Leadership in the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal Church. Elsa Johansson

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND BUSINESS STUDIES

Department of Humanities

2020

Master Thesis in Religion, 30 Credits Master Programme in Religion

Supervisor : Jari Ristiniemi Examiner : Peder Thal´en 2

Dedicated to my dearest mother who taught me by

her own actions what true leadership is. 3

Abstract

The aim of this research paper is to investigate how to do churchly leadership nowadays? The paper also explores three subordinate questions. What kind of leadership in the Lutheran faith and in the Pentecostal Faith there has been; How the societal, cultural, political, economic context affect church leadership; and Leadership in the church of Sweden and in Pentecostal Faith today and tomorrow. To find the results of the research paper, I used only qualitative research method through hermeneutics. The results of this paper show that church leadership cannot adopt NPM because churchly leadership is totally different than production, effectiveness, optimization. Church leadership is a servant leadership where love and compassion are the foundation of church leadership. A good leadership is when there is a good relationship between leader-followers because they both are the two sides of the same coin. The research paper analyzes two church leaders to identify church leadership, Lewi Pethrus and Erling Eidem. Church leadership has been discriminated, marginalized by the societal, cultural, political, economic context where rationalism, individualism, secularism, globalization, technology, and mass consumption affected individuals to attend church and have religious experiences.The paper recommends that NPM is not a good option to perform spiritual leadership nowadays because these religious organization will be seen like any other earthly organization. Church leadership in the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal church need to change so that these churches can survive as churchly organizations in the future.

E-mail:[email protected] 4 Contents

1 INTRODUCTION 7 1.1 Introduction...... 7 1.1.1 Background ...... 8 1.1.2 Research problem and research questions ...... 9 1.2 Previous studies ...... 9 1.3 Research Methodology ...... 11 1.3.1 Research Philosophy ...... 11 1.3.2 Research Strategy ...... 14 1.3.3 Research Design ...... 15 1.3.4 Research Quality ...... 15 Reliability...... 15 Validity ...... 16 Credibility...... 17

2 THEORY 19 2.1 Leadership ...... 19 2.1.1 Overview of Leadership Theory ...... 19 2.1.2 The Great Man Theory ...... 21 2.1.3 Servant Leadership ...... 24 2.1.4 Transformative Leadership ...... 28 2.1.5 Creative Leadership ...... 31 2.1.6 Leadership in organizations ...... 33 2.1.7 Leadership in the context of religious institution . . . . 36 2.1.8 Key Variables in Leadership Theories ...... 38 Characteristics of the Leader ...... 38 Characteristics of the Followers ...... 38 Characteristics of the Situation ...... 39 2.2 Leadership aﬀected by the Nazi ideology ...... 39 2.2.1 The societal context ...... 40 2.2.2 The cultural context ...... 41 2.2.3 The political context ...... 42

5 6 CONTENTS

2.2.4 The economic context ...... 42 2.2.5 Positive Christianity ...... 43 The Nuremberg Laws ...... 44 2.2.6 Leadership in the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal Faith...... 44 Swedish Lutheran Church and archbishop Erling Eidem 44 Swedish Pentecostal Church and Lewi Pethrus . . . . . 47 2.3 Leadership aﬀected by the Neoliberal ideology ...... 48 2.3.1 The societal context ...... 48 2.3.2 The cultural context ...... 51 2.3.3 The political context ...... 53 2.3.4 The economic context ...... 54 Neoliberal ideology ...... 54 New Public Management ...... 55 New Public Management in the Swedish Lutheran Church 57 New Public Management in the Swedish Pentecostal Church ...... 57 Sustainability ...... 58

3 RESULTS 61 3.1 Interpretation of the Results ...... 61 3.1.1 What was leadership like, both Swedish Lutheran and the Pentecostal Faith in the Nazi era? ...... 61 3.1.2 Leadership in the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal Faith today and tomorrow ...... 64

4 DISCUSSION 69 4.1 Discussion ...... 69 4.1.1 Summary ...... 72 4.1.2 Limitations ...... 72 4.1.3 Future Research ...... 73

5 CONCLUSIONS 75

6 REFERENCES 79 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The topic of this research paper, Leadership in the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal Church, is an important issue because it is related to two important churches as organizations in Sweden that inﬂuence how religion is viewed by Swedish believers. Besides that, this dissertation will analyze the leadership of these two churches from a historical perspective, especially in the Nazi era. This is because the right-wing radical forces were applied in the Nazi era and this kind of force has a lot of similarities with the contemporary era.

The Nazi era was chosen as an example of leadership in the history because many public and private organizations were influenced by this kind of ideology where it was against human rights. Unfortunately, the Nazi era through the Nuremberg laws influenced the church leadership in the past. And nowadays, New Public Management influences both public and private organizations, especially in the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal Church where this kind of management has become a churchly leadership tool.

There is a main research question - How to do churchly leadership nowadays? this question is general and it could apply to any church not just in Sweden

7 8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION but anywhere in the world; there are also two subordinate research questions that are related to the main research question but these are examined in an individual, societal, cultural, political, and economic level. So, let’s move further to the exploit of reading this research project.

1.1.1 Background

Martin Luther, the reformer of the Catholic church, is considered the hero of church history. However, his theological reformation has given good and bad consequences in the creation of new Christian institutions for the forth- coming generations. For example, there are many protestant churches with many denominations all around the world. According to Lindquist (2013), Luther has been described as the ﬁgure or a champion of religious freedom. However, his theological teachings have contributed indirectly to establish the rise of Nazism in Germany. This is because of his rhetorical ideas of antisemitism. Steigmann-Gall (1999) describes that the holy Reich was a movement that originated within Christian institutions since most of them were the elite of Germany. The Nazi ideology was not anti-religious but it was an ethical system of norms, evaluations and principles.

Osterlin (1994) explains that priest Olaus Petri received his theological studies in Wittenberg, the same place that Luther was professor. Markkola (2015) states that Gustav Vasa, King of Sweden, played a crucial role as the supreme head of the Swedish Church in 1540. Murray (1952) claims that it was not just the king who took an important role, but Olavus Petri and his brother Laurentius also took an important role in reforming the Swedish Church from the Roman Catholic church.

Green (2007) declares that the Swedish church has always had conﬂicts with free evangelical churches since she was considered the oﬃcial religion of Swe- den. The other churches that competed with her were not allowed to establish a new church. As a matter of fact, the Augsburg Confession defended the 1.2. PREVIOUS STUDIES 9

”orthodox Lutheran doctrine” in Sweden so that other false teachings that would enter Sweden could be exiled.

The Swedish Lutheran Church drew the attention of the Orthodox church, many Swedes, as the reaction of this kind of leadership, left this church and began to be active in the Swedish Pentecostal Church.

Years have passed and the religious situation in Sweden has changed. Swedish Pentecostal church took root and now leads among the free churches. Ac- cording to Koch (2007), the Pentecostal church of Sweden has its roots in the United States of America. The Swedish leader of this movement was Lewi Pethrus who started the ﬁrst Pentecostal congregation. According to1 NSST,the Swedish Pentecostal Church is the largest free church in Sweden with the most members.

1.1.2 Research problem and research questions

The purpose of this research paper is to discover, understand, and explain churchly leadership.

The main research question in this dissertation is: - How to do Church leadership nowadays? And the subordinate research questions are the following:

1. What was leadership like, both in the Church of Sweden and in the Pentecostal Faith during the Nazi era?

2. Leadership in the church of Sweden and in Pentecostal Faith today and tomorrow?

1.2 Previous studies

Jimmy T˚ali writes his magister research work about the correlation that exists between the Swedish Lutheran Church and neoliberalism Jag kan icke

1Nämnden för Statligt Stöd till Trossamfund(2012) 10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION räkna dem alla. He identifies possible correlations between neoliberalism and the ecclesiology of the Swedish Lutheran church. He analyses two research studies of two theologians, Gustaf Wingren and Stanley Hauerwas. Jimmy T˚ali’s studies are focused on three different levels: organization, congregation, and service-oriented ecclesiology. He concludes that Gustaf Wingren criticizes the Swedish Lutheran church because he observes that this organization is performing the neoliberal ideology within it such as to ”increase profit”. Wingren argues that the Swedish Lutheran church should focus on how more people can come to church, especially to know how and why people have the longing to seek God. Jimmy T˚ali also concludes that Stanley Hauerwas criticizes the Swedish Lutheran church in another way; Hauerwas observes that the church has performed the structure and mind of the neoliberal ideology and that the Swedish Lutheran church as organization is not autonomy anymore. Hauerwas criticizes that the Swedish Lutheran church considered itself as a free organization which means that this organization competes with other churchly organization about how to get more members. However, Hauerwas considers that this churchly organization does not have anymore the theological foundation and character to criticize Capitalism or the logic of the Market economic system.

Soﬁa Axelsson writes her bachelor’s essay about the Swedish Pentecostal church, she analyses if this organization is seen as a sect or an organisation Sekt eller samfund? En studie av pingstr¨orelsens organisatoriska utveckling. She highlights that Lewi Pethrus had so much power when he was the leader of the Swedish church. She investigates that the Swedish Pentecostal church has become a cooperation through the process of institutionalizing the different organizations that this church has. She concludes that Swedish Pen- tecostal Church is a corporate organization that has strong relationship with the contemporary Swedish society.

Richard Steigmann-Gall writes his doctoral research work The Holy Reich: Religious Dimensions of Nazi Ideology, 1994-1945. He analyses the leadership of the Nazi movement and he observes that many of these leaders con- 1.3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 11 sidered themselves as Christians, especially ”positive Christianity”. These positive Christians believed that they could stop the evil forces such as the physical and moral degeneracy. He concludes in his research work that the Nazi party used religion to inﬂuence people. Religion was an important tool for the leadership of Hitler. However, Nazism took the form of a secular party. He concludes that Nazi leaders understood that Jesus had struggle against the Jews and this view was an inspiration for their own struggle. This way of thinking made that many Nazi leaders believed that Christianity was connected to Nazi Ideology. Nazism was not hostile to Christianity but to the church institutions. Nazi leaders believed that they were defenders of the good against the evil, ﬁghting the war that was between God (Germans) and the Devil (Jews).

1.3 Research Methodology

This chapter will present the methodological approach for this thesis which will be focused on qualitative research methodology. Moreover, the paper will use the qualitative method through hermeneutics theory which focuses in written narratives to present ﬁndings. This chapter will show how the research paper is going to be discussed, analyzed, and interpreted. The results will be presented in chapter six.

1.3.1 Research Philosophy

The theoretical point of view will be hermeneutics; the ﬁrst ones who used and introduced the term ”hermeneutics” in history were the church fathers. As Seebohm (2004) describes, this was an important resource literature deal- ing with truth and falsehood in the Middle Ages. In fact, hermeneutics was one of the main reasons why religious wars started after the Reformation.

According to Fejes & Thornberg (2005), there are three main categories of contemporary hermeneutics: 1. Existentially oriented hermeneutics, 2. Sus- picion’s hermeneutics, and 3. General interpretive theory. 12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

This paper is going to focus on the general interpretative theory which has the viewpoint of philosophical hermeneutic and as Teevan (2005) explains that hermeneutics is interested in problems of philosophy and ontology. It is also an understanding of being-in-the-world and interpretations of a happen- ing or event (Teevan 2005, p. 20). In fact, it cannot be understand if there is not aﬃnity of spirits because all the subjects are spiritual beings that are moved by emotions and thoughts.

Bauman (2010) interprets experiences through history and mainly about what it has been before our contemporary era.

