would seem that there was a fall between 1960 and 1964 of something like 40 to 50,000 males of working nEe engaged in agriculture. Definitions were not identical in the two censuses but the great difference in the four-year period indicates that a very large proportion of the farm population had given up agriculture at least as a primary occupation.
It would appear that the increase in opportunities for non-agriculturql employment may have led to number of farmers treating their agricultural activities as part-time and secondary. These part-time farmers were probably recorded as being in non-agricultural employment for the purpose of classification in the Population Census. To this extent, therefore, the apparent reduction in the number of farmers only indicated a reduction in under-employment. The great migration from the country to the towns observed during the laSt few'years has so far been mostly by working males without their families. During the next few years it seems likely that these new town dwellers will be joined by their families.
Increased production from a reduced agricultural population indicates an increased productivity per head. The most likely explanation of the increased productivity appears to be that the pattern of traditional farming operations was such that the great majority df farmers were unemployed or under-employed for the greater part of the year. With the many opportunities now open to them for employment outside agriculture, they are tending increasingly to regard their non- agricultural jobs as their principal source of income though they retain their farms and work part-time on them.
For details meo Table V in the statistical annex
AL/For details see Table VI in the statistical annex
22 For a fuller discussion of this problem in certain developed countriessee Paper ERC: 68/4"Problems Ahead - a brief review of trends and tendencies in European agriculture". Sixth FAO Regional Conference for Europe- Malta October1968. -47--
4. Dev lopment Planning for l(69-
The investments envisaged for the Second Five-YearPlan(1969-74)totalL,591.3 million. The general long-term aims of the Planare as follows!
The achievement of faster growth in the natienaleconomy with emphaeis on increasing productivity and the attainment ofa higher leve], of employment.
The reduction of economic disparities between the variousregions and the realisation of come social goals such as the reduction in thegreat difference in per capita income and wealth between the rural andurban communities and between social olasses, and the provision of social security and social and cultural development.
The expansion of the social services sector (housing,healthand education) with the aim of improving the productivo efficiency of the Libyan people.
The development of non-oil sectors, diversification of produetion and the expansion of production capacity of agriculture and national industries.
The provision of all economic infrastructure necessary for further development.
Altheugh oil will still be providing54percent of the GDP at the end of the Second Plan period, the absolute value of the agricultural production at constant 1967prices is expected to increase from LZ30.3 million in1967to 1,Z40,6 million in1973. Similarly it is estimated. that the value of industrial production will increase fromU16.4million to1,Z49million during the mame time. Similar trends are expected in the service industries.
In order to achieve this target the new Plan will begin to shift the emphasis gradually from investment in the basic pnysical infrastructure to the development or productive enterprises in agriculture and industry, including petro-chemical and energy-based industries to the extent that the Market 'opportunities can be -developed. The Plan fully recognises the crucial place which the development of skilled manpower occupies in all these projections.
The development of agriculture is considered by the Government to be of major importance in its policy of diversification to lessen dependence on income from oil. It is aleo important that in spite of the reduction in the number of workers engaged in agriculture, the industry in1968still cave employment to 30 percent of the working population. In view of the great demands for labour, particularly in the construction industry, that will be made in the Second Five Year Plan and in spite of the measures to benefit those in rural areas it cannot be expected that the numbers employed in agriculture will remain at preeent levels. Since 1960 this total has fallen both absolutely and as a proportion of the total labour force and it seems likely that the trend will continue. It is ebtimated that by 1971,out of the total labour force of549,000,only 139,000 or about 25 peroent will be engaged in agriculture.This calls for a considerable effort in raising the productivity both of labour and land if production is not to fall let alone be raised.
The Second Five Year Development Plan aims at spending about LZ150,000,000 on agriculture. The proposed allocation of this expenditure is as follows: -48-
Million LZ 7. 1. Research, extension and statietios programme 3.4 2,3 2,Marketing, credit and storage programme 60.3 40.7 3. Water development and irrigation programme 30.0 20.3 4.Plant production (field crops, horticulture and vegetablee, plant proteotion and mechanization) 9.3 5.1 5.Animal wealth development 4.8 3.2 6.Foreetry and pastures 10.4 7.0 7.Land Settlement 16.9 11.4 8. Agricultural roads 14.8 10.0 149.9 100.0 It will be seen from the above figures that the greatest proportion, about 40 percent of the total, is to be allocated to marketing, credit and subsidies and about20percent to water resources. Land settlement receives directly 11 percent but would also benefit from the allocations to other sub-sectors. The annual expenditure of the order of Lk30,000,000 whioh is roughly equivalent to the entire value added by agriculture eaoh year, is expected to producea five to six percent annual rise in agricultural output,
5. Food Demand Trends
The targets for production of the principal food crops have to be related to the estimates of food demand. The data for past trends of food consumption patterns are very scanty but what there are show that there have been great changes. Before1962the Libyan diet was typical of many arid countries with a large calorie deficit and a high protein/calorie ratio. The sugar consumption was what might be expected from comparieon with countries of similar social and religious patterns but milk coneumption was lower than that in most other nomadicareas. Private consumption expenditure more than trebled in six years and reachedan average of about U.S. 8350 per head by1966. This, coupled with the drastic change in occupational patterns, has brought about considerable changes in food consumption as shown below.
TABLE4
CHANGES IN FOOD CONSUMPTION
Average per head
1961-63 1964-66 Calories intake (per day) 1714 2107 Total protein intake (gr, per day) 49.3 57.2 Animal protein intake (gr. per day) 10.2 12.5 Fats intake (gr.perday) 35.2 51.5 WiVe oil OCg. per year/ 4.4 8.7 Sugar (Kg. per year) 13.1 17.3 Wheat flour (kg. per year) 75.5 86.7 Rice (paddy) (kg. per year) 5.6 12.4 Dairy product imports (US per year) 2.0 4.6 Meat (kg, per year) 13.1 17.3
The figures above indic.te that the average Libyanoonsumer has tended
to meet the calorie gap by increased consumption of cereals and oils; to have apreference for animal protein. As this has led to increased prices arisine in part from an inadequate distribution system, there has been a predominance of camel meat and imported milk in his increased intake; -49-
(c) to diversify his diet. In spite of upward price movements the change hui not been as great as one might have expected owing to the time lag in food consumption pattern changes in relation to the income insuch a rapidly changing society.
Provisional demand projectionsto1985have been madeby F.A.O.for many countries for the purpose of theIndicative World Plan. Inthe caseof Libya these demand projections interpretedin nutritional terms are:
1961-63 1964-66 1975 1985 Protein: Calorie ratio: 11.5 10.8 10.8 11.0 Contribution of Nutrients (as % of total calories) Animal protein 2.4 2.4 3.0 3.8 Vegetable protein 9.1 8.5 7.8 7.2 Sugar 9.5 10.5 12.0 13.2 Free fats 8.9 12.1 13.0 13.9 Total fats 18.5 22.0 23.4 26.2 Total cabrios as % of eguirements (estimated 74 90 102 110 at2340calories)
From this it will be seen that'the protein/calorie ratio which, following the decline due to rapid urbanisation together with the tendency to meet first the calorie deficiency, will tend to improve again in time. It is still significantly below the level observed in most of the wheat-based diets in the Mediterranean area, mainly because of the structure of the Libyan diet. The expenditure on food seems likely to fall from26to20percent of private consumption expenditure by1985. At constant prices and in spite of any effect of changes in quality, the percentage is not likely to fall below this figure.
In spite of all the efforts which are likely to be made to increase Agricultural .output, rising living standards are likely to increase demand for the major 'commodities well beyond levels which can be met from local production. Some idea of the order of magnitude of the problem can be obtained by examining the excess of the estimated consumption needs of the country as projected for1974over production levels for1967. The figures of the excess for a number of commodities are shown in Table V below together with the figures for imports in1967. If production did not chance from the1967level the figures in the first column would indioate the total imports required to most fully consumption needs.
The difference between the second and first columns indicates the dncrease in imports that would be required. -50-
TABLE 5,
Comparison of e cess of estimated demand over production in 1967with imports in 967
Excess of Est. Demand In1974over production Imports in1967 Difference in1967 (i) (2) (2)
Wheat 208 148 60 Rice 32 16 16 Barley 90 43 47 Maize 5 1 4 Potatoes 16 1 15 Sudar 85 85 Onions 11 6 5 Tomatoes 50 50 Citrus 25 (5)exports 30 Apples 17 11 6 Dates 12 12 Beef 6 4 2 Mutton & Goats meat 15 6 9 Poultry 1 1 Camel meat 9 3 6 Eges 3 1 2 Milk & Yoghourt 61 31 30 Olive Oil 23 11 12 Vegetable Oil 4 2 2 Groundnuts 10 (10) exports 20 Banana 6 Almonds 4 1 3
The Government is we 1 aware of the problem of rapidly.growing imports. It sets out in its Second Five Year Plan some of the principal crop targets that it is hoped to reach as a result of the outlay proposed by1974. The crops for which targets are mentioned are grouped somewhat differently to those for which demand has been estimated. Nevertheless in comparison with production in1967they are sufficiently clear to indicate that the Government hopes to make considerable progress in limiting the increase in imports of fruit and vegetables. -51-
TABLE 6
Com)arison of Major Crop Targets in1974with Production in1267 000 tons
Productiox Target Increase 1967 1974 (2) - (1) (1) (2)' (3) Wheat 50 80 30
Sor). ey 100 125 25 Groundnuts 14 24 10
Feed Grains 30 40 10 Pot atoes 4 14 10 Maize 1.5 3.5 2 Fruit 150 172.5 22.5 Vegetables 150 195 45 Dates 48 60 12
B. The Role of Land Settlement Deve
When serious consideration began to be given to increasing agricultural production in the late 'fifties, the great majority of the farmers livedin ihe tribal lands where productivity was very low. The Libyan Government had for some years been making avadlable mechanical equipment and fertilizers, pesticides and other inputs at subsidized prices,. and irrigation systems. Ashas been shown earlier in this chapter, some improvement in the productivity of the farmerswas achieved oven if some of them have become increasingly engaged only part-time in agriculture. This improvement has .however been largely an intensification of the traditional farming pattern of production mostly for subsistence with small surpluses for sale. Even the use of tractors and mechanical implements has not changed the basic pattern significantly.
1. Modernization of Tribal A riculturs
Until the Government sought means to raise the level of agricultural output, the farmers had been able to cultivate their land annually under customary law and the few difficulties that aromo could easily be settled. It was clear that it would become quite a different matter if the farmers were to be given more security of usufruct whether it were only a leasehold for a suitable period or a conditional ownership as an incentive to make long-term improvements to the land such as planting tree crops. A completely new series of problems emerged in relation to some of the improvements such as the provision of better water supplies and irrigation' systems, These often involved heavy capital expenditure which could only be met -52-
from public fundo and the rights and obligations of individuale had to be reconsidered in relation to the good of the community as a whole. Furthermore, the introduction of new oultural techniques meant some concentration of effort: mechanical services would have to be provided fromRcentral point in each area and regular exteneion servicee would be Par more effective and much less costly if provided inteneively in a compact area rather than soattered widely. In general the modernization of the tribal sector of agriculture demands heavy investment and expensive inputs to obtain high returne so that the farmer can obtain an income comparable with that from non-agricultural occupations.
The foregoing were some of the reasons which led the Government to place great emphasis on the improvement of the land tenurial arrangements and on settlement schemes. It was considered that only with private ownership would the farmer feel completely confidant that he and his family would reap the benefits of investment that he made in his land. There was already the example, in sharp contrast to tribal land farming, of the ex-Ente farme situated in some of the most fertileareas.
At the same time the conservative nature of the farmers and their lack of formal modern education had to be taken into account. The traditional agricultural pattern giving first importance to shifting cereal production and free-ranging herds of camels, sheep and goats had been gradually built up over the previous centuries. It would hardly be surprising if farmers were suspicious of new methods to them as yet unproven and, if unsuccessful, likely to reeult in the lose of a year's food supply. The natural risks in obtaining a crop at all especially in such an area where rainfall is so limited and variable are so great that the farmers could not but think it would be unwise to add further risks.
It was therefore considered that any new farm system that might be proposed would have to come by evolution from the existing farm pattern and within the social and political context; it could not involve an abrupt and dramatic break with the past. The emphasis was placed on the improvement of small farms which were considered to be within the limite of the farmers' technical and managerial ability and which were not too different to the systems to which the farmers had been accustomed by tradition.
The project for rehabilitating the ex-Ente settlements and creating new ones was intended to be spearhead of agricultural developMent in Libya. It was started in the knowledge that considerable revenue would be coming from the exploitation of oil. Funds both for the capital investment and for the recurrent costs such as administrativo charges and temporary subsidies therefore would be freely available. It was also expected that the increased oil revenues would raise the general standard of living throughout the country and thereby create markets for the farmers' produce.
What no one foresaw were the fantastically rapid and drastic changes that took place in the economy' and particularly the acceleration of urbanization and inflationary pressures. A growing disparity between urban and rural incomes soon became obvious and short-term stop-gap measures have been introduced to try to reduce it. Such measures included price support for certain agricultural products, subsidies to reduce costs of inputs, the creation of additional government jobs locally involving little or nominal work and, in the case of farms in settlement schemes, the payment of monthly subsistence allowances during the development period. These measures were clearly understood to be based on social and political needs and were not to be judged by narrow economic criteria. -53-
2, Land Utilization
The startinc point of land settlement must be theamount of available land with good soil and water. At the time of the last Census of Agriculturein1960,it was found that, out of the total land aren of about174million hectares, only about 3,9million hectares or less than2.5percent of the land, was used for agricultural purposes. Another12million hectares appears to have been found to beused for rough grazing. The detailed breakdown of the use of agriculturalland was as follows:-
TABLE7
USE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND-1960
Category Area ('000 ha.) Per Cent Annual Crops 991 41.8 Cultivated for forage (for less than5years) 78 3.3 Vegetables and Flowers 18 0.7 Fallow 1288
Total Arable 2375 100.0
Total Arable 2375 61.4 Permanent Crops 134 3.5 Pastures (cultivated for Moro han5years) 1136 29.4 °rests 63 1.6 Other Land 160 4.1 Total 3868 100.0
Permanent grass lands cover about one-third of the total agricultural land and of the total arable land more than half was fallow. Between120,000and 130,000 hectares or about4per cent of the total arable land appears to have been under irrigation and a slightly greater amount under permanent crops. The total number of agricultural land holdings was about 140,000, more than40,000of which were under5hectares and of these three-quarters were irrigated. About half of the farms were less than'10 hectares and less than half of these were irrigated.
The above figures are unlikely to have chanced significantly. Though there is as yet no complete overall picture of the soil and water resources of the country, it is clear that the number of areas suitable for development are limited. Even the recent announcements about the discovery of large quantities of underground water available in the Kufra area suggest that in the next five years only 25,000ha. of arable land may be reclaimed by irrigation.However, though this is only a4per cent addition to the total land area harvested in1967,the proportionate increase in production will be far greater as all the additional land will be irrigated.
As has already been pointed out by the IBRD Mission which visited Libya in September1968,the main problem of Libyan agriculture lies in the present low productivity of land and labour. Though thure is a growing scarcity of labour in the agricultural areas, there continues to be a hard core of low productive -54-
employment duo to the unfavourable structure of sise of holdings, the low productivity of dry land and the relatively small area under irrigation. Labour problems are clearly going to become even more acture in the next five years. It is understood that if the programme set out in the Second Five-Year Development Pla'n is implemented some 40,000 workers will be required in the construction industry alone. Thie must have the inevitable effect of accelerating the drift from the country to the towns unless agriculturil incomes and rural conditions can be raised to comparably attractive levels. The only possibility for futuro agricultural development would appear to lie in capital intensivo farminE. The crucial point is to devise some system of farming which can bring this about, otherwise it would be futile to expect people to remain on the land or return to the land. This has the most important implications on the future of land settlement, the size of the farms and the various services to be provided to increase productivity.
The proportion of agricultural land which could be developed into land settlements and the contribution which the settlements could make to total domestic production and to opportunities for employment depend on the decisions of the Government on the extent to which it wishes to expand settlements in those areas where the technical and economic studies have shown that it is feasible and profitable to do so.
3. Farm Patterns for the Proposed Settlement Schemes
During the courue of the project the F.A.O. Team has worked out farm patterns for a number of settlement projects. These patterns depended partly on technical factors such as the quality of soil availability of water and yields and partly on economic variables such as prices of products and of inputs.The technical factors naturally remain virtually unchanged but the economic variables are quite different now to what they were when the project was first considered in1962.
The farm patterns, eome of which were drawn up in1964-65,were intended to Eive manageable units that couldbe worked largely by family labour and which nevertheless would give a reasonable income both by comparison with what the farming families were previously bbtaining and also with the incomes which they could earn in non-agricultural employment, usually in urban areas. In1964,it was felt that a target ofLZ600per annum per male adult was a reasonable proposition and the new farm plans were intended to provide four or five times the net income which had previously been obtained on traditional farms.
The assumptions on which the farm plans were baaed, are no longer tenable. The increased alternative opportunities for employment have reduced drastically the need for workers to obtain a mere subsietence level income from their farms. Incomes in non-agricultural occupations in1969are several times what they were in1964and even an ordinary unekilled labourer can obtain LE30 a month in urban employment. Most workers especially if they have any qualifications whatsoever should obtain LE50 and upwards per month. Agricultural pricee have risen far less than wages and the gap therefore between agricultural and non-agricultural incomes has widened considerably. The farm plans that have been drawn up so for need to be re-appraised in the light of current economic data and to be kept under constant review in the future.
Attention must be drawn to the comments made in a memorandum on agriculture by the IBRD Mission of September 1968. "Development of water resources, improvement of production methods to increase produotivity on dry arable land and on grassland, and the intensification of land use by tree planting are important and effioient means to increase the productivity of farme Rnd the income of farmers. However, -55-
even if these measures are suitally applied incomecapacity is limited by the small size of the majority oC the Libyan farms and isnot sufficient to satisfy the Increasing income requirements of the farmers"...""If the Goal of keeping as many people as possible in agriculture is to be retained,land settlement projects obould bp used in solving the size problem"... "In the land settlement prcjects particular attention nhould be paid to the income capacity ofthe farms.. The farms should be large enough not only to satisfy income requirementsdetermined by present opportunities outside of agriculture, but to eatisfy incomerequirements after 10 to 15 years of economic growthy completedor ongoing settlement project:: do not meet this requirement. The organization and proposed size ofnew farms need to be checked and, if necessary, revised taking into account the increasingfuture income requirements."
(a) Net Returns under New Farm Plans for Settlements
Farm plans in principle set out the gross returns, costs andnet returns thatmay be expected when all parts of a farming business with certain giventechniques are in full operation. The full returns from the business as set out in the plano cannot be attainable for some years. A period of time has to be allowed in any case to enable the farmers to reach the appropriate level of managerial and technical competence before they can expect to obtain satisfactory resulta from their farming activities. Schedules of expected costs and receipts need to be drawn up over a long period especially in the case of planting economic tree crops in order that the farmer may have a clear picture of what his financial targets are and what he mv reasonably expect. These eChedules are also necessary for administrative purposes in order that fair charges may he made again6t the farmers' income if this should be considered desirable and'neceesary for such purposes as repayment of initial capital expenses. The schedules are,-of course, only targets and naturally in some years the net returns may be exceeded whilst in others there may be short-falls due to variations in weather conditions or in prices of products or inputs.
Ptesent data are hardly adequate as a basis for elaborating the schedules of returns. Agronomic research is insufficiently advanced for the farm planner to have adequate data for each area on the increment in yield which may be expected as a result of improved practices. Much more needs to be done in local trials to determine what are the responses of various varieties of a particular crop to the application of fertilizer, pesticides and other inputs as well as to improved husbandry practices including mechanical cultivation. The results of isolated trials cannot be extrapolated to other areas without grave risk and local field trials need to be undertaken as a matter or urgency.Apart from the uncertainty relating to the actual production figures which have had to be utilized for the purpose of farm planning, there has bad to be a considerable element of subjective judgement in relation to all economic data, particularly prices and costs.
In most cases in Libya at least 7 years has to be allowed before the fruit trees included in the farm plans come into bearing.During the initial period, the target income per male adult, exeluding the receipts from fruit, in most of the farm plans that have been worked out by the Team amounted to only about LE240 per annum or LZ 20 per month. Farm plans for certain more profitable projects are included in Chapter4. In the case of El Hania the net cash income, excluding receipts from fruit, per male adult would be about LE32.5 per month and for El Useta and Collina Verde about LE 35.5 per month. These figures are assuming that all aspects of the farming business other than fruit are giving the full expected net returns. Including tha income from fruit the target net cash incomes would :rise to LE60.2 for El Useta, LE52.5 for Collina Verde and LE37.7 for El Hania. No allowance has been made in aay of these figures for the non-cash expenses such as that for depreciation in order to show clearly the actual cash position to the farmer. -56-
Po give the true position the non-cash expenses must be included.
The net returns indicated in the farm plans were arrived at after taking into aeoount the subsidized costs of the inputs (fertilizer seed, mechanical cultivation, eletricity etc.) Furthermore, provision was made for only a nmall part of the initial capital outlay and no provision has been made for repayment of the initial loans towards the establishment coste. The latter include loans forsubsistenceofupin LE15 per month for a maximum of three years for the owner of irrigated land and of five years for the owner of non-irrigated land. The Government maY wish to give further thought to the clarification of whether the various subsidies and similar payments are to be treated as grants or loans. A good case can be made out for either pcint of view but the decision must be a political one.
(b) tabour Problems in Settlement Projects
The most important limitation on the use of the farm plans that have been developed by the Team is the constraint caused by the labour time involved in each farming operation. It is assumed in most of these that each family will have two male adults who will be available to work full time at any period during the year. It is the male adults on whom the main burden of the farm work must fall and the rest of the work performed by the women and children is only marginal. In the Census of Agriculture in 1960 the data collected showed that the number of males in each farming household and the number of male adults in those households and engaged in agriculture was as follows:
Eastern Governates Western Governates Southern Governates former Cyrenaica) (former Tripolitania)(former Fezzan)
Total no. of males in family over 15 1.7 1.8 2.0
No. of males engaged
in agriculture over 15 . 1.4 1.3 1.0
This pattern of occupation within the family appears in general to be confirmed by the socio-economic surveys conducted by the Team. It is, however, important to note that, if two men dre required as an essential part of the family farm labour force, then not more than one in three of the households would have a second adult male in the Eastern and Western Governates and in the case of Fezzan hardly any families at all would have enough manpower to operate the systems proposed. The alternatives are therefore to reduce the size of farms to that which can be managed by one man or to change completely the technique of production. The Government will no doubt, wish to re-consider whether it is possible under current economic conditions to induce 2 men on the average per family to remain in agriculture, or (an even more difficult proposition) to attract back to farming a sufficient number of men to give an average of 2 per family.
In addition to the family labour force it has aleo been assumed in any case that hired labour will be available for several months in the years when required, as for example, in Rania where extra workers would be required full-time at least during the months of April, May, Juno and aleo November. In modern circumstances this has now become a highly unrealietic assumption when in the country as a whole there is already a chronic shortage of labour. Every farmer in the settlement will be requiring extra labour at the same time and the chances of his being able to find it at short notice when al his neighbours are doing exactly the same thing are extremely remoto. For the many settlement schemes in close proximity to the -57-
towns it would be impossible.
(o) Problems of Mechanization
Where the supply of labour is inadequate there muet inevitablybe a shift to more capital intensivo methods of production. In all their reporto, the Team have made the assumption that tractors and mechanical implementsare readily available to oil farmers who need them as and when required. It is realieed that the Provision of seasonal farm machinery services for farmers is notan easy task. Most of the work required is for short periods only eachyear, during which time all farmers want to have their work done.
There are innumerable factors which may delay theprogramme of work, such as breakdown of machines, sickness of operatore, unfavourable weather and other hzards. These delayswillcause the farmers to complain bitterly if their fields are not cultivated at the optimum time. In any case, the management both of the servicing and operational aspects is a highly skilled operation and well-trained and experienced supervisors will be an essential feature of any mechanical service.
Apart from the difficulties of managing mechanical services in a country where little has changed on the farms for many years, it is natural that some farmers will be conservative in applying the new methods proposed. It may be necessary to allow some years for the farmers to adjust themselves to the demande of mechanization and to learn to appreciate not only the capabilities but the limitations of the machines and to ensure that the expense of using machinery gives rise to increased net income
At1969prices the cost of the type of tractor proposed is about L1,200 and for the other implements between LX300 and LE400 each, with the exception of the combined harvester which is about LE3,500. Costa per hour, excluding drivers' wages would be approximately:- Lk Fuel 0.255 Spares & 'Maintenance 0.160 Depreciation 0.320 Supervision 0.500 1.135
The output per hour of a tractor with a chisel plough would be about three-- qu.arters of a hectare per hour. For drilling and fertilizing about one hectare per hour, for discing abdut half a hectare per hour and for combined harvest about one and a half hectares per hour. Making allowance for the drivers' wages which are about LS45 per month, including subsistence allowance which now appears to be an essential incentive to induce them to take up the work, the cost per hectare for each operation would be of the order of LE2. In other words for all the mechanical operations the cost would be of the order of magnitude of LE16 per hectare. As the equipmentwill be used for only a short time during the year, there must also be heavy overhead costs resulting from unutilised equipment and operators staying idle. It will clearly be necessary for the Government to subsidize mechanical operations perhaps even on a considerable scale and for some years to come. This
. would be a justifiable policy to adopt at this stage but it is necessary also to consider now what should be the ultimato policy. It gems to be univereal experience that the government hire services run at a loss. To overcome this, many, countries have used cooperative societies for the provision of farm machinery services but, even though the bureaucratic system of Government organization leads to inefficiency and financial loso, there has been little evidence to show that cooperatives can do much better. -58-
Cooperative societies, consisting of the farmers themselves, are not likely to have the financiialM3Rn5of hiring staff of the right Calibre. There are few cases where such societies have prospered and indeed their number has been decreasing even in thosedeveloped countries where there has been a long history and a high standing of agricultural cooperation. Where the services are only part of the cooperative business, they do not alwaye pay for themselves and this means that the mechanical operations may have to be subsidized by other more profitable branches of the business such as the marketing of produce or the sale of farm machinery.
An alternative to the use of cooperative societies is for specialist contractors to undertake this type of work. The farmers then do not need to invest money in machines which can be used only for a few hours annually on each farm and they do not need to worry about the operation, repair and maintenance of the machAnes. Compared with individual ownership of farm machinery there is the disadvantage that the farmer may not be able to obtain contract services at the time when he most needs them. This disadvantage, which is common to all types of multifarm use of agricultural machinery, is felt most acutely in the case of seasonal work and especially for ploughing or harvesting when delay might greatly reduce the yield or the quality of the crop. It is therefore highly important that sufficient machinee are available in the Area to carry out all the seasonal work at the optimum time. Individual farmers, particularly those with larger holdings, can also obtain and operate themselves their own machines. This appears to be possibily the Government's intention as it is stated in several documents that farmers must he trained in the use of machinery. Any premature encouragement to farmers who are inexTerienced and unskilled in the operation of tractors and mechanical equipment would be/disastrous financially as well as resultinE in serious, even fatal, accidents.6/
(d) Supervision
The organisation of the farming work on settlement schemes can only be carried out by well-qualified personnel. It has already been'indicated how complex are the problems of ensuring that machinery is always available as and when required and that it is of the appropriate type both for the job and for the ecological environment. Provision of irrigation, whether by drainage channels or by sprinkler systems, adds further complexity and a considerable element of rigidity, leaving the organizer of the settlement scheme little room for manoeuvre. The farm plans have to take into account the conservation of the soil and its fertility which involves under modern conditions the scientific rotation of crops. In order to obtain thp benefits of scientific cultivation and, at the same time, of economic use of inputs (water, fertilizer, machinery etc.) some authority will be necessary over the actions of the farmers.
At present the shortage of qualified Libyan personnel is so great that those who are available tend to be absorbed rapidly into senior government posts, especially in the principal Ministries in the towns. It would be an unrealistic assumption that many suitably qualified Libyan personnel would be available as supervisors of settlements at least for the next five years.
For a more detailed discussion of the problems of mechanization see F.A.O. Agricultural Development Paper No.85,1967, Multifarm Use of Agricultural Machinery. by H. Lönnemark -59--
(e) S2es.121_Eroblems of Fruit Orowir
The high real cost of many aspects of settlementschemes must be realised. A good example of thie is the establishment of fruittrees where it may seem at first glance that little expense is involved. Some years ago costs were calculated for the inDllation and annual expenses of an irrigatedarea of 15 ha. under fruit at Zawia. Bringing these figures up-to-date indicates that the installationcosto for a similar system would now be about L2,350 and therunning costs would be about LK1,550 per annum. The installation costs appear to have doubled in the last seven years and running costs to be increased more than four times largely owing to the very great chances in labour costs. The cultural expenses would now appear to be about LZ36 per ha. for unirrigated land and the receipts from thecrop would appear to be only abou t LZ32. Invat's , glowingfruit in this particular ca se on uniirigated land is no longer profitable.For irrigated land the costs per ha. would appear to be somewhere in the recion of LZ300 and the receipts about LZ400. Nevertheless, these figures assume that all the trees survived to maturity and are beiring regularly. It is further assumed that there is always available adequate labour forharvesting but with the increasing drift to the towns labour problems must be expected to become more acute.
Trees will aleo have to beadequately protected not only during their growing period but when they are mature against the depredations of livestock. Coats, for example, may ruin in a night's determined browsing, trees which have been carefully nursed for many years. Consequently, the fruit tree grower must look to his walls and fences and the authorities will have to make every effort o assist him in defending his trees. The strength of the pastoral tradition varies from district to district. It has been aboveaalone of the major problems of the Eastern Governates where in a succession of years of Good rain theherds pf livestock have found abundant grazing in the vast semi-desert ranges and have accordingly prospered and multiplied. A succession of dry years seems to follow inevitably and the herds which have become both hungry and thirsty have then been moved up into the Jabal Al Akhdar where they have proceeded to consume all the vegetation.
(0 Livestock and Poultry
In most of the farro plans for settlements formulated by the Team it has been expected that a considerable part of the farming income will come from livestock. There has long been a tradition of caring for sheep and goats and the continuing care of these should not provide any great problem. Provision has also been made for the keeping of poultry but where improved imported varieties are proposed, care will have to be taken to ensure that they really are disease-resistant and are adaptable to th'e local environment and climate. Further thought needs to be given also the the raising of poultry for home consumption or for cash sale in the market. If the latter is envisaged there will be great problems of gathering up small numbers of chickemand eggs into quantities adequate to warrant economic marketing arrangements. The general tendency is for poultry production to become more and more of a large-scale commercial enterprise as indeed has already happened round Tripoli. An even more difficult question arises over the keeping of cattle. It seems to be the general policy to give each settler two or three cows of exotic imported breed usually Friesian. It would seem a matter for serious reconsideration whether these expensive imported animals should be distributed in such small numbers to each farmer or whether they should be concentrated in a specialist dairy farm. A dairy herd requires a considerable amount of specialised facilities.
I/ Production of Fruit and Vegetables, F.A.O. Report No.1351, 1962. -60--
In formullting farm plana for settlement it is certainly neceesary to make provision for lossee of livestock particularly in the case of cattle as the farmers are inexperienced in looking after exotic imported breeds. IC a farmer loet one of his two cattle this would be a very serioue matter for him but the loes to a specialised farm of one animal out of 20 or more is relatively far less important.
The marketing problems involved in the collection of a few litres of milk from each farmer and bringing them to come central point where they would presumably all be bulked for transport and sale in urban markets, need much attention. It is possible that it has been assumed that such probleme would be taken care of by the proposed cooperative societies but, if so, the societies will need special additional facilities and organization.
There is also the problem of forage for cattle. At preeent the farmers complain that their cattle are eating so much in the way of forage crops that thereiBlittle space left within their farms for them to grow crops for their own consumption, It is difficult for the farmer to understand that he is getting a small cash return but a considerable real income from his cattle. It may be better for some farmers to specialize in the growing of forage crops where conditions are suitable and sell these crops for cash to other farmers who would in turn sell dairy and meat products.
4. Marketing of the Settlers' Produce
Insufficient attention has as yet been paid to the handling, storage and marketing of produce of the settlers. In the case of Al Hania and Al Useta, for example, some 20 to 30 tone of produce are expected from each farm. A small proportion of the produce will naturally be kept on the farm for consumption there, but the greater part, particularly of vegetablee grown under irrigated conditions, will have to be moved to some central point for storage or at the least for collection for the market.
Produce will have to be loaded on to and off-loaded from some form of transport either with the farmer and his family providing the necessary labour or with hired labour. Provision has been made for donkeys to be kept by.most farmers but these could only transport small quantities of produce.Largor quantities at harvest time 'would be more economically transported in trailers, pulled by the tractors which will be under-utilized at the time.The standard trailers would carry about 2.5 tons on the average so that to clear the produce from a farm at Al Hania or Al Useta would involve about 10 trailer-loads. The average distance to some central point in a settlement would be about one kilometre but in many projects the road could not be direct and would have to pass over rough grounds and wadis.The cost of this trailer transport would be at least one Libyan pound per hour exclusive of the wages of the Iabourers if these had to be hired for loading. It needs to be considered who would meet this costt whether it should be the farmer directly as an individual or indirectly through the cooperativo society or by N.A.S.A. or some Government agency.
No figures are available on the cost of storage and indeed, no information appears to be available on the most appropriate type of storage under local conditions. It is most important that provision should be made for good and adequate facilities in order to avoid wastage and consequent financial loss.
The marketing arrangemente are somewhat complex. Xpart from private enterprise, marketing activities are at present epread over a number of Government organizations. Within the Ministry of Agriculture, the Grain Storage Department is oonoerned with purchase of wheat and barley and the Vegetable Oil Division with the purohase of olive oil. The Ministry of Industry ie responsible for the purchase of dates and -61--
and their processing. The National Agricultural Bank purchases and sello,on behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture, olive oil, groundnutsand almonds. The Ministry of National Economy fixes the level of priceeupport and provides export inspection services for agricultural commodities.The Ministry of Social Affairs ie responsible for cooperative Marketing and the Ministry of Municipalitiesfor supervision of markets. It is not surprising that there is a coneequent lack ofcoordination and it is understood that as a first step to overcoming this problema marketing advisory committee in the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Wealth will beset up to eliminate duplication of work between the various organizations to review the difficultiee encountered in staffing and training of personnel and to advise the Government on marketing policy. From the point of view of the settlement projeots, it is important that there should be a clearly defined policy within the context orthe national economy.
5. The Need for Continuous Reappraisal of Income Tarete for Settlement Schemes
It has been clearly shown in the previous paragraphs of this Chapter that the economic changes in Libya have been extremely great and rapid. Already the per capital GDP of Libya is more than double that of Portugal, higher than that of Greece and Ireland and approximately the same as that of Italy. Estimates made by F.A.O. for the Indicative World Plan suggeet the following growth for Libya:-
PER CAPUT INCOME AT MARKET PRICES (US0
Year GDP (IMP
1965 903 745 1970 1415 1110 1975 1630 1280 1980 1900 1530 1985 2215 1835
In other words average income levels will have more than doubled between 1965and19P5and will have increased by more than 50 per cent between1970and1985. In setting up target agricultural incomes, it will be neceesary to take into account not only the rise in average income levels but also the extent to which measures for the redistribution of income have been effective. The latter should have had some effect long before1985in raising proportionately the level of agricultural to non-agricultural incomes-It will aleo be necessary to consider the extent to which agricultural prices are likely to rise and whether these will be pari passu with incomes. Preeenttrends suggest that such prices will increase at a lower rato than average incomes. In order to increase returns, therefore, at least in proportion to increaees in non-agricultural incomes, it will be necessary to increase yields in addition to increasing the area cultivated.
Merely increasing the size of the farm will in itself not increase income. There is a physical limit to what one man can manage with given capital equipment and given technology. Considerably more research is urgently required to establish what is the optimum combination of factors of production in the currently highly dynamic economic situation. For this reason, though the Team has done a very considerable amount of work which is essential to all settlement planning, the farm management data have been overtaken by events. Even figures prepared in1968 are out-dated in1969. In the next Chapter a limited amount of farm management data have been included for selected projecte, but it must be emphasised that the data are merely illustrative of the kind which have to be included in eetablishing farm plane for settlement schemes. All agricultural economic data need to be conetantly reviewed in relation to the total economic context of the country. -62-
This applies not only to the work which has been done but is equally important for work which will be done in the future.
It is clear that the time is now ripe for reconsideration of the role of settlement schemes as presently envisaged within the Libyan agricultural pattern, Alternatives such as have been discussed in Chapter II need to be considered to the present proposals which amount, in fact, simply to improved peasant farming under settlement conditions, As Libya has moved so far along the path of economic development, it should look to farming systems on a commercial basis such as large-scale specialized and capital intensive farms. Above all, at this stage, it is essential to re-appraine the agricultural strategy and orders of priority for agricultural projects for the whole country. -63-
ANNEXES
Note: The figures in the Tables which followwere provided by the Statistics Division. of the Ministry of Agric,ulture and AnimalWealth, Tripoli, Libya.
1. E$PIMAPES OF CROP PRODUCTION
(000 tons)
1960 1961 1962 1963. 1964 1965 1966 1967- Wheat 33.9 30.0 33.6 34.1 28.0 56.9 57.8 62.2 Barley 116.4 72,0 87.9 91.9 88.0 96.0 99.1 110.0 Maize 1.1 2.0 1.4 1.6 1.2 1.7 1.6 1.5 Sorghum/Millet 1.3 1.0 1.5 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 Potatoes 13.0 14.0 15.0 12.6 12.5 8.2 9.0 10.2 Ground. nuts 10.0 10.0 9.2 9.2 10.5 10.9 12.0 13.3 Olives 32,7 35.1 36.7 32.0 18.6 101.4 92.9 136.6 Onions 1.4 4.0 4.5 2.5 2.1 8.4 8.9 10.3 Toma toes 10.] 40.0 50,5 48.0 63..0 75.2 86.0 100.7 Dates 31.7 29.1 30.0 33.0 30.0 56.1 55.8 54.7 Grapes 8.4 7.1 6.9 5.8 5.4 5.0 6.0 6.0 Oranges 5.3 17.5 19.0 17.5 10.3 11.9 13.0 13.8 64
2.ESTIMATES OF LIVESTOCK POPULATION (000)
1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967
Cattle 103 104 105 106 108 109 110 116
Sheep 1255 1296 1337 1378 1419 1461 1505 1628
Goats 1196 1224 1253 1281 1310 1339 1347 1405
Poultry 305 366 439 477 549 659 757 933 Canels 241 249 256 264 275 286 275 256
Horses 26 28 29 31 33 34 32 32
Mules 3 3 2 2 1 1 00
Donkeys 122 124 126 128 130 132 129 129
3.ESTIMATES OF CROP AREAS HARVESTED
(000 ha)
1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967
Wheat 106 160 150 150 180 195 230
11_. ley 380 400 350 350 272 301 365
Maize 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
Sorghum/Millet 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Potatoes 3 3 3 3 2 2 2
Broad Beans 5 4 4 3 3 3 3
Groundnuts 7 5 7 5 5 6 6
Onions 1 1 1 2 2 3
Tomatoes 4 5 4 5 6 6 7 4. ESTIMATES OP CROP YIELDS
(Tons per ha)
1961 1962 12a 1964 1965 1966 6
Wheat 0.28 0.21 0.23 0.19 0.32 0.30 0.27
Barley 0.19 0.22 0.26 0.25 0.35 0.33 0.30
Maize 1.54 1.08 1.23 0.92 1.30 1.00 0.71
Sorghum/Millet 0.59 0.88 0.71 0.59 0.51 0.71 0.71
Potatoes 4.67 5.00 5.04 5.00 4.11 4.49 4.53
Groundnuts 1.43 1.84 1.32 2.10 2.18 2.00 2.10
Onions 3.70 3.60 3.50 3.30 3.50 3.70 3.82
Tomatoes 10.00 11.0o 1.00 12.00 3.00 14.00 15.00 66--
5$ IMPORTS OF PRINCIPAL FOOD ITEMS
1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966
Wheat ('00 tone) 362 165 154 121 134 66 89
Wheat flour ('00 tons) 827 688 692 907 890 931 1089 .ice ('00 tone) 88 100 69 78 100 118 171
Barley ('00 tone) 39 181 13 198 83 258
Potatoes ('00 tons) 27 32 23 18 8 17 35 Pulses ('00 tons) 13 23 29 38
Onions ('00 tons) 25 17 18 33 58 52 64 Sheep, lambs and goats (numbers '00) 54 471 555 312 1,231 1,968
Meat fresh, chilled & frozen ('00 tons) 0.7 1.8 1.7 2.9 4.1 13.7 21.2
ilk and cream (1000 $) 745 832 981 1.362 1.834 2.646 3.483 -67-
6. EXPORTS OF PRINCIPALAGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES
( qw-tntity in tons, value in lk '000)
163 1964 1965 41966
Comm ity . Value gtx_. Value Value t aluo Fish 228 71.6 113 36.3 103 27.4 55 12.5 OranEes 2291 76.0 3269 125.0 3368 118.7 1338 56.2 -TanEerines . 9 1.7 104 3.8 120 5.7 29 1.2 Lemons 464 14.7 117 5.5 483 17.2 231 9.2 Tobaccoun- manufactured 246 67.6 129 36.6 75 19.3 Hides & skins1775 257.0 2225 346.9 2245 376.5 2613 478,4 Groundnuts (shelled) 137 17.0 103 11.4 64 7,5 Groundnuts (unshelled) 6191 617.4 7886 778.4 3991 429.2 2303 287.5 Castor seed 5069 2.36.1 3632 194.3 2166 101.5 236 11.3 Wool & other animal ha ir 634 123.3 1170 228.6 611 137.2 274 59.6 Esparto 5424 64.8 3598 43.2 2507 165.1 1228 14.8 -68-
CHAPTER IV
DEVELOPMENT PROPOSA " FOR SELECTED PROJEU» fiREA
A.. Introduction
The purpose of this Chapter is to present examples of doveleemont p..aoposals formulatod bynoTeam oi solactad areas. The Chapter, therefore does ilo'too-voi all '6bo so%tlemout resottlomeul; Jehomes studied end for thich pLans and reports:1_7 roue, propsced by tho Tonm PAa WO.C0available to n.A,S,A. The oamplec eonallicd Au '611As Chapea feprosont settlemen proposals Po:a d/17Ceeont geographical areas of Libya ;dth dij7fercnt0,)cio.-eoonomie andphysii;01 assonrco els..7notui'es.
The examples included are:
PlansTYP kr-31iland setlemellt uellemos at Il FtnSo. and Useta in the Pilot Area oP Lho Jebel Al Akhdar lo the Eastern. Governates and Collina Verde in the 'Hestern CoyeruaLes
proposals for pilot settlements in three areas in Fezzan (Southern Goyernates);
(o) proposals for developing dry land farming in the Umar Al Mukhtar area of the Jebal Al Akhdar in the Eastern Governates.
On these selected projects; a combination of groundwater irrigation and dry farming A,1the baao:nOTsettlement et AS liania; dry ZarmAng ba3ed oa rainfall at Useta; com- p:iete i].ragaLLou bey purified sonago vator at Collana Veudo; irrigated farming by undorgrolaid. J,1the Pj.let :1,!ea ci Pecas: and entirold- (1.2y farming development of Umer AL Dukhar-71the-7tensiAre do,felopment Pather Olen a intoasive oc1;t1cmenl; ohomev
With -theu. :ept;en o Co Li J oc iordonodotaAls of soeie-econom3c conditions and the Jurvey OS 'Jo :;:i and waterT')SUOVr:0173 110:?,included tn thlo chapter as they are coerod fi 41te relevant chapters )n Volumer, LS, _LIS and TVor repor:;.
B. Al liasAa ead al Dseta -Hek7--e.ilJemell'es in he Pilot of the Jebal Al Akhdar Ilostern_poT512nates
1.
devel c,-:osnects of the Pilot Area are clos related to the agricul- imiTA potentia3 ai.-Aidepende largely on the basic resou . of land, water and elSmate. With improved methods of farming there are ve ::y L:d possibilities of making substan;;leJ lucuousco of up to double the present production in areas of looser rain:Cal( aac-.. °von larger increases in the more favourable areas.
Phi arable land ir Glass and Class II categocies Au the Ptlio Area is esti- wtoe11;o be about ?0 peroent eZ° the to±al - the rerainder be)ng used for grazing andf000stry. Gut of the totaJ arable 'area oC a little eye,' 109500 ha, more than 6,200 ha, are elieody taken up by the 234 ea-Ente Carma uhich leaves a balance of a little ovel- /!;000 na, oC afablo land Por nom Sand r,ettlement, actiliAtias. Most of _ _
1 / A7,1sia, Giand1tha9kJdiC7iamand iliourata schemes in Western Governates; Bu Traba 'endCzwarsha in Eesters Governai;eo. Tho development proposals for ex-Ente farms in both regions afe contained An Chaptec Voribis volume. -69-
these 4,000 lie in the areas of Al Hania and si Useta and itcan therefore bo oai6 that they are the only districts in the Pjlot Area welch offerscope rer )aad eattle- ment activities.
The cost of making new settlements will be high. It is, hoee apreciated that the ultimate aim of settlement projects in Libya is to modernieeeo traditional tribal sector of agriculture by establishing the tribesmen on individeal holdings and to put an end to poverty and lessen the uncertainties of the physical environment. The income and cost data that have been included were collected in1966for both Al Hania and Al Useta. They are intended only to give an illustration of the com- ponente that must be considered in trying to achieve the aim of raising the standards of living of the local rural population who have been neglected for so long.
A detailed survey on social and eeonomic oonditionsofthe whole Pilot Area of which Al Hania and Al Useta form part is recorded in the Pilot Area Survey in Volume II of this report.
The studies,hoJever.show that the entire rural populat.ion of ibo area is organized on a tribal basis with a strong joint family system and a strong reJigious outlook. The average family size in the creo is between six and sever peopleE.Adthe average annual rate of population inceeeee is about 2 percent. Appro:eimately 60 .percent of the rural population is under Leenty years of ace, and though the sex ratio is fairly equal, there is a shortageormen in the 'tuenty-one o fory age group, many. of whom have migrated to urban areas. The overall literacy rato is very low, being about 20 percent, though it is much higher among males than females. The average annual gross income for the household from all sources is between 190 and LE600 a year. Expenditure appears to run at about LZ3000 There is a close correlation bety, the size of income per household and the rainfall. The chief modo of housing is a tee , Indeed over 70 percent of the people live in tents, the remainder having brick or corrugated iron houses while some still live in caves.
Good relations exist among the various families and people are generally helpful towards each other. The number of disputes is very small.'However, significant social and economic changes are gadually takinE place.There is very commonly a. poni'lict of thought and action betweee the older *111terate household heads and 'te younger educated generation who tend to migrate uthe ciies in order to get bette',' employment opportunities and to seek educated b:.-Jdoe,
The definition of tribal property and the Libyan legal rights relating to this kind of property are not very clearly defined in legislation. It is recognized that the tribes have the rightofusufruct over this land, but the ownership of the land is.disputed between the state and the tribes. Each consider it their own. However, the Land Registratioh Law of 1965 considers that tribal property is collectively owned by the responsible tribe. In Al Hania and Al Usota it was clee from the cases studied that the tribal property is owned by the members of the teibee end not collectively owned.-This appliee to the areas under irrigation as Well as dry farming. Holders of these areas exercise all the legal rights which the right of ownership givee, as stated in the Libyan Civil Code over a:cpletationerd alienation. Tribal land io also inheritable anddistellinted betYeeu the inheritors aecerdIng to Islamic) Law.
Outside the cultivated areas mentioned above,rights of holders irethe eightc of usufruct. Inactual fact there aro feu olajmo to theseareas because they aroor little value. In accordance uith the provisions of the Land Regis-teataonLar of 1965 and the Forest Lau of1950,land oonsictinc of pauture and forest je considered private state property. Righ'oe of tribal people ouor euch areas ea..ethe rachtsor common use. -70-
"Zawaya" Land is inalienable land, from whioh inoome in assigned for charitable purpoees; it is regarded as the property of "heaven". This land cannot be subjected to any legal alienation and the ownership oannot be transferred. "Zawaya" Land is rented to the tenants according to the oonditions luid down by the Zawaya Department.
Water resources in general are privately owned and the use of water continues to be subject to tho customary regulations. In1965the new Water Law required permite for the drilling of all new wells and in addition permito must be obtained by the existing users of all water resources.
2. Pro osed Pro ect Plan for Alania
Al Hania is in the coastal belt of the Pilot Area. The part which offers scope for the settlement project comprioes about496ha. of Clase I and Class II arable land and 2,000 ha. of Clase III and Class IV which will be used for grazing and forestry. There are fair supplies of underground irrigation water from shallow wells, good soil of alluvial deposits several metres deep and suitable climatic conditions. The area is protected from the adverse factors of the sea wind by a line of small hills.
The settlement will consist of50farm units each farm having7ha. of Class I and Class II land for cultivation and an allocation of 10 ha. of Class III and Clase IV land which will be used collectively for grazing. The farming system will be a combi- nation of irrigation and dry farming each farm having a little under 2 ha. irrigated.
Each farm will keep about 20 sheep, 2 cows, 1 donkey, 1 horse and 20 chickens.
(a) Settlement Lay-out
The land distribution for each of the fifty farms is as follows:
Class I land 3 ha. Clase II land 4ha. Class III and IV land 10 ha.
The following areas are available within the perimeter of the settlement project:
Class I land 176ha. Class II land 320 ha. Class III and IV land 308 ha.
Class I: In general Class I land is represented by a long narrow strip between250and 400 metres wide.
Class II is mainly located along the bode of the wadis and in the depressions of the first bench. Muoh of the coastal area is subjeot to periodic flooding from sea incursion and wadi overflow.
Class III and IV are generally restricted to the rook hillocks and areas on the fi st bench.
Cla 0: This exists along the coastal hillocks, the shore and the salonchacks. It is useless for any form of agriculture.
Each farm will consist of a farm-yard and usually three or more paroels. Each of the parcels will have a private exit to a road. Most of the farm- yards will be located along the proposed asphalt coastal roads and each farm-yard will be an independent plot doubly enclosed with a wire fence and a hedge. Where possible, farm-yards should be situated on Class II land. The size of the farm-yard will average about 0.4 hectares and mill be -71-
divided into two parts, one for the houseand garden, and one for the farm premises. The farm-yards should be located togetherin groups as far as possible and should not be isolated. Sizes of the arable and grazing plots are shown on the plan.As far as possible those parcels will have a regular rectangular form andthe longer side should always be placed parallel to the contour tofacilitate contour culti- vation. Anti-erosion structures must be designed anderected to fit in with the general lay-out plan. It is anticipated that the arable and grazing plots will be enclosed with barbed wirefences, but the boundariea should also be fenced by rows of fruit treesor other wind- break plants. Boundaries between grazing plots should be marked with brushwood hedges.
(b) Land. Use Plan ated Produc ion and Gross Income 66
The extent of the proposed settlement is about6.5km long as defined by the Land Use Capability Map. This area lies between the coastal sand dunes and the coastal escarpment with a total width of approximately0.75km. The Land surface is approximately between 20 and 40 metres abovesea level. From the Land Use Capability Map it can be observed that Class I and muoh of Class II land lies fairly close to the 20 metre contour. The larger portion of the soils of this area are Lithosols.
Under the delineation of Agricultural Zones based on rainfall and topo- graphy in the Pilot Area, Al Hania comes under Zone I. The average annual rainfall is250 -300 mm. The number of rainy days per season is about55. Deviations from the average annual rainfall are high in this Zone.
The Al Hania projeot comprises50farms of7hectares each. Irrigation from dug wells will be available at0.5litres per second per farm unit. The water from the wells will be lifted by windmill. The crop and live- stock enterprises will be diversified to reduce risks and to fit the soil, water and climatic conditions. The farm system will be a combination of dry and irrigated farming and livestock. Winter cereals will be grown under dry farming conditions and vegetables and fruits under irrigation. The crop rotation to be followed is designed on the following principles:
firstly, to make available a nutritious and well balanced diet for the family and feed for the animals;
ii2222111z, to avoid crops of the same natural order or the same types of root system following each other; and
third to allow a regular rest period to restore soil fertility and reduce risks of pests and diseases and lastly to provide crops with a ready cash sale value.
Under the proposed plan the area cropped per farm is1.75ha. of irrigated crops, 4.00 ha. of dry farming and 1.00 ha.under fruit plants. The sub- sidized investment per farm is estimated to be LE1,300 with return to family labour and management being LE604 with the same man-power equivalent. The cropping system has been tailored to lit the soil, water and climatio conditions and provide for good land use and management.
