UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

Efficacy of Feature Films in Undergraduate Psychology Teaching: An Exploratory

Study

by

Monica Baehr

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

DIVISION OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

CALGARY, ALBERTA

JANUARY 2009

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Seventy-two students from an undergraduate psychology course gave their perceptions of various media used in the classroom, including feature films. Comments and ratings were collected from two written assignments per student and a questionnaire. Students were given the choice of using feature films, instructional videos, or biographically based text material for application of concepts from Personality Theory, and asked to provide reasons for their preference as part of the papers. These statements of rationale, comments about advantages and disadvantages of each medium on the questionnaire, and relative rankings of the media were subjected to qualitative coding and descriptive quantitative analysis, with a focus on outcomes for feature films. Results showed a preference for movies over the other media, although videos were also liked more than the biographical text. The pedagogical qualities most emphasised by students, especially in relation to films, were the opportunity to link theories to real-life examples, and the challenge to engage in higher-level thinking and analysis. It is suggested that the exploratory nature of the methodological approach, the emerging categories and themes, and the indicators of how students engage with movies in the classroom can lead to further research in a variety of settings. Ultimately, it is hoped that the findings from this study will open many more doors to the creative and effective use of such an innovative strategy.

in Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude for the tremendous support I received from my supervisor, and members of my committee. John Mueller has been amazingly patient, and was there when I needed advice on the thesis, reminders for deadlines, help in navigating administrative mazes, and personal encouragement to persist in a lengthy process often impeded by other demands. Nancy Dudley was the inspiration for this dissertation, and has helped to sustain my enthusiasm for the project. Her sensitive feedback and continuing involvement have been greatly appreciated in this journey.

Walter Zwirner, over many years and spanning two degrees, has taught me most of what I know about research methodology. His timely feedback on the formulation of my proposal helped to keep me on track.

My husband of 24 years, Stefan Demjen, helped to sustain me in this challenge with his personal devotion and patience. He has had to put up with my late nights, erratic schedules, and absent-mindedness. I hope to make up for all the times we could not share the joys of long walks, concerts, trips to the mountains, and just plain conversation. Our son Lucas Demjen, now grown up, has had to become even more independent, but understands that we are all there for each other when it really counts.

Finally, I want to express my appreciation for the many individuals at Mount

Royal College who supported me and encouraged me in my project, including colleagues, staff, administrators, and, of course, the students. My work is intimately tied to the college, and I am grateful for the opportunities I have been given.

iv Table of Contents

Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of Tables vii List of Figures and Illustrations viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 The Project in a Pedagogical Context 1 Background of the Study 4

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 10 Films and Education 10 Use of Films: Overview and Issues 11 Methodological and Ethical Considerations 27 Statement of the Problem 46

CHAPTER 3: METHOD 47 Arriving At Methodology 47 A Journey of Induction 47 The Person in the Process 51 Placing the Research Methods 58 A Question of Philosophy 66 Method of Data Collection 70

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 78 Participant Information 78 Data Extraction 79 Quantitative Analysis of Ratings 81 Qualitative Analysis of Written Comments 99

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 139 Discussion 139 Conclusion 156

REFERENCES 158

APPENDIX A: The Media Preference Questionnaire 171

APPENDIX B: Frequency Distribution of Age of Respondents 175

APPENDIX C: Frequency Distribution of Ranked Scores on The 5-Point Scales Measuring Use of and Attitude Toward Films in General 176

v APPENDIX D: Frequency Distribution of Ranked Scores on The 5-Point Scales Measuring Use of and Attitude Toward Textbook and Films in the Course 179

APPENDIX E: Comparative Rankings of Media and Resources For Usefulness and Enjoyability 181

APPENDIX F: Frequency Counts For Films ,Videos, and Biographical Text within Themes and Categories 188

APPENDIX G: Ethics Approval: University of Calgary 189

APPENDIX H: Ethics Approval: Mount Royal College 190

APPENDIX I: Participant Consent Form: University of Calgary 191

APPENDIX J: Participant Consent Form: Mount Royal College 195

VI List of Tables

Table la: Comparison of Relative Rankings of Usefulness and Enjoyability of Seven Media and Resources 94

Table lb: Hierarchy for Usefulness and Enjoyability of Seven Media and Resources for All Rankings 95

Table 2a: Number of Times That Film, Video, or Biographical Text Material Were Chosen for Assignments 101

Table 2b: Comparison of Pairs of Media Choices 101

Table 3: Categories of Reasons for Working with Specific Media 103

Table 4: Categories of Reasons Grouped Within Themes 120 Table 5: Frequency of Theme Events, Category Events, and Associated Ranks Based on Student Comments in Assignments 124

Table 6: Number of Theme Events, Category Events, and Associated Ranks For Films 125

Table 7: Number of Theme Events, Category Events, and Associated Ranks For Videos 126

Table 8: Number of Theme Events, Category Events, and Associated Ranks For Biographical Text Material 127

Table 9: Percentage Share of Themes and Categories Among Film, Video, and Biographical Text Material 130

Table 10a: Rankings of All Media for Theme Events and Category Events from the Questions: "What Did You Like?" (Q.7, 9, and 11) 134

Table 10b: Rankings Films, Videos, and Biographical Chapters for Theme Events and Category Events from the Question: "What Did You Like?" 135

Table 11: Frequency of Theme Events, Category Events, and Associated Ranks for Films in Response to the Item: "Add Any Other Comments." (Q. 19) 136

Vll List of Figures and Illustrations

Figure 1: Frequency distribution of age of respondents (n = 70) 78

Figure 2: Frequency distribution of ranked scores on the 5-point scales for Questions 1 to 6 (n = 72) 82

Figure 3: Frequency distribution of ranked scores on the 5-point scales for Questions 13 to 16 (n = 72) 87

Figure 4: Frequency distribution of relative ranks for degree of usefulness assigned to each of seven media and resources in the course 90

Figure 5: Frequency distribution of relative ranks assigned for degree of enjoyability to each of seven media and resources in the course 92

Figure 6: Order of median ranks for seven resources used in the course, compared for the relative degree to which respondents found the resource to be useful (top), and to which they experienced it as enjoyable (bottom) (n = 63) 96

Figure 7: Learning with films: Themes and categories represented as branches of a tree 121

vin 1

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

The Project in Pedagogical Context

Teachers at all academic levels seek ways to stimulate interest and enhance student learning. One approach that has increased dramatically in the last few decades is the use of commercial movies. The purpose of this research project is to examine more closely the use of cinematic film, and explore its special features in the context of teaching and learning academic material. As part of this exploration, I have used a qualitative approach to record, summarize, and encode students' own perceptions. From this process, themes were developed to help describe the salient qualities of feature films as an educational tool.

The final discussion will include suggestions for practical implementation, based on outcomes. The focus of this study is on the defined area of teaching undergraduate psychology, with the student sample drawn from my own course in personality theory at

Mount Royal College in Calgary, Canada. However, my survey of the topic, discussion of theoretical implications, and recommended strategies will encompass a variety of disciplines.

The concept of learning is expansive, reaches far into history, and includes practical as well as theoretical concerns. Processes of learning are embedded in human functioning and have occupied the minds of philosophers and teachers through the millennia. According to Gredler (2009), a shift of interest from learning theory and laboratory research to classroom instructional approaches could be observed in North

America beginning with the Second World War, when psychologists were challenged to design effective training for armed forces personnel in complex operations. Attempts to 2 develop new techniques for public education classrooms, under the general rubric of instructional theory, accelerated in the 1950s and continued to generate interest, parallel to and often in close conjunction with further developments and diversification in experimental research and theoretical formulations of learning phenomena. Of particular historical relevance to this study was the rising interest in classroom learning as more than conditioning or the rote memorization of facts and concepts: Instructional theory also came to include notions such as cognitive-developmental competencies (e.g., Jean

Piaget), complex and hierarchical arrays of conditions of learning (Robert Gagne), intellectual development through application of cognitive techniques (Jerome Bruner), and social-cultural contexts of education (Gredler, 2009).

From another perspective, theories of personality are intricately tied to learning, as well as to motivational research and application. Personality theory owes much to early and contemporary philosophical movements, but also has evolved more recently within clinical and experimental frameworks. Sigmund Freud, who at the turn of the

20th century made his mark with the idea of mind causing emotional and behavioural disturbances through repressed memories and conflicts, saw learning within the fundamental framework of inborn biological drives and unconscious processes. Neo-

Freudians such as Alfred Adler and Karen Horney conceptualized "self as an agent more capable of learning and conscious decision-making than Freud would allow, while still harbouring much of experience and schemata in the unconscious. Carl Jung emphasized life-long growth, the search for harmony through universal symbols and self-awareness, and spirituality where learning is part of a largely inner journey or quest.

Carl Rogers, as a major figure in humanistic psychology and representative of the larger 3 phenomenological approach, saw learning processes in the service of individuals striving to overcome obstacles in the path of personal growth or "actualization," while existential psychologists such as Rollo May and Victor Frankl emphasized the importance of creating meaning in life, as in the search for knowledge and understanding. B.F. Skinner did not even support the "mentalistic" concept of personality, yet his grand environmental-behavioural approach to learning, or "conditioning," is categorically included among the major paradigms. Adding to and in some cases supplanting that approach, cognitive theorists again turned their eye on mental processes including perception, interpretation of events, and the formation of attitudes in learning and production of behaviour. Albert Bandura is one of the pioneers of the contemporary approach that looks at the broader interaction between environment, the individual, and behaviour, a framework that includes external conditions, internal states, skills, self- schemas, and behavioural change. To round out the group of major approaches to personality, biology provides us with focus on the workings of the brain, on genetically predisposed traits, and on hypothesized evolutionary influences. Much of the work in understanding learning and memory appears to be linked to models of what happens in various regions of the brain.

It is evident that research into the realms of learning and pedagogy potentially involves many disciplines and can be approached from different perspectives. My framework for exploring the instructional use of feature films may be primarily that of psychology, but it is intended to intersect with educational theory and practice. The ultimate goal is integration on both conceptual and practical levels. 4

The following section provides the back story to this project, placing reasons and strategies in context.

Background of the Study

After many years of teaching psychology, I enrolled in my current program with a variety of interests such as the use of technology in education, and various aspects of the arts. In the second year of my studies, I took a course in adult development from

Nancy Dudley, who introduced the class to, among other techniques, cinematic film as a medium for learning complex concepts and variations on a theme. The specific assignment entailed choosing a film and analyzing it from the viewpoint of two or more theoretical approaches to adult development. This proved to be a fascinating undertaking, well suited to me personally, academically, and professionally. Since I was also teaching at Mount Royal College during this time, I decided to use the method with my own students. I had always used case examples, instructional videos, and discussions, in addition to the usual lectures and readings. Such a mix was not difficult in my course on abnormal psychology, since these techniques are popular for illustration and, at upper levels, training. Case examples and videos abound in this field. Movies were not unusual sources, either; some of the most interesting films have dealt with psychopathology, and already much literature was available for resources on movies and mental illness. However, by taking the adult development class, I was inspired to expand that idea to other areas, and considered how I could effectively and efficiently incorporate feature films into my second course, on personality theory.

Personality, as the area of study is also known, has a catchy name and often seems to lull undergraduates into thinking it is a "fun" and "easy" course where they will 5 learn to "analyze" themselves and others. They sometimes appear shocked to be confronted with a heavily academic set of concepts and frameworks, requiring detailed textbook reading and an understanding of the nuances of language—English, certainly, but also some foreign terms—as well as psychological terminology and theoretical understanding. A number of students end up considering it "dry" and either too difficult or "boring." This is a sad state facing instructors who are passionate about their topic and would like to present a rich array of concepts that, despite the academic "jargon," ultimately are rooted in real life. The great minds that created the major theories belonged—or belong, for contemporary figures—to real people who, presumably, started their journey to understanding "the person" with real concerns. It encompasses my view of teaching and learning, and I want students to have this fascination, as well.

The experience of writing a detailed paper on how different theories could be used to analyze a story in film reminded me of several pivotal experiences as a younger student. In 1975 at the University of Toronto, in a fourth-year course on the history of psychology, a remarkable professor, Daniel Berlyne, assigned us to take a prominent theorist and talk about his or her concepts as if we were that person; he called this

"psychohistoricodrama," no doubt a play on the then-popular technique of psychodrama in therapy. I chose to "play" Sigmund Freud, and still remember the challenge: How hard it was to memorize—let alone grasp—the strange words and present them as coherent and meaningful to fellow students. Cue cards and self-repetition were the order of the day, and it was only years later that I began to sense in the theory more than a collection of terms and definitions. From the perch of an instructor now with decades of experience and exposure, it seems astonishing to remember the mental "fog" even while 6 taking a higher-level course. Nevertheless, this innovative assignment stuck and surely launched me toward further learning and exploration.