Understanding, therefore, is a particular method which only ”sciences of the Spirit”, the study of human history, can employ. Their recourse to this method is not the sign of their deprivation or, indeed, of their inferior position in relation to the sciences of nature. On the contrary, they enjoy a privilege inaccessible to natural sciences. Understanding is the pastime of gods; striving to understand history and hoping that their eﬀort can be successful, men climb heights of truly divine knowledge, which the natural scientists cannot as much as dream of reaching (Bauman 2010, p. 19)

Hermeneutic theory is known as the science of interpretation of texts but this theory does not have a single deﬁnition. There are many hermeneutics models and some philosophical thinkers agree that hermeneutic has universal conditions for human understanding. ”Universal conditions for human understanding in three areas: the nature of consciousness, the nature of truth, and the importance of language” (Zimmermann 2015, p. 11)

Hermeneutics has certain methods of interpretation in a narrow sense through history which is the knowledge of past and philology which is the knowing of what was known and the interpretation of the documents that represent the tradition (Seebohm 2004, p. 56). The paper will have the methodological guidelines of one of the hermeneutical classical religious thinker who uses 1.3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 13 the interpretative theory, Martin Heidegger, who insisted that human understanding is thoroughly historical and linguistic. Understanding is a process and it can never be precise which means that hermeneutics has an ontological and existential character.

The ontological character of the thesis is to deal with different phenomena that will lead me to understand churchly leadership. However, it is important to define ontology in order to understand this subject in a better way. There are different categories of ontology as ontology of culture, religion, etc. Different ontologies that form the disciplines of the objects of a subject matter that is displayed in its categorical character (Heidegger 1999, pp. 2-3).In this perspective leadership belong to the ontology of culture, churchly leadership to the ontology of religion. Kalaga (2015) states that the interpreter chooses the texts so that the reader can project a horizon of meaning which exists only because it is received by the reader. ”Interpretation as appropriation allows the text to present its reader with a projected world, which manifests itself as a suggestion or a proposal extended towards the reader. This opening of a new world should be understood as a creation of a new way of being. Thus, appropriation is ultimately an ontological phenomenon” (Kalaga 2015, p. 122). After having the definition of ontology, my present work does not handle just with churchly leadership as the subject but also with social actors, ideologies, movements, and contexts as the objects of the being of churchly leadership where the reader is the only one who will accept or deny the results.

The existential character of the thesis as well as most of researchers is to develop an understanding of history so that one can have an understanding of the present time. As Heidegger stresses, the interpretative dimension of understanding is through the notion of the hermeneutical circle. Because we live in a world of involvements, we always begin with some understanding of what we are seeking to understand (Teevan 2005, p. 21), our life is always, and from the outset, life-towards-death or man is dying already as born, that is, a human being is a historical being in time and space (Bauman 2010, p. 14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

112).

1.3.2 Research Strategy

The subject of churchly leadership can fascinate any person not just in history but also in our contemporary era. Moreover, social science through religion was and is very interested in similar subjects which have pursued diﬀerent qualitative research strategies to understand how this subject has impacted the world.

The hardest part of hermeneutical research strategy was not only to understand the world that was behind the authors of diﬀerent texts or to get into the mind of the authors but the work of a good researcher is to interpret in texts all the proposed world which could project diﬀerent possibilities, ”ex- plicate the type of being-in-the world unfolded in front of the text” (Teevan 2002, p. 25)

So, the methodological research strategy in this paper is going to interpret different literature texts or reviews about churchly leadership in the Nazi era and in the contemporary era as well as in the two Swedish churches, the Lutheran and Pentecostal faith.The Nazi era is the period between 1933 and 1945, the Nazi leader or Hitler being an absolute authoritarian leader, the sole sovereign of the Third Reich. The authoritarian leadership is a cultural phenomenon in recent history, it is important to understand how it affects leadership. The paper compares both churches so that the spiritual world of spiritual leadership can be opened up and give us different possibilities.

The paper can add value to church leadership theory by exploring the wide world of spiritual leadership not just in history but also in the present time by using a qualitative research method. 1.3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 15

1.3.3 Research Design

First, the paper will define what research design means so that we can pro- ceed to outline the framework of the own paper’s research design. ”Research design is the set of methods and procedures used in collecting and analyzing measures of the variables specified in the research problem research...It is the framework that has been created to find answers to research questions” (Watson 2018, p. 27).

Then, the paper’s research design is going to present the research questions, in seeking answers to these questions a qualitative hermeneutics is chosen as the method. After the paper was done with the research questions, the general leadership theory was outlined as chapter two. Chapter 2.2 focuses on the leadership in the Swedish Lutheran- and Pentecostal church that was affected by the Nazi ideology, especially two spiritual leaders that impacted Sweden in the Nazi era. Chapter 2.3 outlines how leadership is affected by the Neoliberal ideology and it also outlines with how church leadership is affected by the societal, cultural, political, and economic context. Chapter 3 presents the results of the entire dissertation or in other words, to interpret the results of the paper work. Chapter 4 discusses the results of the present research work with the three previous studies. And chapter 5 presents all the important conclusions of the present work.

Of course, it was not easy to ﬁnd literature review related to these variables but after a long searching, the work achieved to discuss literature reviews of societal, cultural, political, economic, and historical contexts.

1.3.4 Research Quality

Reliability

The research paper has not just one main question but also four other subordinate research questions that have connection with the framework of my 16 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION research paper. According to Watson (2008), the research design necessitates a well-though-out plan for finding connections and making sense of the data. Watson (2008) recommends six steps in the reliability process. The steps that the paper has used in the process of the thesis are the following: 1) Different complete narratives of every unit were selected so that every one of them could be analyzed. 2) The categories have been identified in order to construct the underlined themes. 3) The essence of the themes’ outcomes has been analyzed and revealed . 4) The underlying theoretical concepts have been explained. 5) The themes’ outcomes have been compared so that there is an idea of the social reality. 6) The results were interpreted by looking at the themes’ outcomes with supporting narratives documents that are connected to the research questions and purpose.

Validity

The term validity is used to describe the quality of the data and application in the research paper. Fejes & Thorberg (2015) implies that a research paper should have two important elements: a) Critical thinking and b) Creative thinking. According to Fejes & Thorberg (2015), critical thinking should have a suitable purpose and question that ﬁts with the data collection and the analysis method. In fact, the results should thoroughly answer the research question and purpose of the thesis and if the results slides away from the thesis’s research question and purpose, it means that the thesis does not have good quality or has been disproved. (Fejes & Thorberg 2015, pp. 257- 258).

The paper has already presented in the ﬁrst chapter, the research purpose which is to discover, understand, describe, and explain church leadership. It is connected with my main research problem of my dissertation - How to do Church leadership nowadays? Every research question has connection with 1.3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 17 the purpose of the thesis:

1. What kind of leadership there has been in the Church of Sweden and in the Pentecostal Faith?And also to describe the personal qualities of the leaders of the Swedish Lutheran Church and Pentecostal Swedish Church in that era.

2. Leadership in the church of Sweden and in Pentecostal Faith today and tomorrow? And to show church leadership that is performing in the present era and how this will impact in the future.

The results, that the paper is going to obtain, have to answer well these research questions and purposes. The design of the thesis is construed so that the purpose and sub-questions get satisfying answers.

Credibility

Credibility refers to the accuracy and the truth of the data (literature reviews). Cope (2014) states that the researcher can promote this process by allowing adequate time in collecting data and obtaining and understanding of the people and phenomenon of the study. (Cope 2014, p. 90). ”The interpreter has a crucial role in this journey of the human Spirit back to its original unity. He is, in a sense, a cultural broker, mediating between ages and nations, and bringing about the gradual re-uniﬁcation of divided humanity. He or she becomes, therefore, a genuine agent of history: it is he who unwinds the knots tied up by the spontaneous and unsystematic action of the Spirit” (Bauman 2010, p. 19).

When the paper was ﬁrst written, both the qualitative and quantitative method was going to be used but at the time of writing through the literature reviews, the thesis ended up using only qualitative method to answer the research questions.

The paper had used books, e-books, journals, magazines, old thesis, and articles that were related to every categorized unit of the research paper. In 18 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION fact, every time time the advanced work was sent to the supervisor, who has expertise in this ﬁeld, it received a positive feedback from him. Chapter 2

THEORY

2.1 Leadership

Since the creation of the world, humanity has been impacted by leaders who have changed history. These leaders were recognized because they created an empire, a business, or stopped oppression in a determined place which inspired followers to continue with the same dream.

2.1.1 Overview of Leadership Theory

There are many concepts or definitions of what leadership means. “Leader- ship is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2010, p.3). Leadership has influenced humanity during many centuries and without it, the world would move without guidance or purpose.

Surji (2015) explains that the word LEADERSHIP is characterized by the following letters: L: Listen which mean that good leaders are great listen- ers and speak less. E: Enthusiasm, Good leaders show great excitement for achievements. A: Aspiring, goods leaders have high goal and ambitions to achieve with an enormous desire. D: Decisive, to make tough decisions and be accountable.E: Empower and Encourage, a good leader give the follower good support. R: Responsible, good leaders take responsibility for their ac-

19 20 CHAPTER 2. THEORY tions. S: Supportive, a good leader have eﬀective interpersonal relationships. H: Humble, a good leader is honest and humble that helps everyone with his or her humility and try to make others feel important and valued. I: Inspire with Integrity, a good leader encourage, motivate others with honesty and truthfulness. P: Great leaders are excellent at strategic planning. Leaders plan ahead with Plan A, Plan B, etc.

Power and leadership are connected to each other and power can be dangerous if it is in wrong hands, as Northhouse (2010) mentions it is because leaders become powerful when they have the ability to influence others’ actions, attitudes, and believes. Yulk (2013) states that leaders inspire followers to willingly sacrifice their selfish interests for a higher cause. Northhouse (2010) clarifies that doctors, ministers, coaches, and teachers have the power to influence others.

Then, the relationship between leader-followers is important because neither leader nor follower is above or under the other one but they both are in a relationship of two sides of the same coin. Bolden et al.(2011) presents Lao Tzu’s knowledge which is that there is a need of balance and harmony among “we” and that we cannot separate us from each other. The leader must recognize that the ultimate responsibility rests in him and that his or her decision would impact the whole nation or humanity, either in peace or danger (Bolden et al. 2011, p. 21).

In fact, Bolden et al.(2011) explains that leaders should be able to have empathy with people’s feelings, especially degradation and pain in all over the world even if the leader is not at the same physical location (Bolden et al. 2011, pp.151-157). Moreover, leaders’ ethic and morality make leaders realize that the individual cannot be separated from the entire humanity because having a good life is more valuable than eﬃcient production and indulgent consumption.

Abram (1997) describes that leaders need to recognize that we breathe the 2.1. LEADERSHIP 21 same air and that we are part of a single and unitary earth, the planet as a uniﬁed whole (Abram 1997, pp. 270-272). Bolden et al. (2011) outlines that researchers have concluded that leaders, managers, with personal good qualities like virtue, wisdom, respect, honesty, and human ﬂourishing, create positive environment (Bolden et al. 2011, p. 159). According to Bolden et al. (2011), leadership needs to be a reciprocal relationship and active partnership of leaders and followers because there is not leadership if they do not interact to each other (Bolden et al. 2011, p. 30).

2.1.2 The Great Man Theory

Anyone of us would love to be the man or woman who changes the stream of how the world is facing the future. Our civilized societies all around the world want to have a change in the course of consumption and destruction of our natural resources. In fact, we do not know if the great man or woman would rise soon or never. However, according to Mouton (2019), many scholars think that the great man theory is not relevant anymore because the great man or woman was the creation of the historians through the production of narratives notes.

The Great Man theory is ”an assertion that certain individuals, certain men, are gifts from God placed on earth to provide the lightening needed to uplift human existence” (Spector, 2016, p. 250). This great man leader influences with actions history ”Their actions had on an event or series of events making the argument that historical events would have been significantly different or might not have occurred at all if these ”great men” weren’t around to influence the outcome” (Halaychik 2016, p. 3). Leaders were born to lead ”the capacity for leadership is inherent, which means that great leaders are born, not made. Therefore the theory depicts leaders as heroic and mythic” (Ruzgar 2019, pp.319-320)

The theory is associated with the book On Heroes, Hero. Worship and the Heroic in History where the great man or woman is considered as the hero 22 CHAPTER 2. THEORY of the history, the charisma to lead people is one of the characteristics that is well defined ”it seems obvious that leaders are born different from their followers, it is not simply a matter of learning to lead. Accordingly, if we are to gain meaningful insights into the nature of leadership, we must continue to explore those differences” (Cawthon 1996, p.3). Halaychik (2016) also describes that heroes had special individual abilities and talents such as charisma, intelligence, etc. which made it easy for them to influence the world.