Table 8 shows the estimated total produotion and gross income per farm unit according to the proposed land use plan. The estimate is subdivided into: crops: irrigated and dry farming; fruits; table grapes and others; livestook: horse, donkey, poultry, sheep and cows. -72-
Table8
Estimated Production and Gross Income per Farm of the Al Hania Settlement (1966)
The following table shows the estimated total production and gross income per farm unit:
Area sown Production Total Rate Gross (ha.) or per unit Production LE/ Value erprise No. kept Qt1. ha. Qtl. Qtl. CROPS 1. pry Farming Wheat 1.0 6 6 5.0 30.00 Barley 3.0 8 24 3.0 72.00 Total Dry Farming 4.0 30.0 102.00 2, Irrigated Summer Veg. 0.50 200 100 3.0 300.00 Winter Veg. 0.50 150 75 3.0 225.00 Wheat 0.50 20 10 5.0 50.00 Berseem-Trifolium 0.25 400 100 0.75 75.00 Alexandrinum Total Irrigated Crops 1.75 TOTAL CROPS 5.75 M.88 B. FRUITS Table Grapes 0.5 25 12.5 8.0 100.00 Other Fruits 0.5 50.00 TOTAL FRUITS 1.0 150.00 LIVESTOCK
Horse 1 - Donkey 1 per kg. Poultry 20 Eggs 100 2000 0.01 20.00 Sheep 20 Wool 2.5 kg. 50.0 0.20 10.00 Medt 10 kg. 100 kg. 0.50 50.00 Cows 2 Milk 600 1 1200 1 0.05 60.00 Meat 50 kg. 100 kg 0.50 50.00 TOTAL LIVESTOCK 190.00 GROSS VALUE 1092.00
N.B. i 4.0 ha. of Class II land have been put under dry farmed cereals. ii In casés of livestock and horticulture, only disposable production and in- come have been taken into calculation. The area wider fruit plants will be regularly intercropped. Grapes will yield income after3-4years while other fruits will do so after 6-7 years. Winter vegetables will consist of carrots, reddish, turnips, tomatoes,peas, corriander, garlic and onion because they can easily be grown under dry farming conditions and will fit into the technical knowledge and managerial skill of the settlers. They will be generally sown with the commencing of rains in October/November. Fruit plants on Class I land will be planted in suoh,a way that they do not interfere with normal oultivation. The area under fruits will con- tinue to be regularly cropped. Fruit plants will thus further supplement farm income after 6 or7years to the extent of at least LE600. -73-
(o) Estimate of Inves1;men5, Goso Inoome, Coso and Returns to Fmily bou a d Manageinoni,
Table 9 shove the coot, ve:mruo and invecbment under the proposed Plan. In making eo;,imatoo of investment; under Lbo proposed Plan, it has been assumed that no cost vill be apportioned to settlers for land and its development. The housing will be considerably subsidised under the Idris Housing Project. Wells equipped with windmills and storage tanks will be installed at N.A.S.A. oost. The settlers will pay only for the use of the water, irrigation channels and their maintenance, eto. Livestook will be made available to settlers in exchange for their existing animals on an evaluatory basis. Community services and social amenities ill be provided as part of vari.ous projects and schemes being undertaken by the Government of Libya under the Five Year Plan of Libya is vp,rlouo Ministries by coordinating them liAh Land Settlement Projects e; -74°
Table9
Al Han a: Investments, Gross lnoomeCoeta and Reurno to Family_Labour and Mangemont
INVESTMEIT 2 LE 1. Buildings 500 2, Irrigation System (well, dalu, windmills and accessories, storage tank, channels) 500 3. Implements and Machinery 40 4,Livestock 260 Total 1300 GROSS INCOME Dry Cereals 102 Irrigated Crops Vegetables 650 Livestock and Poultry 190 Fruit Plants 150 Total 1092 CASI! EXPENSES Seeds 12 Fertilizers 28 Feeds 5 Hired Labour 60 Tractor Hire 25 Plant Protection 5 Irrigation Costs 10 Taxes 10 Miscellaneous 8 Total 163 NON-CASH EXPENSES Depreciation on: - Investment at 20% 260 Interest on Investment at5% 65 Total 325 AMOUNT AVAILABLE For personal expenditure and consumption (farm, family cash- kind earnings) - (B C 929 Return to Family Labour and Management (E - D) 604
noluding only those items for the settler's account -75
(d) Irrigation Plan
The flow to the coast has been estimated at 5 1/sec./km length givingan overall flow rate of32,51/sec. through the strip. There may of course be some zone of increased discharge, but this can only be taken into account when proven. The other consideration is the physical limits of the settlement area. The wells should be kept at 3 kilometresdistance, i.e. separated by distances of around340metres.
A line, therefore, along the 65 km strip would total 19 wells. Naturally, these would be most advantageously placed when close to the Class I and Class II land they are to irrigate. A provisional estimate of their depth would be in the order oi20metres. To check this estimate it is suggested that the elevation contours be accurately placed upon the 1:2,500 Land Capability lap. From there it would be a simple matter to site the wells at the most advantageous elevation.
Proceeding towards the Coastal Escarpment any units constructed there would necessarily need to be deeper, in the order of 30 to40metres. Bearing in mind the width of the settlement zone only one more group of wells is practicable at those elevations. A group of 5 to 6 at the more advan- tageous of the higher elevations would seem a reasonable number. The total, therefore, amounts to 24 -25wells for the area.
(i) TYPe of Well
Dug Wells: The topographical map shows that the depth of the 19 dug wells would be between4and 20 metres approximately. If the dug wells are Close to the surface, there exists some danger of con- tamination (domestic water use). The foreseen draft of 1 1/sec. each snould be the very utmost admissable maximum. The other range of 5 6 dug wells towards the Coastal Escarpment would have a depth of up to40metres. In view of the extraction rate of 11/sec. they would not be economical. A better alternative would be to replace the deep dug wells by a drilled well (2 -4km from the shore). The great advantage of dug wells is the possibility to go as little as 1 - 1,5 metres below the water level and therefore not more than 1 metro below the sea level in the Al Hania area. With the well disposition pro- posed a sea water intrusion is hardly likely.Another advantage is that they are not so easily overpumped as in the case of drilled wells. On the other hand, even a small pumping rate is very dangerous in the vicinity of the shoreline. Some c.snjtruction details are given in the Groundwater Export's Final Report in Volume III of this Report.
Drilled Wells; To prevent sea water intrusion the following parti- culars should be noted: the drilled water wells should be at a distance of 2 km from the shore. In this way, the sea-side fresh water flow xill not only have a direction to the pumped well, but also a direction towards the sea. The depth should not exceed the first third of the fresh water layer below sea level given by the Ghyben-Herzbe:g relation; e.g. for the drilled borehole No. 2, the maximum depth below sealevel would be 24 metres. The water entering through the gravel pack should be without turbulent flow; therefore, and to increase the yield, a large well diameter should be specified. the Jebel Al Akhdar Northern Cyrenaica" 3 The Ilydrology ad Groundwater Resources of (1966) - Final Report, Mr. N.D. Noble, contained in VolumeIII. -76-
Tho permiseable draft E0,0,1a not exceed 5 1/seo. With construe-Lion in accordance with the above details, it ehould be possible to obtain from two to five times the yield of a dug well without causing sea water intrusion.
e) Infiltration Galleries: An infiltration gallery is a horizontal oonduit for the colleoiion of groundwater by gravity flow. Water entering a gallery flows to a colleetion Bump where it ie pumped for Use,
In order not to destroy the fresh salt water equilibrium and to raise a cone of salt water below the well, infiltration galleries are fre- quently construoted in islands. Thoy supply a maximum yield of groundwater with a mimimum drawdown. Usually, the depth of galleriee is not more than 15 metres, but deeper galleries are not more diffi- cult to construot. (The depth in the Al Hania area will be 10 -25m). Taking into consideration the compaet and generally hard limestone found in boreholee 1-3,and the soil thickness of up to only 2m, the construction of the horizontal galleries should not be too com- plicated, provided that the strata is not disturbed with fractures and joints. To have a fresh water layer with a thickness of approxi- mately 20 metres, the etatic water level in the galleries should be at about 0.5 metre above sea level. The location of the galleries must be related to tha thickness of the water layer, which means that they will be in general in the southern part of the fertile strip. TheJength of theoaleries depends on the required yield. A yield of approximately 3 - 5 1/sec. should be possible. The dis- tance between the infiltration galleries should be at least 750 metres.
of Undo d Tutor Su lies
The quality of the water from the wells already constructed at Al Hacia shows that the water has considerable salinity hazard and sodium absorption rudobaud.(Ofthis, the sodium absorption hazard is the more important). For the three wells constructed, the following figures are given:
Sodium Absollption Ratio
Public well oo ottomoo moo *me 1.9
Pumping well ...000 000000000 0*P 6.2
Dalu well 0 000 000 000 000 000 4.9
From the pumping well, 2,700 micromhos/cm has been givon as the electrical conductivity. The significance of these figures is thatextraction has been made by motor pump which has penetrated the zone of salino diffusion. From those facts and figures, tho following conclusione are of the greatest importance in considering the use of the coastal groundwaters for ift.igation:
Firstly¡ an accurate knowledge of the permiss¡ble amount of drawdown is essential to avoid deterioration of the existing water.
Secondly, the elevation of all water points within the developed zone must be accurately ascertained.
The need is stressed for controls and regular analysis of the water quality to avoid the build-up of ealinity within the irrigated area, vocating sampling at regular intervals. If the water quality does de- teriorate it will be imperativo to lower the rate of extraction and possibly close some of the wells. -77-
It is clear that three kinds of wells are oapable of èxtraoting the available quantity of water without oausing sea water intrusion, All ad- vantages and disadvantages considered, infiltration galleries seem to be the preferable solution. If serious difficulties in gallery conetruction should appear, which in not anticipated, dug wells or drilled wells would be alternatives. Outside the settlement area, in the western ereastern part, additional galleries Gould be construe-bed to increase the water quantity. (iii) Number of Wellsada
The exact quantities of water obtainable will be known after the wells or galleries have be dug and tested. On the basis of data from the4bore- holes already completed in the area, there in an overall flow-rate of 32.5 1/sec. for the area. It is proponed that the distance between the wells should be 340 metros, Along the line of6.5km this will amount to 19 wells with a depth of 20 metres. Another line, towards the Coastal Escarpment, of 5 - 6 wells could be dug in this area. As it is considered that up to 11/sec. should be obtained in this area from properly con- structed wells, this leaves a margin of error in the total flow-rate of around25percent. On this basis each farm will be irrigated with 0.5 1/seo.
nd Stora e of Wate
It in proposed that water drawing should be carried out by windmill pumps in order to prevent over pumping and intrusion of sea water. From the practical point or view the most convenient soultion would be to collect water from each3 - 4wells into one storage reservoir, and thereafter send it to the farms belonging to thelnlevant group of wells.
It is only possible to give general proposals now, but details will have to be worked out when the projects are undertaken.
Me hod of Irriation
Surface irrigation should be used as the method of irrigation for this area. Sprinkling irrigation cannot be taken into consideration for many reasons: high evaporation, winds, customs'of the farmers in the region, etc. Also, the wells and reservoirs will be situated above the irrigated area, so any additional pumping is not required in the case ofwater trans- port by gravity.
Water T ans ort fromReservoirs to the Farm Units
Reservoirs will bEesituated no that the water level in them is abovethe relevant farm units. This means it will be possible to transport the water by gravity to the dependent group of farm units withoutextra pumping. The mains for this transport could be either channels or pipes. The use of asbestos-cement pipes under low pressure or gravity flow isrecommended. Use of open channels for the mains will not be sopraetical, °Specially from the point of view of evaporation of the water. Also the life of the pipes will be greater and they can be adjustedto the land confignration.
(vh) Dist 'bu The water will be distributed from the mainsto each farro from one Outlet. Some flow control structure could be installedat the entrance of each farm, if necessary. The division of the farms in made in a waywhioh -78-
will very much facilitate the oonvenient distribution of the water.
(viil Channels inside the farms
Channels inside the farms will be very small and short beoause each farm will be entitled to an average of 0.5 1/sec. However, it would be im- possible to irrigate with such a small quantity of water. The water distribution could be arranged on a time basis, i.e.: to send the whole quantity of water to one farm of the group of farms irrigated from one well. If the croup comprises8farms, one farm at a time would receive 41/seo. for its irrigation. Thereafter, the entire quantity would be oent to the second, and then to the third farm, etc. Also, if the water is accumulated in reservoirs, daily period of irrigation could be concen- trated to 10 - 12 hours only. In this case, the capacity would be doubled, and the water sent to the group of farms would amoumt to81/sec., thus facilitating the irrigation.
It would be advisable to use movable channels within the farms. Semi- circle (half tube) asbestos-cement channels would be most suitable. Settlers would then be able to change the position of the channels in aocordance with requirements. 150 to 200 metros of such channelling would be sufficient for each farm. -79-
1 AL HANIA General view of Al Hania taker from the South Showing the narrow strip of cultivable land (eastern part).
, , , v .11 , ^ ' ,:u ' N ', ," \,,,, PHil N '. N4 NN,
,"+,'):" ,' ' ., s,,,' " '
, ..,.1"4 ,,, ,,,,, ,,. t$:,,,,,t,,, " " "" "," '" ,',1":", '1,' "
a '"¡"'', 4 " " '',',':',',, ", ", "1,,,i ,,,,"", '""",""""''''4'.',$:',,,',," "" '" ','" ' , "' 1,1,..%,4,,,,,S,,,; ""`,41V02"" 'SI
4'.k: ' T'' ,
the narrow strip 2 AL HANIA General view of Al Hanle taken from the South Showing of cultivable land (easternpar),, .40
AL HANIA The costal plain east of Al Hania.
4 -AL HANIA High degree of stoniness of some of the land in the proposed Al Hania settlement Area (Class IV). -81-
5 AL HAMA Dry Wadi near Al Hania with natural cross section of soils of the cos.i,v1
^
100001
011
'V4' , °
Ss0:01°,
6 AL HAMA Natural profile in a Wadi near Al Hania Showing the comparatively great delpi;b o? the soil depoff.its. -82-
, o
, 1
r
'
7 - AL HANIA Tent dweller.
8 AL HANIA Setting out for the market. -83-
3. Proposed Pro'ect Plan for Al Useta
Al Useta is a hilly area on the first escarpment of the JabalAl Akhdar about 5km north'ofthe new capital city of Al Bayda with which it is connected withan asphalt reed-. The area is entirely dry farmed and no water is available for a irrigatidrIWiltthe average annual rainfall is between 400/500mm.
Apart from the Al Bayda and Massah State Ex-Ente farm districts, Al Usetahas the most favourable climatic and land conditions in the Pilot Area. For this reason, it has been selected by the Team for detailed land settlement and development planning. Except for a limited fruit-production it is a dry-farm plan, no water for irrigation of annual crops beiag available.The main problem to be solved is the water supply for domestic and livestock purposes.
The soils of this area are mostly Lithosols and there is a fairly dense vegetative cover consisting in the main of wild pistaccio and juniperue interspersed with wild olives and scrub trees. 400 -500mm. isohyets pass through the area. Approximately 2,600 hectares have been cleared and are under rainfed cultivatlon.
About 2)500 ha. of good class I and class II of arable land are available for crop prodUction. There are a further 3,000 ha. of class III land. The 'settlement will Censist of about 80 farm units each ofwhichwill have 10 ha. of 'claSs I land, 1,0 'ha, of class II land and 30 ha. of class III land. Class I and Class11land wilI be used for growing crops and fruits while class III land will be'used collectively for grazing and forestry. Each farm will keep5cows, 20 sheep, 1 herse, 1 donkey and 20 chickens. Water for domestic and livestock purposes will be aVaTlahle from springs and cisterns.
Settlement Lay-out
The Land Settlement Project of Al Useta will comprise 80 farm units. Each farm unit will comprimo 10 ha, of class I land, 10 ha, of class II land, and 30 ha. of class III land. Class I and class II will be arable land and used for growing various crops and fruit plants.The class III land will be used only for grazing and forestry collectively.
Each farm unit will have an area of between 20 and 30 hectares which is divided into two parts by soil classification. Area of class I soil in Al Useta is estimated at 938 hectares and class II soil at 1282 ha. There are also substantial areas of class III and class IV soils as well. Each farm will be divided into two parts, most of one plot being class I soil and the other plot containing as much class II soil as possible, but other 'classes as well. The farm house and fruit tree.areas will be placed in the class I plot, while a temporary animal yard will be located in the second plot.
In making parcels of the area, as much use as possible should be made of the existing old roads and tracks which follow the topographical lie of the land. Such new roads as have been planned have been arranged in such a way that all farm houses will be located by the side of roads.
Crop, Livestock Enterprises and Estimated Investment and Returns
The crop and livestock enterprises will be diversified to reduce and spread possibilities of risks and fit into the soil and climatic conditions. The farming system will be a combination of winter cereals, forage, legumes, fruit plants and livestock based on the following assumptions:
(i) In the case of livestock, only disposble production and income has been taken into consideration.
Half of 10 ha, of class II land will be put under barley alternately each year, the rotation being barley/fallow.
(iii) Out of 10 ha. of class I land, 8 ha. will be cropped each year (wheat 5ha., forage 1 ha., winter legume grains1.5ha., and winter vegetables0.5 ha.); two ha. being left fallow each year. The crop rotation to be followed on 10 ha, of class I land will be:
1. Wheat - Fallow 2. Wheat - Oat/vetch mixture 3. Wheat - Broad beans 4. Wheat - Chick peas 5. Wheat - Winter vegetables -85-
Table14Q The Proposed Cropping and Livestock Patterns for a Farm Unit in Theta (1966)
Farm Size -50hectares Area Cropped -13hectares mnterprise .ectares Product- Total Price Total D soosa or nos. ion per Produc- per unit Value Home Use Cash Unit tion in L.Z. in seed & feed Sale per Qtl. L.L. Quintal Value Quintal Value
L.Z L. E. A - CROPS Wheat 5 ha. 10 qtl 125 25 125 Barley 5 ha. 8 qtl 60 20 60 Forage (Oat/vetch) 1.0 50/50 dry mixture 50 qtl 50 qtl 2.0 100 50 100 Broad Beans 1.0 8 qtl 8 8.0 64 3 24 5 40 Chick Peas 0.5 6 qtl 3 II 8,0 24 1 8 2 16 Winter veg. 0.5 100 qtl 50 " 3.0 150 50 150
TOTAL 13.0 201 70 99 317 102 391
B - FRUITS Grapes (wine) 1.0 Pears ) here will benoincome f oM. s for. Plums - 1 yearsz arter which trui ants wi yieiat Peaches an annual dispoSable inco e o L. 600 600 Apricots) Flgs 0.25 Almonds 0.75
TOTAL 4.0 600
C - LIVESTOCK Cows 5 milk 500 L 2500 0.05 125 2500 L. 125 meat 40 Kg 200 0.50 100 200 Kg 100 Sheep 20 wool 2.5 Kg 50 Kg 0.20 10 0 50 Kg 10 meat 5 Kg 100 Kg 0.50 50 100 Kg 50 Horse 1 Donkey 1 Poultry 15 100 eggs 1500 0.01 15 1500 15 300 --3737 -3o-
Tab]e 11.
Al Useta
Investments, Cross Cauh Income, Costs and Return to Family Labour and Management
e
Investmen
Buildings 500 Implements & Machinery 25 Livestock 500_ 1025
Cross Cash Income
Wheat 125 Barley 60 Broadbeans 40 Dry forage Chickpeas 16 Winter Veg, 150
Total Crops 391
Livestock & Poultry 300 Total Cash Income 691
Cash Expenses Seeds 10 Fertilizers 30 Feeds 10 Hired Labour 5 Tractor Hire 60 Plant Protection 10 Taxes 10 Miscellaneous 15 150
Net dash Income 541 Depreciation at 20% 205 Homo Use Products 317 Return to Capital Labour & Management 653 Interest on Investment at 5% 51
Return to Family Labour & Management 602
21/Including only those items which are for the settler's account. -87-
(o) Water Use Plan
Along the Escarpment above Al Useta, 22 springsexist with a combined flow rate in the minimum range of 246 L/min,equivalent to roughly 130,000 m3/year. These springs are at present serving localdomestic and livestock water requirements. In some cases small Gardens are irrigated from the springs. But, at any rate, the greater portion of water is wasted. Most of the flow at night is lost because of lack ofadequate water storage facilities. It is proposed that 10 of the larger springs be utilized by piping part of their flow to 17 publicwatering points to be established in the Al Useta area. Table12 shows how much water should be retained and how much should be diverted from individual springs. All the watering points can be fed by gravity flow, because each spring is situated at least 80 m. above the pointor points which it has to supply. (The elevation of most springs is shownon the new 1: 5,000 scale topographic maps). A total amount of at least 44,000 m3 of water per year could thus be supplied to the Al Useta region.
Each public watering p9int would receive a minimum flow of about 5 1/min. amounting to 7.2 m-Iday, which is sufficient to meet the daily water requirements of67people and536livestock units. To make the best use of water supplies, farm houses, schools and community centres should be built together in small villages around the public watering points. From the technical point of view, water distribution from the springs to the watering points can be achieved without any particular difficulties. The basic technical requirements involved are as follows:
Pipe lines: water is conveyed from the springs to the watering points by means of pipe lines. Due to the small flow rates involved and to the considerable difference in elevation over a relatively short distance between the point of intake'and discharge, pipes 1//2 inch diameter or less are sufficient for transmitting water. (The correct pipo size must be determined in each indivital case as part of the detailed technical studies). It is adequate to lay the pipes on the ground surface, except where roads and cultivated fields have to be crossed, but in most cases this can be avoided. A total length of pipe line of approximately55km is required to connect the 10 springs with the 17 watering points.
Water Dividi Dev ces: dividing the discharge of individual springs n the right proportion is the key factorinmaking the proposed system of water distribution operate satisfactorily. In addition, care has to be taken that the water allocated for distribution to watering points is correctly divided if more than one watering point has to be served from an individual spring. The water dividing device at the spring sitemayconsist of small adjustable rectangular or Vnotch weirs. The flow of water allocated for distribution to two or three watering points can be divided in two principal ways:
The full amount of water is discharged at regular intervals of, say, one week into the reservoir of a particular watering point, while the other watering point, or, points, remain cut off. This method may not be practical because it requires attention and disputes over water distribution may easily arise. The flow is divided and eaoh portion discharged oontinuously into -38-
o
TOTAL NUMBER OF SPRINGS EMERGING ALONG SECOND ESCARPMENT OF THE JABAL AL AKRDAR BETWEEN OFONTA AND WADI BO AL GHADI AND SPRINGS TO BE UTILIZED IN ESTABLISHING WATERING POINTS IN THE USETA REGION
_- ^-^- + Name of Spring Flow RRC Water avail- Amber of AmonnL of able for dis- watering water avail- /min m /doy lOyenT tribution to points to able at each watering be watering poin points supplied 3 1/min 1/min m /yen.
Talghaza 25 36.0 13'140 15 3 5 2'628 Ruchina 17 24.5 8'942 10 2 5 2'628 Ofonta 8 11.6 4'205 Targunia 25 36.0 13'140 10 2 5 2'628 Mude 5 7.2 2'628 Bengeleit 3 4.3 1569 Salium 18 25.9 9'453 10 2 5 2'628 Gheiba 6 8.6 3139 Raliyah 5 7.2 2628 Agnon 4 5.8 2'102 Madosa 6 8.6 3'139 Belange 40 57.6 21'024 10 2 2'628 ,5 Charga 15 21.6 7884 5 1 2'628 Bueda 8 11.6 4'205 Use ta 4 5.8 2102 Zaydan 6 8.6 3139 Rais 12 17.3 6'314 5 5 2628 Safsaf 8 11.6 4',205 UmnQabibah 9 13.0 4'730 1 5 2'628 Ash Shisu 15 21.6 7,884 10 2 5 2'628 Hutar 1.4 511 Wirdamah 6 8.6 3139 4 1 4 2103
TOTAL 354.5 ]29'392 84 17 44'065 -8 9-
the reeervoir of its allocatedwatering point. This can be done by selecting diacharge orifices of such sizeat the watering points as to give the predetermined flow rates. Or, if this method is not feasible for technical reasons, theundivided flow oan be released into a small reservoir and divided bysmall weirs in the same manner as recommended for the spring sites. In placing a water division point along the supply line, elevationand distance in relation to the waterine pointa to be servedhave to be taken into consideration.
Rese voirs: in order to achieve an efficientutilisation of the small water resources available, reservoirsare needed at the spring si tes and the watering points in order to collect andstore the accumulated flows for those times when water is required. In order to assure uninterrupted water supply during repair periods, reservoirsshould be large enough to hold at least one week's supply, whichamounts to about 50 m) at watering points with a supply rate of51/min. Water is to be drawn from reservoirs by means of taps. In addition, a live- stock watering trough has to be built at each watering point, which should be filled up according to need. Overflow from the reservoirs should go into the livestock troughs.
Cisterns: water supply from springs is not sufficient to meet the total requirements of the Al Useta region. Besides, the public watering points would be concentrated in a relatively confined area. In the migration region north of Al Useta, which covers more or less the Agricultural Zone III, about 9000 m3 of water per year should be nado available, This can be done by rehabilitating some of the Greco-Roman cisterns, of which a large number exist on the First Bench of the Jabal Al Akhdar. Assuming an average cistern caRacity of150m3, 60 cisterns will be needed to provide the 9000 m) of water. In order to obtain an inventory of the cisterns available for rehabilitation as'quickly as poesible, N.A.S.A. should tell farmers in the region to apply for cistern rehabilitation to their Mudir. Technicianscan then select cisterns according to their location, size and structural conditions; each new farm must have either a new cistern or a rehabilitated one.
Majens for each new farm house a small household cistern should be built, attached to the house, with water capacity50m). The roof of the house should be waterproofed in order to catch rainfall.
Underground Water: boreholes in this area are likely to meet with varying degrees of success, such as occurred in the test drilling. Summer'irrigation for young fruit plantations would mean that boreholes would be most conveniently situated close to the class I and clase II land as designated in the Land Capability Map. This is close to the foot of the Inland Escarpment and the elevations above sea level of borehole sites will range from 400 to425m. It seems improbable that useful water will be found above350m, and, since the maximum benefit should be the object, then depths of up to450m. can be envisaged.
The testing of each borehole normally made by electric submersible pump with appropriate depth measuring lines, will be necessary. Due to the uncertainty of estimating precise yields and pumping depths, it would be advantageous to'postpone the specifications regarding the test equipment until a simple air lift test has been made to define the approximate quanti ties involved.
Water Requirements Domestic and Livestock: it is estimated that about 1,300 people are living in the Al Useta region. About 1,000 of theee will live in tho 80 farms of the no w settlement scheme.
Assuming EL water requirement oft
75 1/day or 27.5,m3/year per person 4 1/day or 1.5 mlyear irr livestock unit. 1300 x 27.5 35,750 mper year 10000 x 1.5 - 15,000 m3 per year 50,750
The domestic and livestock water, requirements of the Al Useta region would amount to an annual volume total of, say, 55,000 m3. About 4,000 m." will be obtained from the springs and the rest from the cisterns in the farms and the majens attached to the new farm houses.
Water Requirements for Fruit Orchards: the number of farms planned is 80. Each farm would contain4hectares of fruit:
1 ha. Crapes with 1,100 plants/ha. 2 ha. Stone Fruits with 100 plants/ha.
1 ha. Almonds and Figs with 70 plants/ha. The water requirement is 100 1/plant yearly.
In round figures this involves some 30,000m3' waterper annum. To achieve this during the summer months an initial investment of 6 water wells, each producing 2 1/sec. for 12 hours/day would give this quantity in 60 days.
Naturally, the irrigation period would need to be spread over a larger interval than 60 days and this will help in offsetting the chance of some wells producing less than 2 1/sec; of course, others may produce more, hence the need of pump testing,
pumpinl: in all boreholes in this area a simple and relatively troublefree method of pumping is desirable.. It is suggested that jack pumps are used, powered initially by diesel motors which could later be'replaced by electric pumps when power ie available. The pumps can be specified tooperate at all depths likely to be required in this region and at various capacities. The cost, will, of course vary with the pumping rate required and depth of operation.
4. Sources o o Settlers in Aln' and Al Useta In addition to the income from the holdings outlined above separately under Al Mania and Al Useta, it is recommended that the following additional sources of income should be investigated:
The development or rural industries. The rural women in the project areas are adept at such ocoupations as making articles such as tents, carpets and clothing. Families should therefore be encouraged to promote these industries to provide additional income.
Milk Preduction. The number of cowe in the area will be doubled and there should be surplus milk for sale. Arrangements should be made to -91-
establish a dairy plant for the collection, processing and marketing of milk. This might be operated by the co-operative society.
(0) Honey Production. There are 200 hives in Al Rana and Al Secta, the produotion of whioh averages 15 kilogrammes per year. The price per kilogramme is about LZ 0.6. There is a ready demand for honey and Settlements should be provided with additional wooden hives at a nominal price in order that they may increase production.
5. Services to the Settlers (a) Co-operative Marketing and Credit Arrangements Co-operative marketing and credit arrangements in the two Settlement Projects are to be an integral part of the agricultural and institional services such as Agricultural Extension, Co-operative, Community Development, Supply of Production Requisitos, etc. to be organised for the success of the Projects.
It is suggested that, to begin with, N.A.S.A. should undertake the responsibility for the provision and co-ordination of agricultural Rnd institutional services in the Project areas.
The settlers should be organised into a multi-purpose Co-operative Society. Of course, in its infancy, this Society will need careful nursing, guidance and financial and technical assistance from N.A.S.A. and the various Government Departments. For this purpose, a Project Advisory Committee for each Project should be constituted. This Committee should comprise of the Project Supervisor (Convenor), President and Secretary of the Co-operative Society, representatives of the Departments of Agriculture, Forestry, Animal Husbandry, Co-operation, Soil and Water Conservation, Horticulture, together with the Mudir and representatives of the Agricultural Bank of 'Alva and the Mutassarif of the District. The Committee'should prepare long-term as well as short- term plAns for Land utilisation, raising crops, fruit plants, credit arrangements, marketing and supply of agricultural requirements such as improved seeds, fertilisers, tractors, agricultural machinery, etc., oto., and then assist the Co-operative Societyinthe execution of the programmes and plans through individual as well as the joint efforts ofall members of the Committee.
The Committee should assist the Co-operative in estimating the credit needs of the settlers for various agricultural purposesand make arrangements fot its timely supply. In the initial stages, a supervised system of credit should be introduced. Co-operative marketing should be organised and recovery of loans should be linked to it.
(b) 1ach'nerStation A Farm Machinery Station will be run by N.A.S.A. andthe machinery hired out to the cultivators of both Settlements,until in the course of time it can be taken over by the Settler Co-operatives. The equipment will be kept in one central centre for both Settlements. For machinery overhauls they should be taken to one of the N.A.S.A.workshops at Al Marj or Messah, for field repairs one ofthe eight N.A.S.A. mobile workshops should be stationed in the area. The following are the requirements. 92-
22 - 2 wheel drive diesel tractore, of not lose than55H.P. equipped with tyres (14") heavy duty, independent rear power take-off and hydraulic nystem with 3 point linkage remote control and automatic depth control.
22 - stump-jump cultivators of chisel type to fit the traotore.
10 - double gang disc harrows with 22" diam. discs trailed mounted on rubber tyres with remoto control hydraulic cylinder.
9 - 3 ton tipping trailers with steel tops.
7 -seed drills with 12 ft. width and7"basing, tractor type on rubber wheeln with level control weed rate adjustment.
8 - tractor mounted high spinners of 3 point range with5cwt capacity.
8 - self-propelled 12 to 14 ft. cut Combine Harvesters. Diesel engine top mounted baggers. 8 -hay bales and PTO driven, automatic wire tie.
It will be necessary for N.A.S.A. to set up an official organisation to run this machinery service which should aim at the same time to train Settlers in the proper use of mechanical equipment. It will be necessary to have trained field SuperVisors responsible for all the machinery working, for the allocation of equipment, for the keeping of records etc.
(c) Housing.
A Standard Farm House has been designed for all Settlement Projects. This takes into account the requirements of Settlers and aleo provides a design which may be readily extended if required at a later date. The basic houee will have an area of 163 sq. metres including4bedrooms, sitting-room, guest room, kitchen, toilet and shower. If there is ample water supply the w.c, will be retained within the house, but if there is insufficient, the shower will be in the house and the w.c, will'be located outside.
The exi ting village of Al Hania will serve the new Settlement, but two echools, and a clinic and a Settlement Community Development Centre will be built. An entire new village will be built in the centre of Al Useta, with two schools, a clinic, stores, and Settlement Community Development Centre.
6. Pro osed ste s for im lementing the two Pro'ects
(a) Parcelation: the following steps are proposed to be taken for the implementation of each Project:
All rights and claims on land should be investigated and reoorded in official records by the Land Registration Staff, while N.A.S.A. can give assistance in staff and equipment.
All righte and claims should be recorded in detail with titles and other ownership documents. In addition the following information should also be recorded: size of each plot, size of cultivated part - uncultivated part - grazing land- foreet - rocky land, etc. Full description of the plot: thiu would, cover the kind of crops, water resources, well or cistern pumpo, houae and hutsetc.
(in) All oommon righte should be recorded, suchas grazing land, passage and water.
Ail objections would have to be investigated in accordance with the Land Registration Law. These investigations should not take up too much time, due to the fact that map makere and surveyors will work in co-operation with the Land. Registration Staff and aseist in the accomplishment of this work.
Selection of settlers in accordance with the Rule proposed by the Team and approved by N.A.S.A.
No compensation shall be made in the case of land acquisition for those whowillbenefit from the new settlement schemes in the areas. A system of adjustment should be applied to cover the difference, if any, between the cost of the expropriated land and the cost of the new plot granted to the settler in the new settlement echeme.
In the case of all the conditions laid down for allotment of farms not being fulfilled by the existing occupant, no outsider of the Belt Tribe shall be eligible for the farm. Therefore, it is recommended, in such circumstances, that the present farm occupant may nominate one of his close relatives to be a settler on a new plot within the Scheme provided that the selected person is well qualified and shall comply with all Rules and Regulations set out by N.A.S.A.
(b) Administrative Orranisation
It is proposed that there should be only one N.A.S.A. General Manager of both Projects at Headquarters in Beida. He should be an experienced Graduate in Agriculture viLb 1,raining in Agricultural Extension and Farm Management.
He ehould have under his control two Assistant Project Managers, one for each Settlement Area, These Asaistant Project Managers should hold Diplomas in Agricultural Engineering. They should be stationed in the Settlement Areas, The Manager and Assistant' Managers should be provided with Latid-royere and secretarial services.
Prior to actually taking up their duties, they should be attached to experienced Supervisors of already existing land Settlement Projects, either within the country or outside, for a period of 3 - 6 months for on-the-job training. They should be recruited immediately the decisions are made to implement the Settlement Schemes so that by the time the various programmes and works are underway,they are available on the site to supervise the implementation. 94-
, II
111
9 -AL USETA View of the Al Useta Project site
III! II
1
I
10 AL USETA Results of private enterprise reclamation of land. The bushes and stones have been removed by a bull dozer which has taken with it all the top soil. C. Conine Verde Settlement Project
Six km. south of Tripoli a purification plant isbeing built to treat the sewage from the town. The water from the plant will be treated toa pathogenically harmless state and it was therefore suggested in 1964when plana for the plant were under discuesion that the water might be used toirrigate an agricultural settlement project. After some discussion between government departmentsit was agreed to make a settlement scheme now known as Collina Verde. Responsibility for this project wao given to the National Agricultural Settlement Authority and theF.A.O. Team WRSrequested to include this project in their programme of work. The Team worked in olose aseociation with the consulting firme whowere oalled in - Howard Humphreys & Sons, Consulting Engineers of London whowere responsible for the design of three. of the reservoirs and Soci4t6 Centrale pour l'Equipement et Territoire ofParie who were responsible for preparing designs for the major part of theproject and the tender documents. The checking of the consulting firms' plans and tender documents was made either by experts of the Team or from the appropriate Ministries.
The completion of the purification plant was originally scheduled for the end of Maroh 1967. As things turned out it was completed by the end of 1968. Water for irrigation will be available during the transitional period of 1969 until the settlers are selected in1970.
1. General Desc of the$ett].emeìitA ea
Location and Topography - the area is situated six kilometers to the south of Tripoli and can be reached either by the Suani road or the Ben-Oashir road. The area covered by the topographic survey is approximately 1,300 ha, and the elevation varies from 30 m. to 60 m. above sea-level. The greater part of the area is made up of sand dunes but is partly covered by bushes and shrubs.The area slopes gradually from south to north, that is with 60 m. elevation at the southern end. The direction of the slope is very disadvantag- eous because the reservoirs for purified sewage water are situated at the north side of the area. As a result the pumping load for irrigation will be heavy. The micro-relief is also inconvenient on account of the many dunes and hills dispersed throughout the area. As a result much levelling and reclamation will have to be carried out. More than 40 percent of the settlement area is covered by trees, bushes and shrubs and it was neoessary therefore to discuss the future of the afforested area with the Forestry Department of the Ministry of Agriculture. The Forestry Department authorized the Settlement Authority to use the area in the most convenient way from the point of view of the needs for settlement.
Climatological Data - The Mediterranean Sea is a very influential factor which decreases the maximum temperature, while slightly increasing the minimum temperature. The climate of Collina Verde is moderate with a mean yearly total of about350mm rainfall, and a mean annual temperature of nearly 20°C. A rainfall station does not exist in the area itself, but for Tripoli the annual average was325.2mm from 1940 to1965and for Sidi el Meen i it was 352.1 mm from'1919 to 1965. The consulting engineers felt that it is more probable that the rainfall in Collina Verde area is similar to that in Sidi El Mesri rather than to that in Tripoli and that it is reasonable to accept for Collina Verde a figure of350mm per year. The rainy season has a duration of5or 6 months per year, and moreover total monthly rainfall is, as a rule, concentrated in a few days, and very often within 24 hours. It is evident that only a partorthe total rainfall is really utilisable for the °ropes, because or the great percolation and some run-off.
Irrigation will he necessary in winter as well as in summer. The averAge number of ralny days doce not exceed 10 even in the most rainy months. There are seven months with lose than5days rain. The mean temperature varies from12.4°Cin January to26.30Cin August, with a minimum of 10.1°C in January,1945and a maximum of29.4°Cin Auguet1945. The extreme minimum is very rarely under 3°C but on the other hand, temperatures over 4000 are frequent from May to September.
The mean annual value of relative humidity is about62%with very small variations. At midday it is generally in the neighbour- hood of50%throuehout the year. The mean monthly values are almost always over 50% and below75%with very small variations. During the periods when the Ghibli is blowine, humidity falle to very low values, sometimes below 10%. Irrigation and cultivation will increase the relative humidity on the crops.
Winds are not very strong, but they can be very dangerous to the crope as they are chareed with sand which can heavily damage the plants. Removement of sand to the area should be prevented by windbreaks. Irrigation will aleo help to prevent sand movement.
For evaporation there is very little data from1965and1966 only. Moreover, the measures were made with a Piche evaporimeter which is not very precise. Thehighestevaporation occurs in July, amounting to about5.5mm per day.
It could be concluded that the micro-climate of the area of Collina Verde though somewhat severe for cropping, can be corrected by means of irrigation and windbreaks. When the project is realized it might be expected that the corrected climatological conditions will be very propitious to high yields as soon as the other conditions are fulfilled.
Eópulation - the population in the survey area(1967)composed 2,481families as follows:
Collina Verde - 2,100families (most of them occupying the slums around Tripoli Town - 1,277living in houses and823 in tin-shacks). Farghan 122families
Funduk El Toghar 93 RI Abu Saleim 84 tf
Dumeis 82 06'
TOTAL 2,481families
239families were selected by a random sample and studied by a questionnaire undertaken by the epocialized.staff of the Social -97-
Survey Section of the Ministry of Social Affairs. The following arethe resulte of the eurvey:-
97.1percent of the familiee studied are married and only 1.3 percent are bachelors. The very high proportion of married heads of families should ease the problem of finding satiefactory family units for settlement.
Two thirds of the families(69%)want to be settled in the project and most of these families have come tO Collina Verde district from distant rural areas where they earned their living in the seasonal cultivation of crops and herding of animals. They have been attracted by high wages to the outskirts of Tripoli.
(i ) Most of the gainfully employed family heads were labourers, drivers and watchmen. Only10.5percent were farm workers. The selection of settlers will be from this group.
43.5percent of the families have4-7persons each while 22.5percent have less than 4 persons each. Since the number of man days required per holding in the planned settlement is estimated at645,it will be necessary to select settlers among the families that have the equivalent of at least21/2 full-time workers available, i.e. a family size of at least 5persons including two male adults.
The high percentage of illiterate family heads(75percent) is less than the percentage prevailing in other areas studied where it was as high as90percent. Only23.8percent of family heads are educated and can read and write.
52percent of family heads are between 20 - 40 yeaTs old. It is satisfactory that such a large number are in the productive age groups required for successful settlement if these people are indeed included in the two-thirds who want settlement.
2. Land Tenure System
Shortly after the decision was taken to establish a settlement project in Collina Verde the Settlement Authority received applicatione from a number of people claiming ownership to some land in the area. However, nono of the applicants was able to define, even roughly, the areas to which they laid olaim. In the opinion of the Team the situation may be summarised as follows:
The claimants to ownership of land are all relatives and come from a tribe called Abu-Selim. Most of them claimed that farming is their only occupation and they did not actually live in the settlement area but in its vicinity.
The claimants were unable to provide any regietered or written documente proving their ownership or to indicate whether the land had been acquired by purchase, inheritance or any other means. Some of them say that they are in possession of documents confirmed by the Courtbut they have failed to produce them. -98-
(o) Although the claimants pretend ownership to the whole area they concentrated their claims on three zones: Kallet Zagub, Kallet Gusbaia and Kallet Enscir. These three Zones total about 300 ha. The claimants say that these three zones were expropriated in 1936 by the Italian Authorities for the establishment of a settlement project. Some of the claimants stated that the Italian Authorities had paid compensation for expropriation but it was very small while others said that they had refused to accept any compensation. All the claimants stated that their possessions were not returned to them after the termination of the Italian oocupation. The area remained in the possession of and under the supervision of the Libyan Government.
(d) From meetings held with the claimants and from field vieite it was obvious that there are no features on the land which could be used to indicate private property rights. There are no physical constructions in the area, no buildings, no water resources or plantations.
The registers of the Land Registration Department and of the Private State Property Department in Tripoli reveal that there are no registered titles relating to this a-ea either in the name of the State or in the name of individuals.
The map in the Land Registration Department shows Kallet Zagub and Kallet Enscir as private property while Kallet Gusbaia is marked as Private State Property. The Italian Authorities seeking legal justification to regard the settlement area as Private State Property depended on the provisions of Royal Decree No. 1207 of 1921 relating to the Adjudication and Registration of rights in Immovable Property in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. Article 4 of this Royal Decree reads as follows:
"Government property of the Colony shall comprise sandbanks, salt impregnated land (Sebkha), barren, fallow and abandoned manat lands, salterns, quarries and mines, woodlands and forests, railways, confiscated property, property formerly classed as public property but no longer used by the public, as well as property bequeathed to the State and property already belonging to the Treasury (bayt al--mal)".
The Italian Authorities using this Decree classified the Collina Verde area as Private State Property. They also prepared maps from proposed settloment projects and marked on these Maps the claims to ownership submitted by the tribes. In most cases the claims were not supported by documents and the rights were therefore not seriously studied. The Government compensated the owners of private areas and obtained statement from them that the land had become Private State Property. -99-
Table 13 Present Die bution of fa ' ies according to size of holdi 68)
- Area - Numb er Percentage
0 hectare 214 U 89.5% 7 2and lose than 2.9% 10 9 3.8% 10 " " " 30 4 1.8% 30 " " " 60 2 0.8% 60 upwards 1 0.4% UNCERTAIN 2 0.8%
TOTAL 239 l00%
The Vast majority of families possess no land at all at the moment. Although many have had experience in casual agriculture the need for training forsettlement and adequate extension support will be paramount.
Legal Ownership of the Area The Team study indicates that the area selected for settlement is Private State Property including the threezones to which claim of ownership has been made. There are two exceptiorsinvolving two small plots located in the South of the project which are in fact privately owned. One is part of Kallet Farahat and the other is part of Kallet Zagab. (c17ha.) Although the occupiers of these plots do not have registered documents proving their ownership they have been cultivating the land for a long time and there are many items of fixed equipment (buildings, water installations etc.) which they have put there. The remainder of the area should be considered Private State Property for the following reasons:
Forests, sandbanks, dunes and impregnated land represent the major part of the area. Such types of land are regarded as Private State Property under the Forest Law and the Land Registration Law.
The members of the tribe of AbuSelim who claim ownership in three zones can produce no documents in support of their claims.
The claimants cannot base their request for ownership on prescription. Article972of the Libyans' Civil Law states "who possesses movable or immovable property without being owner to it has the right to acquire ownership, if his possession continues without any break for fifteen years." The claimants at Collina Verde cannot apply these provisions for two reasons. In the first place that possession which entitles an occupier to acquire ownership after a certain period of time must be in accordance with the provisions of Article953of the Libyan Civil Law i.e. possession muot be undisputed, apparent and continuous. As stated, the posseseion of the claimants in the case of Collina Verde is not apparent. Secondly, although the claimants say that they possessed the land until1936they clearly lost possession after this date., Under Article966of the Civil Law, possession is regarded as terminated if the possessor leavee the land or loses the practical use of it. -1 00-
d) Under Article6of the Land Registra.tion Law issued on September 28,1965and Article 2 of the Royal Decree dated 28 September1965rel;Ating to Priva te State Property, it is illegal to appropriate Private State Property by prescription.
) Under Article73of the Land Registration Law relating to unregistered immovable property the registration of ownership based on poseession or prescription is prohibited uniese the applicants succeed in obtaining definite judgement in his favour. For these reasons the claimants cannot be said to own either by virtue of registered documents or by any other source, any part of the area of Collina Verde apart from the two plots mentioned above.
3. Soil Classification and Land Capability
A general reconnaissance report on the soils of the Collina Verde area was prepared in March,1965. No topographical map of a suitable scale was available then, so that a sketch map was made of the area. Furthermore, at that time no boundaries had been decided upon for the proposed irrigation scheme as the precise area to be irrigated was not known. A9 a result of this the reconnaissance survey carried out at Collina Verde did not cover the precise area to be irrigated, which was only later decided upon by the National Agricultural Settlement Authority. Subsequently a topographical map of 1:10,000 became available and the boundaries of the proposed irrigation scheme were clearly defined. It was therefore decided to map the soils of the area in greater detail and produce a Land Capability map on a scale of 1:10,000 with the possibility of enlarging this to 1:15,000if required.
Four Land Capability Classes and two sub-Classes were decided upon, largely based on the practical consideration of the mechanical levelling and dune fixation 'considered necessary. In an area such as this, covered with sandy Regosols,. the inherent fertility of the dunes does not vary much and, in fact, only two soil types can be defined; namely the Marine Calcareous Coastal series and the overlying modern Continental sand dunes.Fixation of the sand dunes by vegetation and tree planting as a result of the efforts of the Forestry Commission has resulted in an increase of the organic matter content in the planted areas but this is comparatively insignificant as yet.
The Land Classes are:
Class II
Flatter areas with sandy soils which have some limitations that reduce the choice of crops and which require moderate conservation practices. Less than idea soil structure and rapid drainage. (88 hectares).
Class III
Areae of stabilised Aeolian Continental dunes, with severe limitations that reduce the choice of crops and which require special conservation practices. Low fertility. Low water holding capacity. (390hectares).
Sub-Class III e (Erosion Hazard)
Areae of otabilined dunes but with steeper slopes and more liable to erosiorc hazard requiring considerable levelling and management(276hectares) -101-.
Clase IV
Area of unstabilised Aeolian Continental dunes but withoutsteep slopes. Can be used for cultivation but require very considerablemanagement and very severe limitations in the choice of crops. Very lo w water holding capacity. (194 hectares)
Sub-Class IVe (Erosion Hazard)
Areas of unstabilised shifting Aeolian sand dunes and with steepslopes very subject to change and wind.erosion. (86 hectares),
Class V
Flatter areas of very calcareous sands with "croute", often abundant concretions with hard surface crust. Very low fertility. Not generally suitable for arable cultivation (83 hectares).
The sandy Regosols of the area are an admixture of sands of Aeolian origin and sA-Ids of the Marine Coastal series.The Coastal series are calcite soils in which the formation of calcareous layers occurs at varying depths. It may well be that these deposits of calcite can create adverse drainage- conditions. Certainly they impede root growth.However, a large percentage of the proposed irrigation area of Collina Verde is covered by dunes of recent origin. These dunes are in all grades of fixation, varying from the extremely unstable wind blown desert type dunes of Class IVe, to the flatter areas of fixed dunes covered by vegetation both planted and natural of Class III.
Of these classes and sub-classes the areas delineated III, IIIe, IV and IVe, compose the bulk of the land available for irrigation. Mechanical, partial levelling of the dunes and subsequent fixation by vegetation, constitutes the main problem of Classes IV and IVe, reaching its maximum with Class IVe. Sub-Class IIIe requires the same care to a lesser extent, and Class IIIareas have already been dealt with by the Forestry Commission. In these stabilised areas some levelling would undoubtedly have to be carried out, but the problem is much lees acute.than in the Clases IIIe, IV and IVe. Once these areas have been levelled and stabilised by vegetation, irrigation by purified sewage waters would encourage profile development and the increase of fertility. Likewise, the structure and texture of the soil would be improved.
Class V represents calcareous areae with considerable management problems resulting from the build up of the calcite layers of "croute". In addition to the hard calcareous cruet which ie everywhere apparent in these areas, the underlying calcareous layers present considerable difficultiee to successful plant cultivation. It is most noticeable how young trees planted by the Forestry Commission have failed as a result of these adverse conditions. However, on the immediate surroundings of overlying recent dunes, successful tree growth is taking place. There is, in fact, a close correlation between the natural vegetation cover and the fixed dunes which have been stabilised by human effort. Conversely, lack of vegetation is to be found in the calcareous croute areas, which as a result of no vegetation cover heve become very eroded by wind and water. Gullying and rill type erosion is often observed, where flood waters have through the surface orust. In fact, moet of the winter raine are lost through run off, and are thereby denied to the young trees which suffer muoh more from drought during the hot arid summer months than do thoee planted on the sandy dunes. Such trees that have survived are invariably etunted and poor. However, varioue artificats are often to be found -102-
scattered on the surface of these areas, suggestive of their depreciation in fertility eince Roman times,
4. Water Resotces and d. o o, Water resources, apart from radnfall, for the Collina Verde Irriga tion Scheme are: Water from the Purification Plant and Underground Water.
The main water resource is from the Purification Plant. In addition underground water could be used, as there exist in the area good possibilities for drilling wells, according to the situation in the surrounding area. Underground water is of such greater importance for domestic use than for irrigation purposes in this area although it could be a very important source of water for planting trees during the execution of the Project. This will be done before the irrigation networks are finished. For this reason N.A.S.A. decided to drill8wells whose positions are dispersed over the whole area. The results of these drillings are very good.
(a) Water from the Purification Plant - As mentioned above, the main water resources for irrigation will be from water coming from the purification plant.
The Consulting Engineers for Tripoli Drainage System proposed to build a combined drainage system, and not a eeparate one. A separate system implies the provision of separate pipelines for sanitary sewage and for storm run-off. In this case, only the sewage water ie treated and the rain or surface waters are discharged to the sea or to a water course, according to the situation. Benghazi Sewage Project is a separate one. The combined system collects foul sewage and surface water in a single large pipeline. The existing Tripoli drainage system is combined, and expansion and adaption of this system is being done in the same manner.
(i) Water Quantitz. - The principles for the separation of excess wet weather flow are as follows:-
Flowe up to three times the dry weather flow are to be pumped awayand given proper treatment in the sewage purification works after which the water will be suitable for irrigation - (3x 6.0 mill. gallons =18mill, gallons, or3x 27,000 m3 which is equal to81,000 At3)
Flows between three and six times the dry weather flow are to be separated and discharged to the open sea. These flows are those likely to occur during periods of moderate rainfall.
Flows exceeding six times the dry weather flow are to be discharged to the harbour or to the sea where it is convenient to do so. These discharges will oocur only at very infrequent intervals, and they would be very dilute in character.
It is clear from the above that the water quantity to be used from the Purification Plant varies
from 27,000 m3/day, which is equal to dry weather flow, or the minimum daily outflow rate.
to 81,000 m3/day, which is equal to three times dry weather flow, or to maximum purifioation plant daily capacity, or maximum daily outflow from the plant. For irrigation the first mentioned amount of daily outflow rate, i.e., -103-
the minimum r 3 of 27,000 m isiste more important. The need of plante for irrigation is highest at exactly thesame time as the flow rate is lowest; i.e., in the hot dry season. So the whole Irrigation Project will be based on the minimum daily outflow rate. The possibilities of using surplus water, of course, must bestudied as a further step of the project in two ways:-
i as increasement of irrigation within the scheme area itself, or ii as expansion of the area outside the scheme.
