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Thesis University of Amsterdam / with Summary in Dutch UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Development of the pelvic floor : implications for clinical anatomy Wallner, C. Publication date 2008 Document Version Final published version Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Wallner, C. (2008). Development of the pelvic floor : implications for clinical anatomy. General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:08 Oct 2021 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PELVIC FLOOR IMPLICATIONS FOR CLINICAL ANATOMY CHRISTIAN WALLNER Development of the Pelvic Floor - Implications for Clinical Anatomy / by Christian Wallner / PhD Thesis University of Amsterdam / with summary in Dutch Cover design by Iskander T. Dekker This thesis was printed by PrintPartners Ipskamp ISBN 978-90-9023672-8 © 2008 by Christian Wallner No part of this thesis may be reproduced in any form, by any print, microfilm, or any other means, without prior written permission of the author. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PELVIC FLOOR IMPLICATIONS FOR CLINICAL ANATOMY ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof.dr. D.C. van den Boom ten overstaan van een door het college voor promoties ingestelde commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Agnietenkapel op donderdag 20 november 2008, te 14.00 uur door CHRISTIAN WALLNER geboren te Schwarzach, Oostenrijk Promotiecommissie: Promotor: Prof.dr. W.H. Lamers Co-promotores: Dr. M.C. de Ruiter Dr. N.F. Dabhoiwala Overige leden: Prof.dr. H. Fritsch Prof.dr. C.A. Grimbergen Prof.dr. P.E. van Kerrebroeck Prof.dr. K.H. Kurth Prof.dr. J. Stoker Prof.dr. C.H.J. van de Velde Faculteit der Geneeskunde The study described in this thesis was supported by a grant from the John L. Emmett Foundation for Urology, The Netherlands. Additional financial support for the publication of this thesis was generously provided by Astellas Pharma, the University of Amsterdam and the AMC Liver Center. Aan Kees en aan de kleine CONTENTS Chapter 1 General Introduction and Scope of the Thesis 9 Chapter 2 The Anatomy of the Pelvic Floor and Sphincters 15 Chapter 3 The Innervation of the Pelvic Floor Muscles: A Reappraisal for the Levator Ani Nerve 75 Chapter 4 The Contribution of the Levator Ani Nerve and the Pudendal Nerve to the Innervation of the Levator Ani Muscles; a Study in Human Fetuses 89 Chapter 5 Causes of Fecal and Urinary Incontinence After Total Mesorectal Excision for Rectal Cancer Based on Cadaveric Surgery 105 Chapter 6 The Anatomical Components of Urinary Continence 125 Chapter 7 Smooth-Muscle Actin-Expressing Cells are an Integral Component of the Connective Tissue of the Levator Hiatus 145 Chapter 8 General Discussion: The Pelvic Floor in Continence and Pelvic Organ Support 163 Appendix Letters to the Editor 183 Nederlandse Samenvatting 197 Dankwoord 201 Curriculum Vitae and Publications 203 Color Figures 211 CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF THE THESIS 9 The pelvic floor plays an important role in the maintenance of urinary and fecal continence and pelvic organ support [1-5]. Pelvic floor dysfunction is a big public health problem, because as many as 10% of all women may suffer from pelvic floor dysfunction that requires surgery [6;7]. In the United States alone, almost 300.000 operations for pelvic organ prolapse and stress urinary incontinence (SUI) are performed each year [8;9]. Anatomically, the pelvic floor is a complicated part of the human body and much of its anatomy is controversial. Without a clear understanding of the anatomy, the understanding the continence function of the pelvic floor and the consequences of pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is even more problematical and may explain why almost 30% of the operations performed for incontinence and POP are re- operations [6]. These data indicate that pelvic floor dysfunction is a prevalent and disabling condition with suboptimal treatment. These facts, and our limited scientific understanding of the cause of dysfunction, show that new structural and functional insights are necessary to optimize prevention and treatment [7]. Vaginal delivery is believed to be a major cause of pelvic floor dysfunction [1-5]. In agreement, modeling studies have shown that the passage of the baby’s head through the birth channel can stretch the pelvic floor muscles to such an extent that damage occurs [10-13]. Although some of these modeling studies were based on incorrect anatomical assumptions, several studies have demonstrated with the help of imaging techniques that vaginal