The position of the leader is very important because one can observe the power that he or she has over the followers. One of the reasons why the followers appreciate the leader is because of his or her abilities, especially authority. This authority that followers keep up is obvious in the case of Hitler.

Besides authority, there are other internal and external traits that the followers appreciate from the Great man. As Halaychik (2016) mentions in his book, these internal traits impact on the external environment as well as the external traits impact the followers with motivation and encouragement to achieve the vision. The following Table 2.1 summarizes the internal and external traits of the Great Man Theory. 2.1. LEADERSHIP 23

Table 2.1 summarizes the Internal and external traits of the Great Man Theory. Nro Internal traits Characteristics External traits Characteristics Technical proﬁ- Share goals, ob- 1 Intelligence ciency, life expe- Communication jectives and ex- riences pectations Gain the trust Meaningful 2 Ambition Sincerity and respect of changes others The fuel that lights the ﬁre 3 Passion of ambition, Thoughtfulness The golden rule conviction, and perseverance 4 Valor or bravery Right thing Connecting Sharing ideas

Challenge and Originality of Inspiration and 5 Inspiring communicate thought developments the vision Depend on New ideas, ex- 6 Vision Building what the vision periences is

Table 2.1: Halaychik, 2016, pp. 8-11

Table 2.1 shows the internal and external traits of the great man which can be teachable within limits even intelect can be trained by those who raise or teach the ”great man” at the young age. .

So, to sum up, if ”great man or woman” was born, there was no reason to study leadership theory, values, models, etc. We should have assumed that leaders are borned and taught otherwise church leadership is simply waiting for that ”divine gift” and one must wonder why the great man or woman has not come yet to instructed followers to build a new sort of spiritual church leadership. 24 CHAPTER 2. THEORY

2.1.3 Servant Leadership

Leadership, power, and authority seem to be tied together because most of the leaders of the world have had power over others and it was hard to detect the connection between ”leader” and ”servant”. However, servant leadership starts with the universal human impulse to serve others and a servant-leader is one who is a servant ﬁrst. Servant leadership is deﬁned as ”an intentional change process through which leaders and followers, joined by a shared purpose, initiate action to pursue a common vision” (Laub 2018, p. 77).

Servant leadership means that a leader works along with his followers to achieve a dream that they both have in common. The leader has to put aside selﬁshness above his or her self-interest. So, servant leadership is based on virtuous construction where virtues such as love and humility are key in- gredients for servant leadership as Crowther(2018) explains this as model of servant leadership.

In order to be a servant-leader, one should have a well-deﬁned servant identity which motivates serving followers’ needs and not his own needs. ”Identities are therefore people’s desire to be self-identity that is the foundation for the motivation to serve others” (Dierendonck & Patterson 2018 p. 65). The leader needs to be conscious that he or she belongs to the same purpose so that his or her actions pursue a common mission and vision.

Laub (2018) presents a servant leadership model that is called Organiza- tional Leadership Assessment 1 (OLA). Besides his model, there are many other models that can percieve if the organization has a servant leadership.

Laub (2018) clariﬁes that OLA works as an instrument that measures percep- tions of servant leadership in organizations. Moreover, Laub (2018) explains that this model has been used in so many organizations for assesment and consulting to help their servant mindset. OLA has six diﬀerent disciplines:

1This initials will be used as the abbreviation of Organizational Leadership Assessment 2.1. LEADERSHIP 25

1. Value People: (a) By trusting and believing in people (b) By serving others’ needs before their own (c) By receptive, non-judgmental listening. 2. Develop People: (a) By providing opportunities for learning and growth (b) By modeling appropriate behavior (c) By building up others through encouragement and aﬃrmation 3. Build Community: (a) By building strong personal relationships (b) By working collaboratively with others (c) By valuing the diﬀerences of others 4. Display Authenticity: (a) By being open and accountable to others (b) By a willingness to learn from others (c) By maintaining integrity and trust 5. Provide Leadership: (a) By envisioning the future (b) By taking initiative (c) By clarifying goals 6. Share Leadership: (a) By facilitating a shared vision (b) By sharing power and releasing control (c) By sharing status and promoting others. (Laub 2018, p.117)

These six foundational disciplines expresses the idea of servant leadership in actions and practices but it does not describe the values of the servant leaders. According to Laub (2018), this framework represents a leader who wants followers to become leaders as well. However, it is not enough to have a shared vision and promote others to be leaders if there is no compassion and love to the followers.

So, there is another servant leadership model than the OLA model and this model is based on feelings: compassion and love. Servant leadership from a compassion perspective shines an emotional atmosphere ”compassion is also about attitude and emotional climate: the leader radiates gentleness and presence in her or his everyday actions, the follower knows that she or he will not be left alone in a moment of need” (Dierendonck & Patterson 2018 p.123)

This model uses diﬀerent servant leadership models as 1) the Graham model with ethical and moral foundations as humility, relational power, autonomy, moral development of followers, and emulation of leaders’ service orientation, 2) the Spears Model which uses Greenleaf with the desire and a heart of a 26 CHAPTER 2. THEORY servant, 3) the Patterson Model with the behaviours, attitudes and virtues that are qualities of a leader , and other models that identiﬁes with compassion and humility.

Figure 2.1 explains servant leadership as a combination of the two deﬁnitions, leader and servant at the same time. The responsibility is shared with the followers who are willing to work with a leader who is worthy to trust. Ser- vant leaders build compassion and copassion. Forgiveness and appreciation are great compassion which help a leader to notice another’s emotion. The process of this ﬁgure was performed in Finnish organizations which had positive result not just individually (work, engagement, health, and happiness but in a organization (job performance, commitment, servant culture).

Figure 2.1 represents the Conceptual model for servant leadership, compassion, and healthy organizations

Figure 2.1: Dierendonck & Patterson 2018 p.125 2.1. LEADERSHIP 27

Servant leadership from a love perspective means as Patterson explains ”servant- leaders lead with love, are motivated by love, and serve their followers with love. This love is a force, a force so intense that it changes lives-the lives of the followers, the life of the organization, and even the life of the leader” (Dierendonck & Patterson 2010 p.123)

Here LOVE is the essence of humanity because love is the connection between the leader and followers, a good example of servant leadership model is Jesus Christ and mother Teresa of Calcutta. Crowther (2018) describes diﬀerent leaders in the old and new testament that represented servant leadership.

Jesus, the son of God, is considered the ultimate servant leader who becomes a servant which means that he is not just acting but he is the being of serving. In fact, he wants his disciples to be servants too. Crowther (2018) talks about having an intenal attitude that has motivation and desire to serve others. A Biblical servant leader represents a godly character which is the foundation of virtues such as love and perseverance to be a servant leader.

Figure 2.2 represents the Biblical servant leadership

Figure 2.2: Crowther 2018 p.148 28 CHAPTER 2. THEORY

Figure 2.2 is the Biblical servant leadership model that is divided in three stages: The ﬁrst stage is personal and internally which is known as calling, the second stage where LOVE is the essence and foundation of servant leadership, along with humility, trust, enpowerment, and service. The third and ﬁnal stage is the legacy which means that even if the servant leader is not alive, there are successors who continue being servant leaders.

2.1.4 Transformative Leadership

The world needs new challenges to change the direction of the societal, political and economic leadership that is leading the present time. The change cannot be done by one leader but by the good relation between the leader and followers.

Transformative leadership theory was introduced by McGregor Burns ”who applied it in a political context.”However, Bernard Bass introduced the transformative leadership in the organization context” (Suprihno & Rohmawati 2019, pp. 85-86). According to Suprihno & Rohmawati (2019), there is a big diﬀerence between transactional and transformative leadership because the ﬁrst one involves exchange tangible rewards between the leader and followers so that the leader can maintain the status quo while the second one opposes the status quo and directs towards a new direction.

Caldwell et al. (2012) have performed a research to identify a transformative leadership model which combines six diﬀerent perspectives which focus on the ethical foundations. In their study, they identiﬁed values, ethical duties, and outcomes that are key characteristics of all six perspectives of transformative leadership. ” As a leadership model transformative leadership honors the obligations of ethical stewardship in the pursuit of both normative and instrumental outcomes for people, organizations, and other stakeholders” (Caldwell et al. 2012, p.181) 2.1. LEADERSHIP 29

The key characteristics of these six leadership transformative leadership perspectives contributes to transformative leadership that Cadwell et al. (2012) presents in their work. First, the transformational perspective in which the leadership is focused on synergistic change and contributes to pursue the syn- ertistic interestes of both employees and the organization. Second, Charis- matic perspective in which the leadership has the ability to create a personal relationship and contributes to inspire a shared vision in pursuit of a grand ideal and create a personal relationship to bring out the best in others. Third, Level 5 perspective, with the key message ”share the same commitment to achieving superb results, and recognize that employee commitment, cooperation, and partnership are keys to long-term wealth creation” (Cadwell et al 2021, p. 179). This level recognizes that leadership is humility and con- tribute to treat people fairly and give them credit for their achievements. Fourth, Principle centered perspective in which leadership has adherence to values and principles, and contributes to achieve greatness by adhering to moral principles and values that beneﬁt society. Fifth, servant perspective in which stakeholders will serve employees and demonstrate a commitment to their welfare, growth, and wholeness of the organization. And lastly but not least, covenantal perspective in which leadership is the contribution to meaning and contributes to pursue truth through a learning culture.

Grin et al. (2018) writes in their article as the work of transformative leadership 2 (TL) with different characteristic than Caldwell et al. (2012) which I think it is important to mention: First, TL provides inspiring motivation that persuade followers to get along with an ambition and vision. Second, TL provides intellectual stimulation which is to create awareness to view problems from different angles and encourage followers to find creative solutions. Third, TL stimulates individuals involvement through creating context for knowledge-gathering and learning. Lastly, TL promotes ideal influence which means that the personal sacrifice from the leader is respected and trusted by the followers.

2This initials will be used as the abbreviation of Transformative Leadership 30 CHAPTER 2. THEORY

The transformative leadership theory model that Shields & Hesbol (2020) present in their research work is also outlined below and it will be summa- rized and explained in figure 2.3. This figure comprises two basic and parallel theoretical prepositions and eight supporting tenets. The first preposition pertains to individual and private with a good learning environment that is equitable, respectful, and inclusive. The second preposition pertains to public educational institutions that have civic life and democracy that will allow the participation of knowledgeable and caring citizens. The model shows eight tenets that represents ”equitable change that requires requires knowing one- self, one’s organization, and one’s community” (Shields & Hesbol 2020 p.5). The theory includes policy and practice to ensure equity which means that the community will eliminate racism, deficit thinking, homophobia, xenopho- bia, and other prejudices. In fact, a community that has interdependence, interrelationships, and becoming globally aware that transformation involves pushback for both individual and societies good.

Figure 2.3 represents the model of transformative leadership theory.

Figure 2.3: Shields & Hesbol 2020 p.6 2.1. LEADERSHIP 31

2.1.5 Creative Leadership

Creativity is an important quality in a successful leader who demonstrates to his or her followers that he or she manages complex situations or problems in the process of leadership. Of course, the leader needs other qualities such as wisdom and intelligence so that he or she can achieve the designated goal.

a successful leader must demonstrate the three extraordinary qualities of wisdom, intelligence and creativity. Of these three qualities, creativity has drawn increasing research attention since the 1950s , being described as a process of coming up with novel ideas to accomplish a deﬁned task or goal (Mayer & Oosthuizen 2020, p. 21-22)

Creative leadership is the creative contributions that both leader and followers are convoluted. According to Randel & Jaussi (2019), there are three collaborative contexts of creative leadership: facilitating, integrating, and directing. First, the facilitating context fulﬁls the creative of followers who will be the main generators of ideas. Second, the integrating context encourages the creativity of followers, And last, the directing context involves leaders to create vision and followers to execute the leader’s vision. However, I think that the integrating context is the one that represents more signiﬁcantly the creative leadership where the leader encourages the creativity of followers.