It is not easy to solve this problem, because the onlyway of using the surplus water for irrigation is to construct reservoirsor lakes for storage of water during the wet season, and to use it during the dry season. The natural conditions forsuch structures and these possibilities must be studied very seriously, because of the great lack of water in Libya.
)Water ualíty - The most important data concerning the water quality are the following points:
bacteriological analysis salinity of the water
Concerning a), the Consultants for the Purification Plant gave assur- ance that the water would be absolutely harmless from a bacteriological point of view. The complete treatment will provide pure, quite drinkable water. It will be necessary, of course, tp organise a regular control of the quality of the water.
Salinity of the normal water used for,Tripoli Water Supply is in the order of 200 ppm, whilst the salinity of samples taken from the sewage showed variations of between 500 ppm and 700 ppm. (sometimes 2,000 ppm.) due chiefly to highly saline discharges from 0EA Brewery and the Tomato Cannery. The samples were taken from 28 points along the main sewers. The Consultants' opinion is that strict control must be organieed to prevent discharge of saline water to the sewers. This water is usually pumped by the factories from brackish underground water strata in order to reduce the use of water from the Water Supply.
These figures for salinity will not be reduced during the treatment process at the Purification Plant, and it will be very necessary to implement some form of control at the source of discharge of these saline waters.
(b) Underground Water Situation - N.A.S.A. drilled 8 wells within the whole area. The purposes for drilling these wells were:-
for drinking water supply, for temporary irrigation after levelling and during plantation, before the completion of the irrigation project, (iii for additional irrigation if any is necessary (iv to obtain more data concerning the underground water situation.
The drilling of the wells has been completed, and pumping tests made. The main characteristics are shown in Table 2. -1 04-
Table14,
Characteristics of the le ed in the Collina Verde Scheme
Well No, Capcity Q Elevation E Depth o Water Level cu.m/hour m. well m. Depth WLD m.
1 41.68 29.66 80 21.00 2 41.68 35.31 70 20.57 3 41.68 39.91 62 22.13 4 19.80 36.75 95 26.50 5 19.00 51.70 90 36.00 6 34.43 37.56 Go 25.80 26.40 47.60 80 30.40 8 33.00 43.94 73 35.50
The capacity of the wells is abundant, and the quality of water with regard to chloride content is good.
Pro o ed Se he Pro
The settlement project is for an area of 1000 ha. of which 500 ha. will be irrigated. It is intended to provide farms of6ha. each for 100 families. The intention is to create an attractive environment with a village centre which will include shops, co-operative headquarters, community development centre, Mosque and -nChool_. The farm houses will be grouped together in small settlements and linked by a-public road of minimum width six meters. The design of the family farm house and farm buildings is intended to fit in with the settlers' requirements. The symetrical plan should be easy to enlarge should the family grow. The basio house will cover an area of 163 sq. meters and contain a sitting-room, guest room (Marbua), 4 bed-rooms, kitchen, toilet and shower.The design for the house was made by the Settlement Authority Architect in discussion with the Team.
(a) Selection 6f Settlers - The Team believes that there ehould be some special conditions for selecting settlers as the area is near Tripoli. The specialized nature of production also requires settlers to be capable of assuming farm management responsibilities of a fairly advanced kind.
It is most important that the settlers are chosen at a very early stage of the Project in order that they may receive training well in advance of the beginningof farming and also take part in the development of the project. The following special conditions should apply to their selection:
(i) N.A.S.A. in conjunction with the Ministry of Labour and the Ministry of Interior will draft the necessary selection plan.
) N.A.S.A. should prepare the necessary application forms in general accord with the Rules for the Selection of Settlers prepared by the Team and approved by its Board of Directors.
(M) A Selection Committee should be formed which should include a number -105-
of representatives of Local Authorities in the area as well as members from N.A.S.A.'s Department of Rural Community Development and the Ministries of Labour and Interior. This Committee should prepare a list of settlers for submission to the Settlement Authority and it is recommended that the list should include a reserve number of 10 percent over and above the actual requirements,
The intensive type of agriculture under permanent irrigation planned for the settlement requires great effort and efficiency. In selecting settlers therefore, preference should be given to people likely to be capable and industrious.
If a large number of applicants satisfy the required conditions the selection committee should give priority to those having the following qualifications:
Applicants who can read and write Applicants who are thought potentially suitable for training Applicants with largo families representing active family labour.
(b) Mapping
Early in 1965 N.A.S.A. engaged the surveying company - TERMEC LIBYA to prepare a suitable map of the whole settlement area. The company was requested to survey about 1,300 hectares by tachiometry, the scale to be 1: 2,5000 with contour intervals of 0.5 m. The heights were taken from existing bench marks in the Purification Plant area. Later, by photographic- al means, maps were produced on scales of 1:5,000 and 1:10,000.
Aerial photography of the larger surrounding area was made at the end of 1965, covering about 6,000 hectares, the scale being 1:5,000.Uncontrolled photo-mosaic, scale 1:20,000, was also prepared and this covered not only the area of the proposed settlement scheme, but also some Government land towards the south, in order to permit further study for expansion of the scheme.
(e) Road, nd Level
(i) Roads - The total length of roads to be built ie close on 25 kilometers. The road beds should be able to bear fairly light vehicular traffic, of which the maximum tonnage can be fixed at about 30 tons. That is, 13 tons per axle, and6.5tons per wheel. The sandy nature of Collina Verde's soil is an element in its favour insofar as its use as a road network support is concerned.
The earthmoving should not present any particular difficulties. It will be necessary to take standard precautions during the filling and spreading of the materials constituting the base layer. It is proposed to proceed with a brief levelling to eliminate the superficial layer of vegetation. In order to prevent the road from being rapidly covered over with sand, it will be embanked slightlyin relation to the natural ground.
Two types of techniques can be used in the preparation of the road'aed: sand stabilisation the addition and compaction of ungraded quarry material orbroken stone. -106-
After comparing both methods it was clear that both solutions are the same with regard to price, but the second one has technical advantaees. Therefore the use of ungraded stone is advised.
Levelling
a) Clearing and Levelling of the Micro-Relief - This shall be done over the greater part of the area which is made up of sandy bumps and minor topographical irregularities in relation to the general surface plans. The micro-relief itself has been divided into different classes according to the type of veeetation and to the earthworks required for its reclamation (around 400 trees per hectare, around 200 trees per hectare, around 100 trees per hectare and without trees.) The ground is divided into two classes -
areas already levelled and requiring simple grading areas where earthworks are necessary for partially cutting the lumps and filling the depressions. In these areas the volume of earthworka is around 800 to 1200 m3/hectare.
b) Micro-relief - The accepted idea iu to limit the volume of earthwork as much as possible. For example - 1 cm of soil removed from one hectare is equal to 100 cubic meters in volume. Therefore the levelling of the micro-relief is limited to the areas with slopes steeper than 10°. Instead of removing all the dunes, it is proposed to reduce the steep- ness of the slopes only. Accordine to calculations, this reduces earth moving from 225,000 cubic meters to 65,000 cubic meters.
6. Proposed Land Use Pattern It is assumed that about 1,000 hectares will besavailable in Collina Verde for settlement purposes. N.A.5.A. will keep 60 hectares for nursery and experimental demonstration purposes, and about 250 hectares will be devoted to the village centre, roads, windbreaks, reservoirs, main pipelines, etc. leaving the remainder to be sub-divided into family farms.
With a farm size of 6 hectares, the settlement will consist of 100 farm units. Three hectares of each farm will be under permanent irrigation, while two hectares will be under partial irrigation in winter. Each settler will keep three cows, one donkey or horse,10sheep and 25 poultry. The total production of alfa alfa, oats/vetch forage, straw from wheat and barley, haulm from beans, peanuts, etc. will be fed to the livestock. Sheep will also eraze on the stubble.
An area of 0.5 hectare citrus and 0.5 hectare alfa alfa will be under irrigation all the year round. In addition the following will be under seasonal irrigation:
In winter Wheat 1 hectare Winter Veeetables (Potatoes, lettuce onions, garlic, carrots, horsebeans etc.) 1 hectare
In Summer Peanuts 1 hectare Summer Vegetables (tomatoes, beans, melons, cucumber, etc., etc.,) 1 hectare -107-
In winter, one hectare of barley for grainand two hectares of forage (oats and vetch) will be grown under rain-fedconditions with complementary irrigRtion, while in summer they will lie fallow.
(a) Crop Rotation- To facilitate cultivation, irrigation and rotation of crops, the farm will be divided into 12 fields of halfa hectare each. Half a hectare will be under citrus permanently. Three hectares will be under mainly rain-fed crops of barley ami oat/vetch mixture,and the rotation will be barley - fallow - oat/vetch mixture- fallow.
Under irrigated cropping one field of half a hectare will beunder alfa alfa for a continuous period of three years. The remaining fields will be under winter and summer irrigated crops, the rotation beingas shown in Table 15.
Table 1j.
Rotational Programme for a Farm Unit of 6 Hectares
in Collina Verde Settlement
Plots IV V
Years 3 4
I.Winter 0/V 0/V 0/11 0/1/ Ba Ba 4 W WV WV Summer F F Pa Pn SV SV A
Winter WV WV Oft 0/V 0 V0/V Ba Ba EI°Summer SV SV F F F F F F Pn Po a:Tinter W WV WV 0/V0/V 0/1/ 0/V Ba Ba Summe Pu SV SV
N.Winter Ba W W WV WV 0/1/ V A 0/v 0/1/ Summer F Pn Po SV SV F F A
Ar,Winter o 0/V Ba Ba V W WV WV A 0/V 0/v Summer F Pa Pn SV SV A
TI.Winter o/v V 0/1/ 0/V Ba Ba W W A WV WV Summer F FF F Pn Pu A SV SV 2Jí. - Key to Le
0/V = Oat/Vetch Mixture Pn. Peanuts
BR. = Barley A. Alfa Alfa
W. - Wheat C. = Citrus
WV. = Winter Vegetables, F. . Fallow
SV. = Summer Vegetables (b) Livestock and Poultr Programme - The following table shows the kind and number of livestock to be kept by each farm family. The number of poultry can be changed according to the wishes of each settler, dependdng on his attitude, interest and skill in this enterprise. The livestock will be supplied by N.A.S.A. under their project of supplying improved stock to settlers.
Table 16
Kind and Number of Livestock to be Kept by Each Farm FamiV
ind Number Estimated Remarks Cost in L.
Cows 3 750 Improved cows costing LE250each
Sheep 10 200 Improved ewes costing LE20each Poultry 25 37.50 Improved imported birds costing LE 1.50 each
orse 17.50 Local breed
TOTAL 1005
(0) Labour Requirements - the total labour requirements for the cropping plan have been estimated at550man-days, and for the care of livestock at another 105 man-days, so that the total Labour Requirement should be about 655 man-days.
(d) Estimated ProductionGross Income and Returns - Table17shows the estimated production and gross income per family farm unit. In the case of livestock and fruit only the disposable income has been included. -109-
Tablo17 Land Use, Estimated Production and Gross Income per Farm Unit
Enterprise Gross Remarks Value
A. CROPS 21-z Barley 10 10 3.0 30 Oat/vetch 200 400 To be fed to mixture livestook Irricated Wheat 20 20 5.00 100
Winter Veg. 1 200 200 2.00 400 Summer Veg. 200 200 2.00 400 Peanuts 15 15 8.00 120 Alfa alfa 800 400 To be fed to livestock Total Crops 1050
B. FRUITS Income from Citrus 0.5 100 50 5.00 250 fruit starts after 5 years. Meanwhile vege- tables could be grown between the tree rows.
C. LIVESTOCK per animal Cows (milk) 3 500 1 1500 1 0.06 90 (beef) calve, 200 kg. 600 kg. 0.30 180 Sheop(wool) 0 2.5 kg. 25 kg. 0.20 5 (meat/ 8lambsat £12.5 100 skin) per lamb Poultry 5 at E 1.00 25 (egq/ per bird meat) Total 400
Grand Total for A + B + C = 1700 LE
Table 18 shows the (e) Estimat d Cos Returns and Investme U estimated farm income and costs to indicate input put relationship. -110--
Tahltla Annual Costs Returns and Investment or Farm
Value LE A. INVESTMENT
12 11,:d 1000 i:V:E= 1000 3 Farm Machinery 50 14 Livestock 1 000 Total 3052
B. GROSS INCOME
Crops 1050 2 Fruit 250 3 Livestock 400 Total 1700
C. CASH EXPENSES
Seeds 52 2 Fertilizers 76 3 Irrigation Charges 75 4Animal Feeds 90 5 Plant Protection 20 6 Hired Labour 100 7 Taxes and Miscellaneous 25 Total 440
D. NON-CASH EXPENSES
Depreciation of A (1) Land Development Items at5%per year 50
Depreciation ofA(2) and (B) Irrigation and Farm Machinery 105
(3)Livestock at 20% for replacement 200 Total 355,
TOTAL CASH AND NON-CASH EXPENSES _122
E. AMOUNT AVAILABLE
1 Farra Earninc:s (B-C) 1260 2 Returns to Family (E(1)-D) Labour and Management 905 3 Valun per Man-day905= LE1.4 55 -11 1-
After deduction of cash expenses and depreciation the net income per family is £905.00. It is clear that such a farm could not be operated- with less than two adult males and aseociated family :hbour adding up in total to 21/2 adult equivalents. The Labour Requirement to the holding has been estimated at£55man days thus giving a value per man day of L. 1.4. If a not income of about£905a year will enable a family to live as well as a similar family in urban employment then the settlement has fair prospects.
The prospects of settlers reaching this level of income in the early years of the settlement are very small and the possibility of reaching such a level in later years will depend on the efficiency of the eduoation extension and technical services.
(f) Nursery - The crop rotation for the eettlement provides for the planting of fruit trees and vegetable crops. Since most of the plants required are not available in the country it is desirable that the Settlement Authority should develop a nursery to provide farmers with these plants. N.A.S.A. is therefore now engaged in developing a nursery of60ha- which will be used not only to grow the necessary trees and seedlings hut also to train settlers in this process. The nursery will also provide for the needs of other N.A.S.A. settlements in the area such as Saadia and Azizia. Within thenursery area, a demonstration farm will be established identical in size to the farms to be distributed to the settlers. This will be an important aspect of the extension work.
7. Farm Machinery
Requirements of tractors, farm machinery and agricultural equipment will be made available by the N.A.S.A. Tractor Station, which will eventually be hended over to the Settlers Co-operativo Society. Proper maintenance and service facilities must be made available. Adequate tr,tining programmes for farmers in the operation and maintenance of this equipment should be organised by the Co-operatives.
of Farm Machinery and Equipment for Land U " ization
Item No. aty. 5pecifications Remarks
1 10 Rubber tyred tractors with diesel engines of not less than55/60H.R. equipped with 4wheel drive, 14 inch heavy duty rear tyres, independent rear take- off (P.T.0.) complete hydraulic system, 3 point linkage, automatic depth control.
2 10 Rubber tyred tractors with Standard diesel engines of not less than 40 h.p., equipped with 13 inch heavy duty tyres, independent rear take-off(Pro) complete hydraulic system, belt pulley, automatic depth control. -112-
Item No, QLtZ Specificátions Remark
3 5 Rubber tyred tractors with Ideal for dieel engines of not lees than orohard, row- 35/40 h.p., narrow track type, crops eta. complete hydraulic system, independent power take-off (PTO) 3 point linkage, belt pulley, complete electrical system.
4 Motor cultivators of 12/14 h.p.) self-propelled, hand controlled, traction type rubber tyres equipped with rotary hoe and furrower.
IMPLEMENTS
5, 15 3 chisel ploughs with all attachments to Item No, 1
6, 15 18 disc harrows with all attachments to Item No, 1.
7, 5 Ridgers - 3 element adjustable, with all attachments to Item No, 3.
8. 5 Seed drills, stump jump legs
9, 5 Direct mounted fertilizer spreaders.
10. 5 3 ton steel bodied trailers, with all attachments to Items 2 & 3.
11, 2 Stationery grain threshers with incorporated hay-balers (Bubba type) with capacities of not less than 100 qtls/day.
12, 5 Mid-mounted mowers with all attachments to Item No,5
13. 5 Dump rakes with all attachments to mount to Item No, 3
SMALL IMPLEMENTS FOR EACH FARM
1, 1 Rotary cultivator with land wheel
2 4 Saw edged weeding hoes
3 4 Hand hoes -113-
Item No, Specifications Remarks 4 Canterbury hoes
4 Hay forks, loading forks
6, 3 Hand rakes, wooden and steel
7. 1 Hand operated spray barrow
8. er Utilisations and Irriation Plan
(a) Cros Re uements - For the calculation of water consumption needs, t cropping pattern in Section IX has been used as the basis for 6 hecare farms. The F.A.O. Team suggested, and N.A.S.A. aocepted, the following pattern.
Season Under Irripatjon oraril Ir ed
Winter Wheat 1.fl ha Barley 1.0 ha Winter Veg. 1.0 ha Fo r.:es 2.0 ha
Citrus 0.5ha Alfa alfa 0.5ha Total 6.0 ha
Summer Peanuts 1.0 ha Summer Veg. 1.0 ha Citrus 0.5ha Alfa alfa 0.5ha Total .0 ha
Water Needs for the Whole Cultivated Area
Water needs have been calculated by using the formulas for evaporation Blaney & Criddle's Formula, and Turc's Formula
Blaney & Criddle.'s Formula has been used in decimal
ET =25.4Kp( 9t + 32) 100 5
ET - evaporation in sum per month
t - temperature in Celsius degrees
For the chosen crops, Blaney & Criddle give K the following values
Cereals K .= 0.80 Potatoes K - 0.70 Citrus K - 0.60 Tomatoes K 0.70 Forages K 0.75 Market Lucerna K 0.60 Gardening K 0.65 -114-
Co-efficient K does not vary during the crop season in Blaney & Criddle's Formula. On the other hand, Turo does not take into account the type of crops, but only the climatological parameters. He includes in hie formula the relative humidity, which is a very important parameter. Turo's Formula is the following
ET = 0.4 (Ig+ 50) t + 15
Evapo-transpiration in mm per month
Ig = global radiation in cal/cm2/d,
mean monthly temperature in degrees centigrades
Ig depends on the duration of light and of ineolation. It is given in Black's map. When the relative humidity is less than50%,a corrective coefficient, C = 1 + 50 -hr has been introduced in the formula. The 70 approximate needs have been calculated with both Blaney & Criddle and Turc's formulas, and the results are given in the chapter on 'Irrigation'.
Influence of the Pluviometry
Only a Firt of the water needs is met by the rains. It is estimated thtt only 80% of the rainfall can be utilised. The balance of needs has to be provided by irrigation.
(b) Choice of Irrigation System
(1) Possible Irrigation Systems
There are two possibilities for the irrigation of the Collina Verde area - Surface irrigation, or sprinkler irrigation. It has already been explained that the water for irrigntion will be taken from the main reservoirs, in which the sewage water, after complete purification, will be ntored. Unfortunately, the reservoirs are in the lowest part of the whole area, and it will therefore be necessary to pump water into the irrigation network regardless of the chosen system of irrigation - surface or by sprinkler. A complete comparison between the Systems from both the technical and economic points of view was prepared-
The efficiency of sprinkler irrigation is estimated to be about 80% and for surface irrigation not more than 40%. The quantity of water during the irrigation season is limited, and so surface irrigation allows only half the area to be irrigated in comparison with that using the sprinkler method.
Levelling - In the case of surface irrigation (especially in this ares) levelline requirements will be very highl It has been estimated that surface irrigation requires about 8,000 miheqtare, whereas sprinkling requires less levelling - about 2,000 mi/hectare.
CostorPumping - Sprinkline needs at least 25 m. higher pumping head thnn does the surface method. The distribution of water, of course, will be made much easier with sprinkling methods of irrigation. -11-
Field Equipment - in more expensive with sprinkling irrigation. The difference in costs concerns only the lateralpipes and the Iprinklers. Because permeability is very high, the watermust be brought very close to the plants by movable pipes undereither system. Therefore the difference in costs concerns only thelateral pipen and sprinklera, which, roughly estimated, does not exceed theamount of £100 per farm.
(1 Irrigation Method - S.rinklin
In the case of Collina Verde, irrigation by sprinklinghas been accepted. for the following reasons:-
The Land Confi uration, which, with any other method, would require lev O very considerable deEree.
The dro-d n.amic characterisiCelof the soil, particularly its porosity. All surface irrigation would lead to considerable loss of Water. On the other hand, the low water penetration requires a great number of irrigations, which again increases the total lose, and makes an easily workable method desirable.
0) Low water resources - which require an irrigation system that uses as'little water as possible.
d) Sprinkling is a method of irrigation that is easy to learn and to operate, and it is in common use in Tripoli area.
ion Main Pi e
High soil poroeity and configuration of the site, as well as the low position of the main reservoirs, have been'the most important factors, for the choice of the kind of madns. The only logical choice are pipes under pressure, because the water must be pumped for two reasons -
low position of the reservoirs sprinkling irrigation
By choosing pressure pipes for the mains, the number of pumping stations are reduced to one only.
OA General Organisation of the Project
The project will thus be subject to irrigation by sprinkling, with water distribution on demand by pressurized conduits:
a water outlet drawing water from the reservoirs a pumping station putting the water under pressure a regulating device, interposed between the network, which will have a variable outflow and the pumps of which will have a much more constant outflow a network of fixed, buried conduits, which convey the water under pressure to:
movable equipment to wbich the sprinklers are attached, -116--
(c) Water Requireme
Accordingto calculations,the amount of irrigationwaterrequired by differentcropson EL/Lhe..2Ilre basisis as follows(m3)
Crop Jan, Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep.Oct.Nov. Dec. Total
Citrue 74 312 578 762 982109411741118894 608 200 7796 Alfa alfa 270 510 83010521320146415761498 1224 900 440 10811192 Peanuts 1051 1321146415671497 1223 8123 Tomatoes 9081146126013681308 1058 7068
Beans 8361064119012721216976 6554 Wheat 270 509 8.30 900 441 ICI 3051
Potatoes lT2 412 704 752 316 6 2362
Market Gardening124 362 640 682 256 2064
Taking into consideration the sandy soil and climatic conditions, the daily dry weather flow rate of27,500m/day is considered sufficient to irrigate about300hectares under full time irrigation.With this quantity of water, it is estimated that it is possible to establish 100 farms of 6hectares each, the area under irrigation being three.hectares in summer, three hectares in winter, with another two hectares being temporarily irrigated in Winter.
onth. er Re uirements for the accepted Crops
The monthly.water requirements have been calculated by applying the formulas of Blaney & Criddle and Turc. With one or the other formula, the requirements for the peak month of July are estimated to be:
193.7mm accordl% to Turc 117.4mm to156.7mm depending on the crops, according to Blaney & Criddle.
ed Monthl Water
By applying the elementary needs previously calculated to the areas reserved for each crop, it can be seen that the requirements for the three irrigated hectares of each farm amount to4.262 m3 in July (Blaney & Criddle) or, per average watered hectare,1,420 m.3 Taking into account an efficiency of0.8secured with sprinkling, the requirements amount to:
5,330m3 for3irrigated hectares at !».262 -676-
1,780 mfor1 irrigated hectare at 11.4.20 r).8 -117-
rounded of to 1,800 m3. The 'average' , op, therefore, has a requirement of 1,800 m during the month of July.
Area can be ecl
The availability of waer during the monthof July being in the order of 30,000 x 30=900,000 m the area that can be irrigated is in theorder of *000 000 ,400 500hectares which corresponds to five irrigated hectaresper farm. The use of sprinkling, therefore, allows a considerable increasein the irrigated area and provides the possibility of much more intensivocrop raising.
Daily water requirements per hectare have been calculatedon the basis of the monthly needs by Blaney & Criddle's formula, usingcorrection factor 1.6. Under these) conditions the daily needs for anaverage crop amount to:-
3 429_ax1.6 -75 ectare 0
This figure is extremely important for the future calculation of the watering system for each plot as well as for calculating the network.
Outflow at the en ance to each Fa
The average irrigated,area per farm is5hectares the daily peak requirements are75mJ/he:tare, which gives375 rir" for the farm, which corresponds to a continuous fictional outflow of4.35litres per second per farm, and0.87litres per second per hectare - which represents the irreducible minimum required by the crops. A continuous outflow,24hours per day, would thus impose4.35litres per second at the entrance to each farm. But such a system would be impracticable.
The wterini study of a farm shows that an outflow of 10 litres per second (36 /hou offers numerous watering possibilities for an area of five hectares. In fact, it conveniently allows the watering of the5hectares in only 375 = 104 hours per day. Therefore the farmer can easily 36 perform the necessary, watering in a24hour day, and this is all the more true since it is possible and adviseable to water at night. 10 litres per second seems to be the minimum outflow that should be installed at the entrance'to each farm. It is important to explain further that the500 hectares which will be irrigated will be dispersed among 100 farms, each farm of6hectares. The development of the farms will vary very much especially at the beginning. It thus seems logical to give the best farmers the possibility of cultivating with irrigation not just3hectares, nor just5hectares, but the whole of their land, and thus to make available an outlet calculated for6hectares. By taking the previously mentioned factors, the requirements for six hectares would be:- 10 x 6 = 121/s. or43.2me3/h. -rounded off at45m)/h. Since, when the network is under construotion, it will not be possible, a priori to designate those farmswhich willbe intensively cultivated, it will be desirable to equip all the plots with an outflow corresponding to 6 hectares. -113-
Water Supply hasi therefore been calculated for a network allowing. an outflow of45m37h at the entrance to each farm. The outflow control installnd at the entrance of each farm will he inntalled on the irrigation outflow, and this will be limited to35mill, but it could be possible late, at the special request of the farmer, to equip the farm with a 45m-711 outflow.
(d) Irrigation Equipment
The position of the irrigation pointhasbeen chosen to be near the road- A typical farm irrigation installation will comprise a main conduit situated at the edge of the central path of the farm, and connected to the irrigation point.This main, fixed, conduit will feed the side conduits which will be at right anglos to it, and to which the sprinklers are to be attached. Only the side conduits will be moved after each sprinkling.
Spacing of Sprinklers is 12 meters. Succeeding position of side conduits will be at 12 meter intervals, so that a layout of 12 x 12 m. is pr9posed. Sprinklers are of 2 bars pressure with outflow of about 0.9m-qh.
Side conduits will be 100 meters in length, with8sprinklers each. The main farm conduit will be in a semi-permanent position, with a diameter of4", The conduits will be of ductile iron or of asbestos cement. They will be buried in such a way that their top flange will be at least one meter below the ground surface. Road underpasses will be by means of culverts. At several points cut-off valves will be provided. The low points of the network will be supplied with outlet valves for drainage. Also, high points will be equipped with air-valves. Discharge valves will protect the n,Awork against 'accidental over- loading. The diameters of the conduits will be from 100 mm to 1000 mm according to the discharge. The length of the conduit to the hectare is 15.600= 26 meters, Wch is particularly economic. 600 (e) Pumping Station
The Pumping Station has the task of supplying water under pressure to the network entrance. Reliability of operation will be insured by the air- pressure reservoir. The station consists of four pumps in order to adjust the necessary outflow. The operation of the station will be automatic, in order to enable permanent operation. Location is near the four main reservoirs, on the ground at level 33m. The pump room is184square meters, dnd the electrical chamber 113 square meters. There will be five pumps altogether, one of which will be for emergency use. The pumps will have horizontal axis with a nominal outflow of 187.5 1/sec each, and 200 HP. The pumping head will be 67 meters. Also one group for winter service of 40 HP and Q = 20 1/sec and pumping head of 64 meters will be provided. Transformers consisting of 3 units at 500 kVA each will be installed in the pumping station to transform 11/0.380 kVA.
(f) Domestic Water Supply
(i) Principles
The water for the domestic water supply will be taken from the underground water table. Sight wells Imve alre-n1T been drilled with -119-
abundant quantity and good quality water. It is proposed to use Well No. 2 and Well No.3for the domestic water supply. Each of these wells has sufficient water capacity to supply the whole scheme. But to be on the safe side they will both be used. Under normal operation the two wells will supply two independent networks, i.e., Well No. 2: the eastern sector of the area, and the village Well No.3: the western sector of the area.
These two networks will be connected to each other by a conduit, so that if necessary both networks can be supplied from one well. Under normal circumstances the cut-off valve on this conduit will be closed. One submersible pump will be installed in each well, to deliver water to a reservoir under air pressure. At the suggestion of the Ministry of Public Works, chlorinator has been included in the domestic water supply system.
The mains for the domestic water supply will be laid in the trenches to be excavated for the irrigation mains. This will, of course, decrease the cost not only fox trenches but also for common man-holes for valves, outlets, discharge valves, etc.
) pipes
The pipes are of cast iron with diameters of Ø60 mm to0100 mm. Only in exceptional cases will a diameter of0120 mm be used. The delivery pressure is1.5atm at the higheet point, but never exceeds 4.5atm.
(g) Electricity Supply
The electricity supply problem has been excluded from the specification obligation, because according to the regulations, only the semi-Governmental Electricity Corporation of Tripolitania can take charge of preparing specifications for electricity supply. Therefore, N.A.S.A. requested ECT to arrange the necessary electricity supply for the whole scheme. However, the Team prepared a specification for the transformer plant for the pumping Station, i.e., eleotrical power will be taken from the high tension line. The network for the electricity supply to the farm houses will be constructed by ECT, according to the agreement already made. -120-
9. Brie
(a) Litaallina Miorc-relief - complete clearing of medium density forest 300 he. - levelling by bulldozer 1009000M3 soraping - two passagee 200 ha. subsoiling (0M,75/Im) 125ha. earthworks 120,000 m3
Stabilisation- asphalt product non toxic for crops 500ha.
(b) Roads
total length of roads to be built 26 km maximum tonnage = 30 tons = 6.5 tons per wheel platforms 22 m wide ehoulders= 4m wide(2+2) 107 - 412sq.m bituminous wearing = 6 m wide 164 820 aq.m 0.07thio OBD earthworks 320,000 ungraded stone 45,000 m3
(c) Irrigation
(0Land Division - the area is divided into 100 plots of6ha. - each plot is of rectangular shape 200 x 300 m with 5 ha. irrigated.
Water - will be provided from the Purification Plant. The water from the treatment station will be stored in four reservoirs with a volume of 60,000 m--/ each.
The available volume will be at least 30,000 m3 per day.
Irrigation - will be by sp inkler and available on demand. maximum: 75 m per day pe;. hectare sprinklers: flow =0.90mi/hour at spacing 12 x 12 precipitation: 6 m/m per hour working pressure; 2 bars for5ha. there will be 40 sprinklers water conveyance = by pipes; 15,569 m of0100 m/m to01,000 m/m.
These fitIin should be able to resist a service pressure equal to 10 kg.'cm
The Pumping Section drawe the water from the reservoirs by eleotrio pump(4units on parallel, a 5th unit in reserve) and delivers it to the irrigation network.
527.1m-R with horizontal axio nominal outflow =187.5 manometric height: 67 m/ 5motove tiith horizontal axie frequency of 50 oyoles - 3 phase (380 v.) 4hydropneumatic reservoirs galvanized spheres 10 m3 -121--
3 tranoforme osts igh 'ension cables 11 Kv Pysaliner transformer 500 KwA
(ivDrink ng Water
2 wells (Nos.2 and 3) - depth 35 m - depth of water14m 2 pumps submersible electric automatic outflow 14m3/H. manometrio height 70 m transformer at the well 220v/380v - 50 cyol power 6kw air reservoirs loma starting/stopping- 6.5/7.5 kg/cm2 installation of water conduit pipes in cast iron -060 m/m to0100 m/m quantity 13,200 m service pressure 6 kg/orna
(v) Windbreaks two year old cypress trees 30,000 plants two year old olive trees 10,000 plants
Forest Plantation existant species already planted - 315 ha. - 262,500 plants experimental species -105 ha. - 88,000 plants. Total 420_11a.. - 120,000 plants
10. S ecial Recommendations
In addition to the general settlement recommendations for all projects the following have been put forward by the Team with specific reference to Collina Verde.
(a) Technioal Supervision and Irrigation
Technical Su e on - Qualified expatriot resident engineers must be in charge of all technical work from the' start.. Selected Libyan nationals should be trained under them with a view to taking over the technical Work of running the pumping stations in the future. It may be advisable to send some of these trainees overseas to study the technical details of their work, for example, to the factories which produce the pumps.
Testing of Water - A regular routine must be followed for the testing of water for quality, salinity and bacteriological purity. These tests must be made on the water from the purification plant and also on the underground water pumped from the wells. Water testing is essential both from the public health point of view and to ensure that tho orops are not damaged.
Purification of Irrigation - Two men experienoed in the sprinkler method of irrigation and the running of irrigation plants should be recruited at the start of the project in order to train settlers inthe best way of utilizing irrigation water and in the maintenanceof the sprinkler equipment.
(b) Eztension of the Prolet - The daily supply of water available from the purification plant will be limited by its capaoity. The anticipated daily -122-
outflow rate at the present time is 6 million gallons. It is likely, however, as the capacity of the purification plant is increased, that the daily outflow rate may reaoh 18 million gallons in the course of the next few years. The Team therefore recommend that the Government study without delay the extension of the present project both by increasing the number of farms (as shown on the map of the project) and by increasing the irrigated area on each farm from5 to 6ha.
(o) Soil Conservation
It has been pointed out that 40 percent of the area is at present covered with shrubs and trees. When this is cleared to make way for the settlement it is important that some linee of trees should be left in position as permanent windbreaks. This is particularly essential in the southern section of the settlement area which is exposed to doetructive Ghibli winds.
Prior to the establishment of vegetational cover areas of encroaching dunes should be sprayed with oil to stabilize them. This has proved an effective means of preventing areas of moving sand.
The soils of the area are very sandy, calcareous and lacking in organio nutrients. Clay and silt fractions are often less than 10 percent and therefore little cohesion of water retention can be expeoted; drainage is excessive and wind erosion prevalent. In such circumstances the addition of organic sludge can do much to correct the deficiencies and since it will be available from purification plant it is recommended that it should be used.
(d) Legal Aspects -
The area of the Collina Verde project has to be re istered as Private State Property under Article 39 of the Law on Land Registration of 28 September 1965. This law requires the registration of all immovable property whether considered as Public or Private State Property in the State Pro- perty Registers.
In accordance with the provisions of the Royal Decree dated 24 November 1965the Ministry of Housing is responsible for the control, supervision and administration of agricultural Private State Property. In order to enable the Settlement Authority to exercise its legal obligations to the selected settlers the Ministry of Housing will have to make over the Collina Verde Settlement area to the Settlement Authority. Article 3 of Law No.4of1963relating to the establishment of the National Agricul- tural Settlement Authority requires the Authority to dio-tributo to settlers'the Private State Property on which they settle. The hand-over of the area to the Settlement Authority will give the Authority a legal basis for all the decisions which it takes in developing the settlement.
It may be necessary, if it is decided to settle the whole Collina Verde area, to expropriate two plots of land which are presently privately owned. In such a case the provisions of the Law dated18 July 1961 will be applicable; these relate to the exproporiation of the ownership of immovable property for a publio utility.If, however, it is decided not to expropriate these two plots, the plots oan either be excluded from the project or included in it and technically distributed to the actual owners. -123-
To avoid, as far as it is possible, disputes arisingas a result of claims on land in the settlement area the N.A.S.A. is advised to givepriority to a certain number of those who olaim rights to landprovided always that they fulfil the oonditions and rulos for the selection ofsettlers.
(o) Settlers Train nand Coo.eratjve Aotivitlos
The sucoess of the Collina Verde projeot depends toa great extent on the proper selection of settlers. The Selection Committee must adhere strictly to the "Rulos for the Selection of Settlers" prepared by the Team and approved by N.A.S.A. It is suggested, however, that some priority in selection be given to those prospeotive settlers who are literato and who aro thought to possess potentialities for futuro training.
The settlers must be organized from the beginning in a multi-purpose co- operative for production, marketing, savings and credit. The settlement will be producing a high proportion of cash crops in the form of fruit and vegetables and dairy products for Tripoli Town. It is, therefore, essential that there is a proper organization for the, processing and marketing of products, both at the farm gate and in Tripoli. The cooperativo will aleo assume responsibility for the cupply of production requisites, such as seed, fertilizers, insecticides and consumer goods.
The settlers must undertake suocessive training courses for at least4 agricultural seaeons in order to teach them to farm properly and to follow the rotational plan designed for the project.The extension service will have a big role to play in assisting the settlere to follow the proposed scheme of farming and in teaching them modern agrioultural techniques. Also included in the project must be a Community Development Centre and an adequate demonstration farm. -124-
D. Wad d Traghon - Proposa Soheme "Fe zan" ,overnaLec
The Pu 013 of Doveo ment Po osals for Settlements on Small Pilot Scale:
On the basis of the general reconnaissanoe study of Fezzani/and in accordance with the recommendations of the Team and the Ministry of Agriculture, the decision was taken to give priority to a comprehensive investigation in Wadi Al Ami and Traghen, where the conditions for the organization of pilot settlement schemes in the Southern Governates are considered to be the most favourable. Three pilot schemes on a small soale are proposed: Hatyia and Tanama in Wadi Al Ajal and Traghen.
The aim of proposing these three land settlement pilot sohemes is to establish intensive and modern agriculture in the traditional areas of Fezzan. It is a combined effort to be sustained by N.A.S.A., with the collaboration of the several Ministries involved in the task of improving agriculture, economy, health, education, social oonditions and standard of living in the Fezzan.
All studies related to land settlements and agricultural development were delayed In the whole of the Scputhern Governates due to the absence of survey materials in these areas, such as aerial photographs and maps. Therefore, in 1966, the Team re- commended covering the Fezzan area with a series of aerial photographs on scale 1:6,000 and 1:15,000 with uncontrolled mosaics on scale 1:20,000, in accordance with the technical specifications prepared for the execution of the work which was super- vised by the Team, and served as a good basis for all studies relating to agricultural settlement schemes.
A total area of approximately 120,000 hectares was covered by these surveys. This covers Sebha, Wadi Al Shatti, Wadi Al Ajal, and Traghen. Soil surveys, under- ground water and land tenure studies were carried out.
On the basis of these surveys the Team proposed three pilot settlement schemes on reduced scale as a start and to serve as centres for future development of these traditional areas. These pilot schemes are proposed to bottle about 85 families; the size of farm unit being 6 hectares for each family. Of this area,2 hectares are to be irrigated and4hectares to be left fallow. The irrigated area could be gradually increased if and when ground water becomes available in quantity and quality. The three pilot settlement schemes are listed below and the main results of the soil and water surveys followed by recommendations for the implementation of the three projects are contained in the following sectors.
Pilo ro ect location Total area Area under No, of families irrif7ation Hectare Hectare Hatyia 150 50 25
Tanama 240 80 40
Traghen 120 20
Total 510 170 85
Full deails of the existing social, economic and agricultural situation in tbe Fezzan parbicularly the Wadi Al Ajal will be found in Volume II Chapter 2 of this Report. -125-
After the establishment of the proposed two pilot schemes in the Wadi Al Ajal (Hatyia and Tanana), other settlement schemeo could be organized followingthe ex- perienoe obtained from these first schemes in the Wadi. The Governor and the local chiefs and population all show great int9rest in the poseibilities of the N.A.S.A. Pilot echemos in the area. During their investigations, the Team found eeveral farming families in tho area without land, preperty, or houees, in poor living con- ditions, economically unable to start farming the state-owned land on their own.
2. 1 and T, ama Pilot Settleme t Sehemos
Justification for Select o
The principal reasons for the selection of the Germa-Greifa location (Hatyia) and Tanama location are the following:
The positive attitude and keen interest of the population and the local government authorities;
Promising present conditions of farming: the area is known for its good production of cereals, wheat and barley in particular;
Considerable amount of shallow water sources and high probability of deep artesian water resources; as well as generelly good quality of water, both for domestio and farm use;
Availability of large areas of unoccupied State-owned land open to all those living in West Wadi Ajal;
Good characteristics of soil in many of the available areas near the cultivated land and the oasis;
Presence of a certain number of share croppers willing to improve their farming business but financially unable to start;
Location of the Germa-Greifa and Tanama areas between Sabha and liban, the former, about 20 kilometres from Ubari and Tanana about half way between liban i and Sebha. Progresslve improvement of the communications between Sebha and liban, which will be linked by an asphalt road presently under conetruction, will contribute to the development of these areas particularly for marketing purposes;
Construction of a power plant in Greifa, near the selected area.
Under the present conditions, it is recommended that a concentrationof technioal, financial, social assistance be given to the two proposedpilot schemes in the Wadi Al Ajal, in accordance with the following principles andconsiderations:
(i) The first Five Year Development Plan has been operating through various Ministries, aiming in different ways to improve thestandard of living of the Libyan population. This assistance started from the main centres and oases, and will beextended gradually to the minor villages and groups of families. Health, education, housing, communications various aspects ot' economic support to agriculture8 all 41ils lo currently being oupplied and ie increasing undel:i.,110Second Five Year Plan. A gmdual Improvomen; ecoaemic, ohould be o ho rogioaal and ïamily oondl*Gions, social and oontinued to provide b3:c meal population lu theprojee, e?oa vith basic public nervleeo. -126-
The intervention of N.A.S.A. must not duplicate the present services of Government, but endeavour to accelerate the development phase, and achieve the aims of a settled and modern agriculture and the checking of the exodus to urban areas.
Small pilot echemos would allow N.A.S.A. to give full and adequate assistance to ensure the best possible success of the project. These pilot settlement schemes would be confined to 60 - 70 families and about 400 hectares of new land.
The pilot schemes, would function as socio-economic experimental centres for the solution of the nomads and semi-nomads' problems. After a few years, the acquired experience would allow similar schemes in other areas of Fezzan, with a programme to be modified on the basis of experience gained and the expanded development work by the Government in the second Five-Year Plan.
The shortage of available Libyan technicians is another reason, in support of the recommendation for two small pilot settlement schemes in Fezzan.
Consideration might be given to making available more land and water to those already cultivating land near the project areas. Little is known of the demographic trends in the Fezzan, but it is reasonably clear that the already small population is shrinking. There is therefore a strong case for a development project which will give a better livelihood to those who already have land. Before a decision is taken there should be a more thorough investigation of the number and types of families likely to remain in the Rezzan and their general income prospeots. The exodus of young men for Tripoli and Benghazi is an undoubted fact, but some might return to their families and villages if an opportunity of working and reaching a good standard of living could be offered to them in Wadi Al Ajal.
The present standard of living in the area is low for most of the inhabitantt. The lack of marketing, related with the loCation'of the Wadi El Ajal, far from the main Libyan towns, makes the farming there of a subsistence type. Therefore, the possibility of any agricultural progress will depend upon the Government's assistance. The First Five Year Development Plan which ends in 1969, operating through different agencies, aims directly and indirectly at the improvement of the local economy, and better living conditions. The role of the Ministries for the development of the area is summarized below.
(b) The Role of Government Services in the Development of the Area
Ministry of A riculture - The Ministry is currently supplying an eight cubic metre concrete reservoir free of charge to farmers owning a motor-pump set. In addition, an amount of cement sufficient for 10 - 12 metres of small concrete channels for water distribution from the reservoir is also granted to them.
The Ministry is processing the restoration of the Ubari Experimental and Extension Centre and the Tuiwa Practical Extension Centre, In Ubari the Agricultural Supervisor is responsible for the programmes of horticulture, forestry, general agriculture and live- stock, which are gradually being implemented. -127-
Agricultural Bank - The Bank is financing the cost ofmotor-pump sets with a four year term of oredit. It is also financing the purchase of seeds witha one year term of credit free of interest.
Ministry of Communications - This Ministry is building the asphaltedroad Sebha-Ubari, 200 km long which will be completed thisyear (1969). In Al Greifa village near the proposed Hatyia Pilot Settlement Scheme a new Power Station is being established. Both projects will be of great help to the people of thearea.
Ministry of Health - A hospital is established in Ubari, and minor first-aid centres have also been established in15villages or more all along the Wadi Al Ajal, including Al Greifa.
Ministry of Education - is expanding the primary school in every village of the Wadi Al Ajal, as elsewhere in Fezzan and in Libya. A Secondary School is located in Ubari.
N.A.S.A. - In addition to all the above-mentioned activity the intervention of N.A.S.A. in the pilot echemos (Hatyia and Tanama) could undoubtedly increase the agri- cultural and economic progreso of the region by expanding the land settlement schemes along the Wadi in all villages, based on experience gained in the two pilot schemes.
(c) The Population and the Institutional Set-up
The Wadi Al Ajal is mainly represented by the area located between El Abiod and Ubari. It is inhabited by about 10,000 persons, of whom approximately 40 percent are, allegedly, of Tuareg origin, and 60 percent are Fezzanese.Although both groups differ from each other in their way of dress, their language and their original way of life, there is little difference between them once they have settled down and carry out farming activities. Inter-marriage between the two groups, which was uncommon two or three decades ago, has increased during the last few years, but is not yet widespread.
In the Mudiriaof Gragra (which includes Hatyia and Tanama), there are 1,200 households with4,500family members.
With regard to their economic activity, the population of the Wadi Al Ajal is predominantly farmers. The number of persons engaged in building and construction, industry, mining and quarrying, transport and communications, is negligible in the Wadi Al Ajal.
The agricultural economy is, to a large extent, on the subsistence level; most of the farmers cultivating their crops, and animal husbandry, themselves. There are only a few men who work as farm labourers or share croppers.They usually receive 50to 60 piasters per day, or 20 percent of the harvested date crop.The farmers of the whole area are hard workers. The scarcity of natural resources force them to work all day long on their farms, mainly in order to irrigate their small plot of land by the primitivo method of the 'dalu'. They are reported to be very honest, both among themselves and also with the Government.The Agricultural Bank's branch office in Sebha has no difficulty in obtaining repayment of the loans advanced to farmers, in due time, whereas in all other areas overdrafts are frequent.
Due to the subsistence nature of riculture and the production of the area being insufficient to satisfy the requirements of t e population, there is no Government Agency in the area which buys grain from the farmers at subsidized prices. The farmers are, therefore, handicapped in two ways, viz, they are unable to produce enough grain to benefit from the services rendered by the Government, and if they need to buy grain they have to pay high prices because of transport coste. -128-
The most common tenure system in the Wadi Al Ajal is public ownership of land. Anyone has the right to reclaim a piece of unoccupied land, then he claims its ownership. Almost all farm land is considered to be the private property of those farmers who reclaimed it.
Reclamation is mainly done by digging shallow wells. It is a general practice that a farmer who digs a well and commences to irrigate a plot of land, plants trees on it, especially palms and tamarix, and by doing so he makes preparation for shading his irrigated plots by the trees. At a later stage, if the farmer gives up his irrigation activity in the area he has reclaimed, due to salinity, to drought of the well or for any other reason, the trees are usually big enough to grow and bear fruit without irrigation. Even if the whole farm is given up and no fences indicate the boundaries any more, the property rights for each palm tree are still observed.
Ownership rights are not registered and in the case oti a dispute the local sheikhs are asked to solve the problem.After the death of a farmer, the land pasmos to the members of his family, according to the Moslem Law of Inheritance.
Tenancy arrangements have increased in number during the last few years. In most cases, the best farmers, who were able to buy a pump, lease their farms to other farmers for cultivation. This is done on a share-cropping basis. The share of the cultivator being only 25 percent of the crop. For the maintenance and harvesting of a palm grove, the share-cropper usually gets 20 percent of the dates harvested.
d Hatyia Proposed Pilot Scheme
The area selected as a proposed pilot settlement scheme lies in the Wadi Al Ajal about 10 km west of Greifa and 18 km east of Ubari. It is in the shape of a rectangle delineated by concrete monuments measuring 3 km by 2 km.
The entire area is flat but with unstabilised sand dunes more particularly in the extreme East of longitudinal "terraces" from historic cultivation aligned approximately in a N.W. - S.E. direction. Occasional hummocks of sand stabilised by ziziphus occur at infrequent intervals over the plain and several small "sanias" have been established near the northern border. These "sanias" formed mainly on levelled aeolian sands and enclosed by low palm leaf fencing are slightly (about 2-3 metres) above the general level of the plain. North of the area are many sanias fórmed on sandy aeolian soils, but to the South and South-East a large area of surface gypsum and hardpan exists which is practically useless for any form of agriculture and therefore any extension of the present proposed area in future years would have to be to the West or East.
(i) Soil Classification and Land Ca abilit forSustained Irri ation
The alluvial sediments of the Wadi Al Ajal, of which the soils of the project area are a part, are mainly composed of loose sandy gravelly materials. Current bedding is often apparent, indicative of their mode of deposition by water.Moreover, the repetitive sequence of layers give an accurate picture of the changing climatic conditions in the past. Layered sequences of sands, grits and gravels interbedded with laminated clay bands and aeolian material record floods within the Wadi alternating with periods of aridity and aeolian deposition.All the indications are that the climate has become oonsidorably more arid in recent times.The alluvial material is frequently covered with fino and medium aeolian sands and dune encroachment has occurred in some parts of the project area. At the bottom of most profile pits (to 2 me-tres) made in the project area, a course glauconitic grit of rounded and sub-angular grains was found. This is generally overlain by more argillaceous material of texture varying fromclayto loamy sand, indicative of finer sediment deposition in a greater depth of water. Rounded,quartz pebbles and course quartz grains are frequently interbodded, ouggocting fluvial depositions, 1 2 9-
and rounding of pebblesbywater transportation. This disposition of the sandy and gravelly profiles, as compared with the calcareous clay profiles found in the soil mapping, strongly suggests that in the past an elongated island existed in the projectarea, composed of bedded sands and gravels.This island was surrounded for considerable periods by water of varying depth into which was deposited in sequence the glauconitio grits and sandy clays. Subsequent aeolian and alluvial deposition have levelled off the plain to ito existing form today of a flat or slightly sloping(1-2percent) area greatly subjected to wind erosion and dune encroachment.
The remains of the longitudinal terraces which cross the project area in a N.W. - S.E. direction were presumably constructed by the Garamantes during their occupation of the valley. Their agricultural activities included irrigation of the flatter and bOter soils of the wadi and it is in these areas that the terraces are to be observed GJ. The fact that a calcareous layer exists today in 3ome layers may well be due, at least in part, to the irrigated ag-riculture of the Garamantes. It is significant that this layer seems to occur mainly in areas which have obviousIy been enclosed by low bunds at some time in the pant.
239soil samples were collected for analysis. Field teste for salinity were made as some profiles indicated strong salt concentration. The following classification in hectare was made for the Hatyia proposed pilot settlement scheme. It is stressed that these are tentativo and may have to be modified when full analytical results are known.
Class III 77,950hectares Class III d 120.925 Class IV 401.125 n
Class III: So classified owing to very low nutrient status,Drainage is excessive, therefore it is likely to require large quantities of irrigation water in addition to fertilizers. However, given proper management procedures they can be expected to have adequate productive capacity.Topography is an additional consideration in that much of the area may require some levelling of macro and micro-relief which will add to costs.
Class III d: So classified by vixtue of their low nutrient status and gravelly nature. Drainage may be a problem, but It Is considered that the soil could have adequate productive capacity given correct soil management procedures.
Class IV: This class covers the greatest proportion of the proposed settlement area. So classified as a result of possible inadequate drainage and salinity hazards resulting from sustained irrigation. It is considered that the very hot desert climate with intense evapo-transpirat ion rates renders this problem acute.
6/ Personal communication with the archeologist Dr. Ayoub, who was in1966/67 researching into the history and archeological remains of he Garamantes, reveals that they experienced draine problems (seo p.8 para.5, Excavations In Germa1962-1966by M.S. Ayoub). Dr.Ayoub's studies suggest that they solved their problems by moving to virgin soils as soon as one area became untenable through water logging and/or salinity difficulties. -130-
(ii)Oround Water Reeources and Pro osals for Irri ation
The carboniferous permeable sandstones carry salino waLer with total ealinity oontont of30,000ppm. The Zarzaitine Formation of the post-Taseilian ago represente the major fresh water aquifer.The main fresh water horizon belongs to tho beso oftho formation and is represented by reddish, fine grained, friable sandstone, 66 m. from506 - 440m. Its Porosity as deterniined in the laboratory on selected samples is33percept and permeability63mD horizontally and 42 mD vertically, as tho minimum, and goes up to642mD horizontally and667mD vertically. This main water horison is separated by a 10 m, thick impermeable varigated olay bed from the overlying15m, thick second fresh water bearing horizon from430,00 - 415,00m. Its porosity as determined in the laboratory is37%and permeability479mD horizontally and508mD vertically. Litho- logically, it has the same characteristics as the afore-mentioned main water horieon. Separated by only 5 m. of impermeable clay follows the third fresh water bearing horizon of total thickness40m. from 410 -370m. This water horizon is represented by fine to medium varigated friable sandstones with thin interbedded clay layers. Its poroeity varies: from 16 -27%and permeability344mD hor. and269mD vert. The fourth frenh water horizon is12m. thick from 355 - 343 m. It is represented by reddish fine grained, in some parts, clayey sandstone.The laboratory analysis on one selected sample shows porosity of24percent and rather low permeability of only13mD horizontally and 10 mD vertically.