Another boost in understanding came when I read Irving Stone's (1971) biographical novel of Sigmund Freud, The Passions of the Mind, which provided skilful literary descriptions and rich images within a narrative, in addition to "facts" or at least approximations of actual events. The accuracy of details, which at the time I could not fully judge without more research, was not as important as the ways in which they were woven into a story that was absorbing, and put disparate terms into historical as well as personal context. It was not just reading about ideas or theory; it was understanding what it might have meant to the theorist himself, over a lifetime, in a particular place and time. By relating to the individual and using imagination, I found it easier to create my own interpretation and meaning of these ideas, in turn. My purpose here is not to promote Freud or his theory, which admittedly has many detractors, but to illustrate how one particular focus—a well-known and culturally pervasive figure in the history of psychology—led to a number of experiences that helped shape my own career, attitudes, and ways of carrying out meaningful work. These kinds of scenarios, of course, continue to be repeated in many other ways and domains. In addition, through early exposure to

German language and society, I had a better opportunity than some of my peers to resonate with the man behind the theory, and to understand the personal struggles, linguistic nuances, and broader cultural influences on the shaping of ideas. Finally, my initial goal in psychology, practicing as a clinician, was influenced by a fascination for the "old masters" whose work was so readily available, and this in turn determined further interests in academic pursuits. Thus, I came to believe that one's own history, as 7 well as context, storytelling, medium, and dramatic techniques all could play a part in grasping and absorbing a heavily academic area of study.

Again in 1975 at the University of Toronto, during a presentation given by

David Bakan, I listened to his intriguing speech on "speculation as a method in psychology" (see also Bakan (1967) on method in psychology). An opportunity to talk with Dr. Bakan afterwards strengthened my belief that psychology provided considerable openness and flexibility in research, teaching, and learning. As I understood it, one can and should be innovative, even in areas as defined as research and theory-building, as long as one is clear and transparent in his or her approach. Years later, I regard this as another encounter that encouraged me to be creative in both my eventual teaching career, and in my current research.

Fast forward, then, to Dr. Dudley's course in adult development, and my subsequent beginnings in using feature films to teach personality theory. I decided to incorporate two movies, since I wanted the same base for all students, and one film would eventually lose its appeal from overuse. The most recent version of The Secret

Garden (Coppola & Holland, 1993), despite having been based on a children's book from the early 20th century (Burnett, 1911), struck me as initially helpful for discussing

Alfred Adler's ideas. Adler's themes are about overcoming weakness in early childhood, and striving to become a better, more powerful version of oneself, with the ultimate, idealistic goal of personal "perfection." Included in the ideal personality is a pervasive concern for the well-being and development of others—a sense of communal spirit and connectedness. Each character in The Secret Garden has a weakness to overcome, a challenge that eventually is met in unique ways. The focus on childhood also fits with an 8 exploration of other psychodynamic theories, and the story does it without the sinister or aberrant qualities of children that I observe in many contemporary movies. This film version still has a "darker" look about it and has generally been considered more nuanced than earlier productions, making it suitable for a wider audience. I found that the film also worked well with Freud, and other neo- or post-Freudian theorists included in such a course. In fact, it would have been applicable to all theories, but early reactions from students told me that it was best to switch after some time.

The second film is Ordinary People (Schwary & Redford, 1980), which deals with personal trauma, disturbed family dynamics, and an ultimately successful psychotherapy with a sensitive and engaged psychiatrist. The most obvious application for this story was Rogers' person-centred theory and client-centred approach, but again it could be made to work with the other models. I therefore had for my basis two older but acclaimed and sufficiently complex feature films that I was hoping would still appeal to my now-millennial students. I shall discuss further the qualities of these films, their integration into the course, and the students' reactions when outlining methods and reporting results.

Many details had to be worked out before I was ready to organize this study. As an instructor, I had the proper motives and freedom to try out different techniques, making changes whenever they seemed necessary for the students' benefit. In conducting formal research in my own classrooms, however, there were more stringent demands.

The three years leading up to the project served as an ongoing pilot study, and I became convinced that feature films in the course could yield positive results. But, what kind of results would an instructor be looking for? How could they be measured? How should 9 one go about designing an effective strategy for classroom use, and get the feedback needed to make a solid case? Ultimately, how could this research further our understanding of the effects of feature films in ways that promote learning?

The approach to method and analysis had to satisfy three main sets of criteria.

The first set comprised the demands of scientific research for rigour and clarity. The second set involved the rule of acting in the best interests of the students. And third, information from the study had to be useful in guiding further research, and practical in setting guidelines for teaching with films. Maintaining the balance among all three sets of requirements—scientific, ethical, and practical—required careful planning.

In the next chapter, I present (a) a brief survey of the historical role of movies,

(b) a description of how other educators, especially those at college and university, have applied cinematic films to teaching and training, (c) a range of reasons offered by authors for regarding movies as effective in educational settings, (d) an attempt to understand how the medium interacts with the way viewers cognitively and affectively respond to films, and (e) methodological issues of conducting research in the classroom. 10

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Films and Education

In 1916, the German philosopher and psychologist Hugo Munsterberg wrote from Harvard University, where he was working as a guest scholar with William James:

"The photoplay tells us the human story by overcoming the forms of the outer world, namely, space, time, and causality, and by adjusting the events to the forms of the inner world, namely, attention, memory, imagination, and emotion" (Munsterberg, 1916, p.74). This statement foreshadowed contemporary views on the unique qualities of cinematic film, and what makes movies so effective and engaging a medium (Anderson

& Anderson, 1996). In the century and more since films were first shown to the public, movies, and particularly the fiction film, have permeated culture all over the world. In its origin, the interest lay in moving pictures as a scientific and technological innovation

(Packer, 2002), and with recording reality, much like its photographic predecessor.

However, cinema quickly developed as a form of entertainment. The notion of film as art also began to take hold. From its choppy beginnings in black and white and without sound, to the high-definition, multichannel, and multiformat technology it is today, films seem to have fascinated the public everywhere. It is therefore not surprising that the medium of film, or cinema, has come to appeal to educators as an exciting, innovative, and creative means of teaching. However, much of the use of commercial films in the classroom has been pragmatic and based more on assumptions than evidence; ideas have been offered as to why popular films should enhance classroom learning, but there is much room for solid research to match the enthusiasm and application. 11

Use of Films: Overview and Issues

Films encompass many forms and genres. This study is about using "full- featured" movies that provide a complete narrative framework, or story, in contrast to, for example, documentaries, and avant-garde, art, or ideologically-themed films. For the application of cinema to educational settings, I limit the discussion to films as a tool for illustrating and analyzing concepts or events, and not as student projects, studies of film as art, the teaching of media literacy, or the use of films as supplement to literature

(Baines, 2005).

According to Baines (2005), soon after the invention and marketing of films, scholars became interested in their uses in education. He provides an example from every decade since 1913 of authors suggesting the medium's potential value in mastering English composition, enlivening the classroom, illustrating events, and teaching art and motion picture appreciation. Baines suggests that, with the establishment of film as a mass medium, "the film study movement enjoyed the peak of its popularity during two periods—the late 1930s and the late 1960s" (p. 548). World

War II diverted interest to other uses, and in the 1970s, the author suggests, education on this continent took a turn "back to basics." The contribution of film studies to school programs, as well as the prevalence of college "film societies," declined, as opinion drew away from this field as part of a core language arts curriculum, and were viewed more as a "frill." Baines attributes this "ebb and flow" in part to social and economic changes, with less prosperous times yielding more scepticism toward the value of media studies (p. 548). Nevertheless, movies as classroom tools continued to gain some acceptance, and eventually, respectability. 12

In this exploration of film as a teaching tool and its effects on learning, I contrast the approach with some of the more "conventional" classroom techniques, which are still vigorously in use. I want to emphasize that I do not consider other strategies as less desirable. Instead, what I intend to explore are qualities of feature films that help to provide a unique set of opportunities for teaching and learning. What follows is a survey of authors who have been incorporating feature films, either whole or as clips, into instruction, and have described strategies and their own reasons for use.

Not surprisingly, a surge of writings by school and postsecondary educators on the innovative uses of cinematic film coincided with the invention of programmable videotape recording (Sony Betamax in 1976, RCA VHS videocassette recorder two years later) and the rise of video rental stores since 1978 (Baines, 2005). Availability to the public as well as to teachers increased both the private, everyday consumption of commercial films and the ease of instructional use. But even before VCRs, since the late

1960s, there were instructors who enthusiastically incorporated movies into their courses. One classic, brief report on using films for teaching abnormal psychology, for example, was presented by Nissim-Sabat (1979), whose own classroom observations were made in 1977.

What inspired this interest in using feature films for instruction? Other techniques were well-entrenched and offered solid, even creative, uses of their own. As instructors, we are well aware of these strategies, including lectures, reading assignments, class discussion, group work, class presentations, written work, and, in the case of courses or training with practical components, case illustration and discussion.

Examples of authors who provide a comparative overview and discussion are Maynard 13

(1996) for family therapy and Misch (2000) for psychiatry training. There is, of course, a rich accumulation of literature that focuses on the creative and effective use of these traditional techniques. For example, Tucker (1994) wrote on the use of literary short stories as case histories in psychiatry training, Mpofu & Price (2002) described their use of fictional and non-fictional literature in teaching psychopathology, and Hemenover,

Caster, and Mizumoto (1999) combined progressive writing techniques with popular movies in their introductory psychology course. Garfield, Atre-Vaidya, and Sierles

(2002) used a highly structured peer-to-peer teaching program in a course for psychiatry residents. Yet, moving pictures seem to hold a special fascination when compared with these other forms of teaching.

In the survey to follow, I shall try to establish that commercially produced movies following high standards of writing, directing, acting, camera work, and storytelling are attractive to teachers from a wide range of disciplines and at various levels in college, university, and professional school environments. Many instructors have reported their experiences with films in the classroom. However, specific aspects that are considered endemic to the film experience, such as the multimodal nature of the medium, emotional impact, and unique opportunities for individual interpretation through story and symbols, are difficult to define. The areas within the larger field of cognitive science have stimulated film scholars, many of whom are philosophers or psychologists, to formulate new explanations and investigative approaches primarily since the 1970s and '80s. Attempts have been made to empirically link the effects of watching a film to specific cognitive processes, and to examine the role of emotional responses. 14

Impact of Multimedia

Since the late 1970s, didactic or instructional videos, whose purpose is to illustrate or convey factual information on defined topics, have also become popular.

Again, psychiatric case presentations, illustrating symptoms of disorders and often portraying related issues such as historical and sociocultural influences, provide fertile ground for this technique (e.g., Fidler, 1996; Maynard, 1996). The application of multimedia in general, from simple graphic displays and sound effects to dynamic and interactive computer techniques (including the now-ubiquitous PowerPoint presentation), Internet resources, print and dynamic news media, television, and videos, has become a major topic of writing, investigation, and discussion during the past twenty years (e.g., Hollander, 2000, providing "teaching tips" for psychology). A recent volume that surveys research on all the major "communicative and visual arts" in teaching was compiled by Flood, Heath, and Lapp (2005), covering more than 900 pages. Clearly, all visual and auditory forms of instruction have something to offer, and comprise the meaning of "multimedia."

Effectiveness of Feature Films

A growing number of articles and books have also emerged on the use of cinematic films. Representative authors in psychology, psychiatry, and related fields have articulated their reasons for incorporating this medium into college, university, or professional school teaching. By starting with a framework based on practice and some theoretical speculation, I want to examine films by considering unique qualities that make the use of cinema worthwhile. 15

I suggest that authors' views on the beneficial effects of feature films on student learning be summarized broadly within five categories:

1. Affective responses to the film experience, describing student reports of

enjoyment, engagement in viewing, and positive attitude both toward the use of

film as technique, and to the subject matter.

2. Behavioural responses such as increased attendance and greater participation in

class or group discussion.

3. Reported experience of greater "real-life" involvement, facilitating the

connection of material to a larger and realistic context.

4. Social learning effects through modeling and exchange of ideas, leading to

expanded understanding of facts or issues and, at times, attitude change; and

5. Increased cognitive engagement, and higher-level thinking and learning

evidenced, for example, in discussions, class projects, and written assignments

based on a film.

With those categories in mind, what follows are some of the main ideas arising from the instructional literature.