Creative leadership cannot be held for only one person but for many people. ”Creative leadership is not just a phrase, it’s a way of living, and a way to develop other leaders. a growing base of evidence lends credence to these ideas” (Gheerawo 2019, p. 4). Ivanova states that creative leadership encourages new strategies, models, values, practices, services, products, ways of living, working, connecting, etc. ”in all cases, engagement with an artistically creative mindset is of the essence” (Gheerawo 2019, p. 4)

Mayer & Oosthuizen (2020) explores in their research paper eight types of creative leadership. Table 2.2 shows the results of paper where redirection leadership is more accepted by the female followers and this is because they wanted the organization to have a new direction. The second and third type 32 CHAPTER 2. THEORY of leadership is also important for the followers but the ﬁve other types of creative leadership are not so essential in creative leadership.

Table 2.2 summarizes the types of creative leadership Types of cre- Nro Deﬁnition ative leadership Attempt to redirect the organisation in a new direction 1 Redirection which needs to match the environmental circumstances. Lead an organisation forward in the direction it is already Forward incre- 2 going. Often most easily recognised and valued, since it mentation extends existing notions.

Attempt to redirect the organisation to a diﬀerent, as 3 Re-initiation yet unreached starting point and then to move from that point.

The creative leader integrates two ideas which previously 4 Synthesis were seen as unrelated or even opposed. Integration becomes a process that merges existing paradigms.

The organisation is in the right place at the right time. 5 Replication The leader prefers to keep the organisation where it is rather than moving it. The leader’s role is to keep it there.

The organisation is in the right place at the right time, but for reasons that are diﬀerent from what others think. 6 Redeﬁnition They implement the ideas of others and receive credit for implementing these ideas for the right reasons. Advance for- Lead an organisation forward in the direction it is already 7 ward incremen- going, but by moving it beyond where others are ready for tation it to go. This often creates resistance in the organisation.

Attempt to redirect the organisation back to where it once Reconstruction/ 8 was (reconstructing the past), but from that point of re- redirection construction it moves forward in a diﬀerent direction.

Table 2.2: Mayer & Oosthuizen 2020, pp. 33-34 2.1. LEADERSHIP 33

Creative leadership for Mickahail & De Aquino (2019) is authentic, transformational, and empowering. At the same time, a leader needs to be in the horizontal hierarchy which means that he will sett the vision, mentoring, and communication skills are very important skills. Both leader and followers need to be passionate about the vision and goal that the organization pos- sesses.

Most of the time, the leadership roles are not in the horizontal hierarchy, but the roles are based on vertical hierarchy, centralized power, structure, tradition, etc. which means that there is a need of a new leadership model that allows to have a diﬀerent style of life.

Although tradition, hierarchy, structure, centralized power, and being target-focused are seen as important in ensuring a cohesive, value- based culture and accountability in execution, there is a need for new modes of leadership that disrupt old patterns and business models, linear company structures, silos and roles, global markets and narratives; and enable more collaborative, inclusive, and multi-disciplinary ways of living and working. (Gheerawo 2019, p. 8)

Gheerawo (2019) summarizes that creative leadership 3 (CL)reﬂects six unique selling propositions: 1). CL uses processes and principles of design thinking so that it can share its methods of implementation and creation. 2). CL brings together neuroscience and design. 3). CL conducts and respects health and well of the human being. 4). CL is applicable across sectors. 5). CL has creativity, clarity, and empathy which are human values that addresses global futures. 5). CL creates and allows certainty for future mapping. Cre- ative leadership has diﬀerent values, principles, and design that conducts new processes to lead followers, with respect, empathy, and clarity.

2.1.6 Leadership in organizations

Leadership in an organizations is very important so that the organization knows the vision and the course of the organization. Bolden et al. (2011

3This initials will be used as creative leadership 34 CHAPTER 2. THEORY p.25) mentions that it is dangerous to separate leadership from managing or leaders from managers even though these two concepts have been confounded from each other for many years. However, it is important to know that these two concepts are diﬀerent from each other.

Organizations that are concerned about the best of human beings and environment let employees feel happy and positive. Ekman and Arnetz (2005, p. 297) clarify that international organizations that exceed the guideline values are likely healthy and eﬀective. Moreover, they have the capacity to handle stress, change and external demands on adaptation and development.

Ahrne (2002) describes that an institution or organization is a formal pos- session that is connected to collective resources that are linked to a certain organization. Organization survives even though the people who belongs to that organization leaves and are replaced by others. Ahrne (2002) also clari- ﬁes that through the relation of organization we can understand the process of a certain society.

It is clear that when somebody enters into an organization’s place, one can see, feel and even breathe the culture that exists within the organization. Bolden et al.(2011) interprets that organization culture have diﬀerent patterns and forms of basic assumptions that employees have learned and considered valid so that they will teach to new members as the correct way to think, feel, and perceived in relation to the organization. Bolden et al. outlines three levels of an organizational culture: 1) Artifact, 2) Espoused values, and 3) Basic assumptions (2011 pp. 91-94).

Bolden et al. (2011 p. 93) describes the three levels of an organizational culture. First, artifact culture is the phenomenon that we can hear, see, and feel when we come into the organization. In fact, artifact culture is the mean by which leaders can embed the values they wish to encourage within the organization, this could occur through objects such as organization’s buildings, products, manifestations of values like slogans, training programs, newslet- 2.1. LEADERSHIP 35 ters, legends, myths, rites, ceremonial rituals.

Second, espoused values reﬂect the rhetoric of the organizational culture or in other words is the vision of the organization. They comprise and share experiences of strategies, goals, and philosophies that justify goals, visions, and targets. In this level, the leaders must share social experiences within the organization so that the followers can see that these values are important in this organization. And third, basic assumptions are the character and identity of the organization.

The organization’s leadership needs to understand that communication is important in the team’s and worker’s core characteristics. Mickahail & De Aquino (2019) highlights that organizations have increased their focus on innovation and creative. This means ”ideas and perspectives generated by organizational member’s diversity inﬂuence creativity and innovation processes” (Mickahail & De Aquino 2019 p.105).

Figure 2.4 represents the leadership in a multicultural organization with in- formational and social diversity such as race, age, sex, functional experiences, etc. In order to accomplish the organization’s goals, it is important that the leader knows the passion and vision of every one who works in the organization.

...by developing an innovative environment, with strong leadership, a small company is capable of addressing personal and organizational goals by focusing on a core organizational passion and vision. By creating and leading a passion- based innovation group, the organization and business had the means to enable the communications and energy to foster an innovative environment. (Mickahail & De Aquino 2019 p.109) 36 CHAPTER 2. THEORY

Figure 2.4 represents leadership and innovation that leverages a group’s passion.

Figure 2.4: Mickahail & De Aquino 2019 p.110

The organization needs to have diverse teams because according to Mickahail & De Aquino (2019), these kind of groups seemed to be smarter and more creative. The focus, in ﬁgure 4, is on the passion of the followers and to understand them, the leader needs to use certain questions to analyze the individual responses so that he or she builds the innovative system of the organization.

2.1.7 Leadership in the context of religious institution

As I have explained in the previous section, one can see, feel, breath, and hear the culture, character, and identity of the organization. Kirkland (1976) deﬁnes religion as man’s relation to “the sacred” or to “sacred” power that functions within the human psyche, human society, or human culture in general. 2.1. LEADERSHIP 37

Religious institutions have spiritual system of symbols that establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods. A character and identity that motivates both women and men by formulating conceptions that make them conscious of the moods and unique reality of the religious organization. Geertz (1993) cites “sacred symbols function to synthesize a people’s ethos the tone, character, and quality of their life, its moral and aesthetic style and mood and their world view the picture they have of the way things in sheer actu- ality are, their most comprehensive ideas of order”(Geerts 1993, p. 90).

According to 4 WCC (2015) religious institutions have stopped doing mission and growth toward unity, instead the diﬀerent religious institutions have fragmentation and every religious institution want to work alone in competition with others, which means that they are not so strong enough to do mission and impact a secularized society.

The leadership in European religious institutions are today more secular than espiritual as Resch (2015) explains, the modern state has become more and more secular because religion was no longer able to unify citizens. Moreover, the influence of Christian institutions is decreasing in Europe because of human rights, individualism, and the pluralistic society. In fact, Resch (2025) clarifies that the state sets the religion free in two different dimensions: first, the state is no longer based on a religion; second, the religion can act freely within the society. At the same time, there also two different dimensions of religion’s freedom: first, “the freedom from religion” that makes every citizen have the right to refuse any religious affiliation; second, “freedom of religion” that guarantees the right of members of religion to confess and express their faith in a visible or communitarian way without suffering persecution.

Buckingham (2012) explains that religious institutions are more focused on humanitarian work than the function that they have in the public life and society because of the denigration, discrimination and marginalization de-

4This initials will be used as the abbreviation of World Council of Churches 38 CHAPTER 2. THEORY pending on strictly secular principals. As WCC (2015) mentions that the contemporary trends of globalization, technology, and mass communication made the ancient dream of being a small world a reality, but individualism is preferred among human beings. Furthermore, personal experiences take the place of reason, knowledge and understanding where people are masters of their own lives now because past and future do not matter to many people.

Buckingham (2012) defines clearly the role of a secular society in Canada since the rise of secularism in 1960. One of the principal characteristics of secularism is the rise of individualism, where the individual is more important than the family and community. There are positive benefits of religious affiliation in the society that the sociological studies have shown such as school performance, positive family life, well-being and contributions to community life.

2.1.8 Key Variables in Leadership Theories

To understand leadership, it is important to know the variables that compose leadership otherwise it will be hard to understand the wide ﬁeld of leadership. The key variables in leadership theories that this dissertation will use for its qualitative method are the following:

Characteristics of the Leader

The characteristics of a good leader are the following according to Northhouse (2010) and Yukl (2013): Listener, enthusiastic, aspiring, decisive, empower and encourage others, responsible, supportive, humble, inspire with integrity, planner, and novel goals.

Characteristics of the Followers

The characteristics of the followers are the following: traits (needs, values, self-concepts), confidence and optimism, skills and expertise, attributions 2.2. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NAZI IDEOLOGY 39 about the leader, identification with the leader, task, commitment, effort, satisfaction with the leader’s job, and cooperation and mutual trust.

Characteristics of the Situation

The characteristics of the situation are the following: type of organizational unit, size of organizational unit, position power and authority of leader, task structure and complexity, organizational culture, environmental uncertainty and change, external dependencies and constraints and national cultural values.

2.2 Leadership aﬀected by the Nazi ideology

We cannot analyze the present leadership without analyzing the history of leadership and one leadership that is interesting to study is the leadership that Adolph Hitler had with the Nazi ideology. Lind (1975) suggests that Nazi ideology was only centered on Hitler’s personality and it is well described in Hitler’s book Mein Kampf. Hitler writes that nationalism is power- oriented, anti-internationalism and aggressive because he perceived that the leadership of the German country was in the hands of the Jews. In fact, Hitler assures that Marxism ideology is a doctrine of the Jews which denies the signiﬁcance of nationality, race, and the value of a man. Kershaw (2001) identiﬁes that the Nazi movement was not simply another political party but it was based on Hitler’s popularity by Church leaders as he was seen as the defender leader of the religious values of Christianity.

In fact, Hitler had a Messianic and heroic leadership, a godly and secular leadership in which some theologians wrote that he was a ruler, a warrior and a priest. Hitler was the ideal leader that the national-conservative right party was longing for. Steigmann-Gall (1999) compares Hitler and Luther because both of them had the same spirit or were spiritual rebels because both of them believed in a change within the government. Moreover, they both had the support and love of the German nation. Another ideological 40 CHAPTER 2. THEORY relationship is that Nazi party and Luther had the same antisemitism spirit.