The fifth water bearing horizon is13m. thick from327 - 314m. It is represented by reddish and greyish fine grained, in some parts,clayey sandstone.The laboratory analysis shows the porosity29.3percent and permeabilities65 - 243mD horizontally and19 - 69mD vertically.
The top waterbearing Zarzaitine sixth horizon is6.50m. thick from274.50 - 268.00m, represented by clayey sandstone of very low permeability and most probably. does not have importance as potential water producer, from this well in particular.The Taauratine Formation carries also good market water bearing horizons. The seventh wai,oi. bearing horizon is18m. thick from256 - 238m. It is represented with medium and fino grained varigated sandstone with many thin interbedded greenish-grey benthonitic clef layers.
The eight fresh water bearing horizon is31m. thick from232 - 201. This horizon is represented by a sequence of interbedded whitish, greenish and brownish friable sandstones and clays and benthonitic clays.The exploitation of this water horizon will certainly be difficult especially due to the presence of benthonitic clays interbedded with water bearing sandstones.
The ninth fresh water bearing horizon is9m, thick from180 - 171m. It is represented by coherent clean sandstone without clayey layers and represents very promising water horizon. The tenth water bearing horizon is 10 m. thick from106 - 96m. It is represented by fine varigated micaceous sandstones.
The eleventh.water bearing horizon is only2m, thick, represented by variguted friable sandstones at the depth83 - 85m. The twelfth water bearing horizon is5 mothiet from68 - 73m. It is represented by coarse friable sandstones.
The three latter horizons represent potential ifera which could be put into production by shallow wells at relatively low cost with simple technical specifications. The division of tho permeable water bearing strata in 12 different horinons as above, is not based on either different piozometric pressure or chemical composition of water.
Within the area ale'oedy chosen for a futuro settlement scheme, there are two well° already drilled: one of 100 eeVhour d the other of20 m3/hour capacity.The area le rectangular in form measurine: three kilometers by two kilometers.The two drilled wale -131-
avo situMed in the central northern part atadistance of about 500 ).0from one another lu a nor4h-south direction.
For experimental purposes, the Tenis proposes Lo start withan area for cultivation under irrill.tion of 50 hectares as a pilot areavociangular, sio 500 x 1000 m., around the two wells already drilled.
(0) P olosed P ot Scheme
This area lies ontus(forma - Sabha road approximately 3 kilomeLees E of Rgueba and 2 km. W. of Tanama village. It oNtends over an area of 2 km. r 1 km, and is rectangular in shape, the greatest dimension being the lino approximately East to West.The southern boundary is demarcated bytusTs-Reba to Coma road which passes very coso (100 metros) to the foot of the sheer slopes oC the main escarpment which lies lo the South.
This area has an altrimetrically determined altitude of about 400 metres. It is from the above-mentioned escaromo; rising to an al%itude of 530 metres above sea level that much of the soil parent material of the project area has been derived in the form of colluvial and alluvial outwash deposits. The hills 4hemoeiTee are of Cretaoeous age and show a great number of horleontally bedded horizons varying from reddish-brown current bedded sandstones to dark grey Tuartzitesand liver coloured shales and quartmites. Interbedded grits are also common. Differential weathering has produced a very irregular cliff section which is topped by a uurface cap of hard quarieites. The surface of the plateau is covered entirely by Hommada. This extends in a moaotonous plain for hundreds of miles and forms part of a fossil landscape which reaches as far as Chad to the South. At the foot of the esoarpment lies a mass of tumbled scree07talus oC angular fragments and boulders distributed by mechanical weathering of the overlying rocks of the escarpment. Numerous gullies and embryo wadis dissect this mass, proving that flash flooding and rainstorms occur at irregular intervals (the interval between each flood probably being 15 to 20 years or so).
To the North of the project aran lies the Sand Sea and this consists of a vas; area of puro aeolian sand dunes o,:tending foo hundreds of miles to the North, unrelievedbyoases and constantly worked by the strong desert winds, East and West of Ule project area lies tho Wadi Al ajal which varies ia widt4 from a few hundred metros to several kilometers, end it is in this arca Lhat tho wells and sanias of the settlemenL aro stLnated. The water table varios considerably in depth in different parLs of the wadi from a few metros to 150 to 200 metres. The water table in the projecL area.ksat a depth of about 6 metros. Tfte present depthor boreholos sunk in the centre of .d)e projeoL area is approximaLely 2,400 metros and Lhe water quality is good.
(i) Land Ca abilv 07.7%ssea De ineated a
In delineating tho land classes at Panama Col' sustainoc irrigation it was apparent that topography was no problem as most oC the urea is flat or only slightly sloping (1-2%). Drainage, however, isa factor of major importunosranging as it does from excessive 3n the yewsandy gravell,y soilslo impeded in the areas with underlying calcareous hardpan. Inferior organic nutrient status ond .Lho need for large quontitioo of irrigation water relegate tho land in the projec; area to lowish olacses.
III Theao lends ropoeseat tho best category in the proposed settlement area, hlthongh very sandy with lou nutrient status they ovo considered suitable for irrigated farmingon a limited scale.Largo calantLtles ofirrigation water may bo necessary but nu
7/ Fov detailed description ofLnosoil of Tanama, sea Soil Survey Expert Final Report pp.89-92in Volumo III of this Reporto -132-
salinity problems kely.
C/ass IïTid Thun slasob-lod i: i; Pos,coTz duo .Lo sonW7d-i-J.T.uo and L'Tavelly (Poem) Laudo r,ocuim gu.s.u.LI'ules uf ivriga.tion water and oI'ganJu iTori,i1;sers mrsl. bc :co;ondod fo:c purposes.
fV'.;0 classed booall5oo;2tbo1017Ju1en ooLi L114 cb.o.(]sra candy uojls ond tho u;Ad'erly71-/Tg'ho.-odpsn, and occasional 3ypei,7oroun in collnideped'Ghat, Thom, soils pose certain ,3strictillo managomon p-oblems vola."6ed Lo clainago if i;h0 unde.clying oalorou.s lisrduen could lxbrol°:on npuìyd]op2ippi.nr.;vtnis e).ase could bo laLo a hlt;ho°0 caLeuoll F,omo cal Lii Lj017cbJ,.Ads.Jro :Jso 1:,7,-Jbv.b1c3.
Clami; STr NON ;iRABLE: Rocky outwash and talus material only Useless for any form of agriculture.
r-t i) Wa Reso . e5and Pror,o-
The main fIlch water horizo H to e base of the formation and is represented .oz3ddish, fine f;..fined, friable sandst...:106.5Cul. pene%ca",;s6 Crom594,5o - J88000m. I L s po5-or,j1.3, se detofmiblod to 1,1.hooy7OR sotzo'tsd cofe er..mplos varlos ffola 161 ml) horioo4i L ilr- 667mD 1reri cally ThJs main .:,:tov 1xaïinhor OLIJe nonexated by "3 meters of 'thick impormeble v'efic,catcci clay bed fom L i evorlain& so-oondj.re:51.1water horion21,COm fa-om /135,C0 - Z1,6000 m. thIchOPir_1011has tbo sow ebs-2asi;erstioa as -%lie main ono,
F'Jewm-s7Ioci.Hy only 2m, of imima.rmeablo follows ",,hc. :fcesh ho-,-.i.r,onT of ;oLal tblcimoseor10,05mo, E'nm 461.00 - 01000m. Tnle hoo LOO Is rsoroson't,oil fLue.60medium -,n.loc;atod &nudTtoneìJbLbLo ioi.e.,nodded clay beds. .1-.Le 1-,nvoni° j.e 27% and poYmeabill L as dotormLuod 6»5 1,11) c.m6 260 wD ,.eyiloally.
The fourth water horizon is5m. bici:, ,!rem 4111,00 - 06,00 ;),,Ibis c,presented reddish fine graiued, in come 03.L',yOi :.,:cldei;one, Tito .t.',1)03':1A,TCYi'Utiiynb cii ono chosen sample shows pc,vosity 30.5V,sAd porme;lbv el: 236 10 ':0_,..yol,t,1117; :1110.i 73 ìD
Tbe fifth ,,a'uoo hocizon io13m. Lull Hui 361 348 m.,It consists of reddish and greyishti.1113:,:rLjnce cud c1,2,iny eloAdeno,
The si:,L3? uu c r cc u ls 26,50m. :;ü0,00 m, Liiz espfosowto(2 by clean, m3dium co,IrsouLti,!0aesudn'ono end i o op.o9,"ioc, liloly un,Loc nrodueoPo
The Reouratine Formation shows very well marked water bearing horizon also.
Thc water horizon is 23m. thiok, from2..4.50 -:1 1050m. It i siîJVTOSeni,,A-t by medium and e ioCrJ11100. -rurio3ned eJ.nd,tcno uoy,oa \lorLion itIs Iiii;obodded with several t1 i ir)-2,'s of ,vcauisb.
Tho 209,j0 - 101,0(1 m,, yoprosontod by c. cecruenoo of intobuddcd und ixeoz;n1clifrIc;.ble s,:uids'4onos ond civys and bouth(..,,iiIip cicíu,Tbc c:coJoi-,,s:ojon of Lb.s.1,01-.5Lon te 0011110C'Qad dliTIQU16LOC sloce LUe bonthonnto o luía nvo o.Lrcy5 Jiscolved 1.):! b ;,hue ovollucL:ag 'tuvbid duriqL orodno6ion.
Tho ninLh boa.)14s horZsou rc i2m.',3tiol" from 157 - 145m.It is ;ed Qo'hoi-out cleou sz,nlidL;i:omos :71th ouL, c'tayo.j -133-
The aCor6 applied Lilvicielln :roob aatel, hoaxing ends in 9 sopaato bovisons is not based eltber on 012Perent p)esometria procorrosor chemical eomponition of watior.
Goncraliy spoofing, the :Joltsn tbis io couliL bo flood for irrigation9 espocially those bolouging Lo Clasa II)v,-,10 Ctr.cc III d Class 1 Is Ilabie Lo be a bit problomatio becmse o;''AGundriying or:Lea:coons hardpan, This may po:ilaps bebt.'01:Q11up by &tap ripping.
There are two wells already drilled, Ecoh wlth weLor eapacit.,7 cl:! about 1000/houx, I.o. 200 m3/hour. The ne)ls oro sitnated in tbe southorn control part o Lbo selected oroa, some 250 moters away from tbe roan l-hich Is tho sonifnern boundary oC the 000.Tho distance bottmeo Lino welJs Is about 300 meters. In tho Pilot Proa, aboutnoice ros situated neap these two wells shall be lorlgated constituting the cultivated port:kin of tile Pilot Aroa.
Those two doop boraholctsare sltiv-,Led Io tic centro of the vcoject and the water is of goodqsallty. Those no:Us are semi-orteaion, so biat punning Is requ',red.
Draloagti of 6ba soil,s rangos îPCIM 02:CDGIliVOka ;11c E-ndy, avelly soils to In the: ?roanYlthiniderlying eadeacoons lirt,rdpan.
Soil andwater r- in this area that irrigation develo ent is possible.
Drainage of tino sol in a problem over mucii of the project arpa0 lu tho vory sandy, grauolly outuusb soils to tbo south itCGOMSto bo iyroossivo to very e:000ssivo. in Ule voJcaflic sand areas, w:ith underl¡ing oalearoons hardpan it is llab).o to be soriously Impeded. Permeabilly samples ha-ve not boon tafon,and permeability tocts bove not been mado In tho field.
According to Lbo Team's sol l sultroy roport, Ore aroa Is subjecod Lo flooding from man? smallWC.aiD wbieh converge ea the :.roa from tilo main oncarpmont.Tbeso nadie ere capublo of depositing much alluirial grovel end boulders onto tho proposed settlement urea and thus destroying z.voy oulivation. TherriforfAsoii sud vator conservation noasuros havo Lo bo taken In tho osearpmont arc°,
Some levt and of isolated hammocks of arnobian sand have to be o riad outq -134-
3. Tra0en Propeaed Pi, lot Seheme
General Description of the Area:
The oasis of Traghen lies about 135 km south of Sebha. At the time of this report no road connects Sabha and Traghen and for the last75km trackless, open, rocky desert has to be traversed by Land Rover in order to reach the oasis.
This oasis was in the past one of the richest areas of Fezzan. There are about 1,000 inhabitants. Share-cropping system is frequent and the share-croppers are very poorly paid for their labour throughout the year. They represent, principally, the families who need to be assisted by N.A.S.A. and admitted into the intended land settlement scheme in the vicinity of Traghen.
The Government demonstration farm in Traghon represents a valuable basis for technical support and extension to the present agriculture and the proposed pilot settlement scheme.
A small handicraft factory is being run under the supervision of the Ministry of Industry, aiming to restore the traditional activity of the village.The Ministry of Agriculture is improving the efficiency of its technical assistance. The N.A.S.A. programme could have a fair impact on the general economy of this area, and the pro- posed organization of a pilot scheme in Traghen will be a practical guideline for the area.
The area selected by N.A.S.A. for development and settlement lies about 1 km east of the village of Traghen. It is in the form of a rectangle whose largest sides are approximately east-west and being 3 km x 2 km, embracee a total area of 600 ha. Eleven wells for water have been drilled by N.A.S.A. Nine of these were to a depth of 480 m and two exceeded 700 m in depth.Artesian water supplies were obtained from all the wells drilled and the quality of the water is fairly good, being drinkable and useable as irrigation water. The entire project area is flat (less than 2 percent slope) but with occasional slight undulations (probablyman made). The project area is situated near the centre of a natural saucer-like depression and is surrounded by low hills of sandstone with a sand sea to the south. General elevation was found by pocket altimeter to be about 400 m.
No natural vegetation of any kind occurs within the prOject area, the nearest vegetation being the irrigated sanas and date palms in and around tho village of Traghen. There are no natural windbreaks of any kind in or near the delineated boun- daries of the proposed pilot settlement area.
The Soil Surve and Land Ca abil .'on:
In the absence of any aerial photographic coverage of the Traghen proposed pilot settlement area, it became necessary to utilize the conventional grid system of survey. The projeot area was seen to be situated in an almost featureless plain with only slight undulations of sandy material at infrequent intervals. 120 profile pits were sunk in the project area at regular intervals (approximately 200 m) to constitute a grid system. From a serection of these, 139 soil samples were collected and submitted to the labo- ratory at Sidi Mesri. Further profile pits were sunk at critical points necessary for the interpolation of soil boundaries. The average depth of theprofile pits was
The detailed information on the land tenure situation is contained in Volume II Selected Studies "Prospects for land settlement projects in the Fezzan (Southern Governates)". -135-
one and a half metres but one in ton wae sunk to a depth of two anda half metres. The use of the auger was not praoticable in these dry loose sandy soils. The mapping was oompleted on the detailed scale of 1:2,500 and it is suggested that the published soil map should be on a scale of 1:5,000.
An attempt was made at land classification for sustained irrigation. This was based on fiela observations and field tests for salinity. It was realised that correot leaohing and cultivation methods with appropriate fertilisers could probably raiee the 7ow classes delineated to higher categories.
(i) Traghen Glauoonitic Sands
This soil covers the greater part of the area seleoted by N.A.S.A. for de- velopment. The surface consists of fine aeolian sand grains, and loose pebbles whioh have become highly polished by wind action and have acquired desert patina. This loose layer of sand and gravelly material gradually passes into medium and fine sands of platy structure which are either loose or of soft consistency. There is an abrupt transit'ion to the underlying layer of hard or very hard cemented sands and gravels which contain abundant sodium chloride deposits which cement the mass of conglomerate into massive structure. The addition of water to this layer in the field rapidly dissolved the sodium chloride cementation and led to the breaking up of this layer into sands and gravels. All pebbles incorporated in this layer are of quartzite and sandstone and are normally very rounded or sub-angular. Underlying this cemented gravelly material is a pale olive glauconitic sandstone which varies in colour from pale olive to deep green and is generally of massive structure and hard consistency. This passes gradually at a depth of about one and a half metres into a yellowish brown (10 YR6/4dry) sandstone of slightly hard consistency. The structure is massive and individual grains are seen to be very rounded and polished. Cementation is calcareous. No roots are to be observed throughout the profile. Most of the materials composing the profile are seen to be in a fresh, unweathered condition resulting from the very arid climate and from comparatively recent deposition.
(ii) Trap-hen Glauconitic Sands with Calcareous an at.less than0 cm
This soil is similar in every way to the foregoing. Traghen Glauconitic Sands except that it contains a very hard calcareous layer at about 30 to 40 cm below the surface. The thickness of this hard calcareous layer which can only be broken by a hammer, is approximately 10 cm. The hardpan layer is crystalline when broken and produoes strong effervescence on the addition ofdilute HC1. This hardpan directly overlies glauconitic sandstone itself,normally of brighter green colour than exists in the previous profile, i.e.the Traghen Glauconitic Sands.
It is possible that this hardpan layer owes its origin to previousirrigations carried out by pro-Islamic occupants of thevalley. It is obvious that this hard calcareous rock layer will preeent a formidableobstacle to drainage and root penetration and constitutes a serious cultivation problem. The area occupied by this hardpan has therefore been given a lowclassification as leaching of the overlying salinity would be impossible unlessthe underlying hardpan has been broken up by ripping or similarmechanioal methods.
(iii) Entibe Sands and Gravels
This soil which occupies a considerablepart of the project area, consists in general of alternating layers of sandstone and outwash gravels with a wide varibty of grain size. The surface is invariably dry, loose andsubjeot -136-
to wind erosion. Mout of tho smaller grained material han already boon re- moved leaving behind largor grains (1 - 2mm) of highly polished quartz and quartzite interbedded with pebbles of quartzite which are normally highly polished and rounded. The interbedded leones and luyere of gravel are typical of an outwash fan and incorporated in the profile are nub-angular fragments of sandstone, Tuartz and jasper, suggesting water laid deposition. Thin soil is fairly deep but generally passee into pale olivo sandstone of massive structure at a depth of about 70 cm to 1m. The loose gravelly, sandy nature of the surface of this soil renders it particularly prono to water and mind erosion, particularly if disturbed. Aeolian cande are seen to be incorporated at varying levels in the profile. Most of the sands are reddish-yellow and sometimes show signe of platy structure or current bedding indicative of their mode of deposition.
Land Capability Classif* or Sustained Irriati )n at Tra h n Pro osed Settlement'
At the time of writing this report, no analytical data liad been received from the laboratory at Benghazi to which the 511 soil samples from the Fezzan had been submitted. However, field tests revealed that a high degree of salinity exists in the soils of Traghen.Furthermore, surface deposits of sodium chloride were to be seen in certain parts of the area, therefore an attempt at classification was made in order to facilitate the work of N.A.S.A. It was considered by the Expert that given sufficient quantities of good quality irrigation water, much of the sodium chloride cementation occurring in the Traghen Glauoonitic Sands and Entibe Sands could be successfully leached away under careful management. This is possible owing to the generally porous nature of the sands and gravels.However, caution is necessary in view of: -
The underlying compact hard glauconitic sandstone which presents a more impermeable obstacle to rapid drainage.
More serious still is, of course, the underlying layer of calcareous hardpan which occupies significant areas within the proposed settlement project.
In view of these restrictions and the lack of complete analytical data at the time of writing, it was decided to delineate comparatively low capability classes for irrigation. Having meado this clear it must be stated that given appropriate cultivation practices and careful management and abundant good quality irrigation water, it is probable that these classes and sub-classes could be considerably improved upon. However, it must be emphasised that the irrigation water necessary for the improvement by leaching and subsequent crop irrigations must be available in very considerable quantities. This is made necessary by: -
The extremely hot arid climate of the area with its virtually non- existent rainfall,
The very high evapo-transpiration rato throughout most,of the year.
The area is moreover subjected to high winds which are of desert origin and therefore extremely desoicating. The water holding capacity of the loose sandy, gravelly surface soils must be considered to be very low but the underlying impervious or semi-impervious layers of calcareous hardpan and hard glauconitic sandstone could lead to a perched water table and the dangerous build-up of undesirable salts, in particular sodium chloride, if irrigation were carried out indiscriminately. 137-
(y) The follQwin land classes were d
CLASS III 189.81 ha
So olassified because of their lo nutrient status and high salinity oontent in the upper parte of the profile. Will require large quantities of irri- gation water due to very high porosity. It is considered that theue soils oould be successfully leached given abundant quantities of irrigation water and that with the application of suitable organio fertilisers their inherent poor quality gradually improved so that they may eventually be raised to Clase II.
CLASS III d312.57ha
So classified because of their similarly low nutrient status to Class III but with the additional hazard of poorer drainage in the subsoil due to the pre- sence of compact glauconitic sandstone. For this reason leaching may be more difficult than in the previous Class III and rny require more extensive mana 4". ment practices to control salinity and salinity build-up as a result of the prolonged irrigation.
CLASS V 103.96 ha
Classified as non-arable under existing conditions owing to the presence of hardpan (duripan) in the upper levels of the profile which in the presence of already high salinity constitutes a serious problem. It is realised however, that with correct cultivation practices including sub-soiling, deep ripping etc, it may be possible to eliminate the hazards arising from the calcareous hardpan and to raise these lands to higher classification categories. Caution is, however, advisable in view of the harsh climatic conditions and very high evapo-transpiration rates as well as the existing salinity in irrigation waters, comparatively slight though this may be.
(c) Water Resources:
The number of wells drilled by N.A.S.A. is eleven. Nine of these wells were drilled to a depth of 480 m and two exceeded 700 m in depth.
Artesian water supplies were obtained from all the wells drilled and the quality of the water is fairlY good, being drinkable anduseable as irrigation water. The brief explanation of the drilling of water wells in Traghen area, and in particular to the first exploration well depth 718 m, is as follows:
In the vicinity of Traghen there exist several artesian wells whioh produce an average of 40 m3/h. of water, suitable for alldomos-tic and irrigation purposes. Meanwhile, it appears on the basis of some results - decreasing ofquantity of water in some wells within a few years - that the capacity of thesewells is not remarkable, but of limited potential, which, if exploitation of the sameaquifer is continued could cause the lowering of the water table and consequently thedecreasing of pressure and quantity of water and, as a final result, the stoppage offlowing water. In order to overcome all foreseen difficulties, and in order toexplore deep situated water bearing layers, especially relating to the mostpromising, known as "Nubian Series", the drilling of a deep test-hole, depth of approx. 700 m forreconnaissance purposes was anticipated. On the basis of results of the test-hole, a furtherand final pro- gramme for construction of productivowells was planned. This was, in the first instance, in view of the intention to discover now reservesof underground water whioh could not endanger the known artesian aquifer atTraghen. In this manner, one of the deeper lying aquifers was expected to be of artesiancharacter with largo reserves -133-
of good quality water. On the other hand, it was aleo foreseen to find water under semi-artesian pressure, rising until reasonable pumping level, from where water could be taken by means of a pump, in a desirable quantity. In this case the drilling of a minimum of ten more welle was foreseen. After the completion of the drilling of the first exploration well, the main characteristics were as follows:
The test-hole was drilled successfully and fulfilled expectations, although some diffioulties appeared after setting down of exploitation oasing on which information is given later.
The first water bearing formation (artesian aquifer at Traghen) was olosed completely by means of surface casing and cementation to a depth of154m, in order to prevent decrease in the flow of water at Traghen, as mentioned previously.
The first aquifer appears between 30 to 70 m approximately(98ft. to 230 ft.). Below surface casing or at depth154m drilling was continued down to a depth of718m as foreseen in Tender Specifications. During the test drilling three new water bearing formation,' were discovered, known as second aquifer, third aquifer and fourth aquifer, with the following main charaoteristics:
Second aquifer exists between approximately 167 to286m (from550ft. to 940 ft.),composed of fine to very coarse unconsolidated sandstone with very expressed intergranular porosity, containing large reserves of underground water, but slightly saline and not good quality water, although suitable for certain irrigation purposes. Chemical analysis of this water was to be sub- mitted after completion of test.
The statio water level of this aquifer appears at 30 m below ground surface. Due to the fact that during test drilling in deeper part, water of good quality was penetrated, the second water bearing formation was closed by means of cementation.
Third aquifer was found between 310 m and475m(1,017ft. to1,558 ft.). Composed mainly of fine to very coarse siliceous sandstone, interbedded by small size pebble, it contains highly expressed perosity, giving possibility for accumulation of very large quantity of water, Particularly on account of very thick water bearing formation. During the development of the well, this aquifer showed artesian character and began to produce flowing water of good quality in quantity of about 50 m3/hr. But, due to high pressure of the water within aquifer because of loose cementation of the water bearing formation, i.e. its unconsolidated character, fine particles of the sand penetrated through the 3 mm width openings of the slotted casing and a lot of material was brought out or collapsed into the well, which caused deorease of pressure as .well as quantity of water, and the well is now flowing at about 20m3/hr.
Fourth aquifer is situated at depth of about 640 m to718m and further. This formation possesses more or less the same lithological, as well as hydrological characteristics (but more consolidated), as the third aquifer, partiCularly in relation to porosity and reserves of water, although it is certain that water is under smaller pressure than the third aquifer. This was obvious from the fact that, during development of the fourth aquifer, there was no increase in the pressure of the water (at ground surface), or a larger quantity, and it was observed to be what appears asof semi-artesian character, or otherwise. This water is now mixing with the third aquifer, giving the carne quality, of which chemical analysis was to be performed after completion of laboratory investigation. -139-
(cl) Proposals for the Irrigation of the Area:
As already mentioned, the future irrigation area oovers about 600hectaree of which 190 hectares belong to Class III soil, 310 hectares to Class III (d)aud abouL 100 hectares to Class V.
Already drilled wells are supplying the area with fteirly good drinkable water useable for irrigation. Two of,these wells are artesian with highest water capacety for each of them of about 100 mi/hour.
As mentioned earlier in the Soil Survey section, theBoilof this area containe a high degree of salinity with cementation in or near the surface layers. Some other areas, ocoupied by calcareous hardpan, could lead to build up of undesirable ealts by indisoriminate irrigation.
It was proved by the Team by experiment in the field that the cementation can be broken up by the addition of water. The high degree of oalinity of the sandy, gravelly soils, which are cemented by sodium chloride, can be removed by large quantities of water, provided that free drainage can be assured. The underlying glauconitic sandstone may constitute an obstacle to free drainage by virtue of its hardness. Therefore caution must be exerciBed in attempting leaching by large quantities of water.
The breaking up of the underlying calcareous hardpan should be studied by qualified :ericultural engineers. If possible it should be done by mechanical means.
There are some main factors which are increasing the water requirements and at the same time, complioating the irrigation pracidcess-
(i harsh climatic condi%ions with very high evipotranspieation catos; high porosity of the 1cose sandy gravels with vele las water holding capacity; impervious or semi-impervious layers of calcareous hardpan and hard glauconitic sandstone; neceseity for large quantities of water for leaching of dangerous salts.
As can be clearly seen from the above, all factora are unfavourable to irrigation practices with the exception of the quality of Ole water, -which is good.
Irrigation development cannot be undertaken before obtaining the results from cecperlmenta) leaching. This should be undertaken urgently in order to ascertain the effectivenesc of thin method of removing the salino material in much of theglauconitio sands of tho area. Field tests on eJzporimental plots could determine ratos of decaineao, after which the suitability of the coiles could be decided for irrigation.
As alecady mentioned, in the areas underlaid by hardpan, etudioe should bo made to diecovor whether thie can be trokon up by mechanical means. Ti this ie the case, then the economical aspeots must also be studied. If meohanica/ destruotion of the hardpan is imposeible or unreasonable,ehopossibility of deep drainage will have to bo atudied from bodi the technicel Rnd economical point of viou.
To enable the well to gieee, maybe tho former quantity of about 50m3/hour of flowing artesian water, it is reoommended to undertake the foliouine measures: -140-
To redrill the well doun to the bottom, partIcytarly Woe the depth of 156m, down to 480 m, in order to take out the oollapcod material end clean the well of all remaining fine particles of cana and other materaal aua'6o permit that the water rune undisturbed,
Immediately efter cleaning the well, to aet dowa a eorresponding flitorecrooil diameter 4" - 6" with very small opening° and thus prevent, maybe, penetration of fine sand, etc, into the well, and to prevent if possible caving of material, The filter should be set down as a liner below depth 106 m. clown Lo400 m., i.e. below second aquifer and within third aquifer, which is to be the source of underground water for T zethen farm. This, firet of all, beeauee it contains very largo reserves of good quality water suitable for all purposes.
To continue with further drilling of new productivo water wells down to a depth of480m, and to exploit the third aquifer only, while the ecoond aquifer situated between167-286m, shall be closed by means of easing and cementation, duo to unsuitable water for domestio purposes.
Continue with further drillingof productive nater coi Le forming two exploration profiles, i.e. longitudinal profile and tvanavereal profile in order to create a complete illustracion of the behaviour of the deeply situated -rater-bearing horizons, as well as eorrespondiug characteristics of deeper aquifers relating to both quantity and quality of water. In this case, to continuo drilling with dieposition of the wells no shown on map available for Traghen area. After completion of thio firet exploration stage comprising 10 wells depth 480 m., a further and final number of water wells would be given for the second stage, i.e. Cor the croatioa of the farm comprising, as a whole,600hectaree.
To set down in all future wells depth480m), below depth 306 m, down to 480m., a bridge slotted casing 8"with openings of 1 mm. maximum.
Relating to the duration of the flowing of artesian water in Traghen area, it is very difficult to estimate any period of time without a complete knowledge regarding many important hydro-geological factors, particularly with reference to reoharge, i.e. recovery of exploited underground water. It is a fact that the quantity of rain per annum is very small in Traahen ana the surrounding area, and amounts on average to about4mm., which practioally disappears by evaporation without penetration into the water bearing strata. ether this water has connection with communication of underground water which runs far distances from the South, is impossible to affirm eithout special study and obaervation.
The artesian aators in Traghen, or in aay other area in Libya, are mostly foosil water, where recovery (if eaploited) is mailer than thaa of exploitation, which meana that most of the =Lifers are of limited Potential, includiug. reserves, and of couree as the consequence of a large craploitation the artesian character of the Pater Is likely to stop; and esually before or after underground water ic to be pumped. This statement confirms, for example, the decrease in quantity of water of artesian welle ab Traghen Itself (firet aquifer), upPollac artesian Pone in Wadi Shatti oto.
On the basis of drilled layers and ob eavations and interpretation of all available data, particularly tho thicknees of the aquifers, itweefound that recervee of underground water in Traghen area are tremendous, and in anycase whether the wateriBartesian over a long Period of time, or not, ito duration rolati to any method of exploitation ic very long, thus enabling, tho develonmentoC thin area for u proeperous agrioultural part of Libya. 141
4. Prononalo for tho Or aniat e Throe Pilot Schemes and for thoir Irnplmn te Li on
The following stepe have been taken by N.A.S.A. with the assietance of the Team, up to December 1968 in the three Pilot Schemes:
Mape and aerial photographs Wells have been drilled (shallow and deep) and preliminary hydro-geological study has been performed; soil survey, physical and chemical analyses have been oompleted by the Team; Pedological mapa have aleo been completed by the Team; All stops to cultivate 40 ha. in Traghen, using the water from the 2 deep wells.
It is proposed that the following stops should be taken.
TópóKraphical Survey: on the basis of existing pedological mape, a ground survey must be performed to delineate the area and the different kinds of soils,
droeoloical Investigation: A qualified hydrogeologist must study the situation of the wells in the area and he quality of the water, and give advice on the futuro drilling.
Foiestr Evaluation: Windbreak affurestation ehould be made to protect, from the beginning, the intended plantations. As soon as the water from the wells is available, a nursery of pro-selected trees for windbreaking and shading should be constructed with the help of the Ubari Agricultural Centre.
Initiation of the Pilot Schemes: As mentioned earlier, the eee-, which oan be cultivated according to the water erhjch can be usad from thc 6e-:,,11ed wells are: 40 hectares Traghen; 50 hectares Hatyia; 100 hectares Tanama. These areas should be first cultivated wiLh clover and lupin to increase the fertility of the soil before ou1tiva4ing other .crops Troposed by the Team.
After gaining knowledge and experienoe, and confidence, the acopo of settlement activities may be extended to cover all the area in each project.
(a) Staff Requirements for the implementation of the three pilot schemes: (e) one general supervisor graduate of the College of Agriculture to eerve as the representativo of N.A.S.A. in Fezzan with his headquartersat Sabha;
two project supervisora; one for Wadi Al Ajal two pilot schemes and one for Traghen scheme;
(i¡A) one mechanical engineer with sufficient field experience toservice the three echemos and to be stationed at the Head Office in Sabha. Re will be responsible for the motorized services (tractors, transport, water- pumps etc.) and for the conLrol of the executionof the works within the three pilot schemes, including digging wells, and water distribution; (ex) an administrative offioer and aocountant to workin the Head Office at Sabha; the other for Wadi Al Ajal (e) two skilled mechanical workers one for Traghen and two pilot schemes. -142--
(vi) the three projeots should be visited periodically by a qualified gydrologist 17rom Tripoli for water testing and control of dug wells.
(b) Proposed Farming.Structure for Wadi Al Ajal two pilot schemes
It is believed that the first stop for the promotion of a better agriculture is represented by the improvement of the agricultural practices: better seeds, fertilization, rotation, plant proteotion etc. In addition, it is understood that farmers are in a better position to improve their skills when advised to modify gradually their system of farming. For this and for other technical and practical reasons, the Team suggeets the cultivatior of several traditional crops and the introduction of only a fee new onee. The suggestions aro given, on the assumption of the good fair quality of the sOls and the availability of good water in great quantity. The soil analyses of the preliminary orientative samples appear to confirm this hypothesis. Ae For the water quality and quantity, to be found and tested by means of investigation drilling, it is proposed that water be obtained from the deep water layers, aiming to avoid any interference in the existing shallow water declining balances. Such a suggestion is accepted and oonfirmed by the gydrogeologist who participated in the vieit to the area.
Positive confirmation of every hypothesis must be obtained before starting the organization of a pilot soheme. In particular, detailed teste from deep wells and the positive data of shallow drilled welle must be obtained. Also, a more detailed agronomical evaluation must be prepared on the basis of a new series of soil samples and profile analyses, sufficient to conetitute a regular network for a pedological map of the seleoted area.
It is difficult to calculate farm costs, at the present etago, because of the laok of data, pakicularly on possible mechanical ploughing,Lilo cost of seed and fertilizers probably supplied by the Government at a special low price- and the water.
(i) CrO*E1 to be ado,ted
Seasonal crops in the Fezzan and Wadi Al Ajal'are different for summer and winter cultivation. Amongst the first group, the most common are: sorghum, durra, bullrush millet, beans, melons, groundnuts. The most commonly known winter crope are: wheat, barley, peas, chickpeas, horsebeans, berseem,'turnip, potato, tomato, onion, lucerne.
Date palms will be planted within the holding in the usual rows, along the field boundaries and water channels. In addition to being a most valuable food, dates could represent a small source of cash.The Degla type should be distributed. Several oitrus trees (lemons, oranges, mandarins) and table grapee and a few figs, apvicote, pomegranateu, ehould be grown, for family oonsumption, asid the possible excees sold and so represent another smallBOUVCOof oaeh.
) Liv V to be selected
Apart from a donkey, ueed for short distance tranoport, and cultivatioh, eneep should be kept from the beginning to meet the family's need of mili:, butter and meat as uell au eome oash for lembe sold, The sheep to be distributed will be, coleotod and suppliod by the Animal Wealth Department in Fezzan. Bottlers vill also/Ivy°a dozon poultry.
Later onu000r&bugto 0peionoo and Lho adyloe of the Ministry o;' Agricuaturo, a oow ooOdbe girenuouaoll oetto.r. The Gauane Zebu type -143-
would probably be the most Buitable for the Fezzan.
Family Manpower and Size 6f the Farm Unit
According to information gathered on the spot, the farmer's family comprises5to7persone, representing an average manpower of 1.5 labour units. On this assumption, the cropping pattern of the small- holding and ite size is based. It is proposed to cultivate 0.8 hectare::: in the summer and 1.2 hectares in the winter, in addition, 0.2 hectares of alfa alfa all the year round.
It is believed that 6 hectares represente a suitable size for the individual farm unit, about 2 hectares being under cultivation every year, This size will allow a sufficient resting period for the fields, an easier rotation, and a fair possibility of expanding cultivation in case the family manpower or the availability of irrigation water inoreases.
(iv) Rotation
The selected crops are as follows:
In winter: wheat, barley, tomato, turnip, chickpea, potato, horsebean, onion.
In summer: peanut, sorghum durra, bullrush millet, beans, peppers.
In addition to the above, alfa alfa is considered desirable because of its triannual duration and some fruit trees such as citrus, table grapes, pomegranates, figs and aprioots.
The principlee on whioh the above mentioned rotation is suggested are:-
a better diet for the family(cereals, vegetables) some cash crops'in addition to the surplus of the crops forfood (legumes, peppers) o feed for animals (especially turnip and lucerne) kind of crops to be dried, easily stored and transported(tomato, peppers, cereals) crops for the market and for industry(potato, onions and peanuts) a regular, long period of fallow, aimingto restore fertility to the Boll,to avoid poesible ooncentration of salts and eliminate some peste and diseases in the fields, whioh only disappearafter a three or more years' rest.
Water Requirements
On the resulte of a full study of undergroundwater more wells oould be drilled, not only for expansion of the pilot echemosbut along the Wadi to help the settled farmers in their requirementsof good quality water to cultivate their small existing farms in a better way. These farms now Buffer from a scarcity ofuator, The Team suggests that each farmer receive 15,000m3 of water annually. On thie water availability will be based the cropping pattern, Assuming a maximum of 500m3per irrigation, equivalent to 50 mm. depth of water, oalculations for requiremente of crops have been made, ignoring the practioally non-exietent rainfall. A better knowledge of the local conditione could possibly result in the reduotion of the amount of water for each irrigation and increase the propoeed number of waterings. The total amount of water requirement may aleo be subject to minor alterations.
Peppers are intended to be grown as an annual crop, lasting nine months longer than tomatoes.
) Areas for eaoh crop
It is suzgested that the cultivated land be divided into small fielde of 500reoach. The almost flat conditions of the area allow for the introduction of this important modification, involving an increase of twenty times the individual eiea of the irrigated plots, on the basis of the present "gedulas" of 25 m in size in the gardens supplied by the motor pumps. It is assumed that concrete channels will bring the irrigation water from the reservoire to the fields, quickly and regularly. The network of small dykes will then be reduced, thus avoiding the loss of producing aras and the large amount of evaporation from the dykes.
Since groundnuts will be an important crop, it is suggested that a emall factory for groundnut oil production should be provided in Greifa, where the power plant is located. Groundnut kernels should be put under filter press; there is no need for the solvant process, which is too complex. This simple industry will repreeent a sure market on the spot, for all groundnut producers, who will be encouraged to grow this crop. Vegetable oil is needed in Fezzan itself. The by-product cake will be an excellent feed for livestock, with its content of 2 to 3% of fats and proteins.
Rotation Calendar
It is suE;geoted that the holding will be divided into small fields of 500 square meters each. This Jeypothesis will simplify the graphioal and practical i.ndication of the rotation to be adopted in each family unit within the project.
In principal, it is planned not to cultivate any small field for more than two consecutive years, with the exception of the alfa alfa, which, usually; lasts three years and of fruit trees, the economic life of whiele in Wadi el Ajal is not at present well lenown, apart from date palms.
5. Reoornrnandatio o ot cheme Soil investigations for further echemos or for the extension of these pilot echemee should always be performed prior to the drilling of exploration wells. The responsible officials of N.A.S.A. should not aek for further drilling to be done before the detailed soil study is completed after the irrigation of the selected area.
Very careful management io advImed as the oolulion to existing saline bonditiono and for the prevention of tho re-occurrence in irrigated soils - often a dangorouo poosibility in aucb arid ragioas. '-145'-
(o) On tbo bsolo of rooulto o, hcetudy on nnitorground ro or furthor o Ludy Punt bo porrormod toknowwhothee more wollncon be drtllodi not only 7or tico oxpanolon ortho pAlot cohomou but along the Uadjo Lo orovIdo tho sottlod farmero nith thoir roouiremoutorgood quality rator Lo ouitivatothoir wan o.7tot1ng fame whloh onffor from noarotty oC water.
(d) Conorote canaloshould bo iutroduood not onlyto avoid bt.g loeoes cf actor, but aloo to Jaw) labourand JMQ.of farworntico omelet better dovoto thomoolves to wore ce:tcanivo oultivotiono and Oi...fforent preotioo°.
(0) Weill:, are tho main water reveee 1.n the region; then) aro aleo a fow oprings. Peaue of diggiog wells and raiCrg water are very prImitivo,no toohnical specificatione are followed by'e farwore, 'Jolla are dug eithout previous permicJion from the Coverowont ana coetinue Lo war]: without any Inopectionor control. Tilts situation loado Lo dotortoratIon of rater and land. Legal action wnst he tal7on by the Government oocc top mie-uso of water and Loimp000 roctrictlono on water neo tied l!eter dlotrtbutlon aceordiag to the Water Lew.
It ie reoommonded that dioGOVeYtlii;ootablioh lead registration offkpeo both in Sobha and Merl. and rocrult the nocecsary staff Por the regl.otration of rights oa land.
IL io recommended that two off!oeo he estahliehed, one ror tho control of State Property in 'the agricoiteral arop and the other otfloo for tho :do:Lionel Survey Department. Theo() Loo proposeC, orfloole rill beofhelprOPthe C'uture land oottlowent ocheueo ond tho dovelopmentor theea:toting farms.
The eitalled road will enable the Government to provide a regular service for toare at!.ng people and goods to reduce the high price of transport.Adequate
ma' 1 udies are recommended.
Itiemost probable that, in tberuture,Lho Oovornment oould construct more airfields to facilitato movomont inthlo d;ifficult region. Thoro io an old airfield inUbari, butitmoot be reconotructodandequipped. ordor Lo oncourogesottlere Lobecome progressive farmers, it 1.'111 be necessary toRSCOECI,them in acewring knowledge of modern farm:;A1G methods and °Una. Tice Team obsorved that the farmers en Wadi El &jai aro thrifty, hardworklog and reoponsivo to no r' ideas.
A dae-to-day toohaicalanalstaeoeand0:(i.T00).011oervico aurIng the firet period ofsottlowont willhelp eachc farmer Lo aohievo a nat%ofactory ntandard of ['armies, skoll, Directly. durieg iba firot yearo, and la ter on through tho sottlers Cooporabive, 14 ie reoommendod that the followwg ooreicos ohould be providcd tothe faumersg
selected seeds of impro tfes;
1 farmers educatios and ce:tonolon to onable ths farmer Lo know the best ouantityorseed foro the beso periodor.cooing of eaoh crop; how best to wanero and rertilioo oaoh orop, und be ouppilod with the ouggestod rovtilleers in duoourso ano appropriate quantlttos;how boot Lo ierigato each oeop,tho wator amount for oach crop and tho wator amount for oach irrigation c,ad !etc:royal between overy secoessivo irrigation (a notjoet of CY:rodIrv:cation ohaancloehoeld bo sapplomented witb water piping, 00.1-31./-4";ibiD104; ortho crop rotation fromacidLo field; thIc should_ be otodLld; hoc to che],efthoir agatnet cinc). erosion -146-
and how to seleot for seed the best from each orop and preserve it until the new Bowing season.
(k) N.A.S.A. must establish in the village oentrooroaoh schomo a pool oC adequate for the flood for ploughing and performing various corvoos polaW6 W farming activity.
(1) The Settlers multi-purpose CooperaLivo to be organised from the bogiuning9 activity to be grc.dually developed. Membership of it must be uompuluoryfo the settlers; admlttance should be possible for neighbouring rarmoru. ,
11 TRAGHAN Well drilled by N.A.S.A. for new settlement.
12 TANAW, Very loel:y nature of profile j11elase Ivado -148-
1
1
1
1 4
1
1
1
1
.11
13 Petrified tree stump indicating former vegetation.
11111111111
011
Min
14 HATYA ï growing in irrigated plots. -149-
B. Umar Al Mukhtar - Dovelopment Proposale for Dry Land Yarmirw in the Johal Al Akhdar Eastern Governa es
Background Information
The Mudiriah of Umar Al Mukhtar is situated on the third bench of the jebal Al Akhdar in the semi-desert zone of the Pilot Area. It lies about5km North-West of the village of Suluntah and about5km South-Eaet of Wadi Al Kuf and is 3000 hectares in extent. To the east it is bounded by Wadi HamaT and to the west by Wadi Az Zatar. It is approached from the south by a metalled secondary road which joins the main road from Suluntah to HawshaT Masid. On reaching limar Al Mukhtar this road deteriorates and becomes a track winding through the limestone hills towards Wadi Al Kuf.
The limestones constituting most of the rock and hilly ground in the vicinity of Umar Mukhtar are of Oligocene and Eocene age. The lithology varies from hard white crystalline limestone to softer chalky limestones which occupy the valleys. Differential weathering can be observed in some hillsides. Solution hollowe and karstic weathering are very frequent, and the Romans made use of the sink holes and hollows by enlarging them for the construction of water storage systems.
The topography is that of rolling, open country, intersected by narrow wadis and open valleys. Many of the hillsides are steep, up to twenty percent slopes, and soil cover is often very shallow. Hill tops are often flat and with considerable soil depth. Generally, altitudes are around 700 meters above sea level and the area can be regarded as a dissected plateau becoming mature in its stage of development. The valleys are filled to a varying extent with alluvial reddish-brown soils. The Roman dykes of the area, which were constructed across the valleys to build up the soils, are sometimes in a fairly good state of repair. When this is so, a reasonably good depth of soil is to be found but wher they have become ruinous by the action of weathering and man, heavy erosion and gullying have set in, with eubsequent loss of soil cover.
2, Soil Condi ions and Presen d U
By far the greatest area is covered by shallow soile of Lithosol type over-lying hard and soft limestonee. The slopes on which these soils oceur are usually fairly eteep and erosion is very prevalent. Some of the steeper land would be better Peafforested than cropped or grazed.
In the wadi bottoms, reddish-brown alluvial clays and clay loams ueually occur behind Roman dykes. When thee° dykes have been damaged or destroyed erosion and some gullying is proportionately greater. These soilS are very limited in area, widely scattered and usually occur in narrow elongated strips which are often difficult to cultivate by mechanical means but nevertheless, they represent the best arable land in the area. On the hill-tops and more gentle elopes a complex of dark greyish-brown clays and reddish-brown calcareous soils occur. These are again scattered and usually only a few hectares in extent. Limestone out-crops and shallow, stony phases are fairly common especially where erosion has beenprevalent and over-grazing must be considered a major contributory factor.
It was originally intended to complete a detailed soil survey on ascale of l5,000 of this area to supplement the reconnaissance surveyof the Team. This, however, proved impossible when it was discovered thatthere were large gaps in the air photograph coverage particularly of the areascontaining the best soils. In view of the limited prospects of the district as asettlement area it was decided merely to make an additional appraisal on the basisof soil samples collected and analysed and a further reconnaissance throughout the areato supplement the work -150-
already done.
It is estimated that in1968 some 165i;he, oet of toteior1,000 are ucod for seasonal cultivation. In1964ihore 1,cre ho, eheet and 44..) barle4, A very small area is used for horticulteral proquo, The e-eistine leve l° of botll crop and animal husbandry are poor and fallen .1corime are eery )oe., Naely tribeemen do not cultivate all available land.
liaLtL.29.4Ely. The climate is Mediterranean semi-desert. Annual rainfall is about 250 -350 mm, and the annual average temperature is 18°C. The Umar Al Mukhtar area must be coniidered as marginal land adjacent to semi-desert. Livestock watering is entirely dependent upon articifically made watering places creeíeDd rrom cisterns and wells. Rainfall is both scanty and capricious, so that in some years serious water shortages occur.
In1964a water pipelin3 was built connecting Umar Al Mukhtar to the Dabussia-Al Marj water scheme but the supply from the Dabussia spring has partly dried up and became inadequate and in common with many other areas there is no water at Umar Al Mukhtar but even so the Team thlek tbat such water might be more 'useful in other areas of the Jebal where soil coodiione are more favourable for irrigation.
Social and Economi Con ' ions
Before considering development proposals for the Mudiriah the Team in1964 studied the institutional structure and traditions of the area, and examined in particular the, following aspects:
(a) Population Structure - Ow dominant tribe in the aeaa is the Baeasea and it includes5primary oub-'6ribes orDE-0-;e,The ...fib° compriaed 370 family units with a total population oC033of whice315,1ecee fema1e and 1179male. The eeeoraec cieeorfamily ras 9.9 and the remalee out-number the males by almost 3z1. Thc eeeacon Coe tbie unbalaaced mil-nature is the continuoue migratioa nebeen al-ciao of youog mon in tiza produciAve ego group; in fact young ron ha 6mlgratedou'ucide 'Ole tribal arca from 45percent of the fomiliee avd most of Oee marrlcd °nee left thefer aiTos and ohildren in the villages. Thc large numbDi of female° remainieg in the communiv has givee rice io polygamy and centrlbud to .he loe otakuo of women.
The occupationalOiillAeGU20of family members, excluding family heads over fifteen yearG is ae follows: 5 Cultivator Shepherd 5.Y Civil Servant and policemen 39.6 Unskilied Worker 3.8 Unemployed J.W.0
The survey revealed that some 10 of the loldeee in Clear Al Truklitar aro regarded as poseessing many of the required qnslitiec of leaderehip. The great majority of all tribesmen ;.ntho ale)a depend on Lleco aeceptable leaders to obtain aduce in solvjegetheir rartone b5e)blomn. -151
(b) Tribal Structure and Land Te e - The majority of familia belong to the Barassa tribe as airead stated. However, among the85familiee investigated, the class fioation of heads of households by tribe inas follows:
Tribe Number
Barassa Aitama Aaeilat 36 Kota'an 1 Khazael 11 13 Ahmed 1
AlienTribes
Hattus 2 Murabtin 32
The land holdings at Umar Al Mukhtar can be classified by tenure system as follows:
Purchased with legal title 23.8 No title but right of uee 53.6 Rented from mikrated families 22.6
There were no holdings under Government, tribal or wagf tenure. There ie a significant amount of temporary migration from the area and the main reason given by the families surveyed in1964were as.follows:
Government Work 84.9'
Non-Government Work 2.7
Agriculture 5.5
Education 6.9
In the course of the survey carried out by the Team in 1964 an attempt was made'to discover to whom tribesmen referred in the case of disputes over the occupation of land and the following answers were obtained:
Person himself 4.3
Elderly people 28.3
Tribe Council 10.9
Government 15.2
Elderly people and Government 41.3
Total 100.0 152
o Food, Consum-rtion Staple foods in Umar Al Mukhtar are rice, macaroni, bread, meat and some vegetables. Nearly 96 per cent of people buy macar-oni and rice while about a third eat meat, another third buy canned vegetables and only a very email proportion buy fresh vegetables. Them would appear, therefore,to be good reason for encouraging vegetable production if water were available. Improved marketing of meat leading to improved quality might also increase the amount of meat consumption and hence raiee the nutrition level.
A little over a third of the families purchase their conaumable commodities within the area. A third buy from outside and the remainder buy both within and without the area. A quarter buy wholesale while threequarters make their purchaaes retail. About half buy on credit and half pay cash. The development of consumer cooperation to make available household requirements at a reasonable price and of gond quality could doubtless subetantially improve the purchasing facilities of the are a,
(d) In the semi-nomaclic life of Umar Al Mukhtar most people live in tents beoause of eaco of movement from place to place. Though there are some 470 farms in tho Muöirlah only73have ExEnte farm houses and a mere handful of these are lived in. The Rural Sociological survey suggested that about 84% of people in fact live in tents and a small number live in caves. Threequarters of the tents are made from wool and the remainder from jute A proportion of tente are completely home produced and a substantial number are made with purchased raw material,
Of the stonebuilt houses 20% have three rooms, 40% two rooms and 40% one room. 80% of these houses are owned by the Government and rented out atEE2-3per annum. 60% of stone houses contain eanitary installations, a similar number have watel, tanks and a similar number still have separate animal sheds. Some 20% aro entirely without windows.
From the investigation it appears that nearly all family heads in Umar Al Mukhtar would prefer to live in stone houses. Among the reasons given were that they felt more permanently settled, there rae mor protection against the rain, heat, insects and onimals; a further significant reason was that stone houses raiso social otatun and give dignity to the occUpier.
