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Religion and Belief Agora Agora Religion and Belief print post approved 318780/00042 2014 history teachers’ association of victoria no. 3 vol. 49 Thema Nazism, Political Religion and ‘Ordinary’ Germans How did the churches – and their communities – respond to Nazism as a political religion? Dr Samuel Koehne, Deakin University The study of Nazism and religious belief has been between the bounds of Christian faith and National a vibrant field of historical inquiry in recent years. Socialism did not exist for those who had made the This topic has been the subject of an ever-increasing tapestry. number of studies, both ‘from above’ and ‘from below.’ Numerous recent works have shown that indeed There have been arguments (as well as counter- some Christians saw their faith as entirely consistent arguments) about whether the Nazis were advocating with National Socialism. As Manfred Gailus put it a particular form of faith called ‘positive Christianity,’ in an edited collection, it was generally ‘not a good whether there might be a kind of ‘special path’ of performance’ for the churches.3 The point that development in German religion, whether there may surprised crowds in 2010 had already been noted by be ‘Catholic roots’ to the Nazi Party, or whether we James Zabel in 1976: ‘Ideas which today may appear should understand Nazism fundamentally through a to be essentially unchristian were considered by racial-biological Darwinian narrative.1 sincere people in … the 1930s to be at the basis of right There has also been a fascinating shift towards belief.’4 Susannah Heschel has pointed out that there revising our understanding of the role of the churches is a need to understand this as historians, and grasp in Germany and their support for or opposition to ‘the complexity of how religion functions rather than the Nazi Party in power. In 2010, an exhibition at defining its “essence.”’ Complicated and intertwined Berlin’s German Historical Museum on ‘Hitler and the relationships clearly existed between ‘ordinary Germans’ had one piece in particular that ‘caused the Germans’ and the Nazi State, and this was no less true crowds to stop and stare.’2 It was a 1935 tapestry that of Christian communities.5 combined the Lord’s Prayer, a church and the swastika When it comes to the notion of religious opposition, flag. This was an object made by ordinary people, by there are two key problems. First is historical Christian women, in genuine belief that these three complexity and second is defining ‘resistance.’ This should be interwoven. What seems to have fascinated becomes all the more difficult when trying to provide visitors was that the expectation of a disjunction information to a general audience. For example, Agora 21 Thema important internet resources are Quarterly, which not only counts many ABOVE: Crowd at a Hitler beginning to become available, such as major authors among its editors but rally. the dual language website ‘Protestant also offers free access to reviews of PREVIOUS PAGE: Reichstag Christians under the Nazi Regime.’ current literature.11 In addition there is a ovation after Hitler As Kyle Jantzen has noted, this is an forthcoming book (Catholics, Protestants, announced the Anschluß, 1938. ‘innovative attempt to present the and Nazis, edited by Mark Ruff) that aims history of Christian resistance’ during to offer a comprehensive introduction the Nazi period but he also notes that it to the debates on this topic and access to 1 See Samuel Koehne, ‘Reassessing The Holy is incumbent on those producing such some major primary source documents, Reich: Leading Nazis’ resources to deal with ‘all aspects … from as much of the material is still only Views on Confession, the heroic to the disgraceful.’6 available in German.12 Community and “Jewish” Materialism,’ Journal of In his classic work, John Conway gives So how do we begin to make sense of Contemporary History 48 a good summary of this process away all these diverse trends? What I would (2013): 423–45. from a hagiography of groups like the like to do in this paper is examine the 2 ‘Hitler Exhibit Explores a ‘Confessing Church,’ which was that topic by taking one of the dominant Wider Circle of Guilt,’ New they and the Catholic Church were schools of thought – that Nazism York Times, 15 October ‘uninterruptedly the opponents of was a ‘political religion’ – and dealing 2010. 7 3 Manfred Gailus, ‘Keine Nazism.’ Several authors have been very directly with an issue that I have often gute Performance: important in problematising German encountered when teaching the history Die deutschen church history. For instance, Robert of the Nazi Party. A common question Protestanten im “Dritten Ericksen, Kevin Spicer, Doris Bergen raised by students is this: what could Reich’” in Zerstrittene and Susannah Heschel have all dealt be known about the Nazis when they ‘Volksgemeinschaft’: Glaube, extensively with the topic of theologians came to power? While formulated in Konfession und Religion and Christians who found much to agree different ways and sometimes with a im Nationalsozialismus, ed. Manfred Gailus and with in Nazism. different chronological focus, the core Armin Nolzen (Göttingen: of this question is one of historicism. Their works have considered prominent Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, It may be abundantly clear to us now Protestant theologians, Catholic priests, 2011), 96–121. While what the Nazis stood for, how racist Gailus deals with German the ‘Faith Movement of the German and antisemitic they were, but we are Protestants, Spicer deals Christians’ which sought to establish looking back to the topic with knowledge with German Catholics in a specifically ‘German’ Church, and of World War II and the Holocaust. So the same book (66–95). those involved in the establishment 4 James A. Zabel, Nazism what could be known by people then, of the ‘Institute for Research into and and the Pastors: A Study of and how did they view the Nazis? Given Elimination of Jewish Influence on the Ideas of Three Deutsche my sense that many teachers encounter Christen Groups (Missoula, German Church Life.’8 There have also this questions, I believe it may be a Montana: Scholars Press, been recent studies that examine the useful prism through which to view 1976), 226. movement for a neo-pagan ‘German Nazism and religion. Moreover, it offers 5 Susannah Heschel, Faith.’9 Then there has been a growing ‘Historiography of us an opportunity to deal with some field of studies, led by Manfred Gailus Antisemitism Versus approaches mentioned above. and Kyle Jantzen, which examines Anti-Judaism: A Response ‘parish politics’ and the responses of The Revival of ‘Political Religion’ to Robert Morgan,’ Journal for the Study individual congregations in recognition One of the simplest ways we can of the New Testament of the fact that we need to understand answer the question ‘what could be 33 (2011): 272–73. On the full diversity of Christian response. known?’ is by examining how people the study of ‘ordinary This is particularly important because Germans’ and ‘everyday actually understood Nazism on the there has been some assumption in life’: Detlev Peukert, cusp of the so-called ‘seizure of power’ the historiography that ‘national and Inside Nazi Germany: (Machtergreifung) in 1933.13 In fact, the regional church-political issues … were Conformity, Opposition idea that Nazism forms a ‘political and Racism in Everyday simply replayed locally.’10 religion’ is not only a dominant Life (Harmondsworth: For those who wish to quickly gain theoretical strand, but also marks a Penguin, 1989). an understanding of the most recent return to ideas expressed at the time. 6 The English version of the website is a valuable research, I would recommend the Many of those who argue in favour of educational tool: http://bit. journal Contemporary Church History ‘political religion’ consciously draw ly/1zy1xOK. 22 Agora Thema on Eric Voegelin’s characterisation of there are sacred writings (e.g. Das 7 John S. Conway, The Nazism and Communism in precisely Kapital by Marx) in which one Nazi Persecution of the these terms by 1938, though he was believes, even if one does not know it Churches 1933–45 (London: not alone in such views. As Emilio precisely. Here there are confessions Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968), xxi-xxviii. Gentile notes, ‘the first scholars who of faith with all the characteristics of a 8 Robert P. Ericksen, used the concept of political religion genuine Credo, for example, with the Theologians under Hitler: (or any of its synonyms, such as secular formulas regarding the rejection of Gerhard Kittel, Paul Althaus, religion and lay religion) in order to false teachings (Communist Manifesto, and Emanuel Hirsch (New interpret totalitarian movements, were Chapter 3) or with the prohibition Haven: Yale University Protestant and Catholic intellectuals of modification (“The Programme Press, 1985); Susannah and theologians.’14 Gontier has pointed is unalterable,” Constitution of the Heschel, The Aryan Jesus: Christian Theologians and out that Voegelin himself stated in a 1973 NSDAP). In these confessions a the Bible in Nazi Germany interview that his work ‘conformed to doctrine is pronounced, which is so (Princeton: Princeton the usage of a literature that interpreted self-evident for the faithful that it University Press, 2008). ideological movements as a variety of needs no proof.18 9 Karla O. Poewe, New religions.’15 Religions and the Nazis What is intriguing is that precisely (New York: Routledge, Much modern work is focused on how these points are now reappearing in 2006). Nazi rituals and ceremonies were some recent literature, including Rainer 10 Kyle Jantzen, ‘Propaganda, comparable to those of ecclesiastical Bucher’s fascinating work Hitler’s Perseverance, and Protest: tradition and the ways in which Nazism Theology.19 Bucher makes the point that Strategies for Clerical Survival Amid the German (as an ideology) might become a Hitler believed ‘two lessons could be Church Struggle,’ Church substitute or replacement for religion.
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