There are three important characteristics, according to Lind (1975), that the Nazi ideology has: 1). The principle of leadership, people are the living members of the democratic party which the majority of the population gives all the power to the leader, he is the only one who decides over the whole nation ”dictature”. 2). The principle of elite, population has a natural living order that people realize their own character and innermost being. The Ar- ian race is the strongest and most creative race which has more value than other races. and 3). The people-particularistic trait, every person belongs to one nation that was originated as a unit which has a common race, history, language, and geographical extent.

There is a battle between the strong and weak races where the existence of the weak race will disappear all over the world. Ofstad (1987) attest that the anti-democratic component of the Nazi movement was called the Nazi ideology. A German Nazi perceived that the world was like a battle because everyone who is weak should leave the world and those who are strong should win. In the battle, Germany should be the winning country that stands above all other nations. Moreover, the ”Aryan” race joins the German leadership above all other races in the world. Frank (1997) explains in her diary that there were Jewish laws that were introduced in the Nazi era where Jews could not travel on trains with German people; but they had to instead ride their bicycles. Jews could just go shopping between 3 and 5 pm and they could absolutely not go to a theater or cinema.

2.2.1 The societal context

Germany inﬂuenced Sweden with its National Socialist racial ideology where equality of the people was destroyed , especially with the policy Nuremberg so that Jewish people could not have the right to get married to a German person (Jarlert 2006, p. 17). The Swedish Church was responsible for all the 2.2. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NAZI IDEOLOGY 41 marriage decisions, including the civil marriages. According to the Swedish law in the years 1935-1945, a German citizen was not allowed to marry a person of Jewish birth (Jarlert 2006, p. 18).

Kershaw (2001) mentions that Positive Christianity was created to deny that the Nazi party was an anti-religious party but instead it was created to pro- tect the church with a barrier against the Marxism ideology. According to Ofstad (1987), Hitler wanted all the priests to confine themselves to de- nominational matters and pastoral duties because Hitler himself was deeply religious and declared himself the messiah of Germany. ”Den föraktade kris- tendomen, särkilt den kristna moralen, men antireligiös var den inte. Den sökte sin grundval i en ”absolut princip”, som enligt Hitler uppenbarades i naturen - frälsningen var omvändelse till nazismen, rasläran, och till tron p˚a Messias, Adolf Hitler, vars uppgift var att leda det utvalda folket till Tredje riket” (Ofstad 1987, p. 128). Third Reich and heroic leadership were significant elements of the Nazi movement as Kershaw (2001) identifies, Hitler was known as the leader of the German Proletariat or masses, the Head of the German State.

2.2.2 The cultural context

Germany influenced the Swedish media, especially the Swedish radio because about 70 per cent of the Swedish population had access to a radio and most of them listened to the 7 p.m. news. The Germans infiltrated and subverted the Radiotjänst news so that Swedes could sympathize to the Nazi cause. However, Raoul Wallenberg was not influenced by the media and he saved thousand of Jewish lives (Gilmour 2010, pp. 157- 173).

Theweleit (1995) portrays that the German system was dominated by men where women had no value. Ofstad (1987) also attests that Germany did not have any respect to women. This was evidenced by the spread of syphilis and pornography throughout Germany. Theweleit (1995) reveals also two 42 CHAPTER 2. THEORY important characteristics about German men: First, men in the German army treated women like prostitutes because nurses in the red cross were like prostitutes. Every time a soldier was sick, he could also be assured of receiving the love of a nurse. Second, the men in the German army did not have any respect for a married woman nor for being a mother. The German system was a comrade system where a man could give his wife, sister, and mother to another man.

2.2.3 The political context

Sweden and the other Nordic countries were not worried about a German attack on Scandinavia. However, the Soviet Union invaded Finland and Ger- many invaded Norway and Denmark. The war between Finland and the Soviet Union made the Swedes aware of the external military threats but the Swedes were not afraid of being drawn into war activities at that time (Waldenstr¨om & Frey 2008, p. 111). Sweden was a neutral country. At the same time, Sweden was sandwiched between two fronts, Germany and the Soviet Union. This made Sweden work harder on the diplomatic and trade fronts in order to maintain its position as an independent, self-determining state (Gilmour 2010, p. 74).

2.2.4 The economic context

Sweden and Germany never stopped trading goods. They had friendly relationship by exporting various material goods such as iron and ball bearings. Especially, Swedish trade was beneﬁcial for the German Reich. But when Germany invaded Norway, Sweden was surrounded by German controlled territory and subject to German government demands. Sweden was also dependent on German food and fuel (Golson 2011, pp.58-60).

The Swedish labor services were strongly inﬂuenced by the perception of their German culture and society ” This might be explained by geographic 2.2. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NAZI IDEOLOGY 43 proximity and the traditional Swedish orientation towards German culture and society” (G¨otz & Patel 2006, p. 72).

Sven Olov Lindholm‘s personal archives can explain that capitalism and Marxism were denoted as Jewish and that democracy was a threat to national solidarity and unite (Stenfeldt 2019, p. 19). Anti-capitalism was interconnected to the concept of anti-Semitism because the ”Jew”was represented as the capitalist exploiter. This also carried over into Sweden where the Jews were seen as capitalists and Swedes seen as workers (Stenfeldt 2019, p. 20). The prominent role of the nation or the power of the state should be total in Sweden as it was in Germany where the State should go against capitalism, imperialism, materialism and the Jewish interests (Stenfeldt 2019, pp.. 22-23).

2.2.5 Positive Christianity

Christianity was the foundation of the national morality in the Nazi Ger- many. This Christian movement changed not only Germany but also Sweden. This is because the fundamental Christian doctrine had to bring the church into compliance with the Reich. Especially, the relationship between Christ (Aryan Jesus) and the Jewish people or the view of Christ as an enemy of the Jews (Lackey 2013, pp. 122 - 126). The divide between the Catholic and protestant Church became very sharp because the Catholic Church opposed the Nazi Party for the Nazis‘ racialist dogma and extreme nationalism. In fact, the substance of Nazism was in accord with Protestant Christian pre- cepts (Steigmann-Gall 2007, pp. 315 - 317).

Positive Christianity represented all those who denied that God is one or in other words, the monotheism ideology. Albani (2020) states that Yahweh is the creator of god and evil, ”Monotheism is thus seen as theological norm by which the intellectual and religious history of diﬀerent cultures can be measured” (Albany 2020, p.2). It was clear that Protestantism was preferred over Catholicism because the view of monotheism had the aspect of power, 44 CHAPTER 2. THEORY singleness, universalism, and salvation within the church and not within a state. The members of Positive Christianity were involved in religious activities and church organizations which was a kind of ”clerical fascist” or a variety of Nazism (Steigmann-Gall 2007, pp. 323-325).

The Nuremberg Laws

The name ”Nuremberg” comes from a city that had more Jewish citizens in Germany and it was the center of the Nazi party (Barenbaum & Skolnik 2007, p. 347). In this law, there was a big diﬀerence between ”Aryans” and ”Jews” which the Nazi ideology introduced to the Swedish Church. Priests from the Swedish Lutheran church could not marry German citizens who had ”Jewish” race. This is because the Swedish Foreign ministry department accepted the Nuremberg laws and the marriage barriers between these two races (Jarlert 2006, pp. 17-18).

The Lutheran Swedish priests had to follow and obey the Nuremberg laws. Even seminaries followed these laws when they recruited priests and pastors (Jarlert 2006, p. 54). As a matter of fact, the Swedish Lutheran church issued ”Aryan” certiﬁcates. Sometimes the investigations went back six generations so that people could get married, have communion and obtain a work, etc. (Jarlert 2006, pp. 53 - 54 ).

2.2.6 Leadership in the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal Faith

This paper will present an example of two church leaders who lived in the time of Adolf Hitler’s regime, Lewi Pethrus and Erling Eidem.

Swedish Lutheran Church and archbishop Erling Eidem

The Swedish Lutheran Church is the biggest religious community in Sweden at both the local and national level. ”The Church of Sweden is the religious community that has the largest spread at the local level in Sweden ... At the 2.2. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NAZI IDEOLOGY 45 community level, the Church of Sweden becomes the dominant position of the Church of Sweden It is quite clear that it is so signiﬁcantly larger than all other religious communities” (Klingberg 2019, p. 50). The Swedish Lutheran Church was reformed from the Catholic Church by Gustav Vasa, Laurentius Andreae and the brothers Petri. According to Martling (2008), Olavus Petri was forced to leave his work as a king’s chancellor and King Gustav Vasa was the only one who could assign the most important priest positions.

The Lutheran reformation began from 1536 until the evangelical Lutheran church became a state church at Uppsala meeting in 1593. The Swedish Church started to be involved in the political negotiations along with the state during the ﬁrst decades of the twentieth century. In fact, the church- state relationship was very strong in those centuries where Swedish Lutheran Church was identiﬁed as the church of the Swedish people.

The establishment of a state church system created strong ties between the state and the church: the state’s interests became also the church’s Interests, and the Swedish Church to some extent became a state bureaucracy, taking on important secular functions alongside religious ones (Nauman 2014, pp. 41-42).

The Swedish Lutheran church in those times inﬂuenced and developed the Swedish welfare programs and education ” In premodern agrarian Sweden, the Swedish Church was the central provider of social welfare and education via local parishes, the so-called socken” (Nauman 2014, p. 43). Nauman also mentions that the Lutheran church took diﬀerent functions such as in school, education, health services, child care, support for the elderly and registering the population.

According to Strindberg (2015), the highest decision-making body and board of all levels consist of laymen as a consequence of the so-called double line of responsibility. The church is not primarily governed by its priests but by its members who are elected in a democratic process. The Swedish Lutheran Church was separated from the state twenty years ago, 2000 ACE. Accord- ing to Ahlmark (2011), the separation has caused a shift in church views and 46 CHAPTER 2. THEORY as well as a parish participation (Ahlmark 2011, p.5). Because the Swedish Lutheran Church has the same level as the other churches, it also represents part of a secularized Swedish society with the following characteristics: competition, consumption and a higher degree of choice. This challenge motivates the Swedish Lutheran church to revitalize and be stronger than ever.

According to Brodd (2017), Erling Eidem (1880 -1972), was born in Gothen- burg as the youngest child of thirteen children. He lost both his father and mother at the age of thirteen years old. He studied theology at Lund Univer- sity and become a priest in 1914. Eidem had a good relationship with both the Church of England and the Church of Germany while he worked as New Testament Exegesis professor at Lund university. He left his professor career to become archbishop in 1931. Hallencreutz (2002) states that Eidem was a person who rarely gave up until he had obtained his will. In other words, he was stubborn.

Erling Eidem was not a person who said things directly but he was careful with expressing his ideas to the Swedish media.

When faced with the dilemma of defending the church as a social political institution or sustaining the role of the church as the moral leader of the society, Eidem chose to be a bureaucrat rather than religious leader (Rosenberg 2016, p. 81).

Hallencreutz (2002) explains that Erling Eidem was not involved in the international ecumenical movement during the second world war but instead Eidem was criticized by Norway because Sweden allowed German soldiers to transit to Finland. Brodd (2017) also conﬁrms that Eidem avoided to participate in public demonstrations against the German church policy but instead he tried to seek personal contact with the leaders of the German church. Eidem wrote many books that impacted people in that era such as Se M¨anniskan, Allt Intet, Han Som Var och Som Ar¨ , Den Lidande Guden, etc. 2.2. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NAZI IDEOLOGY 47

Swedish Pentecostal Church and Lewi Pethrus

The Pentecostalism arrived in Sweden in November 1906, Andrew G. John- son was the first Swedish missionary to import it from the Azusa Street movement of Los Angeles, USA. Johnson began his work in Elim Church, at his home town Skövde in south western Sweden. He and others representatives spread the pentecostal movement from Skövde to Orebro,¨ Stockholm, Gothenburg and a number of other places (Alvarsson 2015, p. 17). As Kock (2010) states, Pentecostalism grew quickly and 500 churches were founded during 15 years, especially in Stockholm. Johnson and Pentecostal representatives engaged a young pastor named Lewi Pethrus in Philadelphia Church, Stockholm.Aronson (2012) states that Lewi Pethrus pastored the Filadelfia church in Stockholm for nearly 45 years; moreover, this church became the largest local Pentecostal congregation in the world during the 1930s and the 1940s, and the ecclesiology of Pethrus influenced Pentecostalism not only in Sweden but in the world.