Level of Education There are five schools with 22 classes and 666 studente'taught by 19 teachere or one teacher to35pupils. Many pupils have_to walk distances of up to 10 kilometres to school. As a result many children do not go to school; there is therefore need for more schools in the area and the tribesmen take the view that two more would be sufficient.
The percentage of illiterates among family heads (84%) is vastly higher than among children between5andldyear:, of c.L3o (5.6%). This is clearly due to the improved educational_ opportunities of recent years. There is also a marked difference in thc percentage of educated ao between males and females of the samo generation. Fortynine percent of all.males over 5 years.of age have had some formal education whi]o the equivalent figure for women is only 1.9%.
(f) Health Situation Tho social survey carried out ).1]1964cuggontod that 250 of the ncpulation havo como oioknoar wh,lo cola()5%have poinauoni disabilitleo. The standard or cloanlialece to very 1ow and thus disease -153-
is spread. The general ehortage of water and the fact that thearea frequently remaine without water for several daye contributesto poor domestic standards. Even when water is available it is not purified in any way. There is only one medical oentre in the Mudiriah andinsufficient medical care.
(g) Source of Income - The average annual family income from farming offamilies in Umar Al Mukhtar is estimated at about LE 190 a year. Some 27 percent of this came from animal husbandry, 20 percent from seasonal agriculture, 13 percent from handicrafts; the remainder being made up from earnings outside agriculture and contributions from immigrants. It has been estimated that if all the families lived in proper houses instead of tents and had a satisfactory standard of living which would. provide 2400 calories a day per person, at least Ik500 annual income would be required.to begin with.
5. Prospects for Settlement The Mudiriah of Umar Al Mukhtar is about 3000 ha. in extent of which about half is used for seasonal cultivation. Most ef the area is hilly and rocky with the preponderance of thin soils. Good soils suitable for arable farming are very limited in extent and widely scattered.
Since at present there is no possibility of irrigated agriculture, most of the shallow lithosols on limestone would be best used for grazing. The steeper elopes should be afforested and some terracing would improve the prospects for vines and olives.
In the opinion of the Team the prospects for a settlement project at Umar Al Mukhtar are very poor because of the unsatisfactory quality of the soil, the poor nature of the terrain and very limited water supplies, It Is therefore proposed that no settlement project be undertaken but that a development Project should be started instead to improve the economic and social conditions of the people already living there.
If at a later stage sufficient water could be obtained for irrigated' agriculture from bore-holes or oven from pipelines the prospeets for a settlement project would undoubtedly be greatly improved. At the present time, however, such A prospeot is unlikely.
Suocessful dry farming at ¡Mar Al raukhttre would OopondODharing comparatively largo farms wi.Lh a fair degree of moohani5atiou, but tho steep oloposaud stony hin. sollo would render this diMoult. Forestryis the only posuiblo use for muoh oï the rooky terrain to tho norh oendjng towards Nadi Al Kuf. Afforeetation should bo encouragod in this arca aucj, stern measures tokon toprevent illegal 7olling of trees for firouoo6o1c.21
6, fraosals for Develo he A
Tho Team propone tha t rgeneraldevelopmonl; project should be eaTrJod out among the o:isiliìg population in orderto improwo theiroendltions. The project Suoh a projec; area oevoco 11,800 ha. of laud where families wore living in 1566.
ORO OVA .14,04,...1101100 41.00.00,414 CM
For detailed analysis of soil clondiP4iono at UmerAl fluntaT2coo pp. 40-50in the soil survy experto final roport containedin Volume TIT of %his Report. -151
eoul0 form a prototype for further' eimilar nork i ho Jabo) A! ALlidar Jrn land oottlemont scheme° are no:e feasibto, The major Jiaci i'or the peoject are ao fol.lowo8
llogi,stratioa of LandItichto J:11 the project urea (f:INRYII ihiklitar there
are 72 c:.Ente farms oncoming anPXO7,of approy.imatoiy J. ha, and 02 tribalholdInsu occupying ca auca of uppco_tm..etal,v -1)000 ha, The ozEnte larme aro loaily prii;ate stato pioperty.nono Cavms :70re 'rentadIn 1951 by the 0o-vel'ament to the en-holdersof the farms, Peopito the fact that oJnorohip of thane :arme 1,as tcensforsed fromthe !Callan Ocrirerament tothe Libyrm Ooveramoutli aceordance ITILLthe Lg,iesment o:
1956)they aro o U li recistered -1C/ aOlanJ oegistration Departmont BenghafA under the namcorthe Ttelivia Settlemen't Lutherity. The .fji,ct stop totoregister thosefarms D tha nace o,f. the Libyan covGrnmorG no privato otcte property, Tribal aTeao in Omar P1 Mukhtof are c,onoidovoq privatety ornad by thereal cl. tribes.RiehtC..[' holding is a compietc rio,htof oonceship, Buttheset:iGhtc, are ueitbor documented uor registerod lt ic, therefore, recommended tootaft cheadjud:catio fi,ishte bol cloro on tribal propertyaccording Lethe nroiriu!ocisc1,1r, Land r.cristration folloving the proeedures rrod iTr,commenditiow3 Laid claw-, bythe Team ja t-to study on Land Re8iotration 19( Men the regi,:tration proocclure to comuieted9 tho'laud should be grao te to oho prof:eat oceuplers Jr, order toensure their 'security of teaure,
ResponsibiJities of the iiottlementAu'i,hor! . (I)lt is proposed that the project shouldbesuper,sised by W.A,..T.--c:OLhatthe frirmoro wvy benefit ftou'. theStr2VJCOS vhich it can offer,T4di.S.21,should prep,-.re a detailed pJan e:nicutionphased oqar o. period of 5 yocre Lofulrilthe objectiveo tho proposals pi' t forward.Thio plan shouldbe orepared 'Jreonjunution tho Ministry oil'igrieulture !a order toeueure the pravicri.cen of technical asEistance in oil aspooto of husbandry to the farmers. Demonctrations shou10 be carried out on a aumbor ofitrirms la the area end a i,raintug programme net upuhich vould o,lohle farmers to learn fle17methods, Since cl cy farming the rule,thereshouldbeno djfrieulty tn ruan1n2; training c'ourses at ceasous, (1!)Tlo Settlement Antliorlt cdieuld a farm mr!ihine4 unit and otaff it with propeTly Qualified 3peratoxs and adequatetaohotea1 supervision, Tnitially. 1:40,A0S,10 shouldYUJ thiscer;ice for the bonefit of the farmers in the area eI:pand!ug !t on necooser and cbar6log subinlined 'cotas for the machinery our-A.cos proirlded. Mien, horw'ier,uhr:l'.EXMOVGhavo gained sufiloiant ,J.:,-eoorienuo the use of mecbani.cal equipment (through tra'ccA!n5coureec to be lic,)d, at the machinery station) 'he centre c,hould [ro banded bad: to the Cooperaill,0 Soc:,ex.0
(0) tlarketin;,:, andTransper rilanopert in 1.11G aroa lof troth peWo audc;00(1177 Thcecit marLet le at Saluntah,5 1,:b;v./7y mocc producemust taken Locliccentreof Limar Al 1411,7tuO.by antmea and re'] oaded iato trucbm foe traropo»t to Boyda ulisa-c it !o ooia individual .larmers, The D7:JEA:JOS° cooperatio 30010y altar c,trongCtoalw; uill ausiot 1,he orsaaiontimi of mar.,otto ho'c; at the oamo time ie liem,cmr,yto Improve tho foode of the rholo area and to surace thono uhieb at the momont are only trucks, it !o desii-able lo impfove 10 Lm oZ
the Majdu read, 12 km of the 7,1assah road, 13 km of the .7.1 Drevde road and 5 loa of the Saluntal road, ototal of 53 1711loa all.
10 The System of f.aod Registration a:nd Ito helationohip iith Land Se iu the Kipp:dom a: Libya, 193, Vol,Y,T of thln Report, -1 55-
(d) reurtli tng tho Cooperative Society- tbo arJatehee or r, cooperativo ,reaATT-Ti;óór-61-0-6--TTC617FT-ofnomo tormers apd. tholr loadore tn coopero%Jon. Thediffionitien %Iv) Soototy in onoountoring at %ho moment ntom ?cornthenhortago oCtschateol ti es and lack or Cloance. A4 the prosont timo the Socioty ls OU®cxVourij fl run Larm machinery corvIcon but rather inerftotontly,A vory o] oslink FJ requirod betwoou ho Se ;-;.,I Author*iy and tbe proposed farm machinery unit withtbc Settlement Authori).y, for tbe no;: t fow years, playing themajor Tole in cuporvislng and oporating them. The Society should opera teinitially under the supervision of 1T.A.3.A. project super-v:cor bu % retaining oC courne its own Boardi)n.responsibility for financial and social arfairs. The Cooporatilrc should epecialize particularly in the previrion oi formers° requiniten (coed, .F'ortilisor,
handtools etc.) and make arrangomentsrm.-marketing cono cid stool,. ItAD aleo suggested to investtgate 'che poortbility of acablishinga plan In conjunction3)ith 1 Siror procesaingthe surplue01tve crop. Sinco it iE3clear that the people of Umar 41Wilditor are market orientedand already accustomed to borroning money in var4ous way.*, t a desirable that the cooperative should pro ciclo credit facilities, )mpFov ment of Water Supply - (r) Cta lerne-Rotthor spri.og eatoror ground wator is availabfe. Cisterns-have been the oply sonrce of water since ancient times and como of themhavebeen racontly restored with the aid of Iba Government. 4 programme should be prepared ror the rentoratton of many more andaleo the building of now ones In order that there, in adequato domes tic and livestock waterovor the whole area (b) BabuseJa Rater Supply Scheme - the water from tha Dalinssia spring das proved inadequate for supplying the branch ptpelineorUmor Al Mukhter. As matters remain at theMOITVIPG,ve.ry rew of tho sePtren suppliod by the pipeline will ge i vo 1er;:00M Inventigatioun obould., therefore, be macla as lo the pooslbilityordeveloping e deeatination plant on tbo coast near the spring lo raed the plps/tne ond ki branches, T;19CO0'6of suoh a plant would, of nourse,hahigh but the advantages at having water an opposed to many kilomotron of ptpolines lying empty.. hardly need. emphasizing, Ir thin weir° dono, it would be possibte lo supply a nubstantial amount of watnr lo limar MLd*Iltar,lo inetall o network of public watering point° andmight oven.make ponía ibletbe irrigationorsmolt aroan for vegetablo production,
f Soil Conservation - Tho areae suitable ror agrierlturotaro mainly in the volleyo on the topn of hAlls. A carefu/ plan for the pretaction of %bc vholo aroaagainst oronion should bepreparied follouing Olo detailed measuresforNsoil conservation desertbod),IHnt7.10lEczporrs Ropor% Vol. ITT. First connidoration shcalld co givon to repalT.Ing the Roman torracen and anti-orosiOct conntruotions, manvorwhioh raro built In anciont times. Erostoa ira loadtrig In considorablo destruotton of the rot/ resources as e::plained eorl;or mudar roil condIttoun. in Limo, the cultivable area shouid be el:tondod by reelalming van -o 1r,nd arad by the r:emovat ofF.30'aceand bashon,
f Seo Chaptorsill and IV of the 000 Survey Evport'n Plaot Report "Solt Survoy ni tho Solected Arene in the Eastor, 17entorn and Setathera Governater of 1abys"9 Volumo III. -156-
Improved Ljvo too tiomont - Animal production at the preeent timoa000ukl.tOCor ovor a quaeterorfamily income and indeed well over half of thnt obtained from ()rope and stook but the methods followed are etlil very conventionel without any new techniques or improved breeds. Shortage of drinkiee water compelled most farmers to replace cattle with goats and sheen. Nitb an improved water situation, farmers ehould be encouraeed to own at icast two cattle and 20 sheep while every ofCoet chouid be mado lo replace goats by sheep. ItiB propocod to entablish a coaero for animal huebandry and improvement in order to make avaeloble improved bulls and rame to increase productivity of local cows and ewes. Guidance should be provided for farmers on aspects of animal manegement, feeding and disease. Veterinary assistance should be available through mobile unite. Pasture land is in poor condition on acconut of complete leek of control of grazing.A pasture control programme should be introduced with the help of the Settlement Authority and small areas of suitable land should be fenced and re-eeeded. In this way more brush land could be converted into productivo pasture land. It is necessary to relate the total livestock population to the number that can be kept in the drier seasons and thus reduce the present severo lessee which occur.
Poultry Production - There ic Very little poultry production at the moment and tbo main roceon in the high cost of chicken feed. Since the basic crepe aro coreala, a good deal of waste material is available which could be used For chicken feed. It is euggested that the Minietry of Agricultura should die tribute month old chicks to fermers (for some such payment aa an equivalent numbee oC°ago). Before thee is done, however, farmers should be tratuod in poultry produotiou methods, feodine, and protectionJelaiust diseave, ft le euegeeted thrt oach farmer ehould aim to have a flock of about 30-40 birde. Tho dictribution oC those chickens and feed should be in accordance elth tho oetablished oregrnmme of the Ministry of Agriculture.
Fruit Trece and Horticulture - There ore vexy few fruit trees in the area at the moment but the number could be eetended in the limited plots of eleep aoil and varieties of almond, olive, fig ana caroboould be used accordire tothe cell curvey made by the team.12/ Details of the methods of cultivation and eultable varietioo 7111 be found in FAO/EPTA report 1351on the Production of Fruit and VegetableeiPLibya, 1962. Although there could be a considerable demand Cor froeh vegetables, little can be done to increase winter vegetable production until better water supplies are available.
( ) Beeeenieee -The number oF boo-hives amount to450with an average prod- uctioe of 10 kilograme poe annum from oaoh hive. Honey ie a commodity with a hieh domaud ia Local markete and the price) per kilo is nearly LC 0.60,Food PPOMplautationa and bunhee etc, io available throughout the yeae and,if farmers were taught about modern methods and oquipmentp there io ao reaeoneleybee-keeping ahonld not become a moro important aourcc oF income.
Sou Chapbouu III and IV of the Soil Survey Expert's Final Report, in Vol. III uf the Report. -157-
It is su catad that oonsideration be given to the queetion ofimporting oputab]e broods of queen bee.
(k) Encouremont of Loon]. Handicrafto- thE women of Usar AlMukhtar play impo twit partilLreducing livins coots by produoing mahy of the basic requirements of the familyonoh noclothes, tents, carpets, and blaaketn. It is recommended that facilitioe for handicrafts be improvedaccordiug to the availability of raw materials and markets in order to producoa surplus of suitable producte for sale. These could then be produced on a cooperative basis with N.A.S.A. making available the equipment suchas modern weaving and spinning and sewing machines.
(1) Education Servio: e It is imporant to improve educational methods, to raise the standarja of education amongot the heads of families and to increase the number of those attending achool. Two moreschoolsare needed in the area. One in Bubala,7km. from Umar Al Mukhtar and one in Subeida 10 km away. The provielon oC these two extra eohoole would ensure that all children can attend school within easy distances of their family. Present echools are by no means suitable and need recon- structing. They need additional clase-roome and toilet facilities and provisions should also be made for playing fields.In some cases, the required reconstruction is so large that it would be better to demolish theschooland build a new one. The curriculum of schools should be adjusted to suit changing conditions. Practical agricultural courses, home economics, poultry-keeping and handiorafts should be added. A part of the school grounds should be reserved as a small garden for practical training.
(0 Farmers' Participatiorl - It is very fortunate that there are a largo number of family heads in Umar Al Mukhtar who enjoy the confidence of the local people and who are known for their leadership abilities. Leadership in the area is olear and recognized by all. TI, to ca7:tremely important In the execution of the development plan tieltthoSettlement Authority and other Government Organizetione work In ()lope conjunction with the established leaders and takeCull advantgeofthe help that they oan give in obtaining tho participation and oonfidenceorthe ]oo1 people. A Welfare Committee with an elected Board should be foemed of ell family heads in Usar Al Mukhtar, Representatives of Govornment and local Agencien ohould be encourager', to join the Committee.TbIE Committee could strengthen public relations in the commitaity by eaallaining thc purpooes of the developmentproject; publjelee the edvantegec of education Cor all mombern of the commueity; select cpectalsubjects for which advice is required Clem the Agriculture Ertension Sercico, and to cooperate in providinc farm domonstrataons3 persuado farmore to maintn:v properly their stone-built houses and to aesist them in makiog thochange from living in tents -to living In houeee. Special Glib-committees might be formed to be responsible for particularactivities,Forexampla, school teaohere might join together with the more educate& pooplo to organize and undertake adult literacy campaigns. Similar eub-oommittees could be organised for health, for animal production and so ou. In thle my the farmers could take part in the promotion ofthe development programme andwork toigethor aith the SettlementAuthorityththinpr000ce. It is suggestedthat arrangemento be nado for clon) cooporatiou botvoou tho prop000d Farmoro' ITCFm:o Commite aua the cl-zlotios, Coopovativr) Society, -158-
flouulmr Oqùr :0-,-(tuar-toJ'e o;° ;:euld peofoe poroaniol agriculture ooeoPcliu.3 Lo tin; SociolosloC.bnc-40,'ov-Trloaowl;nTLhoTomo OalyMYJof bousos aro and Atoot eCth000aro not flt to Jive in, J.s /.1ndlimontal auuumptIon of the dove3opment plan that;000h family aiLl hovo a suitable otoae house, aesIsnodCov tbolr rogiOremenkl, Thc family sbould ot;sistill UU 1. C15.11 iii oOChouoas byprof:W.111zlabour° Tboro are78holioe ocj,sioally pa ,-t of tho sy-EoLo settlowast ond uaoh of these J,squi)'au wttlu,s fu proper repniv, Thir:, morns appro-imotely 400 faxm houoon IAP-MLo bo btllt Intlle coupon of the no:t CJ-vu years. Tbjc, moy :uocm o onbsonlal prosramm3 but it is a_Jomatie Lo the development of s ooti-lfacterlife fovthu p3oplo of Umar Mukbtar'thot 600d quo)1. ty houaer uhoni.cl bc135.01;1AL:0, Staff llopnir.)ments for the Proioot - Moue pL'ososod .'eoporielbloo of D.A,S,A, adminLoterins the srojeet rogutm a str.f.:'Lo be otai.loned aL Umar Al iiiontor uorre -theCL)L Irn af.oa of the 9rojeot(ex- Ente fafiwi.yoa the tri;ia] oreo iJ5thia 'f.ho 010.1001aireo,) .Tho prop000dl utafi con.A.,7ts uf two ,s,'ottp7 pDemodent; and temporary staff fov different dovoi.ionua000rOiws Lo thooork rognIremante. Thonermeont otaff membereOlCo n eroral uopervoov (jvadoati orth:Oleao of Agricuituoe uAthe.::ptJ:.1,once.co onimai husboudlT)ausiatoat sup7Jr1rJoor (medium 0ohool 0_111 o7perienos ia ollve ond almonds), aun on sooeuutaitt
The tomporat,), staff. cone:toteora laud etwirosof uhe uhoutd work :7ith a soil survoyov to dofinicrs areas of doop soil EmAtablo J-orplant:1.11Golivo oad almood ts;nesjand o okill,d worl:or for C60eillf; Lo train tino farmoro IP fenciay,tho demarcated dzep uoll area:3 Zo,2 thui%. protoctjon frote ,rroning °attic.. Laid shoo°.Toohnioi.ann -from the Miais'try of AGrioulture in livestock, boe-ko.3pinsold: pot:lit:es would;),-;-JoodocA OP a temporay:y boolu for trolnios, the fa.,.m.:)rs and for the contvel of dinoauesn -159-
CHAPTER V
TE.DEVELOPMENT_OF_EXISTleiG ljETTT,04-01.4T,S
1110001 E
The majority of the existing agricultural settlements in Libya were established liciore1950. Prior to the second world war the Italian authorities in Libya established some 4,400 farms with the objective to settle Italian farmers on Libyan land.Colonization started in the early 1920's but the first subctantial groups ni settleee arrived only in the aarly 1930's. During the1.12TPJ1 settlement activIllee in Libya Game to an end and In 194244o -14aIian íannieg popu.leilon in the Eastern Govereatas (Cormerly Cyrenaica) .eas removed, InOEiveetern par t o2 Libya, Italian settlee weer ellowod to stay if they wjebed, Dy 4116: ulme' mob4 set4).cments had1ee.1in ce:istence lee jus4 a few years GOnlemm.-e not eveaeem1ile4ede 4he second eoeld nor the 1,000 farm units which were established Jn Cyrenaica woee ,)ccupied by lhe ue)bv1 population ..eld in the Western evernelos Tormerly Tripoiltenia): all theirOke0(1Ineme rcrre. Gver by them.
In1956,the Libyan Government concluded an t with the Italian Government
according to which all vacated farms became the propery i i Libyan Government. Around the same time, the Libyan authorities started to esblish a new settlement scheme in Wadi Caam near Tripoli, which was followed by four other projects comprising some 400 farm units. At present, agrophysical, economic, and social conditions in most farms of both the old and the new settlements are in such a state that the government has found it necessary to start a largo anal° rehabilitation progremme, For this purpose 1,11e PhO Taom bas carried out poe-icereetment studies including apeina photography, gcound ecL er rcscu:ces coi i uJeoeye cid lend opability: sew:lc-economic conditJons, L',1111170 lucid eee1s4ealioncedd legalospe-ete 'rhoYeamhos peepared de.tailed reporLe and eecommendetionefr);2,J1 major octlemon't. ochemcd which \/co'neck evallabte o ILA-S.(1,11
In the followie -aphs a summary of the relevant background information
as collected by the Teae . . een. It is followed by conclusions and recommendations for the development of theeee., In both Governates. Information and recommendations on the development of Umar al Muk:I r have already been provided in Chapter IV and will therefore not be repeated here.
V"Socio-economic conditions of227households living on ex-Ente farms in the Pilot Area of the FAO Tribal Lands and Settlement Project in Cyrenaica" June1966. "The socio-economic; conditions of 200 ex-Ente farm households in Cyrenaica"1966. "The developmeni; oCecnreiumeet "il'VPMSle hOc ensboru logion cl Libya" Final report by lloNelj.ceet,1967,and conajajAdo I. i co7 ths Uby.c. (rol-werix Tripolitania "Luid uci,Liemon 1 1,11 i,cscrn cnd uouUlea l'agi_oosor and Fweeeau)" Fieel re,poK by ToCappeLletti,1967 andGen.C.ained lu VOl.IV of this report "DraN 5-Jpori. ol-Bu Tralk- Sci;tlemonl. Cchojii ici hlc lEc.sern Uovc,;InaWc" March1969. "Draft report e the d)velopmen'uorOacli Ceew S(eGi;lament Schomo" tpril1969. "Draft rep i1 u thedevelnpmeni. ;11seoteh3c,i;nofilentLeo.E;(Dafnia, Tamfflina and Kararim) Wee'e GOV.,,Y1Ce" MEXO.1969, "Draft report the devoloprpcu4 ofS3dia 'Aond Soo.dia uetilaments" March1969. -160-
A. SETTLEMENTS IN THE EASTERN GOVERNATES (FORMERLY CYRENAICA
The settlements in the Eastern Governates are aituated in the Jabal Al Akhdar They extend from Taukrah in the west, to Darnah in the eant, stretohing over a distance of aome180km. The "Ente per la Colonizzazione della Libia" has established ten major settlements in the Jabal which comprise1,750farm units. A further 54 farms have been established by the Instituto di Credito per il Lavora all'Estero (ICLE). In addition, the Italians established 82 farms for Libyan settlers.As all of these farms are today owned by the Libyan Government they will, in the following chapters, be referred to as Government Farms or ex-Ente Farms.
The government farms cover an area of 50,000 hectares of which30,000hectares are arable land. The largest settlements in the Eastern Governates are Farzughah, Auelia and Bette (see Table 10) which are situated in or around the Al Marj plain.
Table 19
Government Farms in the Eastern Governates
Name of settlement area Number oC farms
Farzughah 415 Auelia 252 * Bette 338 Al Bayadah 99 Mas sah 112 Al Bayda 168 Umar al Mukhtar 70 Garnadah 138 Al Abraq 122 Al Qubbah 90 Bu Traba 50 Ras al Hilal 22 Lathrun 10
Total: 1,886 ' including 54 ICIE farms
One of the main prerequisites for carrying through the envisaged development projects was the necessity of large scale maps.Prior to the establishment of N.A.S.A. the Libyan authorities were in possession only of a serien of small_ scale maps at a scale of 1:50,000 which were prepared by the American AIN! Map Service. These maps, however, were only suitable for reconnaissance and therefore it was an important task for the Team to work out a plan for the preparation of a detailed topo-cadastral series of maps on a large scale, suitable for all studies required Cor developing the settlement areas of Jabal Al Akhdar, including the ex-Ente farms. TheTCalAprepared the technical and general specifications for aerial photography which commenced towards the end of1964, The whole work consisted of photographing the Jabal Al Ahhdar from tho south of Benghazi to the east of Darnah with a riea o*' photographs on a sealc of 1:5000 suitable Coi topographic mapping on th- s scale, This work was the bfezls fi e Eeeil surveys, land capability maps and f( etueeaCal work including bounCeav clisputes and any other datailed map preore ion, In September 1965 the first raries of these dei:ailed maps wae peeiarered and used la; the Team as a basis for their study. The work was complotad and finalhfilwere delivaaad at the end of 1966. -161--
1. Agro-physical conditions
The Jabal Al Akhdar is a plateau formed by a limestone out-crop which rises gradually from the main Sahara plateau and falle abruptly in two steps towafdn the Mediterranean sea. The lower stop is commonly known as the first bench or first terrace, the upper plateau is known as the second bench or second terrace.
Large portions of the two benches are sharply dissected by wadis, giving the Jabal. Al Aklidar the predominantly hilly to mountainoup appearance. The plateau character is apparent in the vicinity of Al Marj where an appreciable extent of flat o undulating land is found on the fir5t bench. A gently rolling landscape extenda from Massah to Al Qubbah on the second. bench.
The whole of the Jabal Al Akhdar is composed of rocks of sedimentary origin and most of the strata is marine limestone. The present geomorphology has a profound effect on the various types of soil cover which occur in the Jabal.Variations of climate caused by differing altitudes have resulted in a definite pattern of soil types which can be traced east and west along the various benches.
The situation of sites for the ex-Ente farms was largely based on reconnaissance soil surveys to determine those areas which had the best and deepest soil cover. With the exception of the great plain of Al Marj which has a large area of good, deep Reddish Brown Mediterranean soils situated in an interior basin, most of the other areas of good soil are comparatively small. The greatest depth of soil cover are to be found in donnas and depressions in the limestone strata and are of colluvial and alluvial origin with incorporated aeolian parent material. Most of the alluvial parent material are Terra Rossa deposits derived from the chemical weathering of the limestones under the climatic conditions prevailing in the region, hence the predominantly red colour of most of the soils. Where greater rainfall occurs in the higher part of the region as in the Massah and Al Bayda area, more temperate Brown-Forests soils occur which are of greater natural fertility.
The Italiane, in establishing the Ente settlements commenced work in such promising areas. Indeed the wine industry of today centred inyassah and. Al Bayda owes much to the quality of these better soils. However, as more settlers arrived, the authorities had to extend the settlements into the less desirable areas with poor soils as in Umar al Mukhtar. Here the rainfall is such as to be approaching the limit for dry farming as it borders on to the semi-desert. Where the hillsides have been denuded of vegetation very considerable erosion has occured so that in many places rocky outcrops occur.
In the past very large areas of the Jabal Al Akhdar have been rendered useless to agriculture through'over exploitation, wrong cultivation methods and other mis-use. Soils of the steeper mountain slopes have suffered the most and often have been so eroded as to expose limestone bed. rock.
Soil conditions of the Jabal can be said to vary considerably overcomparatively short horizontal distances depending mainly upon rainfall and localtopography as parent material is everywhere the same. Most of the Jabal consists of typical dissected limeetone country with steep-sided wadis of which Wadi al Kuf is amajor example. Isolated small patches of deeper Terra Rossa soils occurbut much of the area is but thinly covered and best left in forest and scrub. Undulating land with more gentle slopes of which the Farzughah area is representativo, generallyhave better arable crop activities facilities. Other characteristics of the soil relevant for resettlement are sporadic occurrence of rock outcrops onfarmland and the varying depth of the soil. Several farms have been established on rocky or very shallowsoils which restrict or even completely prevent crop husbandry. - 162 -
The Jabal Al Akhdar and the area surrounding it receive rainfall mainly during the cool winter months, the highest concentrations being from December to February. The total annual precipitation varies considorably. In Darnah, for instance, the average rainfall is 280 mm but in1951only 33 mm were recorded.Every third or fourth year droughts have to be expected which result in very low yields.
The greatest precipitation occurs in the area of Shahhat, Al Bayda and Massah which receive on average over 500 mm of rainfall. There is a rapid decrease from the maximum in all directions away from this relatively small central area. Farzughah is situated b'etween the 300 - 350 mm isohyete. Batta and Al Qubbah receive slightly more rainfall but here too the low precipitation is the main limiting factor for agricultural production. Al Qubbah, although situated in the same rainfall zone as Farzughah and Batta, has a lower average annual temperature, is more often covered with clouds and receives more mist and dew than the other two areas. Therefore in Al Qubbah summer crops can be grown whereas in Farzughah, Batta and Umar al Mukhtar only winter crops can be cultivated. The monthly average and the annual total of the rainfall of Al Marj where more than 50 percent of the ex-Ente farms are located do not fully support the high values assigned. to this region and there is reasonto make a re-assessment for the settlements in this area.
The introduction of irrigation is no remedy either, since the ground water resources are very limited and hardly sufficient to supply water for domestic and livestock consumption. There are about 115 springs in the north-eastern part of the Jabal which have a combined flow rate of approximately750litres per second. From this rate 710 litros per second are produced by 22 major springs, while93springs have a flow rate of only 40 litres per second. All main sources of spring water such as Ayn Dabussiyah, Wadi Darnah, Ayn Lathrun, and Ayn Susah which combined have more than two-thirds of the total flow rate, arc outside the area of the ex-Ente farms and any improvement in their utilization must not necessarily serve the settlements.
The present utilization of the springs is as follows: the water in Wadi Darnah is being used partly to supply the municipalities of Darnah and Tubruci and partly for irrigation purposes in the vicinity of Darnah. Ayn Dabussiyah will feed the Dabussiyah-Al Bayda-Al Mari water supply scheme.At Ayn Marah, Lathrun, Ras Al Hilal, Ayn Mursa, Ayn Sarsarah and Ayn Stuah water is utilized with low efficiency in the irrigation of some small plots, covering a total area of 200 hectares. Of the remaining large springs Ayn Massah, Ayn Qubbah and Ayn'Susah are being used to feed emall local water supply, schemes. Tbe majority of the small springs are being utilized in much the same way as was the case during the Greco-Reman period, as livestock troughs. Some have a small reservoir from which a garden is being irrigated. In the whole Sabal, the entire area being irrigated from small springs amounts to only 21 hectares.
In the western portion of the Jabal Al Akhdar there are no springs, and here the main source of water supply of the ex-Ente settlements is the house cistern (Majin) which is installed in each house to collect rain water. During dry years when the Majins are not full or when the capacity of the tank is not sufficient for the farmers needs, they buy water from tankers which carry the water from the major springs. This water is stored in the Majin.
About 50 percent of the settlers also have access to one or more Greco-Roman cistern. These underground water reservoirs were built about 2000 years oz:o in areas of the gentle slopes where a sure flow of rain water occurred.The cisterns were carved out of solid rock and the walls were made impermeable by layers of plaster. Until1963most of them were in a bad condition and therefora could not be usod by the settlers. As recommended by the Team, N.A.S.A. has started a programme Lo repair Liles° cisterns and has achieved 3,pod results. N.A.S.A. ic also making propamtionc Tor '.ho construction of new ciJte overcome the problemaorTr.)ter ohol.tago i.i the elw-Eato -.163
In the last fewydaiesthe ;.,ibyan Government has started to build a major pipeline from Ayn DabussiyahviaAl Bayda to New Marj in order to supply the two growing cities and the ex-Ente farms located, in the vicinity of the pipelinewith water. According Lorecoeteetimates, this source will just be sufficient to meet Lhe requirements of domestic and li-restock consumption; under no cir,pumstances will it be available for large scale irrigation purposes.
The aspects of water supply for human consumption and agriculture cannot be dealt with on the scale of existing ex-Ente farms but have to be seen in a much wider oontext including all persons living in the area and its surroundings.The Jabal Al Akhdar, the coastal zone and the semi-desert is inhabited by approximately 220,000 people. Assuming that each person will have to be provided with75litres of water per day, the ?later requirement of the population amounts to 6 million cubic metres per annum. There are some one million small livestock putts which each need 4 litres of water per day, or1.5million cubic metres per annum.
One of the main measures for developing the ex-Ente farms which N.A.S.A. has initiated is the campaign for providing each farm with a number of fruit trees.In order to guarantee that the trees willtake root and not perish through lack of water they will be watered three times a year during the first three years after plantation. The annual water requirements for this campaign will be an average of350,000cubic metres over the five years of the envisaged programme.
In order to arrive at the total water requirements, some 10 million cubic metres per annum have to be taken into consideration which are at present being used for irrigation. Thus for the ne-et years lo come the erholo area is in need of some17.85 million cubic metres per annum. Whea estimating the watee requirements for the future, we have to take into account that water consumption may rise due to the increase in the population and the improved standard of liviag. Consumption may also be higher as the water will be given free of charge and piped Lo tho farmers instead of their having to buy it or traneport it as at present.
In order to utilize all water resources to the best possible extent, special attention must be given to water and soil conservation by preventing run-off and erosion. In the valley floors and the sloping areas of the first and second bench, run-off can be minimised by contour cultivation. In order to.increase surface retention and infiltration, the land ehould be ploughed prior to the beginning of the rainyeeason, This applies mainly Lo Terra Rossa soils which tend to seal on the surface under theimpact oí rain.,laareac uhere the cultivated land is exposed to run-off from adjacent hills, proteeLivc mensuren in the fnrm of diversion structureo or rush bolts are requIred. Systematicafforestationwould help to control erosion. A particularproblcm coaceraing watoe and seil coneervation is ia the Jabal Al Akhdar wtth regard Lo tho many dykes bejlit across vadtd during the Greco-Roman era.Through this systemPCil, 110CPis peevented licei runniag doini thewadiethus contributing to soi) moisture rcohergel Nowedays, howeeer, mosc cr.! these dykes aro in y. state of disrepair.
The uncultivated hilly portion of the Jabal Al Akhdar eovered by brush i;egetation is utilized in gmeding ltvestock.As a result of uncontrolled grazing OtghL but continuous erouion tEkes piace, -164-
2. The existing settlers and the institutional set-up
(a) The demographic composition of the settlers: The1886ex-Ente farms in the Eastern Governates are inhabited by some16,000persons, constituting7percent of the total rural population in this area. The average size of a farm household is eight persons, varying from one to twenty persons. In addition however,25percent of households employ permanent farm labourers who also stay on the farm.
About 60 percent of the population in the ex-Ente farms in under20years of e, and 38 percent are younger than ten years. There is a considerable shortage of men in the age group 21 -40years as most of them have migrated from the farms to urban centres. Even among those men who remain on the farms many do not work solely in agriculture. A survey of the socio-economic conditions in the ex-Ente farms conducted by the Team in1964-66indicates that45percent of the men between 20 and60years receive an income from non-agricultural activities.
The majority of thene part-time farmers have jobs with the government.The oil industry has had no direct influence on the migration of the labour force.Not a single man from the384households investigated left his farm for an oil field or the office of an oil company.
The primary cause of the migration of farm labour is the strong "pull factor" in the vicinity of administrative centres, where they find a more lucrative job than work on the farm. For this reason the highest percentage of men who live on their farms and work in non-agricultural sectors can be found around Al Bayda and New Marj.
The concentration of so many government officials in the settlements is due to the fact that Al Bayda, the newly constructed city, has become during the last few years an important administrative centre. Apart from the large percentage of part-time farmers working with the government, several of them also perform their farming duties at a very high level.
In1968the government decided to stop any new recruitment of government officials with the exception of those who had graduated from the university or from the intermediate schools. Although this decision is now strongly implemented, the execution of so many 'construction projects by contractors in the area represents again a "pull factor", e.g. - the building of the New Mari town, the reconstruction of the farm housen, the vast expansion of Al Bayda, the construction of a highway from the borders of E to Tunisia crossing most of the settlements in the Jabal Al Akhdar, and the contracts for the cultivation of the fruit trees on the government farms.
From the point of view of planning a resettlement programme it is important to note the high average age of the settlers which is 52 years.About 20 percent of all the farmers on ex-Ente farms are older than 60 years and hardly able to contribute to agricultural development of the ex-Ente farms.
(b) Land Tenure: The population of the Eastern Governates adhers rather strictly to its traditional tribal organization. The area of the ex-Ente settlements is inhabited by the members of five main tribes each of which claims traditional rights over certain areas of land. These claims of the tribes are recognized by the state to a certain degree oven in the ex-Ente settlement areas. All ntate owned ex-Ente farms are leased to farmers on whose tribal land the farms have been established. This procedure has been followed in almost all cases so that today, witha few exceptions, all ex-Ente farms are leased and distributed on a tribal basis. -165
With regard to land ownership, the ex-Ente farms of the EasternGovernates may be divided into two categories - state owned farms, and farms owned by the Zawia Sanussiyah, which constitutes religious unalienable property. The majority of ex-Ente farms belong to the first category. They are administered by the State Property Department which leases them to individual farmers on a contract basis. The major handicap in the field of land tenure is the absence of exact farm boundaries. Except for Farzughah and Batta where boundaries have been roughly fixed, all other farmsare not properly marked.
Today120farms, most of them located in western Bayda, Al Marj, Faidiyah and Al Qubbah, are administered by the Zawia Department. They are leased to anyone who applies for them. When leasing this property the Zawia Department does not follow tribal patterns and therefore Zawia farms and houses are occupied by farmers who do not necessarily belong to the tribe of the surrounding area.
The size of the ex-Ente farms has never been established on a uniform basis which would provide equal production incentives to the settlers. In general, the farms in Massah are smaller than those in Farzughah and Batta, but the creation of farms of a larger size in the dry areas in no way means that the income potentials of the ex-Ente farms are balanced. On the other hand, both in the dry and humid areas the sizes of the farms within one settlement vary considerably. Some farms in Gharigah extend over an area of25hectares, whereas others have37, 50and75hectares. In Batta the size varies from 16 to 40 hectares, and similar differences can be found in all the other settlements. So far no attempt has been made either by the State Property Department or by the Zawia authorities to correct this imbalanced distribution of farm land. Its adjustment would definitely meet with the resistance of the tribes whose tenure system would only in a few cases permit such adjustment. It is, however, a necessity for a better balanced development of the agrarian structure.Most of the tenants of an ex-Ente farm have one or several pieces of tribal land which they cultivate. They do not, therefore, rely only on the production of their ex-Ente farm- land, but receive in addition some returns from the cultivation of their tribal land.
(c) The settlement lay-out and related public services: Two different settlement layouts can be found in the ex-Ente farms of the Jabal Al Akhdar.In the older settlemente such as Central Massah, Al Bayda and Al Qubbah, 10 to 12 farm houses have been grouped together in the middle of the adjoining fields, whereas all the other settlements are dispersed farmsteads.
In spite of the general scarcity of living space quite a number of houses are unoccupied. Of the390houses covered by the survey in1965only56percent were regularly inhabited,28percent of all houseowners lived only occasibnally in their houses, mainly in summer, and preferred to spend the rest of the year in tents or barracks and 14 percent of all houses investigated were permanently vacant.There are many reasonswhythe settlers do not stay in their houses. Having been built some 30 years ago the houses have cracks in the walls, are no longer waterproofand need general restoration. The poor condition of the houses however, is not the only reason for the farmers abandoning them, beoause there are settlements like CentralMassah and Al Qubbah where all farmers live in houses and where they haverepaired them themselves. Another reason often given by farmers is that the houses, which are built of concrete, are too cold in winter and too hot in summer. The main reason why some farmers prefer a tent to a house is related to their way ofliving. Those who live as semi-nomads wander around with their flooksin search of fodder and have no other choice but to live in tents.
The network of main roads connecting the ex-Ente settlementswith the administrative and commercial centres is well laid out and generallyin good condition, but communication between the single farmsteads and the settlement centresrequires improvement. Metalled -166
roads leading to many farms already exist, but as they are not covered with asphalt and have been negleoted for the past three decades, most of themare in bad shape. This state together with the lack of transportation have reduced the marketing ofeggs, milk, "leban" (fomented milk) and other perishable goods of which there isa surplus at certain times of the year.
(d) Institutional services; In each eettlement centre the Ministry of Agriculture maintains an office of its extension service, which is occupiedby one or two young officers. Though most of them perform their duties with great interest their activities are rather limited to occasional distribution of seeds and treesand to receiving and forwarding the applications of the farmers for government tractorsor combines. In a few settlements the extension officers organize andcarry out the spraying of fruit trees with insecticidss.However, the main task of an extension service, i.e. giving technical advice and guidance, is not adequately carriedout.
After a long period of research work on cereals in the ExperimentalStaLion Zorda, the Ministry of Agriculture started a large scale seedmultiplicatioe programme, through which improved varieties of wheat and barleyare being distributed Lo Lho farmers.
For several years the Libyan Government has been trying toencourage the establishment of cooperatives to supply crediton easy terms and pay part of the costs for the purchase of agricultural machinery. In almost all settlements at least one cooperative was founded, and some of them even bought tractors.The members of these cooperatives regarded the societies primarily as a means through whichthe government distributed aid. Therefore many refused to contribute towards the purchase and maintenance of the tractor, and therefore the cooperatives in thesettlements have stagnated.
The only source of agricultural longterm credit is the Agricultural Bank which grants loans up to £3,000 to each farmer for purchasing tractors,pumps or other machinery, as well as for the construction of agricultural buildings. However, the majority of the exEnte farmers have no access to this kind ofcredit as, according to its statutes, the Bank grants credit only if the farmernames a person to assume liability for repayment if the farmer fails torepay the loan within the stipulated time.
A second source of credit is the local trader. The farmers of the Jabal usually buy their consumer goods such as tea, sugar, tobacco,soap and processed food on credit and pay their debts once a year at harvest time. The traders claim that they do not charge interest, but they sell their goods ata rate of5to 10 percent higher than that at the nearest public market place.Most of the farmers are indebted to one or two local traders.
As many farmers live on a subsistence economy, marketing,particularly of field crops, has so far had little importance. Farmers who sell grain usually take it toa government grain purchasing centre where they receivea fixed price subsidized by the government. Animals, vegetables and fruits, except grapes,are normally sold once a week at the local public market places. Each large settlement has its own market day once a week, when the farmers can sell their products and buy simpleconsumer Leoods from travelling tradesmen. The vine growers of Massah and P1 Dayda sell theirLeeees to the wine factory in Al Bayda. They hire a lorry to geake 1.ho grapes fromne ineyard to the factory. The company buys all the grapes from the 400 vinegrowers in the Jabal and pays a fixed price for each kilogram delivered.
In the last few years several priva-teenreproreurs have bought small buses and started an irregular transport service connecLingplaces of importance with the -167-
settlement centres. Therefore it is no longer difficult for the ex-Ente farmers to reach their administrativo centre or oven the next big town. AF3there is limited space in these buees.and as they are generally used only on asphalt roads, they are not suiAable for tranuporting agricultural products from the fame to the centres.
3. The a:ricultural production situation
One of the most important fields of activity carried out in all settlements iF,1 the production of grain in the traditional way: ploughing is done with a wooden plough drawn by a horse or camel, seeds are sown irregularly by hand and the ripe grain is cut with a sickle. Tractors and combines have been introduced during recent years both by the government as well as by private individuals, and this trend will continue.
The cultivation of fruit trees and Bummer crops is not yet fully developed or else not possible in all settlements because of the lack of rainfall. Only is Massah, Al Bayda and Al Qubbah are summer crops and fruit trees grown successfully; in all other settlement areas the farmers cultivate only wheat and barley and occasionally chick-peas under dry farming conditions.
The yields of the crops grown vary from year to year and from area to area. In1966-67the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Wealth reports in its Agricultural Census for the Jabal Al Akhdar a yield of 301 kg per hectare wheat, and 323 kg per hectare barley. This can be considered as an average for the ex-Ente farms in the Eastern Governates. In the drier settlements, however, the settlers often harvest less than half of this amount. For chick-peas the average yield of150kg per hectare can be obtained in normal years.
Tree cultivation is carried out in all ex-Ente settlements but, as in the case of crop cultivation, with varying degrees of success. It has during recent years been promoted by the Ministry of Agriculture which distributed trees free of charge to anyone applying for them. However, this measure led to few positive results since only about 20 percent of all farmers asked for and were given trees. The main handicap to increasing tree cultivation was that the tree planting was either not, or only to an inadequate extent, followed by proper care and maintenance which resulted in the deterioration of more than 80 percent of all trees planted.The trees needed fencing and irrigation during the first two or three years and this was not done.
The most important horticultural cash crop is grapes, but intensivo viticulture like the cultivation of summer crops, is restricted to the areas with high rainfall (Massah and Al Bayda) where each heusehold owns about2,500productive vines.
Second in number are almonds, followed by olives. Both kinds of trees can be found in the dry areas to which they are well suited, as well as in the areaswith more than600mm rainfall. Almond trees are generally in bad shape and need pruning. About 10 percent of the trees are bitter almonds. Olives are not properly utilized by the growers. From1963to1965not a single farmer among those investigated harvested his olives. The government olive-press in Massah has therefore closed down because of lack of supply. The farmers do not even collect them for their home consumption. Table fruits such as apples, plums and peaches are well liked, but theircultivation needs special care which is badly lacking.
The major agricultural occupation of the farmers in theJabal is animal majority of the rural PoPu- husbandry. It is also the main source of cash income for the lation. The most numerous type of animals are goats, of which eachhousehold keeps on an average 17 head, then follow sheepwith an average of 13 per household. However, goats and sheep are kept only by 38 or26percent respeotively of all households, Cattle are whereas63percent keep cattle with an average of 3.4 head perhousehold. -168-
owned primarily by farmers who lead a more or less settled life, as is the case in Massah and Al Qubbah. In settlements where'the inhabitants move around seasonally as semi-nomads or work outside their farms as in Farzughah or Gharigah, the number of cattle is relatively small. The present practice of herding goats and sheep is harmful to crops and trees. Besides the meagre pastures they generally graze, additional feeding of livestock is done only in dry years. If introduced on a larger scale feeding would definitely result in a considerable increase of milk and meat yieldn.
On the average each household owns at least one donkey which is used mainly for transporting goode and for riding. The number of farmers keeping chickens and bees amounts to46and 20 percent respectively, and therefore in relatively small. However, on several farms these two enterprises constitute an important activity.
The majority of the farmers on ex-Ente settlements have two sources of income: the farm and the non-agricultural activities. When in1964-65the Team started to study the composition of the settlers income, it was faced with some difficulties in obtaining reliable figures on physical output, particularly in animal production. The figures in the following table have therefore to be taken with certain reservations. They are, however, of indicative importance for drawing up plans for futnre assistance to the settlers.
T ble 20
Composition of gross income from agriculture and related activities in selected settlements -1965 Settlement Animal Crops Fruit Related Total Husbandry 1 Cultivation Activities *
F rzughan 84.3 11.2 4.5 100.0 Batta 70.6 23.5 5.9 100.0 Massah 50.7 20.0 20.3 100.0 Al Bayda 33.8 47.3 18.9 100.0 Gharigah 64.0 28.0 2.7 5.3 100.0 ar al Mukhta 73.0 19.7 0.8 6.5 100.0 AlQubbah 52.0 31.8 5.8 10.4 100.0
Average of all households 53.? 2.7 100.0 .nvestigated
* Charcoal burning, stone quarrying
The main conclusions to be drawn from this table of income figures estimated in1965is that in all settlements except in Al Bayda, animal husbandry is the main source of agricultural income. From the point of view of contribution to income, fruit cultivation is significant only in Massah, Al Bayda and Al Qubbah, where20, 19and 6 percent respectively of the agricultural gross income comes from the sale of fruit. In these three areas grape cultivation aocounts for more than93percent of the income from fruit; all other varieties are of practically no importance as far as their income value is concerned. The income obtained from crop cultivation in all seven settlements -169-
investigated in on the averago.about 31 percent of the agricultural gross income and much smaller than that obtained Crow livestook production which amounts to53percent. Only a small portion of the ncomo from orops is obtained in cash. About 78 percent of the value of the yields is consumad in kind by the farmers themselves and the remaining 22 percent constitutes Income in cash. In the dry areas almost all the total grain production is consumed by the farmers themselves.
The most important contribution to the total gross income in the income from non,-61 ricultural activities, which amounts to 36 percent $tainst 34 percent from animal husbandry and 20 peroent from field crops.
Although the opportunities for agricultura) activity and the possibilities of finding a job in addition to farm work vary nonsidorably from area to area, the total net income obtained per household in each settlement was in 1964-65 relatively balanced. An average farm household in the dry farming region receives an income of about £400, whereas in the more humid areas the income amounts to over £600 per annum.
A serious problem which will influence the future development of the government farms is the considerable "pullout" of agricultural labour force from the settlements as already discussed above. 17 0-
4. Devo10 ont P o onals for Settlements in the Eastern Gove
The Team etudiea show that the overnment farms in the Jabal Al Akdar are in urgent need of complete rehabilitation. Low, erratic rainfall conditions coupled with the lack of goodBoilare responsible for the uncertainty of settlers incomes.Thus, ooncerted efforts together with a largo budget are needed to achieve the integrated development of natural and human resources and the oeientatton of existing settlers towards commercial farming. The settlers themselves must make every effort to reach the envisaged level of production and ahigherstandard of living.
Before a largoscale resettlement prog-ramme Is initiated, it is necessary to formulate criteria for selecting farmers to benefit frote this major development scheme. The Team have made detailed proposals for selection which were favourably received by the N.A.S.A. authorities concerned. Following these propoeals means that the majority of the present settlers will stay on their farms and participate in the development progTamme.
(a) Adjustment of farm sizes an gistration d rirhts: In the course of the Team's survey it became evident that 2 percent of theexEnte farms have rocky soil and at least an equal percentage have only a few hectaresof cultivable land, the other parts of the farmsteads being too rocky or havingonly a very thin layer of soil. It is, therefore, necessary to conduct a detailed soil survey onthe suitability of the land of each farm. All farmsteads found unsuitable for agricultural production will have to be excluded from the resettlement programme. They could be used for afforestation or consolidation with other farms.
Another important prerequisite for the progress of the resettlement programme is the establishment of welldefined farm boundaries. Therefore P.A.S.A. and the Department of Land Registration should give this aspect primary attention.Recently the whole exEnte farm area was covered by aerial photographs on a scale of 1:15000 prepared by photogrammetric means, and a series of large scale maps on a scale of 1: 5000.These maps could be enlarged to 1:2500 without losing their accuracy. They are suitable for all cadastral purposes and land registration and could be used as a basie for boundary demarcation.The erection of farm boundaries by ground means and the establishment of their coordinates by photogrammetary and aerial triangulation is recommended.Before esiablIshing final border lines,N.A.S.A. may consider adjusting the different sizes of farms ahicb occur in.all settlements.
It is necessary %o esLa:b1Ssh condi%ional ownership rights which provide security and incentives for agricul4uval deqolopment and in the meantime safeguard ainst lectl alienation of -tire lauda
The Team suggest that the l'arm unit,Ltshousu, stable, cis%erns, etc., should be alloeated to the seleeto0 settlers under condi%ional ownership. N.A.S.A. and the seftler will sign a conbractorsalo. The settlerwellbe prevented rvom auy legal alienation on the farm for 20 yearsOV011'iîhe paya the full value of the farql before the end of this period, This does not prevent the set%lor from working in futuro on part timo bases provided that the operation of his farm would nut be adversely affecLed.
For the first five years the settler shall be on probation and only lr ho proves to be a good farmer will the con-t eact Lo registered and the fai-mor become the owner in the legal sense. Land and house should be given to the soLtler only when he fulfills the required obli tions.
Another probnm uhLch has to bu solved is tho rostricAon otho nonagvicultural activitios of a lzrgopaP'6of the settlers. Various anggosLIonn to ovorcomo this problem have been under considom;don by N.A.ELA.including-tepaymcit of a loan or subsidy to all those who give up their present non-farming occupation. The Team stresses that N.A.S.A,should maintain strict control on the obligation of the Farmer tocultivate his farm properly. The size of existing c2:-Eate farms In the EasternGovernates shouJd not be con- sidered as permanent. As tho p011.tioal, economic, and social criteriawhich made tho itaiJare: follow a particular settlement pattern and establichholdings of a certata else in 1930 aro no longer relevant in 19699Today, economic considerations in Libya cali ;'orthe erection of larger farms in the seillement areas under dryfarming conditione.In order to create economically viable farmeteads it is ouggeeted that for the dryareas three or four farms be grouped together to form one holding.This would allow a better utilieetion of farm machinery and guarantee a higher lecome for the settlers.