Increased student enjoyment, enthusiasm, and engagement resulting from films in the classroom (or as assignments), based in part on student self-reports, were mentioned explicitly by many of the authors surveyed, such as Bluestone (2000),

Boyatzis (1994), Casper et al. (2003), Conner (1996), and Proctor and Adler (1991).

Misch (2000) and Baines (2005), among others, pointed to the ubiquity of exposure to film in its by-now myriad physical formats that allow for familiarity and ease of viewing, whether in class or as an out-of-class assignment. The attention-capturing 16 quality of films—perhaps the first necessary goal of any instructional technique—was noted in particular by Casper et al. (2003), Champoux (1999) and Nicholson and Zadra

(1998). Enhanced participation in discussion and collaborative work has been noted by

Anderson (1992), Capporimo (2000), Koch & Dollarhide (2000), and Maynard (1996).

When considering students' experiences of events, conditions, and issues "in context," and perceiving class material as relevant to the "real world," this seems most evident in applied areas such as psychopathology (Fleming, 1990; Nissim-Sabat, 1979), psychiatry (Misch, 2000; Proctor & Adler, 1991), counsellor and family therapy education (Alexander & Waxman, 2000; Koch, 2000; Maynard, 1996), interpersonal communication (Proctor & Adler, 1991), adolescent development in graduate teacher training (Capporimo, 2000), psychology and law (Anderson, 1992), management and organizational psychology (Casper et al., 2003; Serey, 1992) and educational administration (English & Steffy, 1997). Illustrating behaviour for modeling, or debating the meaning of situations and behaviours in a particular film are popular applications particularly in therapy training (Alexander, 2000) and in management, leadership, and industrial-organizational psychology (Casper et al., 2003; Champoux,

1999; Serey, 1992).

Interest in films as a teaching tool goes far beyond the psychological and related disciplines, with examples found in religious studies (Ostwalt, 1998), history (Sprau,

2001), foreign policy (Kuzma & Haney, 2001), science (Efthimiou, 2004; Perkins,

2004), sports (Cornelius, n.d.), recreation, and tourism (O'Bannon & Goldberg, 2008).

Bluestone (2000), although focussing on psychology, provided an overview of other fields of use in her discussion of research, rationale, and practical issues. 17

Cognitive Aspects of Viewing Films

The fifth category names complex, higher-level learning. When feature films facilitate cognitive processes, it may be the result of their unique combination of modalities and rich symbolic structures, reflected in both content and style. From the above survey, there is an overall belief that films facilitate critical thinking and debate, connections between concepts and real situations, transfer of learning from theory to practice, and complex reasoning about ambiguous or challenging issues. It also is suggested that movies offer flexibility, and appeal to students across different learning styles. Again, Bluestone (2000) elaborated on the cognitive advantages of film use in facilitating "active" learning, which she called "minds-on" rather than "hands-on": critical viewing and analysis; increased awareness of issues such as stereotyping, negativity, and misinformation; and transfer of learning to situations other than those seen in the film. Boyatzis (1994) also emphasized the value of narrative films for comprehension and critical analysis of psychological concepts.

Given the central goal of higher-level learning in the educational enterprise, especially in postsecondary settings, what qualities of fiction films are relevant to instruction and learning? How do they relate, for example, to cognitive science?

In their century of history, fiction or feature films have grown to be highly popular as entertainment among people of all ages, gender, and cultural background. For example, a recent survey by Decima Research (2005) of Canadians' viewing habits provided evidence for the continuing, strong interest in movies in this country. It has been argued that the power of movies on perception, affect, and attitudes is pervasive and profound, and education is no exception; in the teaching of psychopathology, for 18 example, this point was made by Wedding, Boyd, & Niemiec (2005), and similar guides have been written for other disciplines, such as interpersonal communication (Adler &

Rodman, 2008; Proctor & Lapin, 2005). It is tempting to delve into the realm of cinema1, embarking on a journey into the multidisciplinary world of film studies with its own "complex and demanding vocabulary" (Prince, 2007, p. 421). Film theory spans aesthetics (Currie, 2004; Mitry, 1963/1997), linguistics (Herman, 2003a), philosophy of mind (Currie, 1995; McGinn, 2005; Plantinga & Smith, 1999), existentialism (Blessing

& Tudico, 2005), history (Bazin, 1951/2004; Bordwell & Thompson, 2003), popular culture (Grau, 2005), political and social issues (Thompson, 2007), neuroscience

(Konigsberg, 2007), and cognitive psychology (Carroll, 2003; McGinn, 2005). It appears that much of the discussion of cognitive science and film is conducted by philosophers, debating the nature of perception (veridical or illusory) (Irwin, 2002), levels of awareness and "knowing" (metacognition and epistemology) (Wartenberg, 2007), language (linguistics and semiotics) (Currie, 1995), evolutionary factors (ecology)

(Anderson & Anderson, 2005), and affective response (simulated, "as-if," or empathic)

(Grodal, 1997; Plantinga & Smith, 1999). On the production side, film scholars from various backgrounds debate technical and stylistic aspects, such as camera work, film text and narrative, dialogue, signs and signals, music, sound effects, and editing, and how these elements create a world—even a language—of film that ultimately works its influence on the audience (see, for example, Bordwell & Thompson, 2008). I would like to mention just some of those aspects.

The word is shortened from cinematograph, or French cinematographe, in turn based on the Greek word for "motion" and "picture." 19

The Role of Storytelling

The first public showing of projected motion pictures occurred in 1895, by

Auguste and Louis Lumiere (Prince, 2007). Technically—as we all understand—

"moving pictures" were constructed by presenting progressively-photographed stills on special stock in rapid succession, which then created an illusion of movement so powerful that, even though the spectator knows about it, it takes on a sense of reality.

This principle, of course, has not changed, only the sophistication of the technology used to produce the effect. The structures and processes of human perception are a basic part of cognitive science, but there is an added component that seems vital to the cinematic film experience: the story, or narrative.

In their first foray into movie exhibition, the Lumieres showed short and separate events, but a scene that enacted a brief story pointed the way to what quickly became the most popular form of movies, the storytelling film. By 1902, this was picked up in

America, as well, and decades later, in the 1930s to 1950s, evolved into the "classic

Hollywood narrative" still evident in most movies today (Prince, 2007). Prince accordingly begins his chapter on narrative film:

Stories are found in all cultures. Narrative is a universal human activity used for entertainment, instruction, and socialization. It is also an essential way that people think about themselves and their world. To explain how things change and how they got to be, people tell stories. Given the universality of narrative, it is not surprising that cinema, in its popular forms, has been a narrative medium, (p.229)

Film scholar David Bordwell (1985, 2006) has presented narrative structure as a key aspect of spectator effect because it engrosses the viewer, provides the framework for other film effects, and makes possible the key elements of cinematic stories in the shape of signs, symbols, and meaning. His views on the viewer's role in meaning construction are reminiscent of Gestalt views on perception and of social constructivism.

Another aspect of narrative implied by Prince and underlined by, for example, Herman

(2003 a), is the way stories can function as a vehicle for thinking, including problem solving. A different view of film as a story-telling medium has come from Vetrie (2004), who, as an English instructor in both university and alternative high school environments, outlined his approach to increasing literacy skills by arguing that film should be taught as a form of literature itself.

Perception and Information Processing

Movies provide a complex set of stimuli, but, as communication, require an agent who receives, processes, and acts on the information. This is the realm of cognitive psychology. We can include an understanding of the relevant brain structures and processes, and use the term cognitive science. In education, we are interested in perceptual, memory, and higher-level thinking processes that facilitate learning. What are some of these major processes, especially in the context of viewing films?

Perception studies consider how stimuli from the outside world enter the brain through sensory organs, how neural messages reach their various destinations in the brain, and how these impulses are analysed, integrated, and processed further in the relevant association areas. With film, perceptual processes are restricted to the visual and aural modalities. Because these two sensory and perceptual channels incorporate the majority of everyday functioning, much has been written about them, including their relation to relevant forms of art (e.g., Solso, 1996). In literature, music, and the visual 21 arts, interest lies in how visual and/or auditory stimuli translate into mental structures and higher processes, culminating in subjective experience (Anderson, 1998; Herman,

2003b; Hogan, 2003).

Information processing begins when sensory stimuli are selected, given further attention, and brought into the workings of memory through encoding, organization, and maintenance. Approaches to the study of memory focus on the way information is processed through various levels of understanding and retention. The most prominent model is that of stages which include sensory input, short-term memory, long-term memory, and the ways in which information is encoded, organized, stored, and retrieved at each step. Emphasis is placed mostly on iconic input that becomes visual encoding and imaginal long-term processing, echoic input that leads to auditory processing, and the potential transformation of both into semantic memory. Other distinctions have been made between rote learning, which takes place through maintenance rehearsal of items in short-term memory, and meaningful learning, which requires elaboration and more

"in-depth" processing. According to this model, meaningfulness is made possible through complex mental connections involving semantic and imaginal representations.

Expanding these notions to the field of neuroscience, connectionist models of learning and memory are seen to simulate, in highly simplified form, the multiple links between neurons, the localization of functions in the cerebral cortex, and the highly complex interplay between different areas of the brain, such as the parietal lobe for visual-spatial processing, the occipital lobe for visual processing, the temporal lobe for sound for auditory perception and language comprehension, and the prefrontal areas for integration and language production. This stage-oriented and connectionist model is useful for 22 understanding the general nature of human perception and information processing, but it also helps to explore individual differences. Out of the universal qualities involved in viewing and responding to motion pictures, ever-higher levels of perceptual construction, linkages, interpretation, and personal meaning require a consideration of the unique abilities and propensities of the viewer, which in turn are embedded in his or her sociocultural backdrop, as well as in the immediate circumstances.

How, then, do the attributes of film intersect with cognitive processes to create a unique set of learning opportunities? Prince (2007) writes of cognitive film theory as a study of "the way viewers process and interpret visual and auditory information in film and how specific structural features may cue or invite particular kinds of interpretation"

(p. 466). Put simply, the viewer is said to perceive visual and sound information provided by the film, then organize and categorize these bits of information to derive meaning. It is with consideration of these multimodal channels of perception, the techniques of film-making, and the myriad types of content that I believe films create learning opportunities.

Moving Image and Viewer Response

As the name states, "movies" are most clearly distinct from other media by the appearance of motion. This quality adds to the experience of realism because it involves both space—as do still photographs, paintings, and other objects of art—and time, as does a play, oral stories, printed stories, and music (Monaco, 2000). Although some of these other media also involve both space and time, none seem to provide such an extensive combination and integration as does a film. In fact, a movie often goes beyond what may be considered "real," as in science fiction with its special effects, yet provides 23 that experience of "verisimilitude": the suspension of disbelief, despite awareness of the physical and production features that help create this illusion. We can appreciate this phenomenon even more by noting the many parts of pre-production—directing, acting, and camera work, and post-production editing that combine to create the full impact of the movie (Monaco, 2000; Prince, 2007). Before the camera rolls, stories and themes are outlined, dialogue is written, and sound effects as well as music are in the planning.

Throughout the actual production, producers, writers, directors and many other participants consult. Editing of the shots is, today at least, also a highly collaborative effort. Because of the financial resources, technical standards and expertise, creative input, and many other forms of professional contribution, we can see that commercially produced films often represent high production standards in content, story, and style. In an instructional setting, high-quality feature films therefore tell a story in ways that no other medium can. Realism may be juxtaposed with fantasy, stories can be intricate or raw, events may be graphically displayed or only implied, and more is usually left to the viewer to infer, from all that is happening on the screen, than even the film-maker or - makers intended.

A fuller appreciation of the finished product as a "whole" would be gained by detailed understanding of (a) camera technique, such as the use of close-ups, long-shots and cross-cutting; (b) lighting, to mute or emphasize a character or object, and to set up mood; and focus or blurring; (c) colour, which may be bright or muted, or even absent as in black-and-white; (d) setup of scenes, which determines objects or characters included, background, and what is emphasized; (e) duration of a scene, whether lingering or brief;

(f) nonverbal cues, from the characters by way of acting, or from the scene; (g) dialogue; 24

(h) sound effects and music; (i) the narrative, which draws on plot and themes, and (j) drawing all this together in post-production, the editing (montage), often dominated by a succession of shots spliced together to create certain effects. These stages indicate how complicated it is to make a feature film.

With such a confluence of techniques (input) and effects (output), we may appreciate the usually intense, focused nature of film stories (first noted, again, by

Miinsterberg, 1916), that draws the viewer into its world and helps to produce another component of movie viewing: the arousal of emotion. The topic of emotion and film in itself encompasses an extensive literature base (e.g., Grodal, 1997; Hogan, 2007;

Plantinga & Smith, 1999; Tan, 1996). Emotional responses are seen to arise from many facets, such as sensory stimulation, heightened action sequences, narrative themes that emphasize emotionally-themed events, and personal involvement in story and character.