Alvarsson (2015) explains that Lewi Pethrus (1884 -1974) was the founder and leader of the Swedish Pentecostal Church because he was one of the leading preachers. He challenged Baptist congregations in Stockholm to join the Pentecostal movement, an act that made him get expel led from the Baptist Association. Lewi Pethrus wrote many books of diﬀerent genres, especially ecclesiology, that started the Charismatic revival and the Swedish Pentecostal movement. Halldorf (2010) states that the Pentecostal movement was associated with the leadership of Lewi Pethrus and the Filadelﬁa church in Stockholm. There were 563 Pentecostal congregations in Sweden in 1940. Pethrus spent most of his life writing books and building institutions such as a political party, a radio station, a bank, a daily newspaper, etc.

Andströn (1966) clarifies that Lewi Pethrus admitted himself that he had a divine calling and a conviction from God. Andströn also describes that Pethrus liked and wanted to decide everything by himself and he did not like any contradictions. Pethrus was not an emotional person according to 48 CHAPTER 2. THEORY

Andströn (1966) but a man who had a lot of will and revival. In fact, he was a godly man and many spiritual people had been waiting for so many years a person like him. Pethrus talents were: energetic organizer, happy, pedagogical, charismatic, simple words as a speaker, capable and fiery publisher. Andströn (1966) and Halldorf (2017) states that Lewi Pethrus was the eighth of nine children in his family and his real name was not Lewi Pethrus but Petrus Lewi Johansson. Pethrus was baptized at the age of fifteen by a baptist pastor Carl Eriksson and he changed his name at that time, but he officially changed his name at the age of twenty-six.

Halldorf (2017) states that Lewi Pethrus traveled to Norway and USA, he was influenced by the race-biological thinking which made Pethrus movement to keep distance from the Azusa Street (a multicultural movement). He also highlighted the white preacher Parham as the father of the Pentecostal movement. Halldorf (2010) states that Pethrus lived to the age of ninety. He had an asset of only 3,000 Swedish crowns at the time he died because he did not want to accumulate any significant wealth. Moreover, he had different positions, but he did not want to be paid for it. Andströn (1966) highlights that the Swedish newspaper, Dagen, stated that Lewis Pethrus founded The Christian Democrats party with similar grounds as the Nazi party, in terms of eliminating and dissolving dirty literature and immoral film. However, Lewi Pethrus acknowledges himself that he knows very little about the Nazi party.

2.3 Leadership aﬀected by the Neoliberal ideology

2.3.1 The societal context

Sweden, the Swedes, and the Swedish society is one of the most successful societies in the world that has ever existed according to Hort (2017). Berg & Edquist (2017) note that Sweden is one of the Nordic countries that became industrialized in the later part of the nineteenth century. Central govern- 2.3. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NEOLIBERAL IDEOLOGY 49 ment has played a comparatively active role in regulating and promoting the industrial sector because Sweden wanted to follow a path towards the stabi- lization of a bourgeois democratic system. In fact, Sweden has developed a large public welfare sector during the twentieth century that has not only individual but also universal rights to social security, education and health care.

According to Hort (2017), the Swedish welfare state is sustainable because there are selective active employment programs including support for farm- ers, income maintenance, social security, needs-based human investment programs ranging from education to elderly care. Thakur et al. (2003) goes on to explain that ”the welfare state in Sweden has many impressive achievements. Sweden’s quality of life, public health, and educational attainment indicators are among the best in the world” (Thakur et al. 2003, p.2).

Berg & Edquist (2017) establishes that there is a strong relationship between state and society. Sweden, as a capitalist state, has three classic paradigms of relations between society and state. The first, the pluralist paradigm where the State is a kind of assemblage of a range of institutions, bureaucracies and agencies. The second, the elite paradigm where the state is an arena borne by bureaucratic elites. As Byrkjeflot & Engelstad (2018) commented that Swe- den has built its social system on the typical Weberian definition of states which characteristics are rationality, welfare bureaucracy, and the relationship between leaders and followers or superiors and subordinates. The third classic paradigm, the class approach where the state and elites reproduce the power in civil society. Public and private institutions are reproducers of the larger capitalist system.

Sweden society is known as a civil society and as Berg & Edquist (2017) observed, civil society arose in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries with the transition to capitalism. Swedish society allowed its citizens to discuss and buy political and social issues and opinions in associations, clubs, and mass media. Berg & Edquist (2017) states also that Sweden exercised power by decentralizing and networking with private institutions. In other words, 50 CHAPTER 2. THEORY it is an indirect governance with neoliberalism and New Public Management.

Hort (2017) presents the Swedish welfare state as the central-local intra-state dialectic such as selective active employment programs. In 1990, Sweden launched privatization and decentralization as alternative strategies in order to organize social services, social security, and full employment. The strategy of privatization in Sweden is a well-known theme of the right party but decentralization is more equated with ecological, environmentalist, and feminist social movements.The strategy of privatization in Sweden, according to Hort (2017), implies the commercialization and deregulation of previously publicly provided goods, services and transfers from bureaucratic agencies to competitive private enterprises. The Welfare state allowed private pension insurance and private Health Insurance as an alternative to the old pension system (Life insurance companies, occupational pension programs, and individual premium pension).

Hort (2017) states that the strategy of decentralization in Sweden is the divi- sion of responsibilities and tasks between the central, regional and local levels of the Swedish government. One of the new characteristic is that there is less and less bureaucracy so that Wallenberg dynasty and Volvo are not so strong in the Swedish industrial capital anymore. Trade unions, private organizations, confederation, and the welfare state is centralized but decentralization made municipalities and county councils to have freedom to choose their own ways of social welfare and school administration, and to deﬁne their own pri- orities within its organization.

Hort (2017) states that Swedish education has government financial support. From 1872 and onward the Swedish government has offered subsidies to students who went to high school. The school system is financed by the local government.

The basic school system is still ﬁnanced and organized by local government with an obligation to serve local students. In many cities and local communities, there are also private schools ﬁnanced out of the 2.3. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NEOLIBERAL IDEOLOGY 51

public purse through vouchers. As a result, schools have started com- peting for students and parents have become consumers of private or public branded schools, the system having become more fragmented, less transparent and subject to closer scrutiny from central state in- spectors (Hort 2017, p. 53)

2.3.2 The cultural context

Brakenhielm (1995) presents Sweden as a pluralistic society in his article, he explains that Swedish emigration and the inﬂux of refugees from all parts of the world has occurred since the 16th century. Roth & Hertzberg (2010) explain that Sweden has been characterized as multicultural country because of the majority population, national minorities and the indigenous population the Saami people. However, Sweden had an assimilation policy since the 20th century which means that immigrants and other cultural minorities were expected to leave their old culture behind and try to assimilate to the Swedish culture.

Roth et al.(2013) analyzes that Sweden has strongly experienced cultural diversity during the last 30 years which is understood as a country with diﬀerent cultural backgrounds. In fact, cultural diversity has been limited in nature because there has been cultural discrimination such as labour, housing and educational opportunities. Brakenhielm (1995) indicates that the Lutheran protestant state church declared in a meeting in Uppsala 1593 that the faith of the Swedish people is and will be Lutheran. Most of the Swedes are members of this church and are baptized, married, conﬁrmed in the Lutheran faith while immigrants have other religions such as Catholics, Orthodox, Evangel- icals, Muslims, etc.

Freedom of religion is another characteristic of the Swedish multicultural society according to Hylt´en-Cavallius & Charan (2018). However, Brakenhielm (1995) declares that most of the Swedes believe in secularization because only about ten percent of the population attend church services at least once a 52 CHAPTER 2. THEORY month, eight percent describe themselves as confessing Christians, over sixty percent do not believe in sin. Jarnkvist (2019) disputes that the Church of Sweden has lost the ritualization of marriage, birth and death in the 21st century because the religious communities are transferred from a religious context to a civil context.

Brakenhielm (1995) contends that Swedes do not believe in a personal God but they have a large stream of spiritual consciousness that flows outside the established religious institutions such as the ecological system. Astr˚ öm et al. (2017) highlights that Swedish parents impact in youth children who have no disabilities and disabilities, from zero to five years old, to participate and be involved in the environmental impact of Swedish consumption. Ljungkvist & Boers (2015) explain the importance of the family and community in the development of the Swedish cultural patterns within the country such as regional, national, and local culture. Ljungkvist & Boers (2015) state that family businesses in the Nordic region have a relatively high resiliency because of the strong bonds to traditions and to the Protestant values system.

Gender equality is very important in Sweden where men and women have the same rights and levels of employment. The Swedish government has a special gender equality policy ”Gender equality is a matter of human rights, of democracy and of justice. It is also an engine driving social development and creating genuine change in society and in people’s lives” (Sweden.se, Oﬃcial source for facts about Sweden). Martinson et al. (2016) believes that Sweden is the most gender-equal nation in the world since the late 1970s; this is because of the feminist movement. In fact, both genders have equality norms, possibilities and participation in the labor market.

This particular characteristic became evident during mobilizations for equal representation during the 1990s. In a period of deep neoliberal restructuring of the Swedish model, characterized by privatization, deregulation and the implementation of New Public Management in the welfare sector, a new wave of feminist organizations emerged in the Swedish political arena. An important background to this mobiliza- 2.3. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NEOLIBERAL IDEOLOGY 53

tion was the paradox represented by women’s increased participation in wage work and their low representation in politics (Martinson et al. 2016: pp. 19)

2.3.3 The political context

According to Roth et al. (2013), the size of Sweden is 450 000 sq km with a current population of 10 million. Sweden has land borders with Norway and Finland and maritime borders with Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Russia, Den- mark, Germany, and Poland. Str¨ob¨ack & Nord (2015) states that Sweden is a parliamentary monarchy with a parliament that has 349 seats.

The Swedish political landscape can be described as a democratic country; in fact, Möller (2020) describes Sweden as a country with different parties and ideologies that influence the political system in this country. Möller (2020) also summarizes that the social democrats have been in power for almost 65 years but the Moderaterna, a centre right part, took office in 2006 until 2014. During this time extensive reforms took place in Sweden. Elgenius & Wennerhag (2018) states that the Green Party was formed because of the referendum on nuclear power in 1981. They entered the Swedish parliament in 1988 and the Sweden Democrats (SD) appeared in 2010. By 2014, The Sweden Democrats became the third largest party in the Swedish legislature.

Roth & Hertzberg (2010) attests that the basis for the Swedish policy in the constitution are ”equality, freedom of choice, and cooperation”, these words were used in the Parliament since 1976. Swedish integration has inﬂuenced the political issues in Sweden and as Adman & Str¨ombland (2018) states that Sweden is known as an immigration-friendly welfare state; however, immigrants seem to have disadvantage in the labor and housing markets. It is also harder for them to socially integrate.

Sweden has had a political tradition from 16th century with a centralized and homogeneous religion that has been represented by the Lutheran Swedish 54 CHAPTER 2. THEORY church. There has been a state church up until 2000. Roth & Hertzberg (2010) indicates that Sweden wanted to have a national identity because the 19th century was a century of romantic nationalism with its credo ”one people and one nation”. This Swedish nationalism was inﬂuenced by both racial biology and Social Darwinism. However, Swedish nationalism did not last too long because Sweden entered into the European Union (EU) in 1995.

Ströbäck & Nord (2015) states that the Swedish political system has a culture of consensus and corporatism. This is evident in most parties. There are also some influences from the neoliberal model. Mass media takes a significant role in the political system but parties do not have the right to control any televised communication with voters because the mass media has become more or less market oriented.