(b) Improving 11 :tor eupply andutilizatiou: Thomain limiting factor for intensifying egelcaitural productivity in the settlement orces is the lack of water.It is therefore imperative to exploit allwaterreeouecen available to their full extent.The Team has been activo1j,.engaged in the searcb forgroundwater in the Pilot Area of the Jabal Al Akhdar but non of '411e drilled test uells gave aaoutput of asubstantial quantity,It is suggested that the government cooducts a comorehensime and ovel'al1 hydro-geologir!alsurvey to further jnycnidgate the aval)abl1i-1,yof gvound water rssources. Of the 115 springs in the Jabal Al Akhdar, two springs, namely Ayn Dabussiyab and Ayn Darnah, are well utilized whereas from all other springs which supplymore thon half of the quantity of spring water in the Jaba]., much is lost through penei.rotion.It is suggested that the Ministry of Agricultureshouldinitiate a programme for the development of these aprings. It was originally intended to provide all government farms piped water from the Ayn Dabussiyell - Al Marj project.The government has, in recent years, esiablished an extensive network of water pipes Le. which almost all ex-Ente farms in the jabal are connected. As the outpue From the Aya Dabuseizeah spring has drastically decreased no water reaches the settlement areas and the water pipes are out of use and will certainly deteriorate if they are kept unused.As, at least for the time being, there is no other eource of water, the goveenment should consider the possibility of the installation of a plant for the desalin:Uat- ion of sea water.This has succeeded in severa], countries where a shortage of water is a crucial problem.It should not be too difficult for the government to study this possibility and initiate a project of thie type inthe JabalAl Akhdar and send the desalinated water through the existing pipes. Since the establishment of N.A,S,A,the Team has given primary importance to the_repair of Greco-Roman cisterns so that there may be at Yeast one cistern of appreedmately 100 cubic metro cepacity on every farm tu collectrain water" The Team has advisedhe Authority on the repair or Lilo first 115 cisterns in Datto, and Farzughah.The Teem also prepared detailed epecifications i'cre the repair or anothor 500 cioterns, but as the contractor discontianod the work after repairing on]y 50 cisterns all efforts should be made for the Pepair of the othee 450.At tha same timo consLeuction of new cisterns as designed with the assistance of the Team should also be initiated, particularly on those farms which have no Greco-Roman cisterns on their land. N.A.S.A.and the Ministry of Housing which is responsible for the repair of the houses and the majins and the construction of new cisterns should continuo the programme for the repair and construction of cisterns, taking into c0nsideration the following recommendations: (0The sio of the cisterns must be on a slope in order to collect the maximum ount or uator. (171.) In order to prevent leakage all the old plaster must be removed. -172-
Bunhee or treen surrounding cletern Iowa i.e elececed and vootn munt be
cut in order to vi: t ny oraeleoecureing View u further growth e;7 route. To tho duality of i;Uo water the wateeahod ceoa nhoula be vide enough and be plastered ent. Aloe a filter withgreifel, nendand cool muet ioceire the rainwater before it 3into the renervoir.
(c) .Improvin jrv.ctLconu All plune for °11,) promotion of agricultural production on the government feem;- ehould ;7a1eJ41Pconnideratioe 'the diefeeeneen between the 001:tlemente in the ro tu fed crea and then() in thuary cuo-mucorne.. In Masseb and Al Beyda farm unll's are relativoly end ave inteneively unea, whereas the dry rerming conditione prevalliag in the othee oettlement areen limit ogriculturai actleation Lo the cultivation of grein and herding animals. In this cerrioe::t it shopid. nol be overleoked that in a few year° time tito sewage traatment ulente of hlDes.da 0310Ni,9 Mari will be in operation, itn puriVied water will oermit the eetabliehmee ei"' several ferms intencive irrigated cultivation.
On ferme va)lea will hemp enough water for the crltivation of summer crops, veget- able production shoeld be encouraged as much as poneible oven to the extent of decreasing the area under gralP eultivatioa. Olivo trees which are quite numerous in the areaa with high rain fall should be removed as they cover ground which could otherwise be used much more productively. Eucalyptustrees also ahould be replaced gradually by plants which do not draw so much ground water.
Viticulture is the major souree(JJ- ncome of the settlern in Massah and Al Bayda. Grapes constitute an oreellent cash crop and give Z200-4.250 per hectare. Their cultivation should be further promoted. Eeleting orcharde should be improved by pruning and spraying with ineecticides
Mensuren or lend reciamatiowillbc.oV little importence in the high rainfall e as most of the deep eells are niresdy under cultivation. Similarly there will be little
scope for timo renabilltation et'rho Greeo-Poman cisterns an they are practically non-exis . in this area. A major problem ig Masneh aed Al Bayda which will become oven more crucial if vegetable cultitoti.on laureases, le the trespaseina on lores by grweing animals. The protection oC all ve+eetable unite through barbed wire Cenaen with concrete poni 5r as well as a etrict obeervance of Lime gyvoing law, are urgently required. The dry farming settle.- Trento have little scope for change in the proauction pattern, In almost all dry settlements the area under cultivation can be enlarged through clearing the land of bushes whinh are covering a largo area of farmland. Before the actual reclamation operatione commence a 'Uetailed soil map should be prepared on a scale of.1:1000. This will prevent thin layers eod soil lieing removed. Furthermore, before bush clearing is initiated in any *'en area negotiations should take place between N.A.S.A. and the Forestry Department.
The cempelee: Vor cultivating feult trees was n'uDrbed twe years ago and by now more than 1,000 hectaree have been planted with fruit trees. The Team recommends the following: (0The ay.el. for fruit tree planting should be carefully eelected with regard to soil conditions and vicinity to the house. Trees should be watered three times a year during the first three years after planting. Theca should be technical ennererision eV the work of the contractor who under- takes the cultivatioa of the trees in order lo ensure that the plante conform to the kind d varieties requested. Effortsehould be made to train the farmers in maintaining the trees when the contractor }ande them over to N.A.S.A. three yeare after planting. Livestock production is the main source of iuoumo of the settlers and is particularly important for the dry farming arem. Special attention should therefore be given to the promotion of animal husbandry. The Team supporte 11.A.S.A1e: programme to distribute two cows -173-
to each settler. This should be accompsnied by oromounc fodder aad theInteoduction, wed subsidized sale,of eed concentrates, Additional Coccitng i noOdo0botwcE,n Julysnd October because of climatic conditions. Tliu groeing potentlaln ou LOi rengo ero no slight thoi;moot animals Buffer from undernourishmout, Provioloos shoulc. bu madefor omesgeney fending in dry areas.
The indigenous Oorbarnhoop which are l'opt by the no,tlere eve uell suited Lo the climetic conditione in the eastern rogion. An improvement of the flocks conld be schieved through the supply of high quality roms roleed ot the Amelia don t breeding station, The primory objoetivo oC =dieep raising should be mutton production. A better eupply of water through tho repair or conetructien oP cisterun will definitelycontribete toleveeing the current lolses of oaimals. Fencingorbush oastpres, the introduction of rengo msusgoment and. abovean,controlling the effectivenoes (1,'these meaeures, uill ensure a oupply of fodder or forage for all animal s, The91.10002L;of such meaourel doponCe to a great cveton on the cooperationorthe tribes, Forbidding teonneeo by anlmalc io a nceenoLtyt
There is a need, and scope, for developing email scale handicrafts such as weaving, leather proceseing and pottery, to create more employment opportunities during the dry SUMMer season.
(d) Settlement layout and rohabil itation of farm hciieenc Thu housing facilities even- able to the settlers are in no way satisfactory, Al.] the various types of farm houses ore too small for an average917.0family, Their inteeded repatr ft,ouldbeaccompanied by the enlargement of the houses. Each house hould be extonded by addinglWOrooms and abathroom. As the Ministry of HousingLsreeponsible for li)o consiructloa and repair of houses in urbon and rural areas ,N.A.S.A. should make arrangemnts for the necessary budgetary allocations so. that the repair of government farm houses will be carried out with the same priority as the King Idris housing scheme and the New Mari project, Apart from the houses the buildings of the village centres are also in rather a bad condition and need repair.
The conception of dispaincd settlements which was applied by the Italian authorities after 1936 does net correepona te the traditional living habits of the tribal population of the Jabal Al Dhaor rho prefer 'LaliVC l';flgOthC7in smeli groups. 'Ml le settlement pottord, though poaltive vi Lb regard to enabling direct manegomort ofORCh Uni,han Lis negativo aspecto as fer ao the supply of public cervices ouch as electricity, rotor, sewage, ochooline, andmarketing, are concerned, One solution to overcoming this bandicep to como oe:tent, Is the creation of secondary settlement centros ia ed6ltioa tu the creksting ones, Such smaller centres ehould consist of at least a school, a buildang with several storage roomo for tho cooperative, a space for a small shop selling daily consumer goodo, aod a meeting hall, It is recommended that such centres be orocted in Filea, the eaetern part of Teroughsh, le Datta along the middle of the proposed nortnweotorn oettlomont eoed, in limar sl 1.1tdirtar on tlic western nido of the settlement clomp to theneAsting school, ea0 en AiOubbah in Bait /mice°
T" mtres should also be utilized for the promotion of community development and should inolvJe: An o?Cice of the e-etonsion servtee, A homo oconomicn domoesteetion unit for terining saa demonsteatioa to the house- wives of the settlement, A centre for rniactionaliateracy clasFes and nottlevs trejning coursoo
0, settlers rueal club eith rudie cud other ento.-talnmont Fuoil3tius.
Insufficient markeUng feciitttes aeo ouc of'tino reaeons why,flaoagricultural produeto neienRs milt, butter, oggs RndohlokenE, are not ueuslly oold by the farmers, Locel .7;1-manor% oorvice between farmu nhorld bo initizetea for each aottlemeat afea. Aothe road connoctione from tino forms to the prime.ry andeccondary centres are goacrally not Guile:We L'ov car tvansport, the Tosm r000mmoeds thn locrevoreeent er oonstvnetion co"socondare- roods eonnectinu the con trisvith each an6°eery farmsteaa. The ostimatea lonuth of those roads -174-
will total about 250 km. The Team aleo recommends the construction of three asphalt roads: one with a length of 3-4 km in Al Qubbah linking the Ban Tagio with the Qubbah-Darnah high- way; a second road of the same lengih in Bette connecting the north-went part of the settleL: mentwith the Datta-Al Marj highwey; and n larger road of about 15 km from Umar Al Mukhtar to Al Heyde.
(e) Im rovemonL innLituidonel servicuss The establishment of11017cooperatives in the existing settlements is nocessar5, for the s ecese of tho project, sud to achieve the aim ultimately handingOVOPto the notelors all the services uaich are andortaken by N.A.S.A. during the primary stage. In order to inorsaso thep.00ductivityoftusbeneficiarios andto impron their living conditio;is, the joint serolcos of farm mochonisation, procurement of requisites, marketing and credit, must be available to them. All such 2erviccs can, after the withdraualoju N.A.S.A,only be rendered by cooperativo societies which should be run and administered by the beneficiarios of the project for their own use. It is recommended to establibh in each settlement one or two multi-purpose cooperatives. If the cooperative movement7 which had so little success in the past is to be initiated again, it is essential to supervise ,:aid guide the activities of tho coeperetives. As there is a lock of we!)-trained personnel, the iTirst task in this dirocion iiust 1(112c:1or°;10'tire training oC cooperotive leacks-s.
NiA5S0A,should ::econsider tbe present wystem loans -Lo settjers inthe light oC the present social and economio conditions and strengthen tito ogrIcultu_oal credit system by plac- ing more emphasis on supervised credit tbrotOi a combinaLion e:7.tonsLon services owl credit facilities,
Tbo affective adoption of the mar isrming praetices mentioned before require the establishment of local institutions for settlers training,Trainingshould cover the follow- ing subjects:- codera cuitivation oracticosmaintenance ol fruit tree's; animal husbandry; home economics; maintenanee of ehines; pasture management, gTa:;ing eontrol and a literacs programes.
In order to fully utilise the ofr'orts of N.A,S.A.and the_capital invested in deveiop- ing the ex-Ente farms it is absolutoiy essential to superviso the aetiidtios of the settle:re and to check whether they cerform their obligations, otherwise the settlersTrillcontinue te live their tradition& lifo and follow their cid practices. The Toam suggests that N.A.S.A, should employ ono superwisor for each 80- 100 farmers. Tho cuport-Lser shoutfl also be the government's representative 5.4 the sett7ement cooperative> uhich aro to be established. At the same time he should be in charge of distributing seeds, tices and fortiliaors,He should supervtso the proper uso of credit and assist in organising thepfoper avO timely omployment of tractors and combinas, He ShOpidliVOin thu settlement aros and litslinalli close eontaot with the settlers In order to attract auital)le candidotos fcr supervisors posts N.A.S,A.sbould consider offeringthem cortato inoanti(resouch as free housing onti oire7stimo coymeots B. SETTLEMENTS IN THE WESTERN GOVERNATES FORMERLY TRIFOLITANIA
The conditions for the development of the settlementschemes in the Western Governateo are difforent from those in theeasern part of the country. In the Western Governates most farms are privately ownedby Libyan and Italian farmers who bought their holdings and now enjoy duly recognized ownershiprights. The patterns of agricultural production are rather diversified,depending partly on rainfall and partly on irrigation.
Before Seoond World War, the Italians established15settlements in the Western Governates comprising 2,450 farmsteads, most of whichare privately owned by the farmers. The Ministry of Agriculture administers a small percentage of themwhich are used for farm demonstration purposes and come 700 farms were handedover to N.A.S.A. Through its rehabilitation programme N.A.S.A. intends to repair the buildi on these farms and improve agriculture production. In addition, the existing schemes will be expanded over the surrounding area where conditions permit. This is the case in Azizia, Nassariyah, Amiriyah and Saadia. Because of the different stage of development and the problematic situation in each settlement scheme, this section shall deal with each project separately.
Projects for new schemes were started in 1955 and continue at the present time. The following table shows the name of the new land settlement schemes, the number of the small holdings, their average size, and the type of farming:
Table 21
Settlement Schemes Established Since 1252
/ame of Scheme No. of Farm Units Sise of Forma u]i,)vaion under ha. Irrigation
adi Caam 120 2 complete Mamurah B 32 .5 13.5 partial Sabratha 59 10 Saadia A 56 4 Saadia B 60 4
1. Wadi Cace Scheme
The Wadi Caam scheme was established in1958and was assisted until 1963 by the Ministry of Agrioulthre and the United States AID Mission to Libya. It is situated about 150 km east of Tripoli and the scheme consists of 120 farm units of 2 ha, each most of which can be fully irrigated. Within the scheme there are a further 60 ha. of which 11 ha, are cultivated under irrigation and49ha. under dry farming. The 11 ha. which are under irrigation are used as a nUrsory for the cultivation of new kinds of vegetables such as artichokes, with the aim of training the settlers in cultivation methods.
The water in the settlement is supplied by three springs. Three pumping stations pump the -water into main canals from where it flows to the farms. Water distribution is organized but in the high irrigation season there is insufficient water for irrigation. The main problem in irrigation is the intrusion of sea water in the wadi from which the pumping stations are taking water, so that in the spring,irrigation is done with a mixture of fresh and, sea water. There is a great danger of salinization of the soil. As it is not clear as to whether the intrunion of sea water occursonly -476-
directly into the wadi or on a wider underground level, the team propone the con- duoting of a hydrologioal and geophysical study.
N.A.S.A. is considering the possibility of expanding the existing scheme towards the south by some 1,000 ha. of irrigable land. From first reconnaissance it seems that soil and water conditions may restrict this expansion to come extent. The con- suiting engineers who have been entrusted with the search of land and water resources have not finished their investigation, so no recommendation could bo made at this stage.
The settlers' occupational and tribal background presented another problem. The settlers were admitted to the farm units without being properly selected. The majority of them were working as labourers in Al Khums, Misratah and other neighbouring towns, and had little experience of farming. The settlers came from15sub-tribes of the area and this did not enable the emergence of a viable community and hindered to a great extent the progress of the cooperative society which stopped functioning in1965.
But, an important problem facing the project is the nmall size of farming units. The farm units being 2 ha0 are rather small ana offer very few incentives and re- latively low incomes to the settlere whose families have crown cinco1956and most of whom are now taking up employment outside the settlement. The farm units aro nom mainly being used as residence for the wives and children who perform most of the cultivation in the farmn. Most of the settlers complain that the present size of the farm does not provide sufficient income to support their growing families.
The average family siso was 7.3 in May 1967. When the scheme was planned ten years ago it was designed for the production of winter and summer vegetables under a crop rotation where at least half a hectare remains fallow for a few months each year. The settlers, however, have started to grow fruit trees which cover on the average a quarter of a hectare on each farm. They are scattered all Over the 2 ha. and restrict the cultivation of vegetables, wheat and barley. The number of animals has also increased to more than what was recommended and the farmers utilize a larEer part of their farm for crowing forage crops thus reducing the cropping area.
In order to improve the Wadi Caam echeme, the team proposes the following:
If the present study on water supply difficulties mentioned earlier permits expansion, it is recommended to offer additional farm units to all large families living on the existing scheme. Thus the old settlement will be
relieved of the surpluu individual family groups. .
N.A.S.A. should1 complete the eocio-economic study, started by the Team in May1967 Jin order to cover all 120 families of the project and to understand their problems and ways of helping them: a plan for the improve- ment of their living and working conditions could be then set up.
(0)The project is in urgent need of a qualified supervisor who should reside on the project and housing accommodation should be provided for him to encourage him to live in the project.
(d) A clerk should be recruited for administrative and accountancywork and for calculating the costs of the services rendered to settlers, especially the
Under the direct superviaion of the F.A.O. Agricultural Extension Training Expert working on the Team, a survey was undertaken at Wadi Caam coverinC79 settlers or65.8percent of the total settlers. The survey was carried out by 40 Libyan extension trainees during their in-eervice training course (April- May1967) Each trainee interviewed an average of 2 settlers. The results of this survey are contained in the Expert's Final Report to be found in Volume IV of this Report. -177-
oosts for irrigation, ploughing, maintenance of concrete canals, and operation of the wo-kshop.
The oonorete canals should be reconstructed and the pumps and the engines in the pumping stations must be repaired and improved.
The farm houses should be reconstructed and wherever needed an additional room should be built. It is reoommended to build a stableanear to the farmhouse with sufficient space for a cow, a calf, a donkey, and 20 chickens. After the building of the stable, N.A.S.A. should provide each settler with one Friesian oow.
The Agricultural Cooperative Society shou d be s rengthened along the liaes proposed by the F.A.O. Expert on Cooperatives so that it can serve its members in supplying them with seeds and fer ilizers and in making available traotors for ploughing.
The settlers should follow a crop rotation as suggested by the team-1/ with alfalfa and artichoke as the major crops.
A domestic water supply system with chlorinated water should be constructed.
A small 'village centre should be built in the settlement whioh could house the cooperative and other communal facilities for the settlers.
"Report to the Government of Libya. The co-operative movement in Libya". By Mahmoud Fawzi Ibrahim. F.A.O.1968. (Report No. TA 2466).
See Chapter IV of Dr. Cappelletti'sFinal Report "Land Settlement in Western and Southern Governates of Libya" oontainedin Volume IV of this Reporte -178-
2, Saadia 'A' and 'II'Settlement Projects
The Saadia settlement projectn 'A' and 1B' are situated about35km south of Tripoli just off the main road from Tripoli to Gaaian. Both projects were establinhed in1963and comprise a total number of 110 farme. In the same year52settlers were admitted to the farms of Saadia 'A' whereas the58farms of Saadia 'B' were left unoccupied and the houses remained vacant for four years. In October1967,the58eettlers of Saadia 'B° took possess- ion of their faree and commenced preparation of the land for the winter eeason1967-68. The size of the farms in both projects are equal and average 4.3 hectaree each.
Since Saadia 'B' settlers have taken up their farms quite recently, the Tea el has put forward to aoompreheneive plan for its social and econemic development with the intention of making it a model settlement by taking advantage of the experience gained80 far from other settlements.
Climatic records indicate that this project area experiences considerable variations in climate from year to year. Rainfall averages approximately250mm per year, increasing towarde the north in the Coastal Plain to approximately350mm per year. The recorde reveal that there seems to be a pattern whereby over two or three years a below average rainfall is recorded, followed by a similar period of above average rainfall.
Great variations in relative humidity are experienced and sudden fluctuations are common, notably in summer and early autumn. The most devastating wind is the ghibli. Dune movement in the project area end its immediate environs seem to indicate that dominant dune- forming winds are southwesterly and this fact has a considerable bearing on the alignment of windbreaks to protect the system.
The soil of the whole Saadia 'A' and 'B' area has an inherent low fertility and a comparatively low water holding capacity. Neverthelees, soile of this type are capable of producing good crops providing they are given sufficient water and fertilizers, especially organic manure. In all soil samples taken the nitrogen content wan extremely low, indicat- ing the need for adequate fertilizer.
In Saadia 'A'22welie: were previously dug for eupplying52farme with water for irrigation. These wells are with avampozzel (surface hole)20 30 metree deep with centri- fugal pumps at the bottom. The intake pipe of the centrifugal pump to installed in a casing of the drilled part of the well under the avampozzo. In some wells four pumps were installed, in othere3 two pumps, and in a few only one pump.However, it is not possible to use more than two pumps at a time in one well as if more than two pumps are switched on, ethe water level goes down more than7metres from the pump level, making further pumping impossible. When pumping ceasen the water quickly returns to its previous level.
Although in Saadia 'A' the size of the farme is junt over 4 hectares, the farmers generally irrigate only 1.5 2 hectares, the remainder of the area being cultivated Under dey farming. Each farm was provided with300metros of steel zinc movable piping for conducting the water irrigation(89mm diameter) and120metres of additional piping with sprinklers. Becanne of the mineral content in the ;rater all the pipe- beceme corroded within three or row' yoars.N.A,SAaccepted the proposals of the Team and other exper.ts to improve the irrigation situation in Saadia 'A' by drilliag 13 new wells.Some of tirase rum drilled in place of old ruined wells but moct of them were drilled on new spots.
After completion of houses and roads in Sa:dia 'B', drilling works were performed during1965and 1966. The irr Ittion system for Saaala 'B' was designed by the Team. Twenty
5./ Price, R.W. "Soil Survey in the Cyrenaican, Tripolitas d Pezzan Provinces of the lAbya"(1968) -179-
sizToilwo-o dr1.1i.od Le depths rryiic '-oem 70 ;o metven, ,;;,03dEor appToyAgia;oly .10 por houo, Tbo mains oro underground asbostos-comont autoc?avir,;odpipos, with a diamater 125 moi, It J. proposod toet101QT1 pn,.ncuro spr!n!:lors (2.5 atm) andmovable aluminium 00r1vd-lor Pipos of 30 mo cl ?71O which arc;0011n00to(1LoLii.; mains by hydrants, The Irrigotion syutom has beon dorigued in midia ovy as Lo enable the ;armor k) :mach any porqoC hiu farm Yith irrigatiou, is suffisiont Lo coror the wator requIrementc for irrigation ot' two wo1(.
In Sdi lifatming ;s carried out under both irrigatod sud dry farmingconditions. On each farm 2 bootaaos ore Irrigated by sprinhlers whichrecolto Of from tho drilled nollo.
Tu tho'Saadia la'c,ettlemoat project, tno Calms are uned Pornursoryand demcustration purposes.Each Sarrn han an avorago area or hectaros or' which about 2 hectares are irrigated, Tho main ElgriculturaiactIvities C,P0,l10euThatIon or ormmor vogotables, husbandry, and the cultivation of wileat and. barley.Thorc in no crop'o Le. p]an and the sottlors aro loft to ;ollow their traditionalmothods of ovitivatiaa which arein- i7or crop prochictio.iand hiJder soil consorvtion,
The settlers oC Soadia viso colt.tvatca considrahlo numb(); of rruit 'croaa, OLYUS -00.11C;the most Importantvarioty with Isvcrogo of 170 trees per farm, followod pears and aprioots - 50%-c.aus oi cli Tach farmer keeps o, the overage 2,3sheepand 1.5 OOIOto.rloccl bucod.
In January 1963,N,A5SA,Cittri1outed 50Friesian cattle to tho settlerE, oC Saadia 'A', End also providodthoproject with throe Friesian SZ,00: bulls. Since then tho settlers have gradvally been se/iing off thevc )ocial cows boaanre they i7eit that their iorage crops were just enoughLOsupport the Friesian cows,
For both sottlomeotE,'A and 'II'oi" Saadia the Team has prepared a detailed crop rri):Lro plan wbio4 is -0.700, on on e;vaa or'1.5 - 2hectares undev irrigation, and2 - 2.5 hcoos under dry fD2mipc. Tho lalmbo-c c":' animals to be 1eopt by each 'form family should orofirabif be shcon:25cbjchunc exn1 one horso,11,fi,S.A.hac already supplied one coto, threershecoFadton birds per family.
Tho 50 now csitlors o aodia'D' ca me frcm cariouspiaves i hevicinity(n7 Saadia, and around TTipolitocci.Tha scii3oLion theso ssttiorn was carried out by a local ocmmittco appointed by tbe Council of Diiiiistors oresidedi ovev by the Ge-i.c)puol. of Tripoli, and consisted cy.. mombors Zrom tho Shojt-,hs repv:iseutinc ;;Vt0 Laub' M0111 tribes indie Saadia and. lisLoir distriots,Tito oias aud CO110.1%10110 )1'0)7s?lc"c%f1.017 acopien by tito committee vero 1111-. tuown ond tho settlers wore sojectod at random. TheN.1Sli,:erles lo': tho selection of settloro were not cousidorod bytico selectioo oem.frittou thovcoro ',he population structure of Saadia TB' is rather rnbalan,ed,
.:t tf - 518 :;7ani 'B' we:ya 7 . tnd without main- tenanc,, 3p aK 1.1 need c-.7 iEi.e settlers give
suveal o°Cir reasoco for C: living in - . The most..moc."?,an'6 -Peason is that
i,1)0 ,7111 houses are too small and not planned a ' ta thu wishes oftho rottlors
As Svadta 'B' has 1)':Orì eboc.,a as a modo sc%tlemeat, che WRM paid special ai4;onLion '6o coudnoilnu c i,71.E%J,Ilng programme ;'ov settlors,Thic cutis dono u:k.;;11tire o]ni that the settlor could properl;T utilise his .,:amil,f labou:',Lo maintain sol] :7orLilityv ond Lo follow faamtinu eracticosiloloh 1.111 sofc6nad against the. Wisuse and ' oss o.7 irrigation water.Furthermoro, the ';rainag e.° the settlers lu tho tocimiquos oC adeptiaL': a cortain crop rotation aimed at introducinu proper mcniagemont oi ;udividual farms vAit'l the intr.00duction c;:' cooperative orgomi.7,- ation and land use. -180
In order te overcome thee° problome the Toam initiated as a firet stop ,ho orgenic. ation of a fomily foru demonstration unit. The major oeteneion rotivitios of this unit could be memorieed as follows: Demonstrations in orop variety trials, farm management operations, improvement of hand toole and the introduction of simple implements and farm machinery. Training of local level home demonstration workers who are selected from the women in the community and trained by the home demonstration agent. Training of the farmers' sons through the organieaeion of a young farmers'club as part of the school activitiee, Provision of inetitutional training in agricultural cooperation, land use, production and marketing.
XS1 oddition to these courses, the et.:icultural eetension workers in Saadia 'B' organized an - orientation training program for a per od of 7-10 days soon after the admission of the uottlere to the project. The eettlers were organized in three groups; they were given practi cal demoneteeions on the family farm demonstration unit.
In spite of N.A.S.A. wishing to make cooperative membership compulsory, and irrespective of the efforts made by the extension staff to organizo a cooperative society in Saadia 'B' during the first training course in November1967,the plan did not succeed. The reasons for the refusal of the settlers to establish a cooperative society were as follows: The new settlers were of the opinion that once they organieed their cooperative, U.A.S.A, would discontinue the monthly payment of IS.15 which.wae paid to every settler as loans for a period of two years or more. The 58new settlers were not a homogenous group of tribesmen but belonged tof0112 diffeeent tribes. For this reason it was not possible to initiate group action due to loch of eommunity feelieg amongst, the settlers.
At the second training course in April1968,it was managed as a temporary measure to organize the cooperotive eeccutive council on a tribal basis.Hence every tribal group was asked to elect three reprosontatleoe lox a council Of twelVe members instead of ter lembers. This arrangement proved successful and the settlers felt that they were adequately Yereeented in the council and they promised to participate fully in the development of their ce:e»e7a.tive society.
The Pean recommends the following propoeals for the future development of Saadia /A/ and 'B°.
Po oeteldish the Settlement, Co m 'ty Dv'eic'pmnent Centre conoisting of adequate . Cauilities for0:5:i,e11sionunity demonstration formes, farmers training oen'vee, cooperative ofices and home ecrnomics unit° A]so other social centres suchJOmedical centrey polleo stC6ioupel;(2,9are ncodedtusupplementntoworkorthe community centre in -the functional and institutional adoption of the so'ctlers tu tho new economic and social conditions in the settlement° it tu cr_peoed that U,A°S.A° will establish Saadia Community Development Cen'4;r6 in 'di° fiscal year 1969/70° The essential social and economic services need the effective organization of the schemos Saadia °A° and 'Be) under one cooperativo society for the purposeSof managin end controlling marketing, agricultura] mid connuner supplies aud savings. Hence it is of utmost importonoe to organise a. erultipurpose cooperati-,rc society to fulfill both purposes of agelcultural end cououmee cervices foe the ctemmunily. The 50 Friesian cattle in Saadia 'A' are not fully utilizedto the besthenefiL of aL:!.i.dmost settlers could improlw tho cultiraZion oC .Coddor crops tu faca tlloir lid other form animal s° Yhe production of milk *Ala tho setiler Gate from his coy
1 u ually beloe tbc, avevaGo aLonnt obtained under modarn milking oenclii;lons and wit4 modern -181-
equipment. Turtheemore, the eettlore eve uot mer37,ntIng their milk Cu a lirofitrbleway. ;°, lc advieable that tho Ninietry oC Agrloulturc etueyand ineestigeto tho poeeibilitlen OP impeoving mil% procoseing. Thie :nee- be organised on a cooperativo basin. Tho 000porativo society con getRlong term loen Crom the Aericultural Dankthrough tho help oP Co iustall Che dairy equipment, no) (i etoroe and thoother Peeilltioe of production, nroceole- ing and merketing.
(iv) The farm houses in eotb Saudi&'A' and 1B, are wall and uot planned In accordance with the dosirso of the settleve. N,A.S.A. muse help the settlerc 'Co make the necessary improvements Co their homos and build a brick stable in Avery Co eccomodato cattle and other Perm animele.
(y) To adopt a crop rotational plan proposed by the Team r the 50 farm imite df Seadia 'A° fer the purpose of organizing and managing the farms eceeoeieally.On each individual farm wary possible improvement must be made torearranaa fruit trees into one strip, remove other scattered CroesiRChe farm to allow for suitable areas in the farm for seaeonal cropping.
3. The Misratah Area Settlement Schemes
In the Misratah area a.a.S.A. is in rehabilitating three settlement schemee: Dafnia, Tammtaa andKararim.
TheDafnia settlement echeme le composedor318 farme cala coircroc an c.roc of nono 9,000 hectares, Of 'Che total number et' Parms 213 are privately owned by individual Teemore U 105 are aector the supervision ot N.A.S.A.
The settlement was originally planned to be cultivated and dry Ceerming, but meny farms are served by oemi-arteeian wel1s allowing considerable irrigation and rather hiLii incomes. The sise of tho Cams eery from 22 Co 48 hectares depending on the enalley or the soil. Some teems ere intensively celtivated by olivo and grape plantations, irrile.ted forage crops and vegetables, cereals, and livestock for milk and meat.
From preliminary sUrveys it seems that there are good possibilities for expanding thoexistingscheme towards tho south. It is estimated that the arcaCEDbe ezpanded by 4p000 hectares or oven moro, depending on Che conditions of soil and1T,to5-,,
The Tammins. settlement echeme lies 15 km nouth of blleratah. Out of the eotol 370 farms, 238 belong Co private owners, 16 Co Che Hinictry of Agriculture which runs eu experimental etation, and 116 belong Co N.A.S.A. The total irrigated area of thie scheme is abont 39700 hectares. Outside the nohow5hectares wore allotted Co eech farmer which are beeng flood for cereal cultivatiou under dry farming conditions.
For irrigation 7113777aeo 17 artece. semi-artesian wells. In addition there ar 103 wells whice - reeeA: use the v. -a 'rem the second aquifer. The physical condition of the welle varios - some of them are broken and othovs are in fairly good condition. For Che distrlbutioe of water there are 76 :km of main cenals, 66 km of undergroluid pipes, and moro than 400 km of laterals. The water distribrtion system is ineufficiont in somo parto of the scheme. As thia problemCarillOtbe so)ved separately for private farms and for N.e.S.A, roilim it is necoeoary that the whole echeme be treated au a complete unit. Tho general farming otLuation and Che Income seructure of the farmers tu Tammina is eimilar -Co that of the farmersin Dafnia. Outaide of Cho (eel:siting Temmina scheme there are poseibillties for eapaesion Co Che north uos-t 110519end aouth which eoulld °Over an area of 29700 hectares. -182-
The 1:arnrim sottlment schome in situated 30 lom coutb-,.7cnt(J:' i:iinratah oncl In composed of 100 femily holdiurrs es ohhov/A:4-es allorage s(1.!.;oo hocLares, Tho ncheme1)VIR originally designod on the semo pcit,torA us Tenimina, howovez-, Lho eel] ryodWC.LOPeendihic-Aa ave loss fevourablo i Koxarim, Well s oseel.s,rOGC:7701CO,houses, windbreaks, inteTual roads, and tho In tbc contl-o oro In poor condition0,10necd repair or rebuildi There are some limiied possibiI1LI.en -to uiiuicL thee:7Istinf;aroo. tovards LIic iorih whore tbe sell conditions f%ro bottol thon LI1L c,:lstin settlement,
In 1965 the Team studied the existing situation in te three settlements.It made proposals for future development and recommended the engagemen'. of an engineering company to study and specify measures needed for the reconstruction cf -tIs existing schemes as wen as for their expannion. The Team prepared the detailed k-Ad documents for engioccr!ng works which were used byNA.S.A.,to invite tenders from consultin7 eAgineerini; compenies IA various countries. The Tenn also assisted N.A.S.A. in conLy'olling the -oork carried out ta aerial photography. The consuUing engineers surveyed 22,200 hectares and obouL 50 percent of this area was found to be suitablo for irr1L;ai;lon, It is proponed Jlet some 5,000 hecIarce of this irrigated land will be used For rchabilitation of the exist?.,v,' 1,l11.S.A, farms anCt that some 6,700 hectares will bo used for 3%paasion (noe Toblo2I1
TABLE 22 Proposals for the rehabilitation of.existingN.A.S,A, farms and for expansion of irrigated land in the Misratah Settlements
Settlement 1r1-- .1; in/T-A,S1.Pe.rms ,11-.pansien_of Ara Total hectares No.of AveroEe Total. Ave.,ago ToLe..3
farms size oreo L' e ficie 015e ; area
Dafnia 104 30 3,120 i37 30 4,i 10 77230
Tammina 108 12.77 1,370 203 11: 2,736 3,816 Kararim 49 12 588 18 216 807
TOTAL 261 5,083 6,762 11,850
The consulting oncineors completod Limo inventigatJons el' the undefground woter resources and drillod 47 wells in oastorn Dsfais The,u hav atsc commenced the constvnctiou of form houses113this.acttlemen";. According Lo proliminayy calculations, time profitability orthose schemes is very hirP owl the prcauction of -these three schemes tul) be of no.tionel importenco. The development end improvement of the Misra'ioll schemeswillImprove tho ond uorklng condi-'61oas of 620 rural families and thcroi7orti,the TOLOA highly recommends these schemes should he lneluded in Is.A0S,/1,10 proursmme of uorl: ip 969-70.
Although the three poject.s In tl)e NIsratah area are verj promIsina, no runds ho.0 boon allocated rorheir development during Olo socend fivo-ycar pion starting Lu 1969, 'rho Team, however, reccmmends idiotthe LibyolOovorament most continuo development those three projecto perticularly that the11Q000SOT3(nurs have already boon completed,
As there0:0alread,-.,, several rams of o.w.cslleat o'cyndard ibero is s. goodany= that all tho Hisratah settlements will doelop into successful eommtaa.ities. TheOITTIOr.,* fcrmors of Defnia cud Tommlna already- home c wall-functioning 000peratJve aooiottend the N.A.S.A. ro-Libre cu; 1103 ,,y.3 ;h000foNwol-s712.6 vTT,Li bn settled in tho czpo.ndod aroo. -183-
4 hould join this 000p ins. As the water distribution prohlom oannra bo solvod soparatoly Zor privaLo .:armors and N.A.S.A, Comoro, tho Tosm r000mmondo tha; tho uholo aroa bo troatod as a unitp and ;;h0, tho undorground vator should bo kopt undor peridulla:oal study by (Titulliflod toohnicians. 84
C. SUMMARY OF THE GENERAL PROPOSALS FOR THE IMPROVEMENTOF EXISTING SETTLEMENTS
1. Before a large scale resettlement programme ie initiated it is ne6essary to formulate criteria for selecting farmers to benefit from this major development scheme. The Team has made detailed proposals for the selection and these should be applied. It is suggested that all those to whom the conditions for selection do not apply should also be allowed to stay on, and they should be given the possibility of buying their farms from the government. The conditions for sale should be different for those farmers and the N.A.S.A. settlers.
An important prerequisite for the progress of the resettlement programme is the establishment of welldefined farm boundaries. Therefore, before commencing this resGttlement N.A.S.A. and the Department of Land Registration should give this matter primary attention. The recently prepared maps on a scale of 1:5000 should be enlarged to 1:2500 and used for cadastral purposes and land registration, as well as for boundary demarcation.
There is an urgent need for establishing local institut ons for education and training. Training should start immediately after the selection of farmers and should cover the following subjects: modern cultivation practices; home economics; maintenance of machines; and a literacy programme.
In order to fully utilize the efforts of N.A.S.A. and the capital invested, it is essential to supervise and guide the settlers by project supervisors assisted by other agricultural extension staff. The Team suggests that for an average of 100 farms N.A.S.A. should employ a supervisor who lives in the area of the settlement coming under his supervision.
N.A.S.A. should establish in each settlement area a multipurpose cooperative society. They should render joint services of farm mechanization, procurement of requisites, and marketing.
N.A.S.A. should reconsider the present system of loans and subsidies to settlers and adapt a system of supervised credit to settlers through their cooperative societies. Specific recommendations on subsidies and loans are contained in Chapter II, Volume I.
N.A.S.A. should pay special attention to the maintenance of ground water pumps dnd tractors on the settlements, as well as to fencing of fruit tree areas.
The water table of all wells and the salt content of the water should be period- ically controlled and analysed in order to prevent saliniwation of the water.
Investment already made in Misratah area settlements should be continued by a development programme for the settlement schemes particularly for the expansion of the irrigated area. To profit frpm the surveys made, this development should take place during the period of the second fiveyear plan.
Settlers should be guided in following crop rotations which are different in the settlement schemes as proposed by the Team.
In the Eautorn Govornates thdomestic water supply should be improved by repairing existing cisterns and the construction of now ones.The Team proposes that a serious consideration be given to examining the possibilities for the establishment of a plant for the desalinization of sea water through which the water requirements of the exEnte farmers could be me. N.A.S.A, should establish local community centres in the la settlements of Farsujhah, BaLLa sud Al Qubbah. -185-
12, In the Wadi Caam scheme measures should be taken toprevent the intrusion of sea water. Distribution ohannels and pumping stations need to be repaired.When the scheme is expanded50peroent of the sotlers on the existing scheme should be transferred to the new area and receive a ploi, o.' four hectares.The farms of the remaining settlers should then be enlarged to four hectares.
13. For the improvement of Saadia 1A1 and '13' the Team proposes the organization of one cooperative society for both parte of the settlement. In order to fully utilize the potentials of the distributed FriesianCOWS,a plant for milk processing should be established and provisions made for the marketing of dairy products. -186-
15 - FARZUGHAH
16 - BATTA - Tent with ruined Italian houses in the background now under recontruction. 17 FARZUOHAF- Ent:cE.mce to reconstructed Rolcuu
I
I
18 Reconstructed Roman retaining walls to prevent soil erosion in wadis. -188-
19 Traditional method of reaping wheat now being replaced by combine harvesting.
A HI
20 WADI OAAM Settlement and cooperative office with settlersassembling for a meeting. -189-
11
'111111.,
21 SAADIA B Newly constructed farm house with limb for extension of living quarters.
11 11
Mill
22 SABRATA Development of forest windbreaks in the coastal dunes to project settlement. 4
111111
23 - WADI CAAM - Main distribution channel for irrigation water screened by cyprus trees. 191
.tr
nlA!Th ArA), JIOl: If,. OP /1) u CP1 aurA1L ni!s:!11`11.1 :1.301SA rl° A U 3
it ND "
Or :').0 k-7 :7U e. IC; r .111 COII1E1j Oc 1171 22' C; ljl F21r1113tr y nil a Li :;re).-oinnt1J-1 O im A bc. one 1,)Loy r:.4 ;7I 1,13 ancl. o c,im,i t, J. r,q,61,0 cun Ir, T 1'11ornm)'i d ,nylir "fi A (,), 3 C111 I:11).T :111 IVV. ,1` -19 :': i;O:I.1Oi1 aPC7-
E;rI. tom; ;I pa: 11.1-1;;,: I201, O r. 'clIfeel.p_;1-,.o.fJc pi 09 'V:,U LI":10 /011101,1QC' 011 rirfijoir, II T.ho :ce(moil -,; ,k , t r; lr. i;110 (P:71a.1-,)
Txtxii n 1nrA n L 1-1 IA" r el r .037 7)E.: 00 1,0120 (-)
41LL7t, .kr7 -.Pfe , cqs-c..p 1,1.. 011 1:2,i i96 o-,renfb on 27 rit Qi, r, coo.- ) c- r c 11 ,A <7.-od;33 c );o Cr01,-
rpj1 'I'D Rillcso 1(1,1,-,:t..c,..,r.J lart 1C.: ';:v":11C--cV I 11)0 ,
and. rite 1,-).1c,11 cte.707 cf-h,~1ct- -.co.or ; t;11 -:t kir If Jr y 111011101:P 1 /CT: LID din LOO !1_ l'i.)17,":,1A.1"!: i. :: +.37,0"1..:17 L I.,;;.;;;" ij/110 C
1.1'11,123,20 1-91 C `-irt .,(et-olet 'Jo r-r-, 111E.111I1,-1::7T: "111 IPI-, o.!-?p...1.-Je E C.1 1TJ a-,!olnu -e);-..,.o C, J-1) ]..n1-1 LE' o
A.
rituc,1). c,c,l,e.clele I') 1'110" 7::1 t.:::121 121.uìC'C'il t, 1 ,01,c; ; Lt-ce 11) eL.-Len LOL`C17;'0 of'I, A S e-0,:i J.k ,-1,11'.1 19 ..;TCJIT 1.FC liar ovl elvo E1P vc 171), :cee.cl-tort. 460 In -1')67 , 1'4 L: (Ce' i t,ir L o, S , riOOiJ diO Lirr, 'Go Cr 1.L lOrt 611.(1C3 E.' 1') Os LeCOI' 11, 1011C,' la (DE P OITIC? 1 1111/01' I.41,",1 Lpor: o cc., oe..11-1 t, Fe,--'r,b,..,cmo-ce 2 1:1-Le mo-) Ly o f 1-,1)e -0 oe eAr;oef ? ;*». Let-- .D .-c,3 e...-ta 1.1 iCc', ï7; and_ f.?.0 cc oU 11101, _a_)E l' '...r.:)e," The amendments made to the original scheme for N.A.S.A, were as fo
o 1)1i. sb ifity r't-- o ;-.7 .:7 fol. v. Deputy Direc tcD: ce h- 2, .M.11 colij (17111117l: 7: ',121 ,uo 4,10)(io
-Li 'Li .L3 r?].-.11-nc.' L;.11--, O = V, Ar; o1.L -;
ce %a-A ir sArqc,-i e "1.1C 7; to' 1.; ti..021,
11Gcri¡,,e111c.; `/1 S I9 63/ .1cf,J. LiL i3O 6:1,1 qpbt.,) e of poniri E.170 I. ?Or L-e^o. "Ja 2 roJt i.e9-t :07! ;r3 ;;I:`,1.7.-Jei- a Moe o. Of t'Ilcc)..)100.1 00 i.orr, I mrd. II1'1C Ci acTuraniee 0'0_3
. inr1rd of
, 01 ,; ,11,110 ;;IT.te tytelifoe.-eo f.° 0.1 VT ;,-;f1 00 t 0:i -I. c,-0- SO.,' evil 111e1111)E1 -1-.'C k1I7v701.')(11C:'11 17' o c 'Lrruj 6u-cc, 1)0:VE,C'ûPu -20.1-3: (' *I/o A, j- , 3.0 %I 12'YO01.01)111,-:'-',YUn tI .? 11013r I1.ViC, O ocie i C.,71:7F,.1 -j1:.1.-a3uc.;o. 192-
Wabional Agriculturel Bank. Foue mombees : rnoa' Libyans working in agricultureand. ono member repreoente the pet-tiers. The Preeidentofthe Board, as uoll ao the membere, are appointed for i:Oree yearn by a resolutjon from the Council of Miniotero.
The Board of Directors is, at the same time, a planning as well ao ozecutive authority. The Board lays down the general policy of N.A.S.A., prepareo its resolutions, approves the budget and draws up the rulos for the eelection of settlers and the contract between N.A.S.A. and the settlers. At the same time, the Board administers the work of N.A.S.A. and takes any decisions necessary for the achievement of N,A.S.A. objeotives. (Article5of N.A.S.A. Law No. 4 of1963). Resolutions of the Board must be approved by the Minister of Agriculture.
The Board of Directore established the following four committees according to the Team's proposals:
Tender Committee Civil Service Committee Followup Committee Planning and Lvelopmont Committee
These Committees are mainly composed of Board members and other N.A.S.A. Heads of Departments, together with some members of the Team's Experts as advisers.
The DirectorGeneral is appointed by a resolution Of the Council of Ministere and must have experience in agriculture. He is the Head of the executive body and administers its affairs under the supervision of the Board. He attends the meetin of the Board without having the right to vote.
A clear determination of the responsibilities and authorities of both the Board of Directors and the DirectorGeneral of N.A.S.A. will help in increasing the efficienoy of the work and establish cooperation between the two parties.
The De.artments of N.A.S.A
In Appendix 1of this Chapter, the Departments of N.A.S.A., as well as the competence of each Department is shown. Nearly all of these Departments are still In need of strengthening their technical staff. The requirements of each Department were defined by a committee of N.A.S.A. officials and the Team Leader. The committee Submitted its report in September1968and recommended the necessity for employing 72 technicians specialized in different activities of N.A.S.A.
It is aleo noticed that the relations between N.A.S.A. Headquarters and the regional offices in Benghazi and Sebha are rather weak. The control of the Heads of Departments and other officials over the activities of N.A.S.A. in regional offices is inefficient.
Relations between the Authority and other Government eepartments
Experience gained after the establishment of N.A.S.A. elhowed the necessity of defining in a clear way the relationship between N.A.S.A. and other Government authorities and agencies. N.A.S.A. has, according to its Law, a juridical personality and at the same time is attached to the Ministry of Agriculture. The Minister of Agriculture is the Minister responsible for N.A.S.A. before the Cabinet and Parliament. The Minieter has to approve the resolutions of the Board of Direotors and in case of refueal the Board should revise this resolution. If the Board insists, the question shall be referred to the Cabinet for a final decision.
From the other sido, N.A.S.A., uhen executing its activities, is deal in some questions which were originally within the competence of other Government noies -193- before ite establishment. F07example, the Ministry of Social Affairs is responeible for establiehing co-operative societies in settlementareas and oontrolling their otivities. The provisions of the Co-operative Law should be revieed to reconcile the right of the Ministry of Social Affaire to control the implementation of the Law in general with the right of N.A.S.A. to control its own co-operative societies. The same recommendation applies to the State owned farms whioh are reclaimed and distributed by N.A.S.A. according to its Law, but which are still administered and leased by the Ministry of Housing in accordance with special provisions different to those applied by N.A.S.A.
The Team suggests the amendment of N.A.S.A. Law to establish olear relationships between N.A.S.A. and the other Government Departments, especially between N.A.S.A. and the Ministries of Agriculture, Housing, and Labour and Social Affaire.
At the same time it must be borne in mind that N.A.S.A. should not duplicate other Government servioes. If N.A.S.A. can make use of the activities of other Government Departments, there is no need to establish a department in N.A.S.A, to do the same work.
Committees should be established from N.A.S.A. and the other Government Agencies to co-operate in different matters, avoid duplioation and solve the competence disputes.
4 e tteiona F nework of N.A.S.A.
Early in1964a regional office of N.A.S.A. was established in the Eastern Governates, In1966a regional office was established in Sebha to be responsible for N.A.S.A. work in all the Southern Governates. In1969a regional office wae established in Tripoli to supervise N.A.S.A. activities in all the Western Governates.
The Controller, who is appointed by a resolution of the President of the Board of Directors, is the Head of the regional office. It is not necessary for the Controller to be a graduate. At present, only the Controller of the Eastern Governates is a graduate of the Faculty of Agriculture. The other two have experience of administrative and financial affairs.
The Controller works under the supervision of the Director-General and the Deputy Director-General. He supervises the activities of N.A.S.A. in the region and works as Liaison officer between Headquarters and the region. Inetructions and other correspondence between Headquarters and any other department in the regional office must pass through the Controller. There are units in the regional offices; representing the main Departments at Headquarters.
Each settlement area within the region aleo has a resident supervisor working under the Controller. Supervisors of the settlement areas are usually graduated from gricultural secondary schools. The supervisors have daily and direct contaot with the settlers. They are the people on the spot who look after the settlers, control the co-operative society, supervise the reclamation work being done in the area, pase on the instructions from N.A.S.A. to the settlers, deliver the loans in cash and kind to the settlers paid by N.A.S.A. etc.
The Team recommended the necessity for strengthening the staff of the regional offices and to increase the competence and oapabilitiee of the regional officers so as to create a form of decentealization.
More oo-operation and harmonyiBneeded between Headquarters and the regional offices. -1194 -
5. e Sta of N.A A According to Artiele 13 of N.A.S.A. Law, the Authority can draw up its provisions eoncerning its employees without being subject to the Government Laws. N.A.S.A originally used to recruit its staff through its internal committees and in accordance ith certain rulos which were different from the Government rules. N.A.S.A. rules contained momo financial privilegesinorder to persuade the best elements to come and work with N.A.S.A. But this situation did not continue for long. At the end of1964, a new Civil Service Law (No.19of1964)was promulgated. Some of the public authorities - and F.A.S.A. was one of these authorities - became subject to the provisions of the new Law. The justification given at the time was the misuse by some authorities in exercising their independent staff regulations. But on the other hand, this situation discouraged the employees from working with N.A.S.A. From the beginning of1965,N.A.S.A. applied to its employees the provisions of the Civil Service Law concerning recruitment, promotion, grades allowances, privileges and all other provisions.
Most of the Heads of Departments inP.A.S.A. are now graduates. As all have graduated recently they still needtrainingin both technical and administrative aspects. Most of the other staff are secondary school leavers, some of them graduated from the agricultural secondary schools.
Due to the clear shortage of technicians in different fields, N.A.S.A was obliged to obtain the assistance of expatriate staff. Besides the FAO Team, which is working with N.A.S.A., the Authority recruitedother expatriates. Three main points must be taken into consideration.
There is a great shortage of counterparts.Most of the members of the FAO Team and the expatriate staff cannot find counterparts for training.
While the graduate National Staff are few and in need of experience, the number of non-graduate staff remains far too high.
The filing systems in N.A.S.A., which are the bases of the work in all Departments, are disorganised due to the lack of experience of the National staff who are responsible for this work.
B. N.A.S.A.'s Future Policy
It is noticeable that many of the farms distributed by N.A.S.A to the settlers, whether old or new farms, are not productive. Much of the reclamation work needed on these farms has net been completed. Usually N.A.S.A, completes reclaiging the farms after their distribution. The result is that the settlers remain relying completely on N.A.S.A.'s monthly loans and N.A.S.A. is obliged to extend the period of these loans. This situation may lead the settler to desert the farm if he findsany other chance to work. 1. Frio ities for mmlementin Proects The gent need in .A.S.A's future policy in new settlements as well as in re- settlement areas, is to concentrate on the projects in hand and complete all the reclamation work in these areas, to make the farms productive, before distribution. A detailed plan of work for the reclamation works must be drawnup, including all the necessary stops to be taken. Prioritiesehouldbe drawn up ooncerning the implementation of projects and also concerning the different reclamation work within eachproject. The Team suggested a method of approach which is recommended to be followed in the new settlemente.