Modalities, Multimedia, and the Illusion of Reality

Interaction between film, as stimulus, and cognition, as viewer response, is also based on the nature of modalities and symbolism. A denotative meaning of modality is

"a particular mode in which something exists or is experienced or expressed," and medium is "the means by which something is communicated," as well as "the material or form used by an artist" (Barber, Fitzgerald, Howell, & Pontassio, 2005). The plural, media, therefore means more than one form, and we have come to expand that term into multimedia, defined as "using more than one medium of expression" (Barber et al.,

2005). As teachers, we routinely use multiple methods of communication, through lectures, discussion, videos, text, and now Internet, and in that way we are all multimedia instructors. For the medium of film, we easily identify images as the most 25 definitive modality, and the perception that they are moving. Initially, film was "silent," but music and voice-over commentary were soon added to the experience, followed by complete soundtracks, beginning in 1928 (Monaco, 2000). Thus, movies became increasingly multimodal, incorporating sound and, specifically, speech. Another development was colour, beginning in the mid-1930s.

Along with the visual and auditory channels as sensory-perceptual modalities, narrative films include language, printed and/or spoken. There are also non-verbal signs and behaviours that form part of the "language" of the movie. These modalities are more complex, and therefore require higher-level processing. All modalities may combine to create the next level of film "reading" and interpretation, which involves symbolic signs and meanings. Another quote by Prince (2007) encapsulates both the realistic and stylized nature of cinema as fulfilling a "double capacity":

It both records and transforms the people, objects, and situations before the camera lens. Filmmakers use cinema as a recording medium to make pictures of the events, people and situations in front of the camera, but they can also use the complex tools of their craft to manipulate the visual and acoustic designs of their films, (p. 438)

This dual function creates a ".. .tension within cinema between its recording functions and the power it gives filmmakers to stylize and transform reality..." (Prince, 2007, p.438) that can account for both the sense of realism experienced by the viewer, and the degree to which interpretation and meaning is determined by symbolic devices. Two ways in which symbols may be presented are through the medium itself, and through the

"text" or narrative of the movie. Monaco (2000) describes the difference between denotative meaning, the image or sound that is self-evident and does not require effort to recognize it; and the connotative meaning that film shares with spoken language and sometimes written language (for example, metaphors), as well as other arts. Written words in literature and textbooks, by contrast, do have a capacity for detail and abstraction of ideas that cannot be replicated on film, but conversely, film techniques such as described above are "...specific aids to cinematic connotation, and although we can approximate their effect in literature, we cannot accomplish it there with the precision and efficiency of cinema. A picture is, on occasion, worth a thousand words, as the adage has it" (Monaco, 2000, p. 162).

The symbolism that arises out of the story as a whole encompasses nonverbal and verbal aspects. Thus, although in other arts, such as stage drama and literature, a story can be told and contain narrative symbols, it is the manipulation of images, movement, space, and time that provide cinema with its unique impact.

Role of the Spectator

What, then, is the role of the viewer in processing these events? Complementary to the modalities provided by the movie, individuals receive information through the visual and auditory perceptual systems. In attending to, encoding, and processing the information in memory, a spectator eventually will create more permanent and connected semantic as well as imaginal representations. Throughout the process of elaboration, schemas based on experience with films as well as cultural or social conventions will influence how the movie is interpreted. Both cognitive and affective responses, invoked by the elements of the movie, on the one hand, and the associations, expectations, and conclusions drawn by the viewer, on the other, play a role in learning, and most writers about film agree that these types of responses are all critical to the 27 appeal of narrative cinema (Gerrig & Prentice, 1996; Grodal, 1997; Plantinga & Smith,

1999).

Based on the preceding explanations, I believe that both the practical outcomes of using films as a teaching tool and the many theoretical debates are encouraging, and merit further study. It is within this context that I am presenting an in-depth and participatory exploration of the educational benefits of teaching with feature films.

With the assumptions from the literature that feature films can be used as effective educational tools, I turn to the challenge of how to conduct empirical research with such a multifaceted technique. Included are some of the ethical challenges of how one should conduct research with students, who become somewhat of a "captive" population.

Methodological and Ethical Considerations

Both psychological and educational research entail challenges in defining questions, devising instruments, and analyzing results. Variables are also difficult to define, control, and measure because of the intricacies of mind and behaviour. In a study such as mine, problems arise as one seeks to balance the demands of rigorous investigation with a search for intuitive understanding.

The logistics of studying movies in teaching include those of general psychological research design and implementation (e.g., Krathwohl, 2004), and the measurement of effectiveness of films, in particular. The more complex the content, the richer the modalities of images, dialogue, and sounds, and the more engaging the story of a fiction film, the harder it is to define and operationalize measures of effect and, indeed, effectiveness. One may ask: Effective in what way? What is a desirable outcome 28 for some instructors, such as creative thinking, may be a distraction for others who seek clear evidence of material learned. The goals and methods of such teaching vary with subject, instructor, resources, educational climate, and students. We are faced with a slate of tasks for defining the question, devising a research method, and evaluating outcome.

Range of Methods

Many authors who write on their use of films report primarily personal observations, their own feelings, and informal student comments. Among those that examine the issues involved in this teaching approach more objectively, strategies of film use as well as measures of process and outcome have varied greatly. The following writings contain some quantifiable data on film effectiveness2. They have provided inspiration for my own methods, but also illustrate the challenges for conducting research in the classroom.

In the area of general psychology, Hemenover, Caster, & Mizumoto (1999) combined a structured writing assignment, to be completed in six small stages, with popular movies. Students (n = 174) were allowed to choose their topic and movie, within feasibility guidelines set by the authors (for example, Rain Man, 1993, for autism). At the end of the course, student perceptions of the assignment were measured with a brief scale which, however, did not separate information regarding the use of movies from that of the writing assignment itself. Nevertheless, the authors expected that film use would significantly increase self-reported motivation, which was one of the scaled questions. This prediction was not supported. Furthermore, only half of the students said

2 The movies cited from the studies are well-known, and the reader is directed to the Internet Movie Database (IMDb, n.d.) for details. 29 that their learning was superior, compared to what they had experienced in the past.

However, grades on the assignment formed a pronounced positively skewed distribution.

It was acknowledged that the method was limited because it did not discriminate among components of the assignment, and therefore actual causes could not be determined.

Another set of objective data was reported by Bluestone (2000), who used a survey incorporating specific questions about the films. The survey was conducted in one introductory class and in two developmental psychology sections. Three films represented different units of material (for example, Boyz N the Hood for parenting). On an anonymous and informal questionnaire, no students gave an unfavourable response, only 5% were "neutral," and the rest noted either "favourable" or "very favourable."

Additionally, about 73% claimed that the films made them think more realistically about the various issues, and 40% favourably noted their emotional involvement in the films.

The author acknowledged that neither critical thinking nor "connected" learning, such as a sense of personal meaningfulness, could be tapped by these questions. Again, it points to the challenge of addressing specific learning outcomes. In another project, Dulaney and Barrett (2004) reported using short feature film clips in their general psychology course; each instructor integrated them in a slightly different way. Evaluation was conducted anonymously with a standardized 13-item questionnaire on class reactions, which did not directly mention the use of film clips and where students presumably did not know the purpose of the survey. The questionnaire was administered six times, comparing three periods when film clips were shown with three periods without clips.

While no statistical figures were presented, students were reported to rate classes significantly better on "film clip" days. Written comments suggested that students saw 30 the clips as increasing their interest and providing variety, compared with "no-video" days. While film clips appeared to enhance student interest and positive ratings of the course, no information was gathered about learning or performance outcomes.

Advanced psychology courses are perhaps even more fertile ground for the use of films. Conner (1996) assigned students in a cognitive psychology class to select a feature film and a journal article representing one topic. Working in pairs, they wrote a three- to five-page paper reporting theoretical or empirical connections between the cognitive topic, the film, and the paper. Examples of selected films included Total

Recall for neural networks and artificial intelligence, and Lawnmower Man for memory storage and use. The author commented on the enthusiasm evident during optional class presentation, and the high quality of papers submitted. He also collected responses from an optional take-home, anonymous evaluation (n - 35 out of 39 enrolled) of five course activities, including the film project. Ratings on three dimensions (enjoyability, difficulty, and helpfulness) using a 5-point scale yielded favourable results for the

"cognition in film" activity, compared to varied or less favourable ratings of other assignments in the course. Additionally, open-ended questions for each activity yielded favourable reviews from 89% of the respondents.

Abnormal psychology classes have been popular for movies. Three studies represent degrees of objective evaluation. The first entails the classic example of teaching with film, where Nissim-Sabat (1979) used a number of movies (for example,

David and Lisa and In Cold Blood), but this author arranged for scheduled showings and discussion outside of regular class time. Student panels led the discussion, which was designed to help integrate the seemingly real-life situations in the films with basic 31 concepts from class. Over two semesters at the end of each course, the author collected evaluations from the students (n = 29 in the fall semester, which were all the enrolees, and 16 out of 25 in the spring). Included were a general course evaluation, separate evaluations of each film, and a general comment regarding the use of commercial films for instruction. Based on responses, the author changed the film list, giving him an opportunity to fine-tune the project. However, changing some of the films from one semester to another potentially confounded the data, as 48% in the fall class and a remarkably higher 81% in the spring class felt the films had significantly added to their learning experience. In this very brief article, the author did not address what else (?) might have caused the results, such as variation of student characteristics between regular and spring semesters. Again, it can be seen that the collection of outcome data on the use of films presents problems in the control of variables and in precise measurement. A different set of questions was asked by Fleming, Piedmont, and Hiam

(1990), who used feature films in an interdisciplinary course on the portrayal of mental illness in commercial movies. Students took part in discussions, and completed assignments linking readings and lectures to each film. Nine movies were shown in this class (n = 35), which had a much greater time allotment than usual (15 weeks at four hours per week). One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest was one example of the films viewed. Evaluation of the film method was conducted using a 10-item questionnaire that focused on knowledge of mental illness and depiction of illness in the cinema. Ratings ranged from 1 to 5. Overall, students strongly endorsed items on the above factors.

Ratings of accuracy in depicting specific disorders varied among films. A second type of measure was the course evaluation, and students rated highly the educational value of 32 the course, their opportunity for participation and engagement, and their willingness to recommend the course to other students. Finally, Badura (2002) made a comparison in her abnormal psychology class on the use of film clips. Teaching for two consecutive semesters, the author divided her students into a "movie-clip" condition and a control condition. Using seven brief movie clips depicting various disorders (for example, a scene from The English Patient for acute stress disorder, and As Good As It Gets for

OCD and depression), on the first day of classes with the first group, she gave students a matching quiz and, at the end of the class, a three-question survey on enjoyment, interest, and perceived knowledge. Using a between-subjects MANOVA, the author reported significant differences between movie-clip and control groups on the first two variables, but not on the third, which was self-rated knowledge.

More recent sample data from a psychiatric training program was found in

Sierles (2005), with films used in a course on American culture for first-year psychiatric residents. Most of the participants were international medical graduates who required this course for their residency. The author used five feature films in full length, then gathered feedback using a multiple-choice exam and anonymous course ratings. Some film examples were Malcolm Xand Platoon, designed to stimulate discussion of various aspects of American culture, history, and conflict. The author also gathered baseline data for comparison during the first year of his curriculum by administering the test to three departmental administrative staff, all American-born and raised. Comparisons were made between scores attained by acculturated Americans and by the residents, who also completed a pretest. Those pretest scores, collected over three years, were significantly lower than the staff comparison scores, but rose to a higher level on the post-course 33 measure, with a significant increase between the resident students' pre-and posttest scores. This article contained a relatively more concrete measure of performance in a comparative analysis, compared to other presentations.

In the realm of counsellor education, Toman and Rak (2000) drew attention to the sparse attempts at outcome evaluation of teaching with film, despite its historical and ongoing popularity in counsellor programs. The authors included results from a graduate student satisfaction survey. Over four courses common to programs in counselling, the instructor selected short film excerpts deemed appropriate to the topics at hand. These became the catalyst for class discussion, for an exam question, or for role-playing.

Students were usually asked to work in dyads. The authors aimed for objective measures in their outcome assessment. They first looked at self-selected, unsolicited student responses on formal course evaluations, and then developed a 5-item questionnaire based on those responses. Comments and ratings on the evaluations also continued to be gathered. Over roughly four years, anonymous responses from 182 students (90% of enrolees) were collected. Some confounding resulted from the fact that films were rotated in order to uncover the best ones to include in future sessions. Thus, part of the data was used to develop the project, rather than just to evaluate. One movie example also was my own choice, Ordinary People (1980), for its focus on family dynamics, individual struggle, and therapy. Looking at student ratings across a number of scales, mean responses were reported as 4.2 out of 5, which the authors considered a strong positive indicator.