2.3.4 The economic context

Neoliberal ideology

Behind the neoliberal ideology are the free markets where enterprises and individuals maximize their revenues as Crouch (2011) explains. Markets are preferred over states and they are the worst threat to freedom. Financial markets and world banks are the proﬁt maximizers over governments and taxpayers. Peck (2010) comments that neoliberalism is synonymous with the market-oriented philosophy of the American agencies such as the Interna- tional Monetary (IFM) and the World Bank. Both represent the American form of ”free market” (known as capitalism). Peck (2010) claims that the Neoliberalism concept or term is not used in the United States.

Crouch (2011) states that neoliberalism is devoted to the dominance of public life by the giant corporation where the political power of the corporation is seen in the United States Congress and other international legislatures. Davies (2014) explains that the authority of the neoliberal state is dependent on the authority of economics to legitimize courses of action. 2.3. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NEOLIBERAL IDEOLOGY 55

Smith (1999) who is known as the father of economics, uses the word competition and market competition. Market competition along with winners and losers are the manifestation in the economic game of Chicago Law and Economics School. According to Plant (2009), social justice is central to both Social Democracy and Socialism. Neoliberalism is diﬀerent because social justice does not exist as a scope and real purposes. Abraham (2017) comments that neoliberalism is emphasized with anti-democratic and anti- solidarity.

Davies (2014) shows that the process of the implementation of neoliberalism in the world have made us unable to escape from it. Instead we are con- fronting consumption, financialization, inequality, loneliness, individualism, and neoliberal crisis as financial crisis. However, Crouch (2011) explains that financial crisis have only served to reinforced the power of the global corporation.

New Public Management

New Public Management 5(NPM) is both an ideology and administrative reform that has inﬂuenced both the private and public sector. According to Crouch (2011), it started with Milton Fridman who was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1976. Over four decades, nine neoliberal Chicago professors also won the Nobel Prize. In fact, agents of the US secret services assisted in displac- ing the elected government of Salvador Allende in 1973 in Chile. They did this so that they could install a group of Chilean economists or well known as the Chicago boys. They were in charge of the Chilean economy while August Pinochet was president.

Crouch (2011) reveals that these Chicago boys established a neoliberal economic regime and they did all kind of experiments with neoliberal policies. This is when the New Public Management was created and exported to diﬀer-

5This initials will be used as the abbreviation of New Public Management 56 CHAPTER 2. THEORY ent part of the world. As Christensen and Lagreid (2007) observed that NPM was advocating decentralization (let the managers manage) and centraliza- tion (make the managers manage). In other words, NPM is a doubled-edge sword which represents autonomy and control at the same time.

Abraham (2017) presents that the NPM was introduced to Sweden in 1980 by the Social Democratic government. It showed up again in1990, when the right-wing took power, the NPM received a fertile ground for its expansion. Karlsson (2017) indicates that the Swedish public sector is represented by the four E’s: Eﬃciency, Eﬀectiveness, Equity, and Economy. These four words have become characteristics in managing and organizing the public sector’s governance in Sweden. Moreover, Karlsson (2017) reveals that the Swedish culture of consensus and corporatism has been changed to individualism and goals.

Table 2.3 summarizes the Swedish Public Sector Management The oﬃcial Management The oﬃcial and the lan- Manager and management Meaning guage of welfare language

Policy Collectivism and process Individualism and goals

Hierarchy and actors as The individual and actors Power and dominance subordinates as resources

Table 2.3: Karlsson, 2017, p.247 2.3. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NEOLIBERAL IDEOLOGY 57

New Public Management in the Swedish Lutheran Church

The leadership in the Swedish Lutheran Church has been taken by people who have studied theology, not economics which means that there is a lack of knowledge or experience in economic, administration and leadership questions. As Hakeman (2020) comments, the structural change with NPM has contributed to the powerless Christian messages and a freezing feeling about the church. The congregations and communities have been merged into a joint pastorate and this is governed by a church council which is governed by the church priest and elected representatives from diﬀerent political parties.

The Swedish pastoral Journal with the title, I Obekväma Kläder (2015) presents Professor Eva Hamberg who states that the Swedish Lutheran church is dressed with NPM because the church has changed her old words as holy, common, apostolic, etc into new words as responsibility, goal, control, management, certifications, forecast, sustainability, efficiency, feedback and cost analysis. The church is influenced by political, cultural, economic, and societal principles through NPM which means that NPM has become the collective name for management in private and public organizations in Sweden.

Lindström & L˚ang (2016) confirms that there are many priests and deacons who are in sick leave which reveals that they are facing problems and pressure between their calling and the role that they have in an organizational system that uses NPM. Lindström & L˚ang (2017) explains that the nature of church is at the local level and each one of them is dependent on each other. NPM tries to gather all the local churches or all the different congregations into one large unit.

New Public Management in the Swedish Pentecostal Church

The Swedish Pentecostal webpage has a lot of words of NPM such as eﬃ- ciency, feedback, management, etc. Alvarsson (2015) summarizes that the Pentecostal movement has entrepreneurial spirit that has continued since Lewis Pethrus founded the church. 58 CHAPTER 2. THEORY

As we can see in their web site, everything they oﬀer has a certain price. It seems like the person is trying to buy spiritual consumption. For example, the counseling training costs 4700 Swedish kronor. Besides that, if somebody wants to read the annual report of the Swedish Pentecostal Church, it costs 270 Swedish kronor.

The Swedish Pentecostal Church has diﬀerent organizations within its organizations such as the Pentecostal Commission’s Development Cooperation, IBRA media, LP verksamheten, och Dagen newspaper.

Sustainability

It is important to explain the concept of sustainability which is the system that an organization should have so that leaders care about the environment. This is very important because they are interconnected and have interdependence with the global awareness. Adger and Jordan (2009, p.101) states that international environmental regimes consist of the development of a series of norms principally about how states should behave in relation to environmental problems. This includes as rules guiding the limitation of speciﬁc emissions, the transfer of new technologies, and the protection of particular species or ecosystems.

It is deﬁned by Adger and Jordan (2009, p.115 -217), that sustainability is a greenwash, an ideological smokescreen designed to mask the unsustainability of global capitalism which means that we must change the way of thinking economically and politically. Moreover, it is a process of ecological mod- ernization and economic transformation where governance and market can articulate a growth regime where not just growth is important but also the reduction of non-renewable resources and pollution.

Stockholm Resilience Centre (SRC) assures that most of the world population are disconnected from nature and that economies and societies are not 2.3. LEADERSHIP AFFECTED BY THE NEOLIBERAL IDEOLOGY 59 integrated with the planet. This means that we must reconnect to the air, water, and land so that we can be in touch with the biosphere. 60 CHAPTER 2. THEORY Chapter 3

RESULTS

3.1 Interpretation of the Results

After having described the diﬀerent theories of leadership with written narratives and all the collection of literal documents, one will be able to answer the following research questions of the thesis.

3.1.1 What was leadership like, both Swedish Lutheran and the Pentecostal Faith in the Nazi era?

This paper is going to use the Great man theory to identify and interpret what kind of leadership the Swedish Lutheran and the Pentecostal Faith have had during the second world war. As it was described, internal and external traits are important in this model and there are also other special characteristics in the Great man theory and these are heroic and mythic, authority, charisma, and vision. Moreover, the characteristics of the situation in the Nazi era such as the Nuremberg law inﬂuenced their leadership in both churches. In fact, followers of both churches were longing for the Great Man either to reform or change the Positive Christianity that was already implanted in Sweden.

Table 3.1 shows that the Swedish Pentecostal church has similarities with the Nazi system. Halldorf (2017) outlines that Lewi Pethrus was inﬂuenced by

61 62 CHAPTER 3. RESULTS racist thinking or the race-biological. This made Pethrus movement to keep distance from a multicultural movement. Lewi Pethrys highlighted only the white preacher Parham as the father of the Pentecostal movement.

Table 3.1 may be presented the characteristics of the two leaders that represented the leadership of the Swedish Pentecostal and Swedish Lutheran Church in the Nazi era. The first characteristic shows the internal traits, Lewi Petrus had the following internal traits: 1) Intelligence which means that he had technical proficiency and different life experiences than most of the people. 2) Ambition which means that he made meaningful changes. 3) Passion which means that he inspired his followers of convictions and perseverance. 4) Vision which means that he had new ideas and experiences. Erling Eidem had only one internal trait that Lewi Petrus had, intelligence (technical proficiency and different life experiences).

The second characteristic in table 3.1 shows the external traits, Lewi Petrus and Erling Eidem have 3 same external traits which are: communication (they shared goals, objectives, and expectations in their organizations), sincerity (they both gained the respect and trust of their followers), and building (they were depended on what the churchly vision was). Lewi Petrus had two more external traits than Erling Eidem. 1) Connecting which means that he shared all the time his ideas to all his followers, and 2) Inspiring which means that he challenged and communicated his vision to his followers.

The third characteristic shows that Lewi Petrus was heroic and mythic while Erling Eidem was not. Lewis Petrus is the founder from the Swedish Pente- costal church.

The fourth characteristic in the table shows that both Lewi Petrus and Erling Eidem had authority. The authority that followers had for both leaders. Erling Eidem did not have the same personality traits as Lewi Pethrus even though he had authority within the Swedish Church, Erlin was not a person who said things directly as he was careful with expressing his ideas to the 3.1. INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS 63

Swedish media. Some scholars such as Brodd (2017) have criticized Erling Eidem for never having criticized the Nazi regime. That is why they did not consider him to be a religious leader during Nazi era.

Table 3.1 summarizes how leadership has been in the Swedish Lutheran- and Pentecostal Faith.

Nro Characteristic Swedish Pentecostal Swedish Lutheran Leader Lewi Pethrus Erling Eidem

Intelligence, ambition, pas- 1 Internal traits Intelligence sion, and vision Communication, sincerity, Communication, sincerity, 2 External traits connecting, inspiring, and and building building Heroic and 3 Yes No mythic

4 Authority Yes Yes

5 Charisma Yes No

Vision within 6 the organiza- Yes No tion

Table 3.1: Interpretation from the Great Man Theory 64 CHAPTER 3. RESULTS

The ﬁfth characteristic in the table shows that Lewi Petrus had charisma while Erling Eidem did not have any charisma to lead a lot of people.

The sixth characteristic shows that Lewi Petrus had vision within the Swedish Pentecostal church while Erling Eidem did not have the same kind of vision for the Swedish Lutheran church. Eidem followed only the structure and bureaucracy of the Swedish Lutheran church.

It is important to mention that both Lewi Pethrus and Erling Eidem had a leadership with authority within their organization but not outside their organization.

3.1.2 Leadership in the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal Faith today and tomorrow

Churchly leadership was aﬀected by the societal, cultural, political and economic context just as the Swedish Lutheran- and Pentecostal church was aﬀected by its leadership. As we have seen, the Swedish society is a rational and capitalist society where the government takes an important role as the Swedish welfare State. Neither of these two churches have straight connection with the Swedish government but they have adapted their leadership with NPM like any Swedish governmental organizations.

The problem with NPM in church leadership is that this kind of leadership focuses on production, profit, consumption, effective, etc and there are no church words such as spirituality, holy, service, compassion, solidarity, unity, etc. As Lindström & L˚ang (2016) explains, priest, pastor, and deacon de- cided to work in church because of their calling. It was not for profit”. In fact, many priests, deacons are in sick leave because of the pressure that there is within the church.

The best church leadership is true servant leadership ﬁlled with compassion and love. Servant leadership from a compassion perspective, is explained in 3.1. INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS 65

figure 2.1 of the present research work, where the priest, pastor, deacons can work with engagement, health and happiness as well as the church’s organization is committed to have a servant culture. Moreover, servant leadership from a love perspective, is explained in figure 2.2, shows three different stages where stage 1 is the calling of the priest, pastor, and deacon. Every one of them would work with humility, trust, vision, and service so that they achieve stage 3 which is the legacy of the church.

The leadership in the Swedish Lutheran church is driven by people who have studied theology not economics or administration. Of course, they are not experts in economic, administration or leadership questions. As Hakeman (2020) comments, the structural change with NPM has contributed to the powerless christian messages and a cold feeling about the church. The congregations and communities have been merged into a joint pastorate and this is governed by a church council which is governed by the church priest and elected representatives from diﬀerent political parties.