N.A.S.A. should draw up its polioy to provide settlers with extensionservices and train settlers i different agricultural work. Despite the fact that co-operative -195- eooieties shouldlo. 6ntabliehed in the settlementareas, the existing co-operatives are not efficient. A policy should be drawn up by N.A.S.A. to establishefficient co-operative nocieties and to define their relation to the settlersand to N.A.S.A. as well as to the Government agenoies, i.e., the Ministry of Labour andSocial Affaire, the National Agricultural Bank, etc,
A complete system of marketing should be drawn up by N.A.S.A. especially fear settlement areas located far from marketing centres,
In the future, when all development aspecto in any project have been completed, leading to the full establishment of the co-operativo society which will replace N.A.S.A. in the adminietration and financing in the Project, N.A.S.A. has to reduce the amount of its supervision enabling tho co-operative society to talco up its role effectively with the training of ito members in the various executive jobs. N.A.S.A. after gradually withdrawing from tho project could maintain its relations through the central co-operativo society in the region representing the other co-operatives in all settlements in the region.
N.A.S.A.'s Need for Closer Coo)e ation 1,ith the din A riculture
Since the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for all agricultural development in the country and moreover puts into effect the Government's agricultural policy, then N.A.S.A. will continuo to follow closely the research and other developmental activities of the Ministry of Agriculture in the future, in all matters relating to farm crops, rotational plans, animal husbandry, horticulture, pest control, farm machinery, selecting suitable varieties of crepe and vegetables, best use of fertilizers, eto.
Pro osals for the Im roved Functioning of N.A.S.A.
The important proposals for strengthening the work of N.A.S.A. are as follows:-
As the legal aspects of N.A.S.A. activities is the foundation of the structure of
N.A.S.A., it is necessary to promulgate by the concerned authorities the . legislation and other documents prepared by the Team. The most important is to promulgate the new Draft Law of N.A.S.A. and to approve the rules for the selection of settlere, as well as the provisions of contract between N.A.S.A. and the settlers. These Drafts have been approved by the Board of Directors of N.A.S.A. but not yet issued by the authorities concerned.
N.A.S.A. should complete as soon as possible its administrative staff in accordance with the requirements defined by the committee appointed for this purpose.
(o) The Draft Internal Regulatione prepared by the Team Leader and the Legal Adviser of the Team should be approved by the Board. These Regulations define the competence of the Department of N.A.S.A. and their inter-relationship.
Regional offices in N.A.S.A. should be provided with the necessary staff and given a free hand in the implementation of projects within the framework of the policy drawn up by Headquarters. The administrative and financial powers given to the regional offices are narrow in scale and could not meet the daily requirements of these offices. A policy of decentralization and delegation of powers should be drawn up with the aim of giving a freer hand to the regional offices.
An experienced supervisor should be appointed to each project to be directly responsible for the best implementation of the provisions of contract signed between N.A.S.A. and the Contraotors. Many of the prenent provisions of contract are not implemented due to the absence of a responsible person in the project. The supervisor should be a liaison officer between different departments in N.A.S.A. as well as between Headquarters and the regional office. He should be responsible for the execution of N.A.S.A. policy in the field.
N.A.S.A. should concentrate on the present projects in hand and complete the reclamation works needed for these projeots and draw up a policy for extension services, co-operative societies and marketing.
Training courses for N.A.S.A. employees are needed.
The filing systems in N.A.S.A. and the secretarial work in general, which are the bases of the work in all Departments, aro disorganised due to the lack of experienoe of the National staff who are responsible for this work, and need to be completely revised.
C. Co-operation and Relationship of N.A.S.A. with the F.A.O. Team
Members of the Team gave their technical and legal advice to the Board of Directors of N.A.S.A., as well as to different departments of N.A.S.A. This advice was given through different ways, i.e. attending all meetings of the Board of Directors of N.A.S.A. by the Team Leader and the Legal Adviser; meetings of all technical committees in N.A.S.A. appointed to study certain points, preparing the specifications, general conditions and provisions of contract relating to the projects implemented by N.A.S.A. through contractors; preparing the internal regulations of N.A.S.A.
In general, co-operation has existed between the Team and N.A.S.A. However, it is oonsidered that a much fuller and better use could have been made of the Expert's knowledge and experience. The reports prepared by individual Experts were not generally studied by N.A.S.A. officials, so that much of their benefit to Libya was not forth- coming.
Meetings betwee'n the Director-General and individual Experts were very rare indeed, and most Experts were not consulted as to their work. Thus there was an almost com- plete lack of technical discussions relating to the implementation of the field projects. Too many of the N.A.S.A. officials were preoccupied with matters of administration and were thus not available for consultation with the Experts of the F.A.O. Team.
If there had been More meetings for frank discussion between the Director-General and the Team a closer relationship could have been established. This, in turn, would have led to a better understanding of each other's problems. Thus the Director- General would have come to know the Expert's special requirements for the successful completion of his work, and the Experts, for their part, would have better appreciated the many problems facing N.A.S.A. in general, and the Director-General in particular.
However, in spite of these short-comings, the Team has undoubtedly achieved muoh solid progress in the long and difficult subject of Tribal Land Settlement. The work of the Experts has saved N.A.S.A. from making many costly mistakes and has served to guide and provide invaluable information to N.A.S.A. and to Libya. These benefits will not be immediately apparent and it is only in the long term that it will become obvious that without the work of the F.A.O. Tribal Lands Settlement Team the foundations of this vital work could never have been laid.
The reports, and especially the Final Reports of the Experts, will serve as reference books and as models for future surveys for many years to come. In addition, the many facts and analyses incorporated in the reports are of immediate value to the planners whose work it is to implement the many schemes and projects which are at present in their infancy. -197-
PRESENT ORGANIZAT ON OF N.A.S.A.
The Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth
Department of Legal Affai P esident of the N.A.S.A. Board of Directors Teohnioal advisors
Board of Direotors
Seven members are Government officials representing
Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Wealth Ministry of Labour and Social Affaire Ministry of Finance Ministry of Planning and Development Ministry of Public Works Ministry of Housing National Agricultural Bank
Four members representing Libyans working in Agri- culture, one member representing the settlers.
Directo neral
Deputy Director-General
N.A.S.A. Departments and. Regional Offices
----- Departmept Department Department Department Department Department Department of Agri- of Finance of Planningof Community of Inspec- of Admi- of Engi- culture and Research Development tion and nistration neering Followup Works -198--
APPENDIX 2
FUTURE STA D BY .A.S.A.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULPUta
No. Job Title Number Number Qualifications & Experience Remmrks Avail- Requir- able ed
1, Horticultural 3 MSc. or Dr, with ten years ex- Experts perience in Horticulture in areas with similar climatic conditions te the Mediterranean.
Agricultural 15 4 BSc. in Agriculture with five Engineers years ealoerience in areas with similar climatic conditions to the Mediterranean.
Veterinarians BSc. in Veterinary with five years experience.
Farm Machinery 1 3 BSc. in Farm Machinery with5 Engineers years experience in the opera- tion and maintenance of farm machinery.
Plan t Protection 2 2 BSc.in Agriculture/Plant Protec- Engineers tion Branch with five years ex- perience.
Soil Specialists 2 BSc. in Agriculture/Lands Branch, soil analysis and classification with ten years experience. -J99-
CRITICAL DEPIRT777
No. Job Title Number Number Qualifications & Experience ReroRrks Avail- Requir- able ed
1. Ground Water 1 2 BSc, Geolo /Groundwater Branch Expert with ten years eperience in Rydro,zological studies.
2. Drilling Engineer 2 BSc. Drilling with five years ex- perience in well drilling and the preparation of Drilling Specifica- tions.
3. Irrigation Engineer BSc. of Irrigation Engineering with not lessth:7:.5years experience in irrigation water distribution systems. 4. Mechanic-Irrigation i BSc. Engineering, specialised in the Equipment repair and maintenance of irrigation equipment including repair and main- tenance of water distribution systems and irrigation pumps, with five years experience. 5. Road Engineer i BSc. Civil Engineering oad Building, with ten years experience.
6. Building Engineer i i BSc. Engineering/Architecture with not lees than five years experience. 7. Electrician i BSc. Electrical Engineering with not less than five years experience.
8. Surveyor i Academic qualifications and experience of not less than tea years.
9. Field Supeiviser 1 4 BSc. Geology with University Degree, with previous experience of not less than five years.
10. Dratsman i Preferably with academic qualifications and not less than five years experience as a draughtsman and in drawing. -200-
T OF RURAL COMI.
No. Job Title Number NUmber Qualifications & Experience Re marks Avail- Requir- able ed
1. Rural Community 1 Dr. in Rural Community Develop- Development Expert ment with5years experience in social researches, Community 7avslopment, Tribal Problems 1212 'L3ricultural Settlement.
2. icultural Co-op- BSc. in Agricultural Economics eratives Expert with five years experience in Agricultural Co-operatives.
3. Agricultural Exton- 1 1 BSc. in Agricultural Extension sion Expert with five years experience in extension and agricultural in- formation.
4, Home Economics BSc. in Home Economics with five Expert years eXperience in Home Econ- omics including organization of Training Courses, Housekeeping, Programme Planning and services offered to farm families in the field of home economics.
5. Social Worker 2 7 Diploma in Social Studies with threejears experience in re- searches and social StildieS.
6. Accountant 2 BSc. in Commerce with three years experience in co-operative ac- counts. -201-
DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE
No. Job Title Number Number Qualifications & Experience Avail- Requir- able ed.
Accountant BSc. in Commerce (Costing) with not less than five years experience.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT
1. Member of BA in Law with not less than Department five years expsrience.
DEPARTMENT OF INSPECTION AND FOLLOW-UP
Agricultural BSc. in Agriculture with not Engineer less than 10 years experience. Geologist BSc. Geology with five years experience.
Mechanical Engineer 1 BSc. Mechanical Engineering with five years experience. 4, Accountants Ln Commerce with not less five years experience.
DEP OF P AND RESEARCH
Statistician 1 MSc/Agricultural Statistics with not less than5years experience.
icultural MSc Agricultural Economics with Development Expert experience of not less than ten years. -202 -
AP1_2_E111)1X1
KNImAL BUDGIT OF F.A .A
The financial year is from April lst to March 31st each year and the following amounts have been spent annually on the establishment of N.A.S.A Projects and aleo cover all the administrative coste of the Authority.
1963 - 1964 kf,. 500,000 1964 - 1965 LE. 800,000 1965 - 1966 11.2,000,000 1966 - 1967 11.3,000,000 1967 - 1968 11.2,500,000
1968 - 1969 11-3,300,000 1969 - 1970 11.3,500,000 -203-
APPEND CS
APPENDIX I
I. AGREEMENTS WITH THE GOVERNMENT OF LISYA
1. Letter of Understanding between the Goverent of Liba and FAO
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS ROME
Reference: PBf -PR 8/2 Libya (Funds-in-Trust) 12 June 1962
Sir,
May I refer to the request of your Government transmitted through Mr. Keith, FAO Country Representative in Libya, that FAO provides the following experts and consultants to work as a team in a project for the development of tribal lands and settlements in Cyrenaica:
Land Settlement Planning Tribal Land Tenure Rural Sociology Agricultural Economics (Farm Management) Cadastral Surveys and Title Records Water Resources and Conservation Consultants (including H.Q. staff supervisory travel)
FAO is prepared to recruit a team of experts under Funds-in-Trust and to arrange for the implementation of the project described below:
To investigate systematically the whole situation of tribal rights in land and re- lated institutional problems; to examine the functioning of existing land settlements; to carry out cadastral surveys and establish recording of title to land; to conduct systematic surveys of water resources, particularly groundwater and its rate of recharge and assist in the prdper utilization of water in land settlement areas; to assist in planning and establishment of land settlements and resettlement on sound economic, social and technological basis, beginning with suitable pilot projects; to train national personnel in land settlement, cadastral surveying and supporting fields;and to advise on the establishment of the necessary Government service to administer settlement projects and develop the work in the future.
The Director-General Development Council Government of Libya Tripoli Libya -204-
It is estimated that the complete project will take three to four years to accomplish and will cost approximately $ 400,000. We propose to commence operations in August 1962 by making a three months reconnaissance survey with a view to preparing a detailed programme of work to cover the duration of the project. This programme, which will be prepared before the end of 1962, will include the detailed timing of the services of all experts required for the project and the sequence of operations for the whole project, together with a more accurate estimate of the total cost.
Ve propose that this reconnaissance survey and the detailed programming of the project will be carried out by two experts, the Land Settlement Planning Expert who will be the Team Leader for the whole project, and the Tribal Land Tenure Expert. Their assignment in the whole project will be as follows:
Land Settlement Planning Expert (Team Leader) To coordinate the work of the members of the Team in consultation with the FAO Country Representative; to assist in over-all programming of the surveys to be undertaken; to establish a scale of priority for areas to be surveyed in order to start with areas which require immediate attention; to assist in the evaluation of present land settlements, with a view to improving them and to propose plans for resettlements and for the establish- ment of new settlements based on appropriate surveys.
Tribal Land Tenure Expert To survey the areas under tribal occupation and in particular to study the land and water rights and the customary tenure arrangements for land use, to propose the appropriate tenure system for present and future land settlements.
These two experts after preparing the whole programme of work to cover the duration of the project, will be followed in November, 1962, by the remaining experts, and consultants will be recruited as and when required in accordance with the established schedule in the programme of work.
The experts and consultants will be recruited by FAO in accordance with the terms and conditions of service applicable to FAO personnel. They will in all respects be treated as FAO staff members and will be directly responsible to FAO for the conduct of their duties. The experts will be offered one-year contracts initially on the understanding that these will be extended as required in the programme of work.
It is estimated that the cost of carrying out this project until 31 December 1962 including 8 percent to cover FAO's supervisory and administrative expenses will be 40,000 and you are requested to arrange to deposit the equivalent of this amount (i.e. E 14,284.0.0) to the FAO of the United Nations Technical Assistance account with the Overseas Branch of the Westminster Bank Ltd., 53, Threadneedle Street, London, E.C.2. The balance of funds required as estimated in the programme of work, will be deposited with FAO at such times'and in suCh amounts as may be agreed when the programme of work has been prepared.
The Financial Regulations of FAO require that Funds-in-Trust shall be administered in the same way as other funds of the Organization and to this end a Trust Fund will be established to which the deposit received from the Government will be credited and against which all costs'incurred by FAO in connection with the project will be charged.
Statements of account showing the status of the Trust Fund will be supplied toyou on request and a final statement will be supplied on the completion of the project. If the total costsincurred exceed the amount estimated, your Government will be required to deposit an additional sum to cover the difference. If the actual costs are less than estimated, the Organization will refund to the Government the amount overestimated. The Organization may not incur financial liability in excess of the amount deposited to the Trust Fund. °/. -205-
Transport and other facilities for the efficient implementation of the project will be furnished by the Government in accordance with the requirements of the EPTA Revised Standard Agreement,
If your Government is agreeable to these terms I should appreciate it if you would sign the attached copy of this letter and return it to me. Please advise me when the funds for 1962 part of the operation have been deposited.
Accept, Sir, the assurance of my highest consideration.
H.R. Sen Director-General
Signed by: Hamed Abeídi Minister of Development Affairs
Date: 26 July, 1962 -206-
2. Note Verbale from the Government of Libya to FAO
AMBASCIATA DEL REGNO DILIBIA Via Nomentana, 365 ROMA
NOTE VERBALE
The Embassy of the Kingdom of Libya presents its compliments to the Food and Agri- culture Organization, and has the honour to inform that the Libyan Ministry of Agriculture is proceeding in the agricultural projects according to the Five-year Plan which has been approved by the competent authorities. The development of tribal lands represents one of the main projects in the Five-year Plan.
The said Ministry requests the assistance and cooperation of a group of experts from the FAO for the development and settlement especially in the tribal lands in Libya.
The Embassy will be grateful if the Organization could agree to assign, as soon as possible, a group of experts to work in the above mentioned field, and extend their recommendations to the Libyan competent authorities, as a response to the request of the Ministry of Agriculture.
The Embassy of the Kingdom of Libya avails itself of this opportunity to renew to the Food and Agriculture Organization the assurance of its highest consideration.
Rome, 30 October, 1963
To THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION ROME -207-
3. Note Verbale from FAO to the Government of Libya
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS ROME
Ref.: FN 9/2
NOTE VERBALE
The Food and Agriculture Organization presents its compliments to the Government of the Kingdom of Libya and has pleasure in acknowledging receipt of the Embassy's Note Verbale dated 30 October 1963 concerning the request of the Ministry of Agriculture for an extension of the assistance of the FAO Team of experts, presently working in Libya on the Development of Tribal Lands and Settlements Project, to cover land settlement projects throughout the entire Kingdom of Libya.
The Organization appreciates the need for such assistance and is pleased that the Team, which started its work in November 1962, has so gained the confidence of the Government that its technical aid and advice has been sought for the newly established Land Settlement Authority. Upon receipt of the request, Dr. M.A. El Ghonemy, the Project Supervisor at FAO Headquarters in Rome, visited Libya during the period 13 to 20 November 1963 in order to discuss its implications with the Government authorities. During his discussion with H.E. the Minister of Agriculture, Sayed named Abu Serweil, and with Sayed Abdullah Sektah, the Under-Secretary of the Ministry of Planning and Development, it was agreed that the Team Leader, Mr. Ezzat, in consultation with the FAO Country Representative, the Project Supervisor and other specialists at Headquarters would prepare a detailed plan for meeting the request, including an indication of the additional expert posts required and related budgetary implications. It is expected that such a plan will be presented to the Government in January 1964.
The Organization would like to take.this opportunity of reaffirming its technical suport for the Development of Tribal Lands and Settlements Project and of conveying the assurance of its highest consideration to the Government of Libya.
Rome, 6 December, 1963 -208-
APPENDIX II
II. LEGISLATION PROMOTED AS A RESULT OF THE TEAM'S WORK
1. Law of the National A al S Autho .A.S.A.
The Senate and the House of Representatives have passed the following Law which, We el Hassan El Rida, Viceroy, have sanctioned and do hereby promulgate:
Article 1
A general agricultural authority - entitled "the National AgriculturalSettlematAuMxrity" shall be established. It shall be a body corporate and attached to the Ministry of Agriculture.
Article 2
The Authority shall undertake the functions of agricultural settlement;the promotion and development of agriculture; increasing agricultural production and the improvement of rural community through:
The development of farms, wherever they may be, which have reverted to the ownership of the State from the former development institutions,
The preparation of projects for agricultural settlement,
) The transformation into productive farms of waste lands that have the poten- tialities of reclamation,
The encouragement of individualsto reclaim and develop their owned virgin lands,
The dissemination of cooperative consciousness among the farmers and encouraging them to organize cooperative societies or join into their membership,
') Any other means which the Authority may consider essential for the achievement of agricultural settlement and conducive to the promotion of agriculture.
Article 3
The Authority shall distribute such state owned dead lands as may be appropriated for purposes of agricultural settlement to persons who undertake to reclaim and develop them in conformity with such conditions and terms as may be laid down by the Authority, provided that such conditions shall include:
The provision of assistance by the Authority to the usufructuariesduring a specific period with effect from the commencement of usufruct,
The right of the Authority to supervise those farms and the execution by the farmers of the programmes designated by the Authority for purpose of agricultural development, -209-
The verification of actual execution by the usufructuarias of such obligations as may be undertaken by them in accordance with the terms of usufructagreements, provided that the Authority shall have the right to cancelany of such agreements in the event of failure by the usufructuary to honour his basic Ibligations,
Taking action to organi,/_:: agricultural cooperative societies which willinclude the usulructuaries iu aay specific area or areas as may be deemed appropriate,
Taking the necessary mcasuees by the end of the term, which shall be prescribed by the Authority, to pui.ïhe usufructuaries who fulfil their obligations,in possession of their respectiveusufructs, to decide the cost thereof and to assess the instalments payable therefor.
Article 4
The Authority shall have a Board of Directors comprising of a Chairman and members representing the Ministries of Agriculture and Animal Wealth, Planning and Development, Finance, Labour and Socia) Welgare, Communications and Public Works, who shall be in Grade I at least, as wello5,7. representative of the National Agricultural Bank of Libya, four other Libyans engaged iu agriculture and one of the usufructuarias referred to in the preceding Article.
The appoiatmcuc of ¡he Chairman and members, as well as the determination of their rerameratious, shall be by decision of the Council of Ministers on the recommendation of 'Clic;Minister of Agriculture, and the term of such designation shall be for three years. Persons whose term of office terminates may be re-appointed.
Article 5
The Board of Directors of the Authority shall have the function of administering the afFairs of the Authority under the supervision of the Minister. It has the right to take whtever decisions it may deem necessary for the achievement of its objectives in conformity with the provisions of this Law, and in particular:
To draw up the General Policy of the Authority and determine the General Plan for implementing suchpolicy as well as determining the financial resources of such plan,
To prepare regulations as may be necessary for the organization of the Authority including the rules to be followed in the management of its business, the upkeep of its accounts, the administration of its funds and all financial and technical affairs, the employment, promotion, transfer and edification of officials and labourers as well as the determination of their salaries, wages, allowances, pensions, and any other matters appertaining to their service,
To approve the annual draft balance sheet of the Authority and accept the final Statement of Accounts,
To draw up rules governing the distribution to usulructuaries of such lands as may be appropriated by decision of the Council of Ministers for Agricultural Settlement purposes. The Authority shall draw up and submit to the Council of Ministers, ror final selection, lists containing the names of candidates suggested for usufruct,
To draft the form of contract to be concluded between the Authority and the usufructuary, ./. -210--
To set up executive bodies for the administration of agricultural settlement projects under the supervision of the Director of the Authority,
To consider any recommendation that may be made by the Minister of Agriculture or the Director-General of the Authority and to organize the manner of adoption of such recommendation and any other matter that may be conducive to the fulfill- ment of the purposes for which the Authority has been established. The Board of Directors may set up committees from among its own members or others for the purpose of investigation or looking into any specific matter, and any call to its meetings, without the right of voting, any person or p rsons whose experience or knowledge may be deemed useful for handling any matter under discussion.
Article 6
The Board of Directors shall meet not less frequently than once every month on the invitation of the Chairman, or the request of the Minister of Agriculture or on the written application of not less than three members. The meeting of the Board shall not be properly held except by the attendance of the majority of members and decisions may be taken by a majority vote of the members present. In the event of votes being equally divided, the Chairman shall have an additional or casting vote.
Article 7
The decisions of the Board shall be submitted to the Minister of Agriculture for approval and if the Minister does not object to any decision within one month from the date of submission to him, such decision shall be deemed to have been accepted and shall be executed.
The Minister may, during the period referred to in the preceding paragraph, request the Board to reconsider any such decision if he considers that the Public Interest so requires. If the Board upholds its previous decision, the Minister of Agriculture shall submit the matter to the Council of Ministers within fifteen days from receiving the last resolution of the Board, and the decision of the Council oP Ministers shall, in that event, be final.
Article 8
The Authority shall have a Director-General who shall administer its affairs under the supervision of the Board and shall represent it before the Courts and others. He shall be responsible for the execution of the General Policy which the Board of Directors draws up For the attainment of the objectives of the Authority. The appointment of the Director- General shall be by decision of the Council of Ministers on the recommendation of the Minister of Agriculture, provided that he is a Libyan with experience in agriculture.
Article 9
The Director-General shall submit to the Board of Directors and the Minister of Agriculture, during intervals not exceeding six months, periodic reports on the progress of the work of the Authority, it's financial position and whatever suggestions he may think are appropriate for improvement. He shall attend the meetings of the Board, and take part in the deliberations without power to vote. °/' -211-
Article 10
The revenues of the Authority shall be constituted by:
Any sum that may be appropriated by the State in theGeneral Budget or the Development Budget,
Allocations provided for in the Budget for Agricultural Settlementpurposes,
Any profits that may be realized by the Authority,
Contributions, gifts and legacies as may be accepted by the Board of Directors, provided that they shall not be inconsistant with the purposes for which the Authority has been established,
Any other income which the Board of Directors may accept.
Article 11
The Authority shall have an independent Budget in which shall be followed the procedures adopted by commercial enterprises. Its financial year shall run concurrently with that of the State and its final Statement of Accounts shall be drawn up within a period not exceeding three months from the end of the financial year and shall be accompanied by a report on the activities and financial position of the Authority during the past year. The balance sheet and final Statement of Accounts shall be submitted, after ratification by the Board of Directors, to the Minister of Agriculture for onward transmission to the Council of Ministers for final approval.
Article 12
Without prejudice to the audit that may be undertaken by the Audit Department, the auditing of the accounts of the Authority shall be undertaken by two Auditors appointed by notice from the Minister of Agriculture on the recommendation of the Board of Directors. The ordet of the Minister shall prescribe the remuneration payable to the said two Auditors Who should not both belong to one orthe same Audit Institution. The Auditors shall submit to the Board of Directors and the Minister of Agriculture, within three months from the termination of the financial year, a report on the audit under- taken by them,
Article 13
The Authority shall not be subjected in the drawing up of its byelaws, accounts, budgets and the rules governing its employees or, the administration of its affairs and funds, to the Governmental Laws and Regulations.
Article 14
The Minister of Agriculture shall carry out this Law which shall come into force after one month from the date of its publication in Uae Official Gazette.
Promulgated at the Royal Court of Benghazi on 27 Safar 1963, corresponding to 19 July 1963. By order of the Viceroy Hammed Abu Sreiwil Muhyiddin Fikini Minister of Agriculture Prime Minister -212-
2. Draft Law Prepared by the Team Amending_ the Law No. 4 of 1963 on N,A-8 A0 and axplanatory Note: 1968
We Idris , King of the Kingdom of Libya,
Having seen the Law No. 4 of 1963 concerning the establishment of the National Agricultural Settlement Authority,
And the Law No. 42 of 1956 concerning the Cooperative Societies,
And the Royal Decree No. 19 of 1964 concerning the issuance of the Civil Service Law,
And the Law issued on 23 November 1966 concerning the establishment of the Office of the General Auditor,
And the Pension Law issued on 28 March 1967,
And the Royal Decree issued on 28 September 1965 concerning the Private State Property,
And upon the request of the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth and the approval of the Council of Ministers,
DECIDE
Article (1)
A public agricultural institution attached to the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Wealth shall be established and named as the "National Agricultural Settlement Authority (NASA)". It shall be a body corporate.
Article (2)
NASA shall be responsible for the establishment of Agricultural Settlement Projects throughout the Kingdom and carry out Agricultural Development operations for the purpose of increasing the agricultural production and improvement of the rural community in settlement areas. NASA shall, in particular, be concerned with the following responsibilities:
0 Study, prepare and implement agricultural settlement projects.
Reclaim arable private state lands.
Develop private state farms and lands assigned for the purpose of Agricultural Settlement Projects.
Establish Agricultural Cooperative Societies in the Agricultural Settlement areas and shall have the legal right to supervise and control the progress of work in these Societies. NASA shall assume the responsibilities stipulated in Articles 6, 7, 9 and 13 of the above-mentioned Law No. 42 of 1956.
Provide financial and technical assistance to individuals who desire to reclaim their arable lands and develop their farms within the limits of the available possibilities and in compliance with rules issued by resolution of the Council of Ministers upon the recommendations of the Board of Directors, NASA. _ 213_
Vi) Establishment of experimental farms.
Article(.11
The Ministry of Housing and Private State Property, as well as all concerned authorities, shall hand over to NASA private state lands and farms assigned for Agricultural Settlement purposes, together with relevant 'documents referred to in Article (2).
NASA shall manage and supervise these farms and lands and carry out development works prior to its distribution to settlers.
The Council of Ministers, upon the recommendations of the Board of Directors, NASA shall issue a resolution with regard to the definition of lands and farms assigned for Agricultural Settlement purposes.
Article
NASA shall, after development of the lands and farms, distribute them to settlers on an ownership basis in accordance with the rules and conditions issued by a resolution of the Council of Ministers upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors, NASA.
NASA shall furnish settlers with financial and technical assistance during the first years of distribution of lands, in accordance with the rules and conditions issued by the Board of Directors, NASA.
NASA shall be allowed to assign some lands for distribution on lease basis in accordance with the rules and regulations issued by a resolution form the Board.
Article (5)
The settler shall abide by the following provisions:
Reside in the farm and devote himself to agricultural works, by himself and for his own account.
Settlement of instalments of distributed land price, as well as loans in cash and kind.
The Board of Directors, NASA shall fix the price of the distributed farm and the terms of payment, and the price shall be specified in the Contract. The price may also be fixed at a later date after the signing of the Contract.
Execute agricultural programmes put forward by NASA for the development of the farm.
Join the membership of the Agricultural Cooperative Society established in the settlement project and abide by basic regulations of the Society and fulfil all the resolutions and agricultura]- instructions issued by the Cooperative Society amona its members whether relating to kind or marketing of crops, or other activities of the Eociety.
Maintain the farm, buildings, plantations and any other installations such as power stations and wells, etc. -214-
A 6
NASA shall have a Board of Directors comprising a Chairman, members representing Ministries of Agriculture and Animal Wealth, Planning and Development, Labour and Social Affairs, Housing and State Property, Public Works, and the National Agricultural Bank of Libya, all to be in the category of not less than Grade I;as well as four other members engaged in agriculture in addition to a member representing the settlers.
The Chairman of the Board shall be appointed from among the Libyan nationals who have a wide experience of agricultural matters.
Members of the Board representing the various Ministries, shall be nominated by the Minister concerned, or the concerned Chairman of the Board, and the Minister of Agriculture shall noMinate the remaining members.
The appointment of the Chairman and the members of the Board shall be effected by a resolution from the Council of Ministers upon the request of the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth. The resolution shall specify the remuneration of the Chairman and other members. It shall also include the provisions governing the leave entitlements and medical treatment facilities, as well as the pension of the Chairman of the Board.
The period of designation of the Chairman and the members of the Board shall be three years, and may be renewed for another period.
The Board of Directors, NASA, shall select from among its members, a Deputy Chairman to act on behalf of the Chairman in cases of absence.
Article (7)
. The Board of Directors, NASA, shall be the supreme power in the Authority. It shall have the right to take whatever decisions it may deem necessary for the achievement of its objectives in accordance with the provisions of this Law and in particular:
Lay down the general policy relating to Land Settlement affairs and promotion and development of agriculture in settlement areas.
Lay down the basis for the development of state farms.
Draft the regulations and resolutions governing the organization of NASA and set up its administrative, technical and financial procedures.
Approve the annual draft administrative and development budget of the Authority, and revise and approve the final statement.
Propose the areas to be assigned for agricultural settlement projects.
Propose rules and conditions for the distribution of state lands and farms to settlers whether on lease or ownership basis. The Board shall submit the above- said rules and conditions to the Council of Ministers for approval and shall issue the executive regulations enforcing these rules and regulations.
Define the names oF settlers to be selected in accordance with the provisions of para. vi) above. '/* -215-
viii) Drawup the general policy of NASA to be followed in the establishment of Agricultural Cooperative Societies in settlement areas and issuethe necessary executive rules and regulations.
ix) Approve provisions of Contract to be concluded between NASA and settlers, which shall include the following in addition to the provisions of Article (5):
Right of NASA in technical and administrative supervisionover the distributed farm in accordance with the policy laid down by the Board.
Conditions for provision of cash/kind loans to settlers.
The settler shall not exercise any legal alienation of any kind which might result in the transfer of ownership throughout the whole period stipulated in the Contract or Law.
The settler shall not be allowed to exercise any legal alienation which might lead to fragmentation of the farm.
) The settler shall not make any changes on the existing plants or area planted with any variety of crops without prior approval by NASA.
f) NASA shall have the right to cancel the Contract through the administrative ways stipulated in the Contract or the Law in the event of violation by the settler of his obligations.
x) Approve tenders and bargaining made by NASA in accordance with regulations issued by the Board.
xi) Lay down conditions governing the recruitment of labourers, their promotion, disciplinary measures, dismissal and other rules and regulations governing their relations with NASA.
xii) Study questions referred by the Minister of Agriculture, Chairman of the Board and/or the Director-General, whether relating to the objectives of NASA or its organization.
Article (8)
The Board of Directors may appoint committees from among its members, or others, to study certain questions. Members of the Board may be recruited as members in the different committees of NASA and the Board shall have the authority to empower its Chairman or one of the members of the Board, or the Director-General to exercise any of its competences.
The Board of Directors of the Authority shall meet at least once every month on the invitation of the Chairman or the Minister of Agriculture, or on the written application of five members. The invitation shall be extended to the members at least three days prior to the day fixed for the meeting. The invitation shall be accompanied by the Agenda. The meeting shall be properly held if attended by the majority of the members, and the resolutions shall be taken by a majority vote of the members present. In the event of the votes being equally divided the Chairman shall have a casting vote.
The discussions of the Board, its resolutions and its recommendations shall be recorded and signed jointly by the Chairman, and the Secretary of the Board. ./. - 216-
The Board shall have the right to invite to attendi'cG any person from the Experts, Consultants or Technicians, without the right to vote.
Article 10
The resolutions of the Board shall be submitted to the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth for approval within one week of the end of the meetings of the Board. In the case of objection by the Minister to any or all ofNAc:reso)vcions, these resolutions, together with the reasons for objection, shall be reblind the Board of Directors for reconsideration. In the case of refusal again by thc 1inise. the, rejected resolutions shall be submitted to the Council of Ministers and tile dcision of the Council shall be final.
If objection to the resolutions is not made by the Minister within two weeks from submission, they shall be considered effective.
In addition to the competence stated in this Law, the Chairman of the Board of Directors shall supervise and control all the progress of work of the Authority, and follow up the execution of the resolutions issued by the Board.
Article (12)
The Authority shall have a Director-General who shall be a Graduate of an Agricultural Institute. He shall be appointed by a resolution of the Council of Ministers upon selection by the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth, The Director-General shall represent the Authority in its relations with third partyand before the Judiciary.
The Director-General shall be responsible for the execution of the policy drawn up by the Board of Directors. He shall especially undertake the following competences:
Execution of the regulations, resolutions and recommendations issued by the Board of Directors and inform the Board with regard to any obstacles which hinder this execution.
Prepare the draft Annual Budget, the Development Budget and the Final Statement in the time specified by the Law and Regulations, and submit it to the Board of Directors.
Supervise and control the Departments of the Aunority, the employees and labourers, within the limits of the Hules and Regulations formulateci for this purpose, and issue the necessary resolutions.
Prepare the Agenda for the Board of Directors and submit it to the Chairman of the Board for approval.
Prepare periodical reports, every three months at least, and submit them to the Board of Directors and the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth. The reports shall explain the progress of work of the Authority, its financial situation, the execution of the projects, and his recommendations.
Prepare a detailed Annual Report on the activity of the Authority at the termination of the financial year and submit it to the Board of Directors and the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth. - 217_
Undertake the financial and administrative competences mentioned in the Internal Regulations of the Authority.
Other competences which the Board of Directors empowers him to undertake.
The Director-General shall attend the meetings of the Board of Directors and contribute to its discussions, without the right to vote.
Article (13)
Three Deputy Director-Generals shall assist the Director-General in his duties. They shall be appointed by the Minister of Agriculture upon the recommendation of The Board of Directors. The Chairman of the Board of Directors, upon the recommendation of the Director-General, shall define the duty station of each Deputy Director-General.
The Director-General may empower any of the Deputy Director-Generals to undertake any of his competence. Also, the Chairman of the Board of Directors may, in the case of absence of the Director-General, or when the post is vacant, empower any of the Deputy Director-Generals to undertake any of the competence of the Director-General.
The Deputy Director-General shall exercise the administrative and financial competence included in the Internal Regulations of the Authority.
Article (14)
The Authority shall have an independent Budget. It shall be prepared annually at least three months prior to the commencement of its financial year. The Final Statement of Accounts, including the income and expenses, shall be prepared, at most, three months after the end of the financial year.
The Budget and Final Statement of Accounts shall be submitted after it has been approved by the Board of Directors of NASA, to the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth, The Minister, after approval, shall submit it to the Council of Ministers for approval.
The Annual Report mentioned in Article (12), as well as the Report of the Office of the Auditor General, and the Report of the Auditor, shall be attached to the Final State- ment.
The Financial Year of the Authority shall begin and end at the same time as the Financial Year of the State.
A
The income of the Authority shall derive from:
The funds assigned by the state for land settlement purposes in the General Budget and the Development Budget.
The income which the Authority receives from the administration of itsfarms, or any other source of income which relates to itsactivities.
A 16)
The employees of the Authority shall be subject to theprovisions of the Royal Dtcree No. 19 of 1964 and the Pension Law issued. on28 March 1967, mentioned above.'/ -218-
A resolution of the Board of Directors shall define the internal bodies in the Authority which shall be empowered to exercise the competence stated in the Civil Service Law for the Civil Service Committee, the Chairman of the Civil Service Department, the Chairman of Department and General Council of Disciplinary.
The Board of Directors may grant remuneration to encourage the employees and labourers provided that it does not exceed the salary of two months per annum and in accordance with the rules and conditions formulated.by the Board.
Article (17)
The Authority shall not be subject to the Governmental Laws and Regulations in its system of accounts, in the administration of its funds, in its contracts and in its budget. The Authority shall formulate the internal Regulations for the organization of the above-mentioned matters.
Article (18)
Without prejudice to the later audit of the Office of the Auditor-General, the auditing of the acconnts of the Authority shall be undertaken by two auditors appointed by a resolution from the Minister of Agriculture upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors. The resolution shall prescribe the remuneration to be paid to the auditors. The auditors shall not belong to the same audit authority.
The auditors shall submit an Annual Report to the Board of Directors and the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth within three months of the termination of the financial year.
Article (19)
The Law No. 4 of 1963, mentioned above, shall be deleted. The Regulations and Re- solutions issued in accordance with its provisions shall remain in force provided they do not contradict the provisions of this Law until these Regulations and Resolutions shall be amended or deleted. Also, the Resolution of the Council of Ministers dated 24 November 1966 concerning the appointment of the Board of Directors of the Authority, .and the Resolution concerning the appointment of the Director-General, shall remain in force.
Article (20) This Law shall be published in the Official Gazette and come into Force from that date. The Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth shall execute its Provisions. -219-
Explanatory Note to the Draft Law Prepared by the Team Americlin 4 of 1963 o .A
The National Agricultural Settlement Authority (NASA) was established by Law No. 4 of 1963. The Authority has many functions to undertake, i.e. questions of land settlement, development of agriculture, increasing the agricultural production, improvement of the rural society, etc. NASA shall distribute the "dead lands" owned by the State to settlers in accordance with the conditions formulated by the Authority. NASA is given a juridical personality and an independent budget in order to enable the execution of its work with great efficiency. The administration of NASA is the responsibility of a Board of Directors which is the policy maker, consisting of representatives of concerned Ministries, and of settlers. The Director-General is the executive organiser.
The practice during the last three years shoWed, for different reasons mentioned hereafter, the necessity of amending the Law of NASA in order to enable the fulfilment of its goals successfully. The idea of the amendment of the Law was discussed in general by the Legal Expert with the Chairman of the Board of Directors of NASA and the Director- General. A brief memorandum was prepared by the Legal Expert containing the reasons which necessitate the amendment of the Law. The memorandum was submitted by NASA to the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth and was discussed in a meeting between officials of NASA and the Prime Minister. The idea of the amendment of the Law of NASA was accepted in principal.
The Team prepared a new Draft Law for NASA which modifies most of the present provisions. The important amendments, and the reasons for them, are as follows:
1. The Draft defined, in a precise way, the objectives of NASA. It is recommended to limit the responsibilities of NASA in the establishment of settlement projects and to develop and increase the agricultural production only in these settlement areas (Article (2) of the Draft).
At the moment, NASA is responsible not only for agricultural settlement, but also for the promotion and development of agriculture ingeneral, the increasing of agricultural production and the improvement of the rural community.
This wide competence of NASA is reflected in unsatisfactory results from the following main aspects:
This competence conflicts with the competence of the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Wealth which is the original and capable authority responsible for the improvement of agriculture and the increasing of agricultural production.
This vast competence is very much over and above the present capability of NASA, and thus is a hindrance to the Authority in concentration on its principal objectives as a Land Settlement Authority. Furthermore, the various authorities find in the present competence of NASA grounds for requesting the establishment of new projects, and accordingly the dispersement of its activities.
2. The relations between NASA and the other concerned Ministries and Governmental Depart- ments are not defined in the present legislation. The Draft recommended the following new provisions concerning these relations:
(a) The Ministry of Social Affairs is at present responsible for the implementation of Law No. 42 of 1956 concerning the Cooperative Societies. This Ministry exercises control and supervision over these Societies. Therefore, NASA could not, under these provisions, exercise any control over the Cooperative Societies established in the settlement projects. It is recommended that NASA shall be e/- - 220-
given absolute authority of control and supervision mentioned in the Cooperative Societies Law concerning the Cooperatives established in the settlement areas (Article (2)1 para. 4 of the Draft).
These Cooperatives shall continue subject to the other provisions of the Law, such as procedures of establishment of the Cooperative, its registration, etc.
(b) In accordance with the Royal Decree issued on 28 September 1965, the Ministry of Housing and Private State Property is responsible for the administration and the control of the private state property, including the State farms and lands. Since most of the activity of NASA is on the state lands and farms, it is necessary to hand-over this property to NASA. This will enable NASA to execute the development works and to select the holders of these areas and to take the necessary action in the case of violation of their obligations. The Ministry of Housing and Private State Property refused, for different reasons, to deliver to NASA the areas assigned for settlement projects, including the relevant documents, - i.e. maps, contracts of lease, etc.
The Draft Law in Article (3) imposed the delivery of state farms and lands asSigned for settlement purposes to NASA. These farms and lands shall be defined by a Resolution from the Council of Ministers upon the request of the Board of Directors, NASA.
3. The purpose of giving NASA a juridical personality and an independent budget is to release NASA from the routine provisions followed by the Government Departments. For this reasOn, Article (11) of the Law states that NASA shall not be subject to the Government Laws and Regulations, in the formulation of its bye-laws, accounts, rules of governing its employees, and the administration of its affairs and funds.
However, after the promulgation of the Law of NASA in August 1963, many new Laws were promulgated and NASA was subject to the provisions of these Laws. These nea-Laws made the independency of NASA almost theoretical, especially in the formulation of its regulations. For example, the Civil Service Law No. 19 of 1964 is applicable to NASA employees. This will not encourage the employees to work in NASA. They will prefer to work in other Government Departments where there is less work, and more chance of promotion.
Also, with regard to its Accounts, NASA became subject to the Law issued on 23 Novem- ber 1966 concerning the Audit Department, which gives that Department the right of supervision and investigation of the Accounts before and after expenditure. This previous supervision may result in delay in progress of work by NASA.
NASA also became subject to the provisions of other Laws such as the Investigation Law of 1967, the Law concerning the supervision of State Funds, the Draft Law of Public Authorities, etc.
It is recommended in the Draft to give the Board of Directors of NASA the right to grant exceptional allowances, every year, to the active employees.
Furthermore, the employees of NASA are deprived of an important privilege given to the Government employees concerning the pension system. The Draft recommended the application of the Pension Law of 1967 to the NASA employees (Article (16) of the Draft). It is also recommended that control of Audit Department be made after,and not before expending.
The above recommended provisions define, also, the relationship between NASA and the Civil Service Ministry and the Audit Department. */* -221-
According to Article (3) of the present Law, NASA distributeo to settlersthe "dead land" assigned for settlement projects. Settlers are obliged to reclaimand develop this land in accordance with the conditions formulated by NASA.
This provision is not practical, due to the fact that the _settlersare incapable of reclaiming the "dead land", which requires a good deal of experience, technology, and funds. For this reason, NASA is reclaiming and developing the land before distribution. Article (4) of the Draft states that NASA shall distribute the land after it has been reclaimed and developed by NASA. The same text declares that the land shall be distributed on private ownership basis according to the conditions set up by the Council of Ministers upon the request of the Board of Directors of NASA. It is also allowed, in this Article, to distribute some areas on lease basis in accordance with the conditions drawn up by the Board of Directors, NASA.
The Draft contained new provisions, mentioned in Article (5) and (7), para. 9). These provisions define the main obligations of the settlers and the conditions of contract between NASA and the settlers. The inclusion of these provisions in the Law
clarifies to all parties, particularly to the settler , the policy and the objectives of NASA as a Settlement Authority.
The provisions included in these Articles had been previously formulated by the Legal Expert and some members of the Team, and approved by the Board of Directors, NASA.
G. In the present Law there is interference between the competence of the Board of Directors NASA and its Director-General (see Articles (5), (8), and (9). The Board of Directors has the right, according to Article (5), to administrate the Authority, and to take the necessary resolutions. At the same time, the Director-General is the executive organ in NASA and accordingly he is responsible for any administrative questions. These vague provisions open the door For competence disputes.
According to Article (7) of the Draft, the Board of Directors is the policy maker and supervisor and controllar of the executive activity of NASA.
The composition of the Board of Directors remained without change. The Chairman of the Board and the Members are appointed by a resolution of the Council of Ministers. A new provision was included in the Draft which states that the mentioned resolution of the Cabinet shall include rules applicable to the Chairman of the Board concerning leave, medical treatment, and pensions (Article (6). It is known without saying that Authority of appointment is the same Authority which approves the resignation of the Chairman and Members of the Board of Directors, or terminates their services. The Draft established in Article (13) three new posts of Deputy Director-Generals. They will be appointed by a resolution From the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth upon the nominations of the Board of Directors of N.A.S.A. Their duty stations shall be defined.by a resolution from the Chairman of the Board. The reason for this proposal is to provide the Authority with a resident employee of higher level in each of the three Governates (Eastern, Western and Southern Governates). The present centralisation of competence and administration in Tripoli may result in the delay of the work in other Governates(Article (13)).
New provisions were included in the Draft which aim to facilitate the work in cases of absence of any of the responsible members. The Board of Directors was given the right to select a Chairman from its members in the case of absence of the Chairman (Article (6)). The Board of Directors may empower its Chairman or one of its Members, or the Director-General, in exercising any of its competence(Article (8)) - the Director-General may empower anyof his Deputies to exercise any of his competence. Also, the Chairman of the Board may appoint any of theDeputy Director- Generals as an Acting Director-General in the case of his absence or when thepost is vacant (Article (13)). - 222-
3. Royal Decree Concerning Water Law Promulgated on 28 'Lsptember 1965
We, Idris I, King of the Kingdom of Libya,
Having seen Article No. (64) of the Constitution,
And the Civil Code,
Acting upon what has been submitted to us by the Minister of Agriculture and Animal
Wealth, and with the approval of the Council of Ministers,
Decree as follows:
Article 1)
A supreme committee to be known as the "Supreme Water Board" shall be established, with the Minister of Agriculture or his designate, as Chairman and members, whose grades should be Director-General at least, representing the Ministries of Health, Industry, Planning and Development, Public Works, Interior, and Agriculture.
The Board shall meet at least once every three months and whenever called by the Chairman.
Article
The competence of the Supreme Water Board shall be:
To establish rules, provisions and procedures concerning its own functions;
To formulate a general policy for developing the country's water resources whereby the country's water requirements for all purposes are met;
To study and accept proposed projects for the exploitation of the country's water resources;
To review and accept any water legislation proposed by governmental bodies.
Article (3)
All matters relating to research,investigation and exploitation of water resources shall be implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Wealth.
Article (4)
The Ministry of Agriculture shall be responsible For granting permits for utilization of water, exploration for water, and drilling oF water wells.
Regulations issued by the Minister of Agriculture shall establish the manner of submitting applications, conditions of granting permits, and fees to be paid by applicants provided that it should not exeed fifty Libyan Pounds. '/' - 223 -
Article (5)
The Ministry of Agriculture may, if it deemsnecessary, issue a new permit for the utilization of surplus water from a watersource in respect of which a previous permit has been issued, provided that the new permitshall secure the water requirements for the old user of water and that the newuser shall pay him a suitable.compensation for whatever structures have been erected by the old user.
Districts where these provisions shall be applied willbe defined by the committee and issued by a decision from the Cabinetupon the proposal of the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Wealth.
Article (6)
Permits may be revoked in the following cases:
i) If the permit holder does not utilize the water, as specified in thepermit, for a period of two consecutive years;
If the permit holder misused the water or subjected it to wasteor if he violated any of the permit conditions;
iii) If he relinquished the permit to someone else without the approval of the issuing authority.
Revocation of permits shall be by a decision from the issuant authority. The permit holder shall be, before revocation, informed in writing to remove the cause of the contravention within a limited period. If he fails to remove the cause of the contravention, the decisionof revocation ohall then, be issued-
Article (7)
The Supreme Water Board may declare any area under a system of restricted distribution when the quantities of water in that area have diminished, or for any other reason dictated by public interest. Thereby all water users in the area shall have to comply with the rules and regulations which the Board prescribes f6r water extraction, exploitation and distribution irrespective of the rules and provisions stipulated in the permit. Such declaration, together with the restrictions imposed on water utilization, shall be published in the Official Gazette.
A ticle
Without prejudice to any severer penalty provided for in the Penal Code or in any other Law whoever viOlates any of the provisions of this Law or the regulations made here- under shall be liable to imprisonment for a period not exceeding three months and to payment of a fine not exceeding fifty pounds, or to any of these two penalties.
When passing sentence the Court may order confiscation of the machinery and equipment seized. The Court may also order the removal of the causes of contravention at the expense of the defendant.
0/0 - 224-.
Article (9)
Persons who are actually utilizing wa'.ev.s at the time that this Law comes ini.o force, in order to maintain their right to use thc Yater, must apply to continue their vaicr utilization in accordance with regulations to be issued by the Minister of Agricullur.
Article (10)
The Minister of Agriculture shall enforce this Law and issue the necessary regulations. It shall come into force from the date of its publication in the Official Gazette. - 225-
Draf*, T 4. on Land Sett:Ihr itcv-z..A.12_62 We, Idris I, Ang of the Kingdom c.iT Liby- Having seen the Law No04of1963concerning the establishmentof the National Agricultural Settlement Authority,
Ad the Law dated September 2871965concerning Land Registration,
And the LawNo09 of 1959concerning "Disputes on Tribal Property",
And Law No.42 of 1956,concerning Cooperative Societies,
And the Libyan Civil Law of19547
And fto Royal Docrce issued on September 28,1965concerning Private Staa PyoperLy,
And the Libyan/Italian Agreeme dated October 2,1956,
,upon the ,:ffthe of Agriculture and Animal Wealth,
the ,..-.: the Council of Ministers,
Decree as follows:
Artlala_L-11
Definitions: In this Law the following terms shall have reciprocal meaning:
N.A.S.A. = National Agricultural Settlement Authority
Minister z MinisterofAgriculture and Animal Wealth
Board = BoardofDirectorsofNASA
Agreement = Libyan Italian Agreement of1956
Department = Land Registration Department
Committee = Committee mentioned in this Law
Legal Possessor = Member of a tribe or sub-tribi., who has a share ill land according to customary -cules in fo-.7ce, ';7hether he is possessor and cultivator of his share himself or by any obherMPO011o
Farm = Farm and its installations and equipment distributed by NASA to Settlers.
Article
Tribal land, eultive,ted under j.erigaLion or dry farming, which is possessed and planted by individuas of .ti.-Ces, is privaely wiled by the lec;a1 possessors of the land. _ 226-
Article(3)
Adjudication of rights on tribal land mentioned in Article (2) shall be undertaken by the Department and in accordance with the provisions of the Land Registration Law dated September 28, 1965.
Procedures of adjudication may be taken upon the request of the interested parties who claim rights on tribal land, or by the Department, or by any other concerned Government Authority.
ArticleCL
The Department shall define all real rights on tribal land whether it is a complete ownership, right of usufruct, real rights mentioned in Articles 1003, 1013 and 1014 of the Libyan Civil Law, or any other real rights.
A
Registration of real rights on tribal land shall be free from any registration fees if it is made upon the application of any of the interested parties within five years commencing from the date of the promulgation of this Law.
Article (6)
Land occupied by forests and pastures, even if it is located on tribal land. is private State property unless the forest or pasture is established by anybody on his privately awned land. Individual use of forests and pastures and. other provisions governing it shall be subject to a permit in accordance with the respective Laws and Regulations in force.
Article (7).
NASA shall be the competent Government Authority responsible for the establishment of settlement and resettlement projects on private State farms appropriated by the State in accordance with the Agreement, or on any other private State land and on private land of individuals.
Artisle_C81
The Board shall define the lands and farms assigned for the establishment of settlement and resettlement projects, whether these areas are privately awnedbythe State or individual property. NASA shall be responsible for the administration and supervision of the selected areas mentioned previously and shall undertake all the reclamation works prior-to its distribution to settlers.