It can be seen, then, that many authors rely on either anecdotal feedback (such as student comments), entries on formal class evaluation forms, or responses to informal 34 survey questions at the end of the course. While subjective reports from students have generally been positive for enjoyment and what students believe they have learned, it remains difficult to draw conclusions without more data gathered in a variety of ways, and examined in greater depth. Predicting long-term effectiveness seems even more elusive.

To summarize, outcome measures of the efficacy of using cinematic films in postsecondary courses are quite varied and difficult to objectify. Challenges include the ambiguous nature of the data, self selection of students for course enrolment and for participation, considerable variety of study procedures, and lack of comparative data.

Most of the authors surveyed, who are predominantly instructors and academics in p6st- secondary and professional programs, acknowledged the need for objective measures and control for extraneous as well as confounding variables. Nevertheless, there is a strong belief that the positive responses warrant continued development and use of film- based programs. Perhaps the strongest conclusion one can draw from past and current research is that both students and teachers become more enthusiastic and report greater enjoyment of the course with feature films. While it may follow that such increased interest and emotional engagement leads to better learning, it remains difficult to assert that claim on scientific grounds.

Complexities of Classroom Research

We have seen that the challenge of defining effectiveness arises from many factors. These include different theories of learning, opinions on what type of learning should be valued and examined, how learning should be measured, and what research strategies would lead to useful results. Some of the logistical problems of research 35 design are sample size, ensuring that student samples are representative of a larger population, continuity of method over the course of a study, and how to design as well as administer instruments (Krathwohl, 2004). An investigator cannot normally decide who is in a class, or how many, as that is subject to policy for each program or course.

An alternative strategy might be to design courses where these variables can be controlled and/or manipulated. In that case, research will require considerable support from the institution, where the main goals are to serve the needs of students while budgeting with limited resources. Therefore, in most cases, researchers have to work with educational scenarios as they already exist, using various survey methods. In a real- life classroom, there is an element of unpredictability, and content and/or methods may have to change along the way to meet student needs.

Problems in defining how movies affect learning come in a number of guises, already hinted at in the preceding discussion. First, what is a movie? I have already circumscribed the commercially produced narrative film, with a length of about one- and-a half to two hours. However, there is more, as we consider genre, style, and the historical period in which it was produced. Would a teacher use an action movie, a

Western, a science fiction film, something with a strong ideological theme, or even a comedy? History comes into play, as what we consider feature films span roughly the

1920s to present day (see Monaco, 2000). People with a keen interest in films are likely to value movies from any era, judging them by qualities not necessarily tied to time and place, such as standards of writing, acting, camera work, editing, and overall storytelling, as well as the themes they portray. However, it is not assured that students in the audience will appreciate the same qualities as does the instructor. One may hear comments such as a movie being outdated, boring, or hard to understand, as each generation brings its own preferences. Additionally, class composition can vary greatly in age, educational background and interests, and cultural background. Gender composition may be skewed one way or another. All these variables present challenges in finding movies that serve the instructor's purpose, while engaging the greater number of his or her students.

A second issue of methodology is deciding what should be learned through a film. That depends, again, on the course, the specific topics, and the type of learning valued by the instructor. For example, in an introductory psychology class, the teacher must decide which of many survey topics to illustrate. She or he must then choose a movie with content that can be discussed as part of a lesson. At this level of undergraduate education, the film probably should be straightforward in demonstrating concepts, a specific theme, or factual material. By contrast, in advanced classes, the choice of films is different due to specialization. For an abnormal psychology course, many films are available that illustrate symptoms of mental illness (Gabbard & Gabbard,

1999; Wedding, Boyd, & Niemiec, 2005). At that level, students also may be more amenable to understanding and discussing surrounding issues, such as social attitudes, possible causes, and different treatment approaches. In historical studies (e.g., Sprau &

Keig, 2001), period and documentary-style feature films likely will be preferred, and in religious courses, films with mystical and moral themes and stories prevail (Ostwalt,

1998). In each case, given the Active nature of films, where narrative, aesthetic, and stylistic considerations sometimes supersede accuracy, the instructor must be prepared for debate and clarification. Based on these considerations, an inquiry into the 37 effectiveness of using films will have to specify the setting and conduct of the class, the content of the movie, the type of film shown, and the information and/or insights that may be gained as a result.

A third consideration is the manner in which a film is shown. Often, it is the narrative of the movie, with presentation of settings, character development, unfolding of the story, overall context, problems presented, and resolutions (or not) that is considered essential to the film (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004; Champoux, 1999). At other times, brief presentations may suffice to illustrate one set of characteristics or events. In such a case, the combination of effects through visual, aural, verbal, and nonverbal modalities may provide the special aspects of "realism" and presentation that is desired, rather than themes or narrative. In either case, setting up a research design to discover how the movie has enhanced the learning experience must take into account the mode of presentation.

Fourth, variations occur in the amount of class time available, technical resources, and availability of movies. In each case, there are limits to what an instructor can do. If content is heavy, or time is tight for other reasons, full-length films may have to be assigned for viewing outside of class; that, in turn, will change the dynamics of viewing and discussion. Equipment has to be accessible and easy to use, since mishaps and delays are notorious for diminishing student attention and destroying the momentum of the class. Institutions are quite different in their updates of equipment and their technical support. The availability of movies can be an obstacle as well. This involves an institution's video holdings and its system for obtaining copyright permission. In one institution, there may be no provision for licensing fees or for obtaining speedy 38 permission, while in another setting, everything may be set up routinely by the library.

For copyright issues, laws in the United States on the use of commercially produced movies seem much more generous for educational purposes than they are in Canada, where no commercial film may be shown in a class, in its entirety or even in part, without explicit permission from the distributor, usually accompanied by a considerable fee. A study's design, then, has to account for the physical realities in which both teaching and research take place.

A fifth issue in using films is the processing in class for content and relevance.

Usually, preparation must be made to create the proper time and setting, and to cue the students toward certain themes, events, and characteristics. Questions may be distributed for students to answer or discuss. Likely, the most important part is how instructor and students work through the movie after viewing. Often, what a teacher wants to encourage is critical thinking, creative discussion, and perhaps attitude change, in addition to knowledge acquisition. These goals would not be served well merely by telling the students what they should have observed and learned (Bluestone, 2000). Class discussion, small-group work, projects, and assignments can all be used to challenge students' understanding, application to course content, and transfer of learning to other situations. In designing a study, one must account not only for the movie content and class material, but also the type and degree of processing that occurs before and after a viewing.

A sixth consideration in planning a study are individual student characteristics, where cognitive style, learning preferences, attitudes, abilities, culture of origin, age, or gender may influence the effectiveness of this type of instruction. In conducting 39 research, it may be useful to test for such differences and enable more discriminative data analysis (e.g., Sprau & Keig, 2001). Overall, then, the number and characteristics of the participants, the physical setting, and availability of resources and time all are likely to influence the type and extent of a study. Student participation and consent must be garnered. Questions such as, "What will happen if a substantial number of students drop out of class or attend infrequently?" help an investigator to prepare contingency procedures. Special demands from one or more students can take time or force a change in plans. If other instructors or assistants are present, their involvement must be clarified and, at times, cooperation negotiated. Type and degree of communication about the nature of the study, preliminary progress, and ongoing results have to be planned, and problems anticipated (Babkie & Provost, 2004; Bauman & Duffy, 2001).

Ethical Concerns

The logistical challenges of classroom studies, especially on complex media such as feature films, are daunting enough. However, there are further considerations especially when working with students. Over the last few decades ethical concerns have grown, following in the footsteps of medical experiments, and some in psychology that have used deception, intense pressure to continue in the study despite difficulties, and inducement to behaviours that were physically or mentally distressing to some participants. A classic example of the latter is the well-known Stanford Prison experiment (Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo, 1973). Today, we have sets of strict guidelines formulated and enforced by various agencies, including governments, institutions, and professional organizations (American Psychological Association, 2002; Canadian

Psychological Association, 2000; Sales & Lavin, 2001; Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). All 40 are based on principles that vary in detail, but overlap to form a few general rules. The most widely emphasized focus is on the fundamental and primary rights of participants, including minimal risk of harm, informed and voluntary consent, and freedom to withdraw from studies at any time. Such guidelines are even more rigorous when research targets "vulnerable populations." Children in primary and secondary schools certainly qualify, and, to a lesser extent, so do college and university students. The underlying rationale is the unequal distribution of power between instructor and student, placing even adults at a disadvantage, despite their presumably mature ability to judge, assert themselves, and give informed consent. When asked by their instructor to join a research project, even if the request is couched in neutral terms and is carried out by someone else, it is difficult to know how much students believe in a choice if they want to maintain good will from their instructor. For some students, the perception of threat even to grades may be powerful enough to induce them to participate, despite misgivings. While it is hard to imagine studies in an educational setting today that would constitute more than "ordinary risk," investigators must be careful to always act in the students' interest, a concern that extends to demands on participants' time and effort for tasks not directly related to class content.

Applying ethical guidelines to the use of films, further considerations arise. As with other innovative instructional techniques, the benefits are unclear. That is the reason, of course, why formal and rigorous investigations are needed. Innovation means the medium is "new" and therefore unproven. The argument can then be extended to presume that there is some risk, however small. What might be a risk of showing a film to students for instructional purposes? If the medium is powerful enough to make a 41 difference, there are also potential problems. For example, for some students, the approach may not work to their advantage. If a student is struggling with concepts or basic facts in a course, additional stimulation and demands for interpretation of— sometimes obtuse—film content may detract from more structured, direct methods of instruction, resulting in overload and confusion. Insistence on exposing all students to a non-traditional instructional technique, where previously some students may have performed better with conventional classroom strategies and had no way of assessing the course prior to enrolment, can work against individuals' opportunity for maximum achievement. A second risk is that some students will not enjoy the particular movie, will be bored and frustrated, and may again be hindered in their ability to learn from the viewing experience. Such a student, at best, will consider the movie a "waste of time."

A third risk is that of offending or distressing some students with a movie's content, whether from themes, illustrations of behaviours and traits, or events. For example,

Ordinary People (Schway & Redford, 1980), as an award-winning film that portrays a family's failure to cope effectively with the accidental death of a teenage son, is generally considered an excellent choice. Yet, as it was rated "R" nearly three decades ago, it could today be perceived as frightening or offensive because of themes of trauma and its "strong" language. The emotionally destructive behaviour of the teenaged character's mother, and the portrayal of suicide, are powerful elements of the story that evoke viewer emotions. The film is especially popular with teachers of counselling and family therapy, and can also be used for abnormal psychology, personality theory, and sociology. While I suggest that the content can hardly compete for graphic violence, sex, or other strong representations with many of the movies popular today, I have seen in 42 my own classes that, for a few students, it can be too much to handle. This evokes the question of how to choose a film that fits with instructional content and goals, yet is both appealing and acceptable to all members of the class. The probable answer is that one cannot achieve complete consensus with the large number of students commonly enrolled in undergraduate courses, and sometimes not even with the smaller classes of more experienced members in graduate school.

Special Issues for Instructor Research

I have discussed logistical and ethical issues that would present a challenge to most in-class studies, and research on film use in particular. Such considerations are pertinent regardless of who is doing the study. In many cases of educational research, an investigator comes into someone else's class. What additional concerns arise when the person planning and implementing the study is also the classroom instructor? In some ways, this dual role is advantageous, but in other ways it can complicate the situation.

While the concept of teacher-as-researcher seems to have gained legitimacy and support in the public school system, at least in the United States (Babkie & Provost, 2004;

Bauman, 2001), college and university instructors are left more on their own to deal with inherent conflicts. In all the studies reviewed on classroom implementation, it seems that professors decided on strategies of film use with their own students, administered questionnaires, and even performed limited manipulation of conditions to make comparisons of student perceptions or levels of achievement. No mention was made, as far as I could tell, of the need to obtain approval from Institutional Research Boards, although that does not mean that it did not happen. The authors, for the most part, did note advantages and disadvantages in their discussion, generally acknowledging at least 43 potential problems. Some advantages are (a) the degree of control over planning and implementation of a study, and the freedom to make changes when deemed necessary,

(b) strong motivation to conduct the research, (c) no uncertainties of communication and cooperation with another instructor or "team," and (d) availability for each semester of one or more classes of potential participants, allowing for greater consistency and better planning.