delivery can cause damage to the levator ani muscle (LAM), the main pelvic floor muscle [14-19]. Not all women with pelvic floor dysfunction have a visible LAM defect. This demonstrates that, in addition to muscle, other structures within the pelvic floor, such as its nerve supply or the connective tissue that connects the pelvic organs with the pelvic floor can be affected. The nerve supply to the LAM has been a matter of controversy. Many medical texts, anatomical atlases and review articles state that the pelvic floor muscles are innervated by the pudendal nerve [e.g. 20]. However other studies have demonstrated that the LAM is innervated by direct branches of the third and fourth sacral motor nerve roots and not by the pudendal nerve [21]. 10 Scope of the thesis In this thesis several controversial anatomical issues concerning the pelvic floor have been investigated using serial sections of human fetuses and adults, 3D reconstruction, (immuno)histochemistry and conventional dissection. Chapter 2 gives an introduction into the anatomy of the pelvic floor muscles, with an emphasis on its presentation in MRI. Chapters 3 to 5 concern the nerve supply to the levator ani muscle. In Chapter 3 the innervation of the levator ani muscles by means of the “levator ani nerve” is described in female fetuses and adults. Additionally, its topographical relationship to the pudendal nerve is studied. In Chapter 4 the contributions of both the levator ani nerve and the pudendal nerve to the innervation of the levator ani muscles is investigated. The results demonstrated that the levator ani nerve always innervates the levator ani muscles, whereas a contribution of the pudendal nerve is seen only in 50% of the specimens. The damage to the levator ani nerve, which can be incurred during rectal cancer surgery, as a determining factor in the development of fecal and urinary incontinence was studied in Chapter 5. The results of Chapter 2 to 4 demonstrate that the levator ani muscle has a dual innervation, with the main contribution by the levator ani nerve and that this nerve is prone to damage during pelvic surgery. In Chapter 6 the anatomical components of urinary continence are investigated, with an emphasis on the striated external urethral sphincter muscle and its topographical relation to the levator ani muscle. The main finding of the study is that the inferior part of the external urethral sphincter muscle is attached to the levator ani muscle in the female. In Chapter 7 describes the smooth levator hiatus muscle. This smooth muscle anchors the pelvic organs to the levator ani muscle at the level of the levator hiatus. Finally, in Chapter 8 the new findings investigated in this thesis are discussed in the context of incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse. 11 References (1) Norton P, Brubaker L. Urinary incontinence in women. Lancet 2006; 367:57-67. (2) Wald A. Fecal incontinence in adults. New England Journal of Medicine 2007; 356:1648-1655. (3) Madoff RD, Parker SC, Varma MG, Lowry AC. Faecal incontinence in adults. The Lancet 2004; 364:621-632. (4) Jelovsek JE, Maher C, Barber MD. Pelvic organ prolapse. Lancet 2007; 369:1027-1038. (5) Ashton-Miller JA, DeLancey JO. Functional anatomy of the female pelvic floor. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007; 1101:266-296. (6) Olsen AL, Smith VJ, Bergstrom JO, Colling JC, Clark AL. Epidemiology of surgically managed pelvic organ prolapse and urinary incontinence. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 89:501-506. (7) DeLancey JOL. The hidden epidemic of pelvic floor dysfunction: Achievable goals for improved prevention and treatment. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2005; 192:1488-1495. (8) Boyles SH, Weber AM, Meyn L. Procedures for pelvic organ prolapse in the United States, 1979-1997. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 188:108-115. 12 (9) Boyles SH, Weber AM, Meyn L. Procedures for urinary incontinence in the United States, 1979-1997. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 189:70-75. (10) Martins JA, Pato MP, Pires EB, Jorge RM, Parente M, Mascarenhas T. Finite element studies of the deformation of the pelvic floor. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007; 1101:316-334. (11) Lien KC, Mooney B, DeLancey JOL, Ashton-Miller JA. Levator Ani Muscle Stretch Induced by Simulated Vaginal Birth. Obstet Gynecol 2004; 103:31- 40. (12) Hoyte L, Damaser MS, Warfield SK, Chukkapalli G, Majumdar A, Choi DJ, Trivedi A, Krysl P. Quantity and distribution of levator ani stretch during simulated vaginal childbirth.
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