Article(9)
With the exception of farm installations in communal use, NASA shall distribute the farms to settlers in private ownership, subject to the restrictions stated in this Law.
However, NASA may give lend and farms on loase bases in the cases, and in accordance with the conditions, stated in this Law.
The size of the farm shall be definedbythe Board in each settlement project. _227 _
Article (10)
The settlers selected by NASA to benefit from lands and farms distributedon private ownership bases shall fulfil the following conditions:
He shall be a Libyan National of not less than 21 years of age and not older than55years. Present possessors of distributed farms shall be exempt from the maximum age limit.
He shall be an actual cultivator engaged in farming as his main source of livelihood. The word 'farming' includes crops, livestock and horticultural enterprises. This condition shall be flexible in the case of Libyan Nationals returned from abroad who are unemployed and are willing to settle as farmers.
He shall be a person of good character and behaviour without any previous criminal, dishonourable conviction.
He shall be in good health and able to undertake all the agricultural work by himself and with the help of his family.
He shall be either a ldless person, or should ownonlya -small area yielding an insufficient inMF,) r a normal standard of living. The terms "small area"
and "insufficient incor,. ' shall be determined for each settlement area separately by the Board.
Article (11)
Among the settlers who fulfil the preceding conditions, priority shall be given to:
The actual cultivator of the land regardless of whether he is occupying the land as usufructuary, by a contract of rent, or even without any title or document; holdings based on lease or undocumented holding shall have been on the land for at least two years prior to distribution of the land. This priority is applicable even if the c,ltivator of the land is not a member of the tribe.
If the holder does not fulfil these conditions, priority shall be given to any of his relatives selected by the holder and approved by NASA.
Expossessors of private State land owned by the State in accordance with the Agreement.
If there is.no priority available in the preceding cases, priority shall be given to persons living in the district of the distributed land.Among these, priority shall be given to persons with big families and persons without any other source of income.
Article (121
The settler shall abide by the following provisions:
i) To reside in the farm and devote himself to agricultural workby himself and with the help of his family.
0/ -22B -
To pay instalments to the value, and on the dates, fixed byNASA,as well as the settlement of loans in cash or kind granted to him byNASAor a cooperativo society.
To execute the agricultural programme put forward byNASAfor the development of the farm.
To join the membership of the agricultural cooperative society established in the settlement project and abide by all resolutions of the society whether relating to kind of crops, agricultural rotation and/or crop marketing programmes, etc.
To maintain the farm, plantations, farm house, buildings and any other installations existing on the farm.
Article (13)
The price of the farm shall be determined by the Board for each settlement area separately. In fixing the price, the Board shall take into consideration to safeguard that the settler must obtain sufficient income from the farm to maintain a reasonable standard of living after payment of instalments and all other obligations.
The price shall be paid in twenty equal yearly instalments.
Article (14)
A cooperativo society shall be established in each settlement project.Membership of the cooperative shall include settlers of the project and any other farmer in the area who applies for membership of the cooperative. Members of the Board of Directors of the cooperative shall be selected only from settlers.The cooperative, in collaboration withNASA,shall render to its members the different agricultural services relating to crop rotation, marketing programmes, etc.
A
NASAshall supervise and control the cooperative societies established in settlement projects and shall assume, in this respect, the responsibilities stipulated in Articles V, VI, VII, IX and XIII of the Cooperative LawNo.42of1956.
The Board shall draw up the policy to be followed byNASAtowards cooperative societies concerning the extent of supervision ofNASAover the cooperative, loans given to the cooperativo in cash and kind, relationship between the cooperative and its members, etc.
Article (16)
The Board shall define the policy of loans granted by NASA to settlers ncluding the following provisions:
the type of loan and whether it is in cash or kind and the amount of each;
conditions which must be fulfilled to grant loans to settlers and the resulting obligations of the settler;
Period through which NASA shall provide settlers with cash loans.This period should not exceed five years from the date of completion of reclamation works in the distributed farm; -229-
Cases of cancelling the loans, especially if thesettler violates his obligations or neglects his agricultural activities; v) Terms of repayment of the loans.
Article (17)
It is prohibited for the settler to exerciseany legal alienation of any kind on the farm which might result in the transfer of its ownership to anotherperson. This restriction shall remain valid and effective for twentyyears even if the settler has paid the farm price before the end of this period.
Article (18)
After the termination of the period stated in Article(17)above, the settler may transfer the ownership of his farm to a person who fulfills the conditions and rules formulated for the selection of settlers.The alienee (purchaser) shall be approved by NASA.
The settler shall not be allowed to exercise any legal alienation which might load to fragmentation of the farm.
Any alienation contrary to Article(17)and Article (18) shall be null.
Article (19)
NASA may distribute private State land on loase bases in the following cases:
virgin and waste land which needs reclamation;
if the possessor of the private State farm does not fulfil the conditions required for granting the farm to him on ownership basis.
The Board of Directors shall draw up the conditions of contract of lease. In the case of virgin and waste lands the tenant shall reclaim.the Land within a certain period and in accordance with the programme drawn up by the Board.
Article (20)
If, atanytime, the settler wishes to leave the farm before making full payment of the price, he shall send a note in writing to NASA, three months prior to his departure. If he had made any permanent improvement in the farm and paid some installments to NASA he will be paid compensation for same after deduction of payments he may awe to NASA for the use of the farm through the previous period. For the estimation of the use of the farm, the settler shall be treated as a tenant during the period involved. - 230-
Article (21)
In the case of the death of the settler, his heirs shall agree within the period of six months from the date of death, to select one of them to be the owner of the farm, provided that the selected heir fulfils the conditions required. for the selection of settlers. In the case of these oonditions not being fulfilled by any of the heirs, they may select one of the settler's relatives up to the fourth degree of relationship to be the new owner of the farm.
NASA shall approve the new settler. If the heirs and relatives of the settler do not fulfil the conditions required, NASA shall take back the fans for distribution to another person. Priority shall be given to the closest relatives of the original settler.,
The selected settler shall pay compensation to other individuals in accordance with their legal shares as heirs. The compensation shall be estimated by the Committee in accordance with the provisions of the Libyan Civil Law.
The compensation shall be paid in instalments defined by the Committee.
NASA may grant a loan to the new settler, assigned for the immediate payment of the compensation. The loan shall be repaid to NASA in instalments defined by the Board.
If NASA takes back the farm, in the case mentioned above, NASA shall pay the heirs the compensation estimated by the Committee. This compensation shall be repaid to NASA by the new settler.
If one or more of the heirs is a minor, the farm shall be administered by their legal representative (guardian) until the heir(s) becomesadult.
A
The settler shall be given a preliminary contract of sale at the time of the distribution of the farm. If the settler successfully passes a probationary period of ten years, the contract shall be registered and the settler shall be given a final title of ownership. During the above-mentioned probationary period the settler shall be subject to certain specific provisions.
Article (23)
One or more administrative committees shall be established by a resolution from the Minister of Justice. The committee shall be presided by a person with legal experience and membets representing NASA, the Land Registration Department, Moutaserif of the district and the concerned Cooperative Society.
The President of the committee shall appoint a secretary to be responsible for the administrative works of the committee. The competences of this committee shall be;
To investigate and give decisions in any violation of obligations allegated ainst the settler;
To investigate and give decisions in any comple.int made by the settler against NASA, or the concerned cooperativo society;
To estimate the compensation due to the interested parties in the cases mentioned in this Law. ./ - 231-
Article (24)
In the case of violation by the settler of his obligationsstated in this Law, or in the Contract, NASA shall refer the cases of violation tothe President of the Committee, together with the supporting documents. The Committee shall serve the settler witha copy of the violations allegated against him and shall inform him of the time andplace fixed for hearing the case. Such declaration shall be originated at leastone week prior to the date fixed for the meeting of the Committee.
Artic
The settler shall be allowed to present himself before the Committee or delegate somebody to represent him.
The Committee shall hold its meetings in the presence of all the members and issue its resolution by the majority.
Article (26)
After the investigation of the case and hearing the viewpoints of the parties involved, as well as the study and examination of the documents, the Committee shall give its decision. In the case of the violations alleged against the settler not being proven, or are not grave, the Committee shall reject the demand of NASA to cancel the contract.
In the event of the violations being proved and considered as being grave, the Committee shall have the right to recommend cancellation of the contract. The decision of the Committee shall be approved by the Board. The settler shall have the right to make comment on the decision of the Committee before the Board.
Article (27)
If the Board approves the decision of the Committee concerning the cancellation of the contract, the resolution of the Board shall be final and executed immediately. The ownership of the farm shall revert to NASA. The former Settler'shall be treated, during the period prior to the cancellation of his contract, as a tenant. He shall be compensated for any improvement paid for by him in the farm in accordance with the provisions of the Libyan Civil Law.
Article (28)
The settler shall be allowed to appeal to the Committee if a dispute arises between him and NASA dr the Cooperative SOciety which cannot be settled in terms acceptable to him,regardless of whether such disputes relate to financial matters or to interpretation of any of the provisions of the contract.
Article (29)
The recommendations of the Committee in questions of compensation mentioned in this Law shall be approved by the Board. The interested parties shall have the right toappeal to the competent court.
Article (30)
This Law shall be published in the Official Gazette and come into force from that date. The concerned Ministers and the Board of Directors of NASAshall issue its Executive Regulations. -232 -
APPENDIX III
III, RULES FOR THE SELECTION OF SETTLERS
(Prepared by the Project's Team of Experts )
I. Introduction
Under Article5of Law No.4ef 1963 on the establishment of N.A.S.A.,the Board of Directors of N.A.S.A. has to suggest rules for the selection of settlers, and terms and conditions of,contract, and pass them to the Cabinet for approval.
By Resolution No. 20 of 1964, the Board of Directors appointed a Committee to prepare proposals relating to the rules and conditions for the distribution offhrms. The Committee was composed of members of the Board, Mr, Ezzat Abdel Wahab, the F.A.O. Team Leader of the Development of Tribal Lands and Settlement Team, and Mr. Saad Abu- Oaf, Legal Expert of the Team. Dr. Agrawal, former Farm-Management Expert of the Team, also participated, in the meetings.
The Committee discussed and approved the proposals submitted by the members of the Team. Taking into consideration the delicate nature of some rules in view of the prevailing socio-economic conditions and the system of tribal rights, the Chairman of the Committee thought it advisable to seek the views and comments of the Minister of Agriculture in an unofficial manner before formally putting up the proposals to the Board of Directors.
At the same time, those proposala were also sent to some members of the F.A.O. Team and to the N.A.S.A. supervisor at Benghazi, for their views and comments. Dr. F. Cappelletti, Lana Settlement Expert, Mr, A.N. Radha, Land Tenure Expert, and Mr. H. Meliczek, Land Settlement Expert in Benghazi, submitted their comments. These Draft Rules and proposals and the Experts' comments were examined and discussed in a meeting by tho concerned F.A.O. Experts on 24 May 1966. The N.A.S.A. Committee also discussed and approved proposals concerning provisions of contract between N.A.S.A. and the settlers.
próposed Rules for Selection of Settlers
The settler must be an actual cultivator engaged in farming as his main source of livelihood. The word "farming" includes crop, livestock and horticultural enterprises. This qualification will be relaxed in the case of unemployed Libyan immigrants who are willing to settle as farmers.
The settler must be a Libyan national, in good health, between 21 and55years old. The minimum age limit of gl corresponds to the legal age of maturity and of exercising legal rights. The maximum age corresponds to the age limit of the working population group. Settlers should preferably be married.
The settler must be a person of good character and behaviour without any pre- vious criminal conviction. He should be either a landless person or should own only a small area yielding an insufficient income for the normal standard of living. (The terms "small area" and "insufficient income" will be determined for each settle- ment area separately by the Board of Directors of W.A.S.A.).
The settler should agree to abide by all rules and regulations established by N.A.S.A. concerning settlers, regardless whether these regulations are included in the Contract or are mentioned in the Law. -233-
Priorities in Selection o. Settle
Among settlere who fulfil the preceedingoonditions, priority will be given to the actual cultivator of the land, regardlesoof whether he is occupying the land as usufructuary (as in the case of tribal property), bya contract of rent (lease), or even without any title or document.
In these last two cases, the holder must havebeen on the land for at least two yeare prior to distribution of the land.This time-limit aims to give priority to those people whose oocupation of land continued fora reasonable period of time.
If the holder does not fulfil these oonditions, priority shouldbe given to a relative of the present holder. This relative can be chosen by the present holder and the choice must be approved by N.A.S.A. in order toensure that the selected person fulfils the conditions.
3. If the land is not occupied or where a new settlement is being established, priority should be given to the persons living in the district.Among these, priority should be given to persons with largo families and persons without any othersource of income.
IV. Imsortant Existin Proble
Case of a State-farm tenant who, at the same time, owns a private farm: -
There are many cases where a person owns a private farm, while at the same time he is tenant of a State farm. There is not eufficient data available as to the size of the area, both for the State farm and the private farm, or the date of the contract of lease, or any development and .improvements undertalçen by the tenant of the State farm.
Therefore, provisions for distribution of State farms in cases like these must take into consideration all such facts.
The basic rule in most legislations on Land Reform with regard to distribution 0CSate land gives priority to the holder of the land, regardless of whether he is a tenant or a holder without title or document.This rule is justified by the fact thathe holder of land is endeavcuring to cultivate the land, and its output is the main source of his income. Therefore, he must be given priority in the distribution of State farms, provided that he fulfils the other conditions laid down for settlers.
However, if the holder of the land also owns a private farm, it io unjustified to give him priority over a person who does not own any land. For two main reasons a person without land must be given priority, even if he is not holder of the land:
The rules of equity necessitate distribution of land first to people who do not own any private land, and who should be given priority uver persons who are already owners of private farms.
A pereon who owns only one farm is more capable of cultivating the land than a person who owns two farms.
For these reasons, it is suggested to establish as a principle in this case, that a person who is owner of a farm ehall not be selected as settler of the State farm whioh he rents.
But this principle requires detailed provisions in order to deal with the diffi7 culties which may arise upon application. The main drawbacks are: -234 -
(A) difficulties which will arise when removing a tenant who owns a private farm, and distributing the State farm to another pereon, despite the fact that the tenant of the State farm may have been on this farm for a long period;
(b) determination of compensation to be given to the tenant for expenses incurred for improvements made during the contract of loase, and the basis of such compensation;
(0)size of the private farm.
The following provisions are suggested:
A tenant who owns a private farm should be allowed to select one of his eons or an adult member of his family up to the fourth degree as the settler of the farm, subject to the approval of N.A.S.A.This would avoid most of the conflicts whioh mAy arise by removing a tenant from a farm and selecting another person in his stead. At the same timo, the rules for the selection of settlers will be applied and remain obligatory.
If, in such a case as outlined above, the tenant did not use this right of selecting the settler from among his relatives, or if he selected a person who was rejected by N.A.S.A. on the grounds that the rules and conditions of settler6 were not fulfilled, the oontract of lease shall be terminated and N.A.S.A. shall withdraw the farm to give it to any other person who fulfills the conditions for settlers, preferably from the same family.
The rejected tenant must be compensated for expenses incurred by him for the improvement of the farm, such as expenses for buildings, water installations, etc. The question of compensation raises the following points:
In order to avoid conflicts and to ensure speedy procedures, it is suggested to set up local committees which shall estimate the amount of compensation payable to the former tenant. Suoh committees shall be composed of one representative each from the Ministry of Agriculture, from N.A.S.A., and the tenant. Rulos and procedures to be followed by these committees shall be established.
Any decision by the committee, determination of compensation payable, etc., shall be approved by the Board of Directors of N.A.S.A. who shall have the right to increase or decrease the amount of compensation. Its decision will be final.
N.A.S.A. shall pay the compensation to the rejected tenant if the farm is distributed to a new settler selected by N.A.S.A. The amount of compensation will be added to the price of the farm, and will be recovered from the new settler.
If the new settler is a person selected by the tenant (his son or one of his relatives), the amount of compensation and the way of payment shall be agreed upon between the two parties concerned without any responsibility on the part of N.A.S.A. for the payment of such compensation to the tenant.
The compensation will be assessed in accordance with the provisions of the Libyan Civil Law. According to-Articles591and 613 of the Libyan Civil Law, the committee which will estimate the compensation has to adhere to the following provisions: -235_
The former tenant has to beoompensated for all plantations, buildings, or any other improvemonts madeby him, and which increase the value of the land.
The former tenant has to be compensatedfor aay repairs of buildings and other installations.
(o) The former tenant shall notbe compensated for normal everyday repairs, such as maintenance of buildings.
(d) The new settler has the right torequest the former tenant to remove any improvements mentioned under (a) above. If, however, the new settler prefers to keep the improvements, he will be reeponsible to pay the lesser of the two values: value of the improvement carried out or the difference between theformer and the increased value of the land due to these improvements.The compen- sation can be paid in installments.
V. Preiïè n- he Settler from Selling the Farm
Even after a settler has acquired permanent right of tenure toa farm, he should for a certain period be prevented from disposing of it by sale, mortgageor transfer. Such restriction will ensure continuity of tenure, development of thefarm, increased agricultural productivity, and recovery of all dues in cash or kind from the settler. In the absence of such a restrictive provision, there is every likelihood of the farms being sold and changing hands, thereby defeating the very objectives of the settlement scheme.
The period restricting the disposal of farm by a eettler should at least correspond to the period of installments over which the costs are to be recovered from the settler. It should not be less than 15 years from the date of the commence- ment of the preliminary contract, even if the settler pays the whole amount before the prescribed period of recovery. This restriction should form an essential part of the contract of sale. Even after the expiry of the restrictive period, when a settler has acquired the right of disposal, the following conditions must be in- sisted upon:
(j) The farm should be sold as a whole and not in parcels.
(ji) The new proprietor should fulfil allthe conditions for settlers,
(iii) The contract of sale should be subject to approval by N.A.S.A. so as to ensure that it fulfils all the above conditions.
Violation of these rules will result in cancellation of contract.
The settler who sells his farm will be deprived of being considered another time for distribution of farms, as laid down in the rules and conditions for distribution.
If the farm is abandoned by the farmer, or if he thought of selling it prior to the expiration of the period established for non-disposal of farms, the farm must be restored to N.A.S.A. at the original oost if the settler has already paid the price. If the price has not yet been paid in full, the settler will be refunded the installments paid by him to N.A.S.A. plus compensation for any improvements made by the settlers. A deduction must be made for the rent of the farm during the period of usufructuary. -236-
VI. Inheritance Problem
A000rding to the Islamio Law, in case of death of a proprietor, the ownership of a farm remains with his legal heirs. If, however, every heir receivea his share in the farm, this will lead to subdivision and fragmentation of the farm, with adverse effects on agricultural production. To avoid these bad resulte of fragmen- tation in case of death of a proprietor, the following suggestione are mudo:
(.) In case of death of the proprietor, the farm must be given to his oldest son or -Lo one of his other sons, provided that the selected son fulfils the conditions required for distribution, i.e. that he is an adult living on the farm and engaged in oultivetion, etc.
It is suggested that within a certain time after the death of a proprietor, his inheritors shall agree to select one of them, or one of the relatives to the fourth degree of relationship, as owner of the farm.
In all cases, N.A.S.A. must approve the selection of the new settler, so as to ensure that he fulfils all required conditions.
If anyone of the sons or relatives does not fulfil the conditions, N.A.S.A. must take baek the farm for distribution to another person.
However, the new settler must be a relative or a member of the tribe of the deceased, and priority must be given to the closest relativo of the deceased.
The selected settler shall pay a compensation to the other inheritors. The compensation shall be estimated by a Committee, composed as suggested before, and approved by the Board of Directors of N.A.S.A.The decision of the Board will be final. The new settler will be given sufficient time for the payment of the compensation to other inheritors. Compensation will be estimated in a000rdance with the rules of both Libyan Civil Lax and Islamic Law.
N.A.S.A. may grant a loan to the new settler, so as to enable him to pay the compensation at once. This loan will be repaid to N.A.S.A. in installments.
In case N.A.S.A. takes the farm back because none Pf the inheritors fulfils the conditions of settlers, N.A.S.A. has to pay to tha inheritors com- pensation estimated acoording to the principles mentioned above. This com- pensation will be repaid to N.A.S.A. by the new settler chosen by N.A.S.A.
Support for these proposed rules is found in the Libyan Civil Law. Article 910 stipulates that if among the succession there exists an agrioultural, industrial, or commercial unit which can be considered as an economic,independent unit, it must be transferred as a.whole to one of the inheritors who asks for it, and who, at the same time, is the most oapable to take over this unit. The price of this unit will be estimated according to its value, and this prioe shall be deducted from the share of the inheritor. If all the inheritors are equally capable to operate this unit, it has to be transferred to the one who makes the best offer, provided that the offer is not less than the actual value.
A farm is an economic unit, and the proposal to give it to the oldest son is based on the assumption that he is the most capable to operate it.
VII. Pa ment for the Land
Settlers must pay either all or part of the price of land and buildings° The cost of the farm includes the cost of the distributed land as well as of buildings, - 237-
irrigation structures, and other premises established by N.A.S.A.for the development of the farm. If the farmer is required to pay the cost for all these items, hevould find himeelf in diffioulties, and the income of his farm would notbe sufficient 6o pay the installments. Suoh practice would not encourage him to oontinue workingon his farm, because the cost for the development of farms iavery high. Therefore, the Government must subsidiee a part of the cost of the farm.
Determination of the eharee of the Government and the settler in the costs of the farm:
The determination of the financial obligation of the propr.tctov uLth regard to the cost of the farm involves various considerations, but the pvineipie to be adopted must ensure that after fulfilling his obligations of paying inoLallments, cose of im- provement and other obligations towards the Government, the farmer will have sufficient money to enable him to maintain a reasonable standard of living.
The elements to betaken into consideration in determining the share of the settler are: price of the farm, size.of the farm, price of orops, means required to guarantee an adequate standard of living to the settler. The determination of all these elements requires cooperation from the experts for agriculture, farm management, marketing, rural sociology; and based on these elements the experts can establish the share to be paid by the settler.
VIII.0 onclusion
The final draft of the proposals, prepared by the Team on 20 February 1967, wae submitted to the Board of Directors of N.A.S.A., who discussed and amended it on 27 June1967. The draft was then reformulated by the Legal Expert in the light of the comments of the Board.
The important amendments made by the Board inolude: (0the conditions to be fulfilled by the settlers remained without a m 'or change, except that the age of the settlers (between 21 and55years) should not be applicable to the present holders of the land, most of whom are over55.
The condition that the settlersehould be landless is not applicable to the present holdereof State farms.
The Board established the period within which the settler is not allowed to sell his farm as 20 years, starting from the date of the primary contract. -238-
APPENDIX IV
TV. LIST OF REPORTS PREPARED BY THE F.A.O. EXPERTS Date M.Ezzat Abdel Wahab,Land Settlement Planning Expert and Team Leader
Report on the Organization of the National Agricultural Settlement Authority 1963
Report on Tulmaythah Area (Bu Traba) and Mutassarifiat Al Marj (Arabic) 1964
Settlement of Tribes in Libya 1964
Report on the Rural Housing Project and its relation to Land Settlement Projects 1966
Quarterly progress reports during the period Jan.1963 - Dec. 1969
The problem of rural-urban migration of the farming population in Libya (in collaboration with Dr.Salah Noah) Dec.1967
Draft final reports on the work of the Team and on proposed projects 1968 -Mar.1969
S. Abu-Oaf, Legal Expert
Draft Water Law prepared in collaboration with the Legal Advisers of the Ministry of Justice No date
General and Special Conditions of Contracts between N.A.S.A. and Consulting and Constructive Companies No date
Internal Regulations of the Supreme Water Board June1966
Executive Regulations of the Water Law July1966
Land Tenure Situation in the Collina Verde Settlement and Project Jan.1967
Land Registration System in Libya (prepared in collaboration with M.S. Haider) Feb.1967
Tender Regulations for N.A.S.A. Mar,1967
Report on the legal rights in Tribal Land and water rights in the Pilot Area July1967
General recommendations to improve and increase the efficiency of N.A.S.A., submitted by N.A.S.A. to the Ministerial Committee appointed by the Cabinet to study the problems of N.A.S.A. (Arabic) Feb.1968
Legal aspects of Private State Farms (Ex-Ente Farms) Mar,1968
Draft Law amending the Law No.4 of1963,concerning the establishment of N.A.S.A. and an explanatory note to the Draft Apr.1968
Draft Contract between N.A.S.A. and settlers June1968
Land Registration System and its relation to Land Settlement in Libya (in collaboration with Mr.Salah Haider) Oct.1968 -239-
Date Draft Law on Land Settlement in Libya Feb.1969 Final Report "Legal Aspects of Tribal Lands and Settlementsin Libya" Feb.1969
A.S. AiwanLand Tenure Ex ert
A Field Stud,y of the Customary System of LandTenure and Related Problems in the Mutasarrifiaof Ajdabiyah 1963
Miss N. Basta Home Economio
Final Report onHome Economics in the Development of Tribal Lands and Settlements Projects 1969
F. Castelletti, Land Tenu e E Report on Tommina Settlement Scheme 14.7.1965 "Report on Dafnia Settlement Scheme 14.7.1965 Report on the Kararim Settlement Scheme 14.7.1965 A short Report on Sidi Seid Land Settlement Scheme 26.7.1965 Bir El Ghnem Development Project 9.1.1966 Report on Gianduba Settlement Project 21.7.1966
Prospects and Proposals for Land Settlement Projects in Fezzan (prepared in collaboration with Mr. H. Singh and Mr. H. Moliczek FAO experts) July 1966 Report on the Collina Verde Settlement Project 15.11.1966
Final Report on Land Settlement in Western and Southern Regions of Libya (formerly Tripolitania and Fezzan) Mar,1967
D. Cirio, ion Enoineo
Report concerning Gwarsha Irrigation Project (Sewage Water) Apr,1965
Report on Irrigation by using Purified Sewage Water in Libya - Collina Verde
Report; the wells situation in Tarhuna Settlement Schemes July 1965
Report; Windmills situation in Ghanima Area Aug.1965
Report concerning underground water situation and irrigation possi- bilities in Socna-Hon-Uadan and West Fezzan Jan.1966 -240-
Date
ReportOnfield reoonnaissanoe of irrigation situation Ran Al Hilal and Al Atron Mar,1966
Report ov field reconnaissance of irrigation situation in Bu Traba Mar,1966
Report concerning the executed drilling works in Sandia 'B°(with Mr. and Mrs. Kojioio) Apr,1966
Report concerning possibilities of using the sewage water in Tobrug and Benghazi for irrigation Aug.1966
Report concerning.present situation of the consulting engineering and engineering works for projects in Western Governates Sep,1966
Report ooncerning studies, specification and tender documents sub- mitted by SCET Cooperation Consulting Engineers for Collina Verde Projeot May 1967
Report concerning irrigation situation in the N.A.S.A. existing and new Settlement Schemes July1967 Report on the possibilities and importance of Misurata Settlement Scheme Jan,1968
Programme for consulting engineering works for irrigation project in Gwarsha area, to be supplied with water from Benghazi purification plant Mar.1968
Report on En Boon spring in Jebal Al Akhdar Aug.1968
Final Report - Irrigation of Settlement Schemes in Libya Sep, 1968
S. gadO.er9 Cadastral Survey Expert
Basic Maps, Preparation, Land Cadastral Surveys and Title Registration Oct.1965
Land Tenure and Basic Map Preparation in Al Useta and Al Hania (Arabic) 1.4.1966 Method of Supervision and Checking and acoepting the Aerial Ground Control, Final map and other related material for the Ministry of Planning Project (Arabic) 21.7.1966 Land Registration System in Libya (Arabio) (prepared in collaboration with Mr. Abu-Oaf) Feb.1967 Report on the Basic Maps and Cadastral Surveys in Al Mania Region of the Pilot Area in the Jebal Al Akhdar Cyrenaica Mar,1967 Report on the Establishment of National Survey Department Jul., 1967 Study of Basic Maps and Cadastral Surveys in Al Useta Region of the Pilot Area Dec.1967
Final Report onCadastral Survey and Land Registration Feb.1969 - 241-
Date .G, Marro Cadastral Surve Plan of work for Cadastral Surveying and Land Pegistration in Libya Jan.1964 Land Registration in Cyrenaioa 1965
P. Hubert Soil Surve Ex ert
Report dealing with the Soil Conditions of theEnte Farm Settlement Area of Tulmaythah (Cyrenaioa) Dec.1963
Report dealing with the Soil Conditions of the AjdabiyahArea (Cyrenaica) Dec. 1963
The Soils of Northern Cyrenaica, A Soil Survey Report Aug.1964 Report on the Soil Conditions in the Ente Farm Settlement Area of Farzugha Aug.1964
R. Leuenber er Water UtilizationE e
Report to the Ministry of Agriculture Benghazi on the Pipeline Project of Wadi Darnah No date
Possibilities and Limitations in Developing New Land for settled farming in Cyrenaica No date
Summary of Conditions and Problems Related to Water Utilization and Agricultural Development in Cyrenaica No date
Proposal for the development of ths groundwater resources for irrigation and domestic use and measures for soil and water conservation in the Tolmeita Farming area Oct.1963
Report of the water situation in the semi-desert Region of Cyrenaica with special reference to the Mutassarifia of Ajdabiyah Jan.1964
Report on Water Utilization in the Pilot Area of the FAO Tribal Lands and SettlementsProject in Cyrenaica Mar.1965
Procedure in Rehabilitating Greco-Roman Wells and Establishing small Irrigated Farms in the Bu Traba Ex-Ente Farm District July 1965
Basic Consideration in Planning and Operating an Irrigation Scheme, receiving its water supply from the Benghazi Sewage Disposal Plant July 1965
The Ground Water Source of Al Kuwayfiyah and its possible use for irrigation Aug.1965
An Evaluation of the Dry Farming Conditions of Bu Traba Aug.1965
Irrigation requirements and Ivr1gation Intervals of various crops grown in the coastal region of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania Aug. 1965 - 242 -
Date
Report of Field Reconnaissance of Four Spring Sites in the Jebal Al Akhdar Aug.1965
Final Report onWater Resources and Water Utilization in the Northern Cyrenaioa Sep.1965
Proposals for domestic and livestock water supply and water soil conservation in the Useta Region of the Pilot Area, in Jebal Al Akhdar Sep.1965
H. Meliozek unior Land Settlement Ex ert
The Selection of Settlers - faotors of relevance and proposals Aug.1965 Sooio-Eoonomio Conditions of 200 Ex-Ente Farm Households in Cyrenaica 1965/66
Socio-Economic Conditions of227Households Living on Ex-Ente Farms in the Pilot Area of the FAO Tribal Lands and Settlement Project in Cyrenaica June1966
Final Report onThe Government Farms in the Eastern Region of Libya (formerly Ente settlements of Cyrenaica) 1967
Salah El Din Noah A icultural Extension Train
Proposed System of Supervised Credit to Settlers through Cooperatives and under direction of the Extension Service 24.5.1967
Role of the Extension Family-Farm Demonstration in the development of Saadia 'B' Settlement Project (Arabio Summary in English) 27.6.1967
Proposed Administrative Organization of Extension Service, and Training in N.A.S.A. 21.8.1967
Agricultural Extension and SettlersTraining Course for the new Settlers of Saadia '13' Settlement Project Juno 1967
Socio-Agricultural Survey of Selected Land Settlement Projects in Tripolitania Aug.1967
Socio-Agricultural Survey of Wadi Caam Settlement Scheme Oct.1967
N.A.S.A. Programme for Agricultural Extension and Farmers Training Apr.1968
Socio-Economio Aspects and the Selection and Training of Prospeotive Settlers for Collina Verde Settlement Project Apr. 1968
Proposal for the Establishment of Settlement Community Development Centres during the Second Five Year Plan May/968 Evaluation of the Farmers Training Courses for Saadia 'B' Settlers Aug. 1968
The OrganiZation of Extension Service within the N.A.S.A. Department of Community Development and Department of Agriculture Oct.1968
./. -243 -
Date The Scope and Direction of N.A.S.A. Credit Systemfor the future Development of Land Settlements in Libya Nov. 1968
Final report on Extension, Educational Training for theDevelopment of Land Settlements in Libya Dec. 1968
N. D.Noble,Ground Water Exnert
Report on the Groundwater of Bu Traba No date
Report on the Groundwater of Al Kufrah No date
Report on Water Analysis in Jabal Al Akhdar Jan. 1966
Reports aaWater Analysis in Al Hania and Ain Selium Spring Feb. - Aug.1966
Reports on Water Analysis - Bu Traba Sept. - Dec.1966
Final Report on The Hydrogeology and Groundwater Resources of the Jabal Al Akhdar (Northern Cyrenaica) - Libya Sept.1966
R. W, Price Soil Survey Expert
Report on Al Kuwayfiyah-Baninah, sketch map and Land Capability Map Mar. 1965
Report on the Soil Conditions of Gwarsha and Sketch Map of Soil Conditions July 1965
Report on the Soils. of the Collina Verde Area and Land Class Sketch Map Dec. 1965
Soil Analysis by the Ministry of Agriculture and Report of Soils of the Collina Verde Area Dec. 1965
Soil and Water Analysis on the Al Useta Area, Al Hania, Bu Traba Dec. 1965
Report on the Soils of the Proposed Settlement Area of Al Hania and soil map and land capability map Dec. 1965
Report on the Soil Survey of the proposed Bu Traba Settlement Area and Land Capability Map
Report on the Al Useta proposed Settlement Area and Soil Map and Land Capability Map Feb. 1966
Report on the Soils of the Al Hania proposed Settlement Area and Soil Map of Al Hania proposed Settlement and Land Capability Map of Al Hania 1966
Report on the land Capabilities of Collins Verde proposed Irrigation Area, plus Land Capability Map Aug. 1966
Preliminary Report of the Soils of the Gianduba Proposed Settlement Area and Land Capability Map and Soil Map of Gianduba Aug. 1966
General Appraisal of the Timar Al Mukhtar Area as a possible Centre for Tribal Land Settlement 1966
Report on Soils of Azizia with Soil Map of Azizia and Land Capability Map of Azizia Mar. 1967 -244-
Date
Soil Survey of Gianduba Extension, with Soil Map and Land Capability Map 1967
Report on Soil Conditions of Amena Aug. 1967
Final Report Soil Survey in the Eastern, Western and Southern Governates of Libya Sep., 1968
A.N.K. Radha and Tenure Ex e
A Study in the Land Tenure System in Al Qawarshah Mudirya Mutasarra- fiya of Benghazi June1965
A Study of the Tribal Lands Tenure System and Related Problems in the Ueeta Region of the Pilot Area in the Jebal Al Akhdar Mar.1966
A Report on the Land Tenure System of Bu Traba Resettlement Project of the Coastal PlanCyrenaica Apr,1966
Report on the Tribal LandTenure System of Al Hania, the Coastal Strip of the Pilot Area June1966
The existing Tribal Land Tenure System and example of Tenure Status in the Eastern Region (Arabic only) July1966
Summary of Achievements and basio Recommendations for setting up a Section for Land Tenure and concerning Libyan personnel. training and fellowships July1966
Final report onLand Tenure Systems in the Northern Part of the Eastern Region Feb.1967
Imam Selim, Rural Socio
Report containing the main explanation of the social survey for the two areas Al Hania and Umar Al Mulchtar 20.12.1965
Notes for the final report ooncerning the sociological aspects of land settlements in the Pilot Area 1966
Hakim :h, Farm Nana ornen Ex ori
Scheme of Rural Compost 12.2.1966
Report on Assistance to Farmers in Bu Traba Area Apr.1966
Farm business Analysis of36Holdings in Al Useta
Planning of Farm Business in the Al Useta Land Settlement Project in the Jebal Al Akhdar of Eastern Region (Cyrenaica) July.1966 -245-
Date
Training Programme for Farm Planning Aug.1966
Report on the Farming Prospects in the Pilot Area of theJebal Al Akhdar Apr./May1966
Farm Plan for Collina Verde Dec.1966
Farm Plan for Al Hania Land Settlement Project in the Pilot Area Dec.1966
Farm Plan for the Ex-Ente Settlements of Farzuga, Batta, Carnada and Al Qubbah in Eastern Region Feb.1967
Pre-investmentalrvey and Investigations Project, Wadi Magnin Jan.1968 Estimates of costs for Al Hania, Al Useta Land Settlement Projects for N.A.S.A. Apr.1968
Incentives, Subsidies and Grants to Farmers in Libya for increasing Agricultural Produotion May 1968
Prospects of Agrioultural Production in Libya (Eastern and Western Regions) May 1968
Agricultural Potential in Southern Region May 1963
Prospects and proposals for Land Settlement Projects in Fezzan - (3oint report by F. Cappelletti, H. Singh and H. Meliczek) July1966
Farm Planning for Collina Verde Land Settlement Project May 1968
Farm Planning for Sandia 'B' Land Settlement Project June1968
Farm Planning for Azizia Land Settlement Project June1968
Farm Management and Farm Planning in N.A.S.A. Settlements in Libya (Final Report) Aug.1968 -246-
APPENDIX-
V. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACHER 'N, E.A. Italian colonisation in Libya, Geographical Review, (New 1940 York), 30(10): 684-686.
ADA1VIS, C. C. The Sanusiya Order, Handbood on Cyrenaica, Cairo, British 1944 Military Administration, 31 p. ADAMS, C. C. Cyrenaica, Eastern Wing of Italian Libya, National Geographic 1930 Magazine, (Washington), 57: 689-726. ATTIGA, A.A. General agronomic and economic aspects of irrigation in 1956 arid agriculture, MSc Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, p.81. BAILEY, H. Colonisation of Libya, Fortnightly Review, (London), 151: 1939 197-204. BARBERIS, C. Problemi agricoli della Tripolitania. (Agricultural problems 1955 of Tripolitania). Rivista di Politica Agraria, (Rome) 2(2): 39-49. BARTOLOZZI, E. Gli sviluppi della colonizzazione demografica intensiva in 1939 Libia, Agricultura Coloniale, (Firenze), 33(2): 57-65. BASTER, J. Economic development in Libya, Middle Eastern-Affairs,London 1954 5(11): 346-351. BEADNELL, H. J. L. Libyan desert dunes, Geographical Journal (London) 59: 1934 337-340.
BEADNELL, H. J. L .. The sand dunes of the Libyan desert. Geographical Journa, 1910 (London),35: 379-395. BEN'AMER, O. M. A farming community for Cyrenaica. Thesis, Washington D. 1959 43 p. BOTTOMLEY, A. The effect of the common ownership of land upon resource 1963 allocation in Tripolitania. Land Economics (Madison) 39(1): 91-95. -247
CAUNEILLE, A. Le semi-nomadisme dans l'Ouest Libyen (Fezzan Tripolitaine) 1963 n UNESCO Nomades et Nornadisme au Sahara, Recherches SU zone aride, (Paris), p. 101-112.
CERBELLA, G. Caratteristiche della societá musulmana libica,nomadi, 1953 semi-nomadi ,sedentari, Collezione 'Libia' 1,Tripoli, Plinio Maggi ed.,81 p.
DE AGOSTINI, E. Le popolazioni della Cirenaica, Benghazi , Governo della, 1922-23 Cirenaica, Azienda tipo-litografica della Scuola d'Arti e Mestieri, 541 p. DE AGOSTINI, E. Le popolazioni della Tripolitania, Notizie etniche e storiche 1917 Tripoli, Governo della Tripolitania, Ufficio político-militare. Parte I (Testo), Parte II (Tavole).2 Vol. 440 p. ELDBOM, L. Quelques points de vue comparatifs sur les problèmes 1961 d'irrigation dans les trois oasis libyennes de Brak, Ghadamès et particulièrement Mourzouk, Lund, The Royal University Department of Geography, 22 p. EL GHONEMY, M.R. The development of tribal lands and settlements in Libya, 1965 Land reform, land settlement and cooperatives. (Rome, FAO) (1): 20-31. EL JAWHARY, H. Present land settlement policy and project in Libya. In 1967 El Ghone my, M. R. ed. ,Land policy in the Near East. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization, p.137-151. (For Government of Libya). EL LATEF, M.A. Acquisition of ownership by prescription, Cairo, Dar el Nanda (In Arabic).
EL SANHOURY, A. R. Right of ownership, Cairo, Dar el Nanda (In Arabic).
EVANS-PRITCHARD,E. E. The Sanusi of Cyrenaica, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1949 240 p. EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. E. Italy and the Bedouin in Cyrenaica, African Affairs, (London) 1946 45: 12-21. EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. E. Arab status in Cyrenaica under the Italians. Sociological 1929 Review, (Keele) 36(1-4): 1-17. FANTOLI, A. Le piogge in Libia, Africa Italiana, (Roma) 57: 23-28. 1939 - 248 -
FAO Libya funds-in-trust 94. Development of tribal lands and 1968 settlements project. Interim summary of recommendations,. Rome, 38 p.
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on the cooperative 1968 movement in Libya, by M. F. Ibrahim, Rome, 17 p. (Report No. TA 2466).
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on development of agri- 1967 cultural statistics, by B. Babic, Rome, 19 p. (Report No. TA 2355).
FAO Interim report to the Governnient of Libya on cooperative 1966 societies in Libya, by A. H. Hammad, Rome, 48 p. (Report No. RU:TA/66/2).
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on the production of 1966 fruit and vegetables, by G B. Mazzocchi. Rome, 40 p. (EPTA Report No. 2134).
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on improvement of sheep 1966 and goat production, by A.S. Demiriir-en, Rome, 8 p. (EPTA Report No. 2164).
FAO Land settlement program in Libya, by H.A1-Jawhary. 8 p. 1966 World Land Reform Conference.( June-July 1966, Rome ). (Report No. WLR/C/66/28).
FAO Report on the state of work in agricultural economics 1965 (Farm planning), by N. Hilton, Rome, 36 p.
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on field crop production 1965 and improvement in Cyrenaica, by B.A. Al-Jibouri, Rome 60 p. (EPTA Report No. 2055).
FAO Report on the seminar on agricultural education, (Sept-Oct. 1963 1963,Tripoli), Rome, 41 p. (Document No. 08338/E).
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on livestock production, 1963 by N. M. H. Arnott, Rome, 12 p. (EPTA Report No. 1653).
FAO A bibliography on land tenure and related questions in Libya, 1963 by A.S. Alwa,n, Benghazi, 17 p.
FAO Repoit to the Government of Libya on water legislation, by 1962 D.A. Caponera, Rome, 34 p. (EPTA Report No.1550). -249 -
FAO Production of fruit and vegetables, by G. B. Mazzocchi 1962 & L. B. Thrower, Rome, 149 p. (EPTA Report No. 1351). FAO Crop agronomy and improvement in Cyrenaica, by I.Abu Sharr, 1962 Rome, 131 p.(EPTA Report No. 1577). FAO Report to the Government of Libya on date production, by 1961 V.H.W. Dowson, Rome, 82 p. (EPTA Report No. 1263). FAO Report to the Government of Libya on tobacco production, 1961 by J. S. Lone, Rome, 9 p. (EPTA Report No. 1330), FAO The prospects of growing rice and other irrigated crops in 1961 Fezzan Province, by C.L. Pan, Rome, 13 p, (EPTA Report No. 1359). FAO Crop agronomy and improvement in Tripolitania, by A.A.K. 1961 Soghaier, Rome, 45 p. (EPTA Report No. 1371). FAO Report to the Government of Libya on plant protection, 1960 by H. Martin, Rome, 15 p. (EPTA Report No. 1234).
FAO The improvement of the sheep industry, by N.M.H. Arnott, 1959 Rome, 19 p, (EPTA Report No. 1123).
FA() The improvement of hides,skins, leather and leather articles, 1958 by G.C.. Van Hoorn, Rome, 26 p. (EPTA Report No. 975).
FAO Hortical development in Cyrenaica, by Abudabbeh Nairn, 1958 Rome,3 p. (EPTA Report No. 951).
FA() Report to the Government of Libya on Nutrition, by G. 1958 Ferro-Luzzi, Rome, 47 p. (EPTA Report No. 920).
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on agricultural marketing, 1958 by E.M. Rascovich, Rome, 72 p. (EPTA Report No.883).
FAO eport to the Government of Libya on the establishment of 1957 a [ruit and vegetable cannery, by G. Roebben, Rome, 74 p. (EPT A Report No. 613). FAO Report Lo the Government of Libya on cooperative societies, 1957 bsi F. Gaudefroy-Demonbynes, Rome, 31 p. (EPTA Report No. 701).
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on settlement planning, 1957 by L. M. Bologna, Rome, 34 p. (EPTA Report No. 732). -250-
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on the improvement of 1957 services to agriculture, by W.J.V. Taylor, Rome, 26 p. (EPTA Report No. 641).
FAO Libya, Country information report No. 8 (Center on land 1956 problems in the Near East, Iraq, 1955). Rome, 6 p.
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on improvement of catt 1956 by D.E. Faulkner, Rome, 52 p. (EPTA Report No.483).
FAO Report to the Government of Libya on development and 1956 organization of a dairy industry, by F. Vieira de Sa, Rome, 28 p. (EPTA Report No. 487). FAO Water laws in Moslem countries, by D.A. Caponera, FAO 1956 Development Paper No.43, Rome, 202 p. FAO Agricultural land tenure system in Libya. Country Project 1956 No. 13,by M. Hengary (Center on land problems in the Near East, Iraq 1955), Rome, 5 p. FAO Report to the Government of Libya on small agricultural 1955 implements and farm tools, by W. Sommerauer, Rome, 44 p. (EPTA Report No.421). FAO Report to the Government of Libya on forest activities, by 1955 J. Mcser, Rome, 19 p.(EPTA Report No.376). FAO Report to the Government of Libya on agricultural statistics, 1954 by W.J. Dixon, Rome, 39 p, (EPTA Report No.329). FAO Indigenous and Italian farm enterprises in the Zavia Area 1954 (Libya), by N.T. Theodorou, Rome, 108 p. (EPTA Report No. 259).
FAO Report on the agriculture of Libya, by O. J. Wheatley, 1951 Rome, 170 p. (EPTA Report No. 13). FARAG, D. M. Right of owershipin the legislation of Arab countries, 1961 Cairo, Dar el Nanda (In Arabic). FISHER, W. B. Agriculture in rnodern Libya, Geographical Magazine, (London) 1952 25(4): 184-194. - 251-
GNECCO, A. Aspetti di diritto agrario libico. (Aspects of agrarian law 1939 ln Libya), Milano, A.Giuffrê,p. 307. GOODCHILD, R.G. The decline of Libyan agriculture, Geographical Magazine, 1952 (London),25(3): 147-156. GREGORY, J.W. etal. Contributions to the geology of Cyrenaica, Journal of the 1911 Geological Society, (London), 67: 572. HAJJAJI, S.A. The new Libya, Tripoli, Government Printing Press, 191 p. 1967 HEY, R.W. The geomorphology and tectonics of the Jebel el Akhdar 1956 (Cyrenaica) Geological Magazine (London), 93(1): 1-14. HILL, R.W. A bibliography of Libya. University of Durham, (Research 1959 papers series No. 1),100 p. INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT The economic 1960 development of Libya, Baltimore, John Hopkins Press, 524 p.
ISTITUTOAGRICOLO COLONIALE, FIRENZE La colinizzazione agricola della 1947 Trip°Mania, Roma, Tipografia del Senato,170 p.
ISTITUTOAGRI-COLO COLONIALE, FIRENZE La colonizzazione della Cirenaica, Roma, 1946 Tipografia del Senato, 90 p.
ISTITUTOAGRONOMIC°, FIRENZEContributo ad una bibliografia italiana sulla 1953 Libia, Firenze, 193 p. JOPPICH, W. Technical and agricultural proposals for the development of 1961 the Ente farms of Cyrenaica, Report presented to the Ministry of Agriculture, Tripoli,3 cm.
KHADDOURI, M. Modern Libya, a study in political development, Baltimore, 1963 John Hopkins Press, 404 p. LEONE, G. Agriculturae colonizzazione della Tripolitania settentrionale 1923 e nel Sud-tunisino, Agricultura coloniale,(Firenze),18(5): 170 -09.
' RCHETTI, M. Idrologia cirenaica, (Hydrology of Cyrenaica),Firenze, 1938 249 p.
MAUGINI, A. Immigrazione agricola italiana in Africa, Rivista di agri - 1951 cultura sub-tropicale, (Firenze) 45: (10-12): 373-383.
MAUGINI, A. Immigrazione di millecento famiglie rurali nelle provincie 1938 libiche, Agricultura coloniale,(Firenze), 32(10): 433-440. Mc BURNEY, C. B. M. & HEY, R. W.Prehistory and pelistocene geology in Cyr enaica, 1955 Libya, Cambridge University Press, 315 p. MELICZEK, H. Wirtschaftlicher und sozialer Wandel in Messa, einer Sied - 1968 lung in der Cyrenaica (Economic and social change in Messa a settlement in Cyr enaica)Zeitschrift ftir auslandische Landwirtschaft (Frankfurt/M. ),7(1): 87-93, ( Summary in English). MELICZEK H. Socio-economic conditions oía Libyan village and proposals 1964 for future development. Berlin,Tnstitute of Foreign Agri- culture, Technical University Ber.an, 67 p.
MOORE, M. Fourth shore,Italy' s mass colonization of .T...ibya,London 1940 George Roulledge and Sons, 233 p. MOURSEY, K. History of immovable property in Arab countries, Cairo, Dar el Nanda (in Arabic). OBLATH, A. Italian emigration and colonization policy, International 1931 Labour Review, (Geneva),23: 805-834. PAN, C. L. The population of Libya, Population Studies, (London), 1949 3(1): 100-125. PANETTA, E. Cirenaica sconosciuta,Firenze, Sansoni, 206 p. 1952 PANTANELLI, E. Le risorse idriche della Cirenaica, (Hydraulic resources 1940 of Cyr enaica), Firenze, 107 p. PHILLIPS, T. Italy's mass colonization of Libya, Journal of the Royal 1940 African Society, (London), 39(155): 129-133. RICHE, J. E. The management of public lands in Libya, In International 1956 Conference on land tenure and related problems in World Agriculture,1951, Land Tenure Proceedings, Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 632-633.
ROYAL INS1 ITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS The Italian colonial empire,London 1940 Information Department, 72 p. (Paper No. 27). RUSSEL, E. J. Agricultural colonisation in the Pontine Marshes and Libya, 1939 Geographical Journal, (London), 94(10): 273-292. SCHNEIDER, O. & WILHELMY, H.Die faschistische Kolonisation in Nordafrika, 1939 Leipzig, Quelle & Meyer, 204 p. - 253 -
SETTANI, G. Per la colonizzazione della Tripolitania, Chieta,C. Marchionne, 1925 26 p. SINISCALCHI, A. I pregi della colonizzazione agraria della Tripolitania (The 1949 value of agricultural colonization in Tripolitania). Rivista di agricultura subtropicale e tropicale. (Firenze), 43: 214-228.
SPADO, F. La colonizzazione della Libia,Bologna,Zanichelli,110 p. 1914
STA FFO F. E. The ex-Italian colonies, International Affairs, (London), 1949 25(1): 47-55. STEBBING, E. P . The man-made desert in Africa, erosion and drought, Journal 1928 of the Royal African Society, (London), 37(166): 3-40, STROPPA, E. Nomadism° e nomacli della Tripolitania, Roma, Minister° 1915 delle Colonie, Tipografia Nazionale di G. Bertero,123 p. SULTAN,V. B. The agriculture of Northern Libya. Foreign Agriculture, 1944 (Washing( on)8: 147-168. TAPPIO, M. Considerazioni sulle transformazioni fondiarie in Tripolitania. 1927 (Observations on agrarian changes in Tripolitania) Istituto agricolo coloniale italiano,Firenze, 62 p. TERLIZZI, L. Di alcune questioni economico-agricole e sociali reguardanti 1923 la Cirenaica ( Agricultural economics and social affairs in Cyrenaica). Bengasi, Unione Tipografica Editrice,54 p. THOMAS, H. M. Economic and commercial conditions in Libya. H. M. S. O. 1955 London, 53 p. THOMAS, H. M. Some observations on plants in the Libya.n desert, Journal 1921 of Ecelogy, (Cambridge), 9(1): 75-89. TRIPOLITANIA, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Survey of land resources in 1945 Tri oolitania, rripoli, Government Press,156 p.
UNITED KINGDOM OF LIBYA1960 Census of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, 1962 Tripoli,526 p.
UNITED NATIONS Memorandum on the regulations concerning possession and 1951 ow-nership under the Italian Regime in Libya, by J. Mensing, United Nations Mission, TripOli, (Report No. A/A.C. 32/ Trip. R. 1). USOM Crop improvement and agricultural marketing, Tripoli, 12 p. 1958 WILLIMOTT, S.G. ed. Field studies in Libya. University of Durham, 123 p. 1960 (Research papers series No.4). TIP. VARYSTAMPA ROMA Tel. 630674 M R /R9774 /7 40 /G Irnos