Conversely, the disadvantages of conducting research with one's own students, where the instructor is also a participant, involve the risk of conflict of interest (Sales &

Lavin, 2001) and of over-involvement. The instructor (or instructors), who previously may have been very open to pedagogical changes for the sake of students, or simply out of desire to try something different, could become subtly resistant to alteration once a study has begun. Where unanticipated needs of students appear to clash with a study's methodological requirements for consistency and rigour, it may be hard to decide when to switch focus from one to the other. The ethical requirement that students are not coerced in any way may be adhered to with the best of intentions, yet a negative perception, real or imagined, can easily arise when students know that the instructor is doing research with them. And, of course, they must be given some information, following the rule of informed consent. Even from a practical point of view, the beneficent, trusting relationship that instructors generally seek with his or her students could be obstructed by any hint of pressure, real or perceived. A further problem can arise with a bias for eliciting preferred results. The instructor as investigator may teach the material connected to films with greater enthusiasm, more structure, and more elaboration than for other units or topics. Possible Strategies

What then are ways to address the shortcomings of instructor-conducted research? One example is to consider conducting the study with a colleague as a kind of team, or engaging an assistant. The other person's job would be to explain as much of the research as necessary so that informed consent for inclusion or participation can be obtained, and distribute the consent forms in the absence of the instructor. It has to be made clear that students may refuse consent to participate in any procedures not directly connected with the requirements of the course. If the form is distributed to everyone, students would not have to reveal their decision, but only note whether or not they agree.

Forms could be placed into a sealed envelope, with an assurance that no one will see them until the course is over and all grades are submitted. Such procedures mimic routine classroom evaluations.

If student confidentiality is hard to protect when doing research in class, why not ensure complete anonymity with the use of, for example, online questionnaires? In my experience, such a procedure leads to other problems. There is a high degree of self- selection when surveys are left to convenience, as online evaluations of instructors also demonstrate. Participation numbers go down and comparisons become tenuous.

Furthermore, if individual information from the course is required, such as assignment or test content, students must give consent and be identifiable. Finally, using measures such as grade averages for comparison between, for example, film and non-film groups or units also has its complications, because it can be argued that all students should be getting the best instruction that can be delivered, at all times. 45

Another strategy for addressing some of these concerns is to introduce choice.

For example, students could be given alternative media for projects and discussion, and films could even be scheduled outside of class. As a result, an individual may have less reason to perceive her- or himself as forcibly exposed to an unconventional technique for the sake of the instructor's research.

Further ethical concerns include time taken for evaluative measures, such as surveys, and presentation of films at the expense of other teaching venues, such as lectures. When planning a research study, the advantages of systematic implementation and the gathering of useful data must be weighed against possible disadvantages for the students. On the other hand, do we not believe that these types of investigations help instructors make decisions that benefit the students? Especially in psychology, students are taught that research is a vital component of the discipline. It can be argued that exposure to and participation in such studies can have educational benefits in themselves.

With many competing demands on students' time, and a large variation in the background and preferences that students bring to the college and university classroom, it makes sense to explore different ways to garner students' interest, and to promote active learning of complex ideas and information by novel means. Therefore, I believe a more in-depth investigation into the efficacy of feature films in education will be valuable for empirical, theoretical, and practical reasons. 46

Statement of the Problem

Based on the issues and concerns discussed, a qualitative approach to gathering and analyzing the data was perceived as appropriate for my study, using student comments from assignments and targeted items on a questionnaire (Rudestam &

Newton, 2007). The themes emerging from this multifaceted strategy was supplemented with quantitative techniques. Accordingly, I have formulated a mixed-methods approach, with the weighting on qualitative, text-based analysis of comments on students' assignments regarding their choice of medium and their concomitant reasons, or rationale (Creswell, 2009; Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007; Krathwohl,

2004).

The theoretical framework for my methodology can best be described as phenomenological (Creswell, 2006; Lichtman, 2006). The study is exploratory, in that outcomes will be based on student comments and ratings, rather than on a preconceived theoretical framework. While I do have some expectation of positive reactions, the exact nature of student attitudes, and the type of information to be gained, will emerge directly from the responses. Accordingly, I am posing three research questions:

1. How can the efficacy of teaching with feature films be examined in greater

depth, using a qualitative approach?

2. What aspects of learning through films appear to be the most salient?

3. What are the implications for strategies of teaching with films? 47

CHAPTER THREE: METHOD

Arriving at Methodology

A Journey of Induction

In Chapter One, I wrote about early experiences at university that influenced my approach to psychology as a discipline and the ways I had come to teach it in the later years. I had learned much about the range of ideas and methods that could be used for learning, research, and teaching within the broad realm of psychology. Furthermore, this apparent freedom, made possible by multiplicity derived from such a rich and varied history, suited my desire to include and embrace other fields, such as art and philosophy.

Yet, as I developed my ideas about this current project, I was faced with a new challenge that required me to look beyond the confines of what I had understood and practiced over so many years. Over a three-year period—before starting the formal part of the research—I pondered about how to examine the phenomena involved in teaching with films, especially with an eye to understanding how using films to learn theory and concepts was being received by the students—that is, their feelings about it, their perceptions of its impact on their learning, and their belief about how it would help them accomplish important goals. Without knowing more about the way students react to this approach, continuing to use movies in the classroom could become simply a self- perpetuating strategy that benefits the instructor more than the people who are, after all, the raison d'etre for all that work.

By the start of my doctoral program, I had settled into the highly positivistic, experimentally- and statistically-oriented research approach so established in North

American psychology, especially in academic settings. Therefore, my initial 48 deliberations were geared almost exclusively to finding or developing quantitative and heavily outcome-based methods and instruments. To a great extent, that was influenced by my role as a student, which sometimes overshadowed a professional identity formed—but never finished—through years of prior study and work. When I attended classes and began discussions with various professors, I saw myself as part of an institution where I needed to acquiesce to the prevailing standards and customs. Having previously attended five other universities, as a kind of scholastic and cultural traveller, I had little difficulty switching roles, even as I continued my professional life. I was there to learn and to continue pursuing my own interests and ideas, not only to gain another degree. Yet, I realized that I was very concerned about meeting expectations and conforming to prevailing ideas about how psychology should be interpreted and conducted.

It was another matter, however, when I entered my own college classrooms as an instructor; I was "in charge" and could exercise creative freedom to a greater extent. Of course, the institution where I had chosen to practice my craft also had rules and expectations, but the freedom was there to do much more than cover a curriculum, administer tests and assignments, and submit grades. Out of respect for academic freedom, and the self-evident fact that no instructor could come close to covering all that is involved in any topic, my college and department allowed considerable leeway in how a course was taught. I do imply that this is particular to Mount Royal College, as I assume my professors have the same freedoms. What it meant to me was that I could merrily introduce an innovative technique, make changes over time as I saw fit, and work on the basis of my own intuition and observations of how teaching methods and materials affected student learning. The fact that we were required to "serve" our students, providing them with a certain level of satisfaction and chance of success, did not interfere with my efforts, since those were part of my own goals as a teacher. More than that, however, I wanted my students to be engaged, even excited, and to value the learning for its own sake, not just as an opportunity to get good grades.

In time, I found myself devising a research strategy based less on what I had read than on what I experienced with the students themselves. As I laid out in Chapter Two, there is a huge body of writings based on the personal impressions, as well as assessment and research methods, of many others who had been incorporating movies into their teaching. Some of these methods gave me good ideas and provided a certain foundation. However, the most important influence, I believe, came from my own experiencing or "doing," and the continuing collaboration with the students on whose behalf I was doing it. I did, indeed, have to ponder, try, observe, and think some more before deciding that in my research a different approach was needed t what I had been taught, with a few exceptions, so long ago. At first intuitively, I came to believe that part of the starting point of my journey of understanding would have to be the students themselves, and that I needed to ask them, by some means and with minimum prejudice, what they thought of my films-in-teaching approach. Student evaluations and ad hoc comments were not enough; I wanted a dialogue where I could ask direct questions, yet give my impending "participants" the greatest possible freedom to answer according to their authentic experiences. My discussion of the "pros arid cons" of instructor/participant research in the latter part of Chapter Two has already highlighted barriers to such a dialogue, complicating the quest for deeper, meaningful insight. On 50 the other hand, my very participation, and the passion I had for this project, held the promise of a greater depth of understanding, which I could then convey more formally via this dissertation.

In the preceding paragraph, I used the phrase "part of the starting point," referring to student responses that would include the use of their own words. What, then, is the other part? Given that, in the immediate situation of the classroom, there are multiple agents involved in the process of teaching and learning, my own participation and engagement must be seen as equally important. I do not see students as "passive vessels" for information that I, as the "expert" and authority, present to them, nor do I see myself as merely the handler and conveyer of such information. I recognized long ago that, if I am not involved—intellectually and emotionally—with both my material and methods of teaching, the session takes on a tone that is flat or even, metaphorically,

"dead." Furthermore, if I do not sense a connection with the students—the social part of engagement—I feel that I am doing little more than spouting words, giving reminders and admonishments, and otherwise filling the time so that I have earned my pay for another day. Not that this has never happened; a good number of times on this job, I have failed in every way but my formal presence and the "right" words—if even that.

But at other times, and increasingly in the past few years, I have come to feel the excitement of synergy and inspiration, the flow of ideas moving both ways and then continuing over the week as communication is made increasingly feasible with technology, and I contemplate ever more ideas. And so, as there are different parts of the teaching/learning partnership and continuum that must be kept at the forefront of our work, I have evolved as well into a researcher with the desire to recognise the elements 51 and integrate the vital components that are all part of gaining knowledge and understanding. It is thus that I decided to move from a purely positivist and quantitative approach to one that puts more emphasis on the qualitative methods in research. It was a major leap, and my first-ever venture into a territory that has turned out to be much more expansive and complicated than I imagined. I shall provide an overview of the philosophical framework that seems to fit best my approach to this work, although I do not wish to turn the research report into a full-blown treatise on methodologies and traditions. However, I hope to provide more of a context for this ongoing project, as well as a counterweight to a style of writing that still reflects the desire for quantification and formality crafted on a long academic road.

Before laying out some of the intellectual issues implicated in my methodology, I want to add one more component to the mix; the nature of my own "being," historically and personally, now perceived as integral to my choices of practical and scholarly pursuits. By bringing forth self-reflection, I am also moving closer to explaining why I believe that this study has at least the elements of a certain philosophical and psychological tradition, namely, the phenomenological approach.

The Person in the Process

True to the exploratory nature of this study, whose purpose was to find out something of the effects of a certain pedagogical process and then build bridges, I found that I was exploring also my own place in this cycle of teaching, learning, and evolving practice. While the obvious parts of the process could be seen to have started four years prior to writing, the "real" history clearly began long before. It is human to be unique, yet to share common elements and concerns with others. It is also imperative to reflect 52 on ourselves and our surroundings—to be aware of inner experiences as well as of how we perceive the world outside our bodies. We are further aware of the passage of time, however we measure or judge it.

Hence, we perceive ourselves in historical context as well as in the moment, project ourselves into the future, and sometimes live in the imagination of what could or might be, but is not or may never be; it seems as if we can live in infinite worlds. We tell stories about ourselves, others, and relationships (May, 1991; McAdams, 2007). Thus it is that in my travels and pursuits I have engaged many levels of self-awareness. If there is one prominent theme I can distill from my life at this time, it is that of change; since my earliest recollections, I have felt the effects of shifting places, or events that were frightening and too big to understand. The early disruptions in family, society, and resources that I experienced as a small child in post-World War Two Germany were confusing but real, providing me with a life-long legacy of vivid images and the determination to make every moment count.

When my family immigrated to Canada, settling in Toronto, my parents slowly managed to work us back into a middle-class family whose worries, it seems, became much more ordinary. We moved our home many times in that quest. However, the past moved with us; with increasing distance in time and place, substance was added with every realization of what had happened in the war, what that might say about individuals, societies, or humans in general, and how it affected values and coloured each person's perception of place and identity. A major change had come for us with a new language and a whole new society. Fortunately, I was extraverted and quickly learned to adapt to new surroundings, if at the expense of focus and commitment. I used 53 literature, art, music, amateur acting, and even sports, to explore and to express myself throughout the teenage years and beyond. As is the case with all people, there were dark corners. In my pre-Canada years I had the habit of roaming around the near and far neighbourhoods while my busy family members were hard at work or school; I sometimes put myself in danger. In Toronto, I would walk through the city and ride the transit system just to "get out." In time, I realized what I wanted was to belong, but also to follow my keenly-felt interests and values that were sometimes at odds with others. I liked people but often felt puzzled by their reactions, and so developed a greater need to understand. In high school I consolidated my fascination with the humanities and social sciences, but neglected mathematics and physical science; it seemed that many teachers taught these subjects in a formulaic, mechanical, and disconnected way. I made chemistry more enjoyable by drawing pictures, but algebra, trigonometry and physics became a lost cause. Toward the end of high school, I started reading popular books on science and discovered what a great world of knowledge this could be. In the following years, I had to make up for those "sins of omission" by doing a great deal of remedial work, absorbing the methods of psychological research and the more scientific areas, such as neuroscience. In time, I learned to like those as well. Again, it was a question of communication, but also of finding a way to make the subject matter meaningful—as I strived to do decades later for my own students.