Professor Eva Hamberg states that the Swedish Lutheran church is dressed with NPM because the church has changed her old words as holy, common, apostolic, etc into new words as responsibility, goal, control, management, certiﬁcations, forecast, sustainability, eﬃciency, feedback and cost analysis.

The church is inﬂuenced by political, cultural, economic, and societal principles through NPM. This means that NPM has become the collective name for management in private and public organizations in Sweden.

Because of NPM, there are many priests and deacons who are in sick leave which reveals that they are facing problems and pressure between their calling and the role that they have in an organizational system that uses NPM. Lindstr¨om & L˚ang (2017) explains that the nature of church is at the local level and each one of them is dependent on each other. NPM tries to gather all the diﬀerent congregations into one big unit. 66 CHAPTER 3. RESULTS

Leadership in the Swedish Lutheran church needs to change so that the church as an organization can survive in the future. There is a real need of spiritual leadership and a servant leadership where the leaders, along with followers play active roles in both these two churches and the Swedish society.

Leadership in the Swedish Pentecostal church is mainly driven by people who have studied economics or administration. For example: Madeleine Hansson who is Director for the Swedish Pentecostal organization but she has also worked for Carnegie Investment Bank AB.

As we have seen, the Pentecostal church has an entrepreneur spirit since the foundation of the church, one can see in their webpage lot of words of NPM such as eﬃciency, feedback, management, etc. Alvarsson (2015) summarizes that the Pentecostal movement has entrepreneurial spirit that has continued since Lewis Pethrus founded the church.

As we can see in their website, everything they oﬀer has a certain price. It seems like a person is buying spiritual consumption from their diﬀerent organizations (Pentecostal Commission’s Development Cooperation, IBRA media, LP verksamheten, Pings Ung, Pingstskolorna, sport for life, och Da- gen newspaper).

Leadership in the Pentecostal church needs to be changed so this organization can survive in the future. In fact, this will be a challenge to the entire organization but it is needed because church membership is dwindling day after day.

Both the Swedish and Pentecostal church need to introduce transformative leadership for the future. As Grin et al. (2018) mentions the transformative leaders of these churches need to make personal sacriﬁces so that the followers can respect and trust them. Personal sacriﬁces means that they need to be aware that their followers need a good understanding of what the vision or mission of the church is. The leader needs to have a humble life without cars, luxuries, etc., to care about the environment which means 3.1. INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS 67 that his or her life style will change and be conscious of consumption. So, they are interconnected and have interdependence with the global awareness.

Creative leadership conﬁrms that both churches need to change the direction of the leadership. Good transformative leadership means that leaders should change their style of life. ”Creative leadership is not just a phrase, it’s a way of living, and a way to develop other leaders. a growing base of evidence lends credence to these ideas” (Gheerawo 2019, p. 4) 68 CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Chapter 4

DISCUSSION

4.1 Discussion

It was not an easy task to find the results of the research questions because the information was from two different eras and from two different churchly leaders that lived in the Nazi era. It was expected to accomplish the results that were obtained and this is because of the good comments and recom- mendations from my Supervisor, my studies of leadership, theology and economics. My interest and motivation have also helped me to achieve these goals. Anyways, I will compare the results of this present research work with the previous studies’ results.

First, this present work coincides with the results of the research work of Jimmy T˚ali when he concludes that there is correlation between neoliberalism and the Swedish Lutheran Church. The results of my research work confirms that the Swedish Lutheran church’s leadership has been affected by the societal, cultural, political, and economic context in our present era. The Swedish societal context affects this churchly leadership with the secular ideology, rationality, and the capitalist social system. As Berg & Edquist (2017) describes that Sweden exercised power by decentralizing and networking with private institutions. In other words, it is an indirect governance with neoliberalism and New Public Management. The secular principals have discrim-

69 70 CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION inated, denigrated, and marginalized the function of the Swedish Lutheran church in public life and society. Furthermore, as WCC (2015) mentions, the contemporary trends of globalization, technology, mass communication, and individualism make it hard for the individuals to attend church and have personal religious experiences.

The results of my research work does not focus on the Jimmy T˚ali’s theological foundations but in churchly leadership. The present work presents NPM as the tool of leadership in the neoliberalism system, and in Swedish Lutheran Church. Perhaps, this present research work has more plausible explanations why the Swedish Lutheran church has changed the way of being a churchly organization. For example, the economic context has affected this church leadership with free markets in which churches maximize their revenues as Crouch (2011) explains. The leadership of the Swedish Lutheran church has been influenced with the NPM which is a product of neoliberalism. Neoliberalism emphasizes anti-democratic, anti-solidarity, consumption, financialization, inequality, loneliness, individualism, and neoliberal crisis as financial crisis. However, Crouch (2011) explains that financial crisis has only served to reinforce the power of the global corporation. The church leadership has become a big corporate organization where the local churches had to gather into one big church. Because of the NPM, Swedish Lutheran church’s leadership, as a spiritual leadership, has become more and more a leadership that is exactly like any other organization.

Second, Sofia Axelsson’s research work was not focused on the Swedish Lutheran church but on the Swedish Pentecostal church. The results of the present work do not contradict her results but confirms that Lewi Pethrus had so much power as a churchly leader. As the present work has defined that leaders become powerful when they have the ability to influence followers’ actions, attitudes, and beliefs. Lewi Pethrus had certain abilities and qualities that differentiated him from his followers. For example: Bolden et al. (2011) outlines that researchers concluded that leaders, managers, with personal good qualities like virtue, wisdom, respect, honesty, and human 4.1. DISCUSSION 71

flourishing, have positive environment. Lewi Pethrus have created a positive environment in the Swedish Pentecostal Church, he wrote a lot of books of different genres. The present work also affirms that Lewi Pethrus had a lot of power because he created many institutions within the Swedish Pentecostal church, he even created a bank. Pethrus wanted to decide everything by himself and he did not like to have any contradictions. Sofia Axelsson’s research work also comments that the different organization of this church have joined as a cooperation and the present work agrees with her results. The cooperation is called the Pentecostal Commision’s Development Cooperation which means that this organization has the model of the Market Economic system, especially the NPM.

Lastly, Richard Steigmann-Gall’s research work does not have exactly a close relation to my research work. However, based on his findings, I might con- clude that the Nazi party used religion to influence people. Hitler as a Nazi leader had the same characteristics from the Great Man Theory as Lewi Pethrus (table 3.1) because both considered themself as a Christians. This present research work has compared Richard Steignann-Gall’s and concludes that Adolf Hitler and Lewi Pethrus had a divine calling and a conviction from God. Their leadership was based on Christianity and the followers were longing for having such a leader. Both, Adolf Hitler and Lewi Pethrus, wrote books and were influenced by the race-biological thinking. Another similar- ity is that the Christian Democrats political party and the Nazi party had similar ground, in terms of dissolving and eliminating dirty literature and immoral films. This present research work has more plausible explanations about the influence of the Nuremberg Laws in the Nazi era and how this law influenced not only Germany but also Sweden, especially obtaining the ”Aryan” certificates from the Swedish Lutheran church. 72 CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION

4.1.1 Summary

This present research work has investigated leadership in the Swedish Lutheran Church and Pentecostal Church. First, I have outlined the subject of Leader- ship and the importance of leadership in diﬀerent theory models such as the Great Man theory, Servant leadership, Transformative leadership, Creative leadership, and leadership in religious organizations that could help the research paper to analyze and interpret the results. Moreover, the key variables in leadership theories were discussed, and it was showed how this ﬁts into religious organizations.

Second, The leadership of the theory of Great Man showed us that there was a longing of a leader who was going to change the course of churchly leadership in the Nazi era. In our contemporary era, there is still the longing of the lost leader within us and we want the Great Man or Woman to change the course of church leadership.

Third, the leadership in the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal faith was affected by the societal, cultural, political, and economic context in the Nazi era. During the Nazi era, the Nazi ideology (through the Nuremberg law) was a leadership instrument that influenced both Swedish churches. In our contemporary era, the Neoliberal ideology through NPM is the leadership instrument that influences the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal Church. As the results have shown us, both ideologies have affected the calling and vocation of priests, deacons, and all of those who work in these organizations.

4.1.2 Limitations

Time is one of the factors that limits any research paper and this is what happened in this present thesis. As it was explained in the methodology, the research paper was expected to use data so that it was possible to collect certain codes that could help the paper to identify certain social context that inﬂuences the leadership in the religious organization. 4.1. DISCUSSION 73

It was diﬃcult to ﬁnd literature about Erling Eidem and the Swedish Church during the Nazi era but eventually, it was found what it was needed to present in this present research work.

4.1.3 Future Research

The present thesis has looked at leadership in the two most important faith organizations in Sweden. This will hopefully allow future researchers to analyze and study the relationship between leadership and religious institutions.

Future research papers could use quantitative method so that there is data on how many priests, pastors, and deacons have an inner and outer conﬂict between the calling of their vocation and leadership that exist within the church’s organization.

Lastly, it is important to analyze and know how many church leaders live a humble and spiritual life where they are concerned about how their lifestyle decisions can impact the entire world (human being, ﬂora and fauna). 74 CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION Chapter 5

CONCLUSIONS

Churchly leadership is very important and it should not adopt a leadership model that is applied in other public or private organizations. NPM has been used as a public leadership instrument in Sweden since the 1990s. Unfortu- nately, according to the interpretation of the results, both churches practice NPM where love and compassion are replaced by eﬀectiveness and optimization. None of the churches can practice or apply transformative leadership or creative leadership because NPM is a leadership model that does not allow followers to have an active role in the organization.

Servant leadership from a compassion and love perspective would be the best option for acquiring a good church leadership. It cannot exist contradiction or conﬂict between the calling of the priest and deacon and the leadership model of the church, otherwise it will be hard to identify spirituality in religious organization. Leadership is based on leaders and followers and they both need to perform the vision that they have. So, a good leadership model is when there is a good relationship between leader-followers as two sides of the same coin. True biblical servant leadership should have a leader who has spiritual love as the essence and foundation of servant leadership, along with humility, trust, empowerment, and service.

It is essential to point out that the Great Man theory showed how the two

75 76 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS church leaders were aﬀected by the Swedish societal, cultural, political, economic context in the Nazi era. There was a longing for the Great man in these two Swedish churches. Table 3.1 summarizes how leadership has been in the Swedish Lutheran and Pentecostal faith during the second war world. Both Lewi Pethrus and Erlim Eidem have one personal trait in common which is authority that they had within the organization. However, none of them had the courage as a religious leader to publicly protest what Adolf Hitler was performing in the Nazi regime. The Nuremberg law was a leadership instrument for the Swedish Lutheran Church, this means that this Chris- tian movement altered the fundamental Christian doctrine whereby Jews, Catholics, and other social classes or organizations where discriminated by the Swedish society.

Nowadays, church leadership is still affected by the Swedish societal, cultural, political, economic context, NPM with rationalism, secularism, globalization, technology, and mass consumption have discriminated, denigrated and marginalized the function of the church in society. This has affected individuals to attend church and church membership is dwindling day after day. NPM is a leadership instrument for both churches, the Swedish and Pentecostal faith, in the present time. Both organizations are driven as any other public organization where vocation or the calling of a priest and deacon conflicts with the NPM ideology in the Swedish Lutheran church. However, the Swedish Pentecostal church has had leaders who are not priests or deacons but people who have worked in banks or in private organizations.

Both transitive and creative leadership suggest that church leaders need to change their life style so that both churches can survive as organization in the future. These leaders need to have a life style that is humble, compassionate, equal, and empatible to the global awareness, if they do not take actions as churchly leaders with their own way of life, the whole world will be destroyed by men’s consumption.

Lastly, it is important to mention that both churches need to have ”leader- 77 ship in organization” so that anyone who comes into the organization can feel the happiness of the Church environment. Legacy is very important in any religious organization, this kind of leadership is explained in the biblical servant leadership which means that even if the servant leader is not alive, there are successors or followers who continue both being servant leaders and having a spiritual churchly leadership. 78 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS Chapter 6

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