Among the lure of all the creative subjects I had tried and pursued, and the

"people-oriented" disciplines of anthropology, archaeology, philosophy, and languages, it struck me that in psychology I could combine much of what I liked. Reading more about it imbued me with a passion for the field, so that by the time I started university, 54 my career was decided. But it did not induce me to keep to the "straight and narrow." I still played folk music and partied hard, dabbled in other fields, worked my way in and out of relationships, and got a great education while enjoying my "free" time at university. It was unconventional, but the years of exploration became another life experience that influenced my later attitudes.

Then it was time to change again, though not from psychology. As in a spiral, my lust for moving around took me back to Germany. It was a way to travel and again do something new, but in an oddly familiar way. I could live in Europe and experience it as a different person, yet not feel completely out of place. The crucial element of language gave me a remarkable springboard for further growth. With all that anticipation and excitement, I did not realize, however, that cultural adjustment involves so much more than language—which also needed improvement by that time. The culture shock of my childhood was repeated, but in reverse. I learned some hard lessons about listening to others, understanding differences, finding commonalities, and coming to terms with one's own, considerable, limitations. I moved again, from Marburg University near my birth town to the southern part of Germany, where an Austrian zoologist and professor by the name of Eibl-Eibesfeld was conducting fascinating studies in "human ethology." I was taken on at his small research centre, part of the Max Planck Institute for

Behavioural Physiology, and even met Konrad Lorenz, just a few years before his death.

I had spent more than a year at the very place that had, half a century before and more, housed Ebbinghaus, Husserl, and Heidegger, and I gained a much greater appreciation of the breadth and philosophical underpinnings of modern psychology. I embarked on what 55 became two more years of very different studies in a quaint town near Starnberg, itself close to Munich.

Those three years were highly significant, and they may have become especially etched in my memory because of the intense and rapid challenges I encountered. I not only learned much in a positive sense, but also confronted many shortcomings. The political and social climate, both the culture and conflicts, affected me intensely. Europe, with its much longer history and crowded with people from so many nationalities, seemed lively, intensely stimulating, and unrelenting. I often felt overwhelmed.

Furthermore, the fierce devotion of my professor to his ideas and methods eventually clashed with my need to be critical and explore different points of view. On a more personal side, the unstructured academic atmosphere that required a higher-level student to work independently most of the time did not mesh well with my North American study habits. I was thankful for the time and experience, but left to return to Canadian schools. However, windows and doors had been opened, and I learned and later taught with a different set of perspectives that clearly grew during this time overseas.

Where before I had attended York University, I made another change—not surprisingly—and enrolled at the University of Toronto, where my story started in

Chapter One. After two more years, finishing my courses at the end of 1975,1 moved with a friend to Calgary and eventually enrolled in the then-named Educational

Psychology Program. Four years later I graduated with a Master of Science degree, and was able to look for work as a clinical psychologist—the opportunity I was anticipating, in a rather naive fashion, to further understand the "depths" of the psyche. 56

This chapter started with the chance offer of a position in forensic psychology, where I had to learn rapidly on the job and with the added anxiety of multiple responsibilities. The patients (on hospital forms) or clients (to the psychologists and social workers) were individuals in trouble with the law. My prior exposure to so many people and situations, empathy, and fascination with human problems helped to make connections with individuals in my hospital office, in various jails, and in probation offices. I felt most at ease, and most successful, in terms of gaining information in the assessment phases and facilitating progress through psychotherapy, when I engaged a client in a dialogue about his or her life, perceptions, and view of possible changes.

Rogers' client-centered approach seemed effective, at least in the initial stages, and it suited me best. However, conflicting demands, and the lifestyles and actions of our clients, repeatedly got in the way. I was paid not only to help troubled individuals, but to make recommendations to third parties who would then make significant decisions. A few times I was called to court. In the local jail, I soon earned a nickname from the correctional officers as the "bleeding heart psychologist," an indication of the intrinsically aversive nature of prisons and the prevailing cynicism regarding positive change. The inmate society, although not usually as brutal here as American movies tend to portray, also is ruled internally in ways that discourage rehabilitation and growth.

Thankfully, I had a few good experiences.

Back at the hospital, our superiors frequently reminded us that we had an equal obligation to the institution and government that hired us, and to society which we were to help protect from criminal behaviour. I was asked to maintain not only detailed records, a basic requirement of our profession, but to formulate clear treatment plans, 57 complete with deadlines for reaching goals; I found it difficult to accept that such rigidity would work to create a therapeutic setting. We also had team meetings, where the ideals of interdisciplinary cooperation sometimes took a back seat to socio-political disputes. I liked working with my clients, with a few exceptions, but felt strained by the institutional demands and the conflicts within the health care system and between the different institutions and agencies. I also found that my work with a population defined as "deviant" collided with the attitudes and priorities of everyday society. I wanted to encourage my clients to open up and form a human connection, believing firmly that it was the only route to meaningful change. However, there were strict boundaries set by the professional association and institutions, often for good reason. In addition, individuals going to court, already incarcerated, or out on probation/parole typically have disturbed lives and distressed backgrounds, and have learned to survive by acting in ways that run counter to honest expression of feeling or to genuine efforts at change.

No doubt I was seen as a "pushover" or "easy mark" a number of times. In terms of clinical diagnosis, many of our clients were considered to have personality disorders, evidence of brain "dysfunction" or damage, addiction to alcohol or other drugs, and depression and/or psychosis that might have led to their crimes. Some were sexual offenders, others drug dealers or pimps, and motivation for change often seemed to go no further than to wrestle from the system, of which I was a part, a lighter sentence. In this context, we were expected to apply formal diagnoses even as I chafed at this emphasis on classification. Despite the apparent odds, several times I was able to encourage an individual to work with me for a reasonably long time, and saw what I believe to be genuine movement toward a better life. Nevertheless, when my partner 58

(now husband) and I decided to start a family, after months of wrestling with myself and with financial demands, I was relieved to make a graceful exit.

After our son was born, I obtained a part-time teaching job at Mount Royal

College. This was another set of changes; not only becoming a parent, but a teacher, without training for either type of work. But soon enough I approached this job much like all my previous enterprises: with a desire to do more than what the contract required, and to find meaning in the process itself, which included discovering ways to connect with the students on a person-to-person rather than just role-oriented level.

Those subsequent attempts are also told in the beginning of this report.

One could say that we all are trying to create meaning in life, looking for ways to move through and beyond the imperfections and obstacles with some sense of engagement, passion, purpose, and dignity. Life is brutal or constantly threatened for an untold number of people, and I hope not to dismiss their suffering by assuming that, for others, it is as much about thriving as it is about surviving. In the context of my own story, I now want to turn back to a description of how I formulated my research approach. In the next pages, I shall write briefly about the nature of qualitative and quantitative research, and about the philosophical orientations of phenomenology, humanism, and existentialism that I believe have influenced my current work.

Placing the Research Methods

Based on the original Greek, the word psychology breaks down as "the science of mind or of mental phenomena and activities," and carries a further definition of

"systematic knowledge about mental processes; a method of obtaining knowledge about mental processes" (Webster's Third New International Dictionary, 2002). This set of 59 denotations is in line with a discussion of philosophy and various paradigms. More recently, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (2007) defines psychology simply as

"the science of mind and behavior," and the reference to method as "the study of mind and behavior in relation to a particular field of knowledge or activity" (Merriam-

Webster, p. 1004). These definitions explicitly include the branches of psychology that emphasize observable, non-mentalistic events. A field of study defined only since roughly a century and a half ago, psychology derives from a plurality of sources and, not surprisingly, makes use of a large range of methods. As presented by Johnson,

Onwuegbuzie, and Turner (2007), for example, our methodological underpinnings can be traced in written history to classical Greek philosophers, with their opposing viewpoints on the nature of truth: Socrates and Plato, for example, argued for "singular or universal truths," the Sophists expounded the notion of "multiple or relative truths," and Aristotle, Cicero, and others advocated for "a balance or mixture of the extremes"

(Johnson et al., 2007, p.l 13). The debate rages on and seems part of our inherent quest for understanding in the broadest sense.

In the nineteenth century, psychology was conceived as a science, a term that can be defined broadly as "the systematic quest for knowledge" (Ponterotto, 2005). In keeping with this delineation, it was advocated at the time that psychological research be explicated precisely in its methods, based on measurement of observable events, and amenable to experimentation. Todd, Nerlich, McKeown, and Clarke (2004) further describe the difference among three "methodological strands in mainstream psychology"

(p.6) that, at first glance, seem very close in meaning: empirical, experimental, and quantitative psychology. However, the authors make a compelling case for keeping these 60 research approaches distinct, especially as we move into comparisons with qualitative methods. Empirical means based on observation, and empiricism had been recorded as a method of gaining knowledge since ancient times and most notably credited to Aristotle.

Experimental psychology, rising to prominence in the mid-nineteenth century as the field became defined, involves systematic observation of variables under controlled conditions, usually in a laboratory; Wilhelm Wundt generally is credited with more firmly establishing the experimental tradition in psychology by setting up the first laboratory in 1879, although others such as Hermann von Helmholtz, Francis Galton, and Alfred Binet were the pioneers in this area. Quantitative psychology developed most recently and was added to the experimental method. The authors point out that the original experimental approaches were inspired by advances in the physical sciences, whereas the quantitative enhancements gained ground through the refinement of mathematics and statistics. Referring to this newer version as "statistical experimental psychology," they point out, as well, that it heralded a shift from single to larger numbers of subjects (Todd et al.).

Psychology based on qualitative methods arose with the criticisms by the philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey, in the late nineteenth century, of quantitative experimental psychology in Germany. Dilthey set out to delineate the human sciences

(Geisteswissenschafteri) from the natural sciences (Naturwissenschafteri), opposing attempts at that time to bring the methods of the humanities and social sciences in line with the natural science model. He proposed, instead, a new method involving both description and analysis, with the ultimate goal of understanding (Verstehen) rather than explanation (Erklarung). In this way, Dilthey also formulated an interpretive method 61 uniquely suited for a study of the mind as it "objectifies" itself in external phenomena such as language, culture, and action. He opposed "internal" methods such as introspection, claiming that knowledge of the mind can be gained only by knowing history in all its manifestations, or "understanding human nature in the context of human life" (Nerlich, 2004). Dilthey's new method for understanding human mind and action was a form of hermeneutics, referring to the interpretation of human behaviour, speech, and writing in terms of intentions and meaning (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008; Todd et al.,

2007).

Simple definitions of qualitative research, which at its base uses words instead of numbers, are hard to find, so much so that writers in the field (e.g., Creswell, 2007;

Ponterotto, 2005) consistently refer back to Denzin & Lincoln's The Sage Handbook of

Qualitative Research (2005), now in its third edition. To add to the complexity, as

Creswell points out, this definitive source has changed noticeably in content and style with each version, which the authors themselves openly describe and explain in their preface (Denzin & Lincoln). As Creswell notes, qualitative inquiry has many sources, such as ethnography and anthropology, and changes in nature and focus across time, disciplines, settings, and purpose. He summarizes the changes in Denzin and Lincoln's definition from 1994 to the current edition as moving "from social construction, to interpretivist, and on to social justice" (Creswell, p.36). Creswell himself presents a

"working definition" that emphasizes research design and the use of various approaches:

Qualitative research begins with assumptions, a worldview, the possible use of a theoretical lens, and the study of research problems inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. To study this problem, qualitative researchers use an emerging qualitative approach to inquiry, 62

the collection of data analysis that is inductive and establishes patterns or themes. The final written report or presentation includes the voices of participants, the reflexivity of the researcher, a complex description and interpretation of the problem, and it extends the literature or signals a call for action, (p.37)

In educational research, another formulation caught my eye as describing closely what I aimed for in my own study as "participant investigator":

Qualitative research is concerned with meanings as they appear to, or are achieved by, persons in lived social situations. Research of this kind cannot be carried out by people who see themselves as detached, neutral observers concerned with the kinds of observations, measurement, and prediction that are presumed to be unbiased, unaffected by the inquirer's vantage point or location in the world. (Greene, 2001, p. 175)

The history of qualitative research in psychology is well presented in articles and books, with authors concurring that this approach was poorly received when it was first introduced, overwhelmed by the positivist leanings of investigators of human mind and behaviour eager to shape the newly emerged field into their vision of a "true" science.

Qualitative methods had been adopted earlier in fields where experimental approaches were less feasible or not suitable at all, such as ethnography, anthropology, sociology, and later, education. However, from the 1960s, there was an upsurge of interest in bringing qualitative approaches to the fore by psychologists in various kinds of practice and settings who believed that the human being, not the method nor other models or objects, should be at the center of the discipline. They accused the adherents of a purely quantitative measurements approach of devaluing the human being, or at least missing vital aspects of feeling, thinking, acting, and interacting with others and the world. It was a question of seeing the whole person (holism), giving voice to his or her ways of 63 perceiving and knowing, and placing that person in historical, physical, and interpersonal context (situatedness).

An important point in this historical "paradigms war" brought forth by many authors (e.g., Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Giarelli, 2001; Johnson et al., 2007; Marchel &

Owens, 2007; Nerlich, 2004; Todd et al, 2004; Wolcott, 2001) is that empiricism is inherent in qualitative research as much as in quantitative approaches, since observation is at the core of both. Furthermore, blending or cross-description of methods becomes evident when considering that psychological experiments did not always yield quantifiable data, as when Wundt used his method of introspection. The reverse claim can be made that, at some level, all inquiry is interpretive (e.g., Giarelli, 2001). For all these reasons, it is thought by many writers that the distinction between quantitative and qualitative methods is unclear, even artificial. Todd et al. suggest the motives for the original and ongoing disputes have been more political than rational. They sum up their view of the historical, theoretical, and discipline-specific dilemmas as follows:

The relationship between qualitative psychology, empirical, experimental, and quantitative psychology is a complex one. Qualitative psychology can be said to be empirical because it is based on systematic observation; but it does not base its observations on experimentally controlled conditions and variables.... However, whereas experiments are rejected by qualitative researchers,... (they) do not altogether dismiss either the use of quantitative data or the summarizing of results in quantitative form. What they object to is the averaging out of individual and cultural differences by the use of statistics, and the belief that measurement can create understanding, (p.8)

As Denzin and Lincoln (2005) explain, not all researchers on either side would be willing to concede that there is value in different strategies, that divergent 64 philosophical and methodological approaches each have something to contribute, and that often it may be more important what type of approach is suitable for a situation and project, rather than making a priori judgments and decisions on method. Todd et al.

(2004) suggest that ideological influences can be so powerful that a whole world view becomes connected with the way one goes about the research. Denzin and Lincoln, and many of their co-authors such as Smith (2005), write strongly about the way that quantitative and experimental approaches tend to "silence the voices" of non-dominant groups in society, by failing to acknowledge, respect, and value the authentic words and lived experiences of its members. Further, those who believe in controlled research methods and quantified findings frequently fail to acknowledge the potential rigour with which qualitative research must be conducted, with painstaking work and detailed keeping of records, and the richness of information that can result (Bloomberg & Volpe,

2008; Lichtman, 2006). Relatively recent attempts have been made, with increasing success, to present the possibilities inherent in consolidating or combining these approaches, under such names as blended or mixed-methods research (Creswell, 2009;

Johnson et al., 2007; Krathwohl, 2004).

Those authors who support the feasibility of combining various methods provide a number of reasons or advantages. One benefit is coverage or triangulation (Denzin &

Lincoln, 2005; Johnson et al., 2007; Todd et al., 2004), which can take a number of forms, but in the context of this discussion means using multiple methods to obtain, presumably, a more accurate picture of the phenomenon under study; the term represents an analogy derived from surveying. A second advantage is the way different sources of data allow for more exploration, a core purpose of my study since I did not know 65 precisely what to expect, except in some rudimentary fashion based on prior experience and literature research. I was prepared for whatever the students would tell me. Third, as a similar point, there is greater potential to be heuristic, that is, to come up with new ideas and advance knowledge in this area. Fourth, different levels of the phenomenon could be tapped, providing a richer data set. Fifth, on the other side, discrepancies could arise that alert one to difficulties in the research or in one's conceptions. Sixth, comparisons could be made with a greater range of studies using different methods but examining the same events or processes. Seventh, the researcher has extra information as backup if one method does not yield usable data. Finally, a pragmatic goal is served by assuring examiners, readers, or other recipients of the report that proper efforts were made to satisfy the prevailing standards of research, regardless of the methodological preferences or beliefs of the intended audience.

In the long process of developing my own strategies for examining the effect of films in teaching, I pursued the idea of asking students in a direct and relatively open manner how they experienced the use of movies in relation to theoretical concepts.

Because face-to-face interviewing would have been cumbersome and time-consuming, and may have resulted in some sense of pressure on the interviewee as questions would be asked by the instructor herself, I devised the written assignments as vehicles for information, doing all I could to encourage honest responses. I needed the statements to be trustworthy (Lichtman, 2006; Johnson et al., 2007; Morrow, 2005), and I certainly wanted my students to have a "voice," in this and in other ways. Tabulating and interpreting the parts of students' papers that addressed their perceptions on the use of films, I constructed my codes, taking ideas on how to go about it from a number of 66 guidebooks on qualitative research. In the course of this initially "naive" and pragmatic process, I read extensively and came to define this strategy as at least the start of a qualitative approach. At the same time, I wanted to include other techniques in order to gain a greater range of information and from different angles. By devising a questionnaire that had both scaled items and room for written comments, I ended up with what I believe to be a mixed-methods research study, using written words from some types of questions and numbers from others. While the debate goes on, I came to be satisfied that the outcomes in the form of rich and varied comments justified my combinatory approach. I did not get a sense that the words were inauthentic, on the one hand, or the numbers misleading or intrusive, on the other.

A Question of Philosophy

In psychology, the theoretical framework most often associated with qualitative research is phenomenology, a complex philosophical system that has many meanings, spans multiple fields of study, and has spread a great deal in popularity since it became systematized through Edmund Husserl in early twentieth-century Germany. The term phenomenon derives from the Greek phainomenon, something shown, and in English means "an observable fact or event," "an object or aspect known through the senses rather than by thought or intuition" (Merriam-Webster, 2007, p.929). With old roots, and connections to other philosophical disciplines such as ontology and epistemology, it became prominent through Husserl's emphasis on the study of conscious experience, and his formulations of methods to describe the structure of consciousness and experience. Defined both as a philosophical movement and a method of enquiry, the connection of phenomenology with psychology emerged with this focus on mental experience, and the appeal of the first-person perspective, or subjectivity. It was seen to provide a counterweight to the objective, positivist types of approach, with the latter's emphasis on behaviour rather than mind (Lichtman, 2006). Inherently related concepts are intentionality, first defined by Franz Brentano and referring to internal and external objects to which consciousness is directed, the notion of Erlebnis, which is commonly translated (awkwardly, in my opinion) as lived experience or life experience, the search for the "essence" of experience, and the method of "bracketing" (Ausschaltung), whereby preconceptions including prior knowledge, beliefs, interpretations, and values are suspended so that mental phenomena can be studied in scientific ways (Macann,

1993). This bracketing comes about as an epoche, from Greek words meaning cessation and holding back. It follows another kind of consciousness that Husserl described as the

"naturalistic standpoint," defining the world as perceived by people on an everyday, subjective basis.

Husserl's work influenced others, most prominently Martin Heidegger, who initially was his student but who broke with him when the latter disagreed with the notion of bracketing. Heidegger believed that we could never suspend our subjective view in studying phenomena, and instead define ourselves as "being in the world." He brought the concept of Dasein ("being there," or existence in the moment) to the fore and placed consciousness in the context of time, or temporal awareness. Heidegger was a friend of Jean-Paul Sartre and thereby was also associated with the existentialist movement, although he later did not want that designation3. Another French philosopher who was influenced by Husserl and made contributions to phenomenology as well as

3 He also was said to have acquiesced to the Nazis, but tried to downplay that connection after the war. 68 existential philosophy was Maurice Merleau-Ponty, influential in psychology through his studies of perception. As a movement, existential phenomenology focussed on the construction of reality by individuals and groups, as such influencing the constructivist, social-constructivist, and social-constructionist movements that later included prominent figures from various disciplines, including George Herbert Mead, Jean Piaget, and Lev

Vygotsky (Todd et al, 2004). Psychology came to be influenced even more by phenomenology, existentialism, and also humanism through the work of personality theorists and psychotherapists such as Carl Rogers and Rollo May (Berecz, 2009; deCarvalho, 1991; Engler, 2009; Sollod, Wilson, & Monte, 2009)

The key aspect of phenomenology in psychology today is the notion of understanding empathically the other person from his or her point of view, and appreciating the central importance of studying as authentically as we can our experience and that of others in the everyday world, or in everyday life—that lived experience. Existentialism also picked up on the importance of seeking to discern the

"essence" of being or experience, intentionality, the dual natures of freedom versus destiny, and subjects versus objects. Humans were seen as left to themselves to construct, individually or socially, their unique conception of reality, and to take responsibility for pursuing goals, living according to their values, and ultimately finding meaning in life.

Combined with a qualitative approach to research, the phenomenological framework as philosophy and method entails that we design our research with a central focus on the vivid, conscious experience of those who experience, or live, the phenomenon whose essential nature we wish to understand. According to this approach, 69 the investigator should become closely acquainted with his or her participants, who are seen as "co-researchers" who hold the knowledge that we wish to gain. It is a collaborative and engaged way of doing research. Yet, as Denzin and Lincoln (2005) have described, there are many viewpoints within that overall paradigm and set of methods. In my study, I have been a participant because I am the instructor who watches movies with the students, creates opportunities for discussion, and engages in continuing conversation with them throughout the course. I solicit their opinions, and in the study ask them to describe their experience of learning with films through written work

However, I am also reluctant to become fully immersed because I also hold a position of power and must ultimately "pass judgment" by assigning grades. For that reason I use some arms-length strategies such as having a collaborator ask for consent and administer questionnaires in my absence.

As I reflect on my motives and behaviours, I believe that, at this point in my growth as a person and in the role that I hold as a teacher, I am making efforts to create the best learning environment that I can and continue to learn along with my students.

Despite conflicting interests and demands, new opportunities will continue to present themselves, and change will always occur.

In the next section, I will outline the procedure of my study. 70

Method of Data Collection

Participants

Students enrolled in four Personality classes over three semesters were designated as potential respondents. Enrolment is capped at 30 per class at this level; usually, the number of students is slightly less, especially after the withdrawal date.

Total class sizes covering the period of this study eventually ranged from 24 to 27 students. Approximately two-thirds of these, in turn, became part of the participant pool.

Exact numbers and demographic characteristics are provided in the Results section.

Materials

The two sources of data were: (a) information derived from written assignments that were based on different media and theories, and (b) a questionnaire that yielded both numerical ratings and written comments.

Written assignments. Two papers were required from each student, in which she or he was asked to apply one or more concepts to a character from, or some aspect of, a video, a cinematic film, or a text-based biographical chapter. The choice of concepts and medium was up to the student. Part of the assignment was to explain, briefly, why she or he chose that medium as the target for analysis. Outcome measures used in the study were (a) the statements of rationale, which ranged from a sentence to a paragraph; and (b) the relative frequency with which each medium was chosen overall.

Questionnaire. I created the Media Preference Questionnaire to collect more specific responses to the use of film and other media. Four kinds of information were surveyed: (a) attitudes to and use of films in general, assessed with 5-point Likert 71 scales; (b) attitudes to and use of textbook and films in the course, again using 5- point scales, (c) the relative usefulness in the course of seven identified materials, in one scale, and their enjoyability, in a second, both scales including the three media under investigation; (d) comments on the three types of media regarding what students liked and disliked about them, and any other comments they wished to make specifically on the use of films in the course. The questionnaire has been reproduced in Appendix A.

Procedure

Methods of data collection were largely incorporated into the course. Although the questionnaire was an added strategy, it nevertheless was administered during class time, and asked the students to relate their perceptions to course experiences. Therefore,

I shall begin by describing the make-up of the course and accompanying materials.

Consistent with outlines as they were before the study, the Personality course was divided into three units (I, II, and III), each culminating in a test. Units were organized into loose groupings of major models of personality, each with a sampling of representative theorists. Within each unit, all types of class materials and teaching strategies were applied in some fashion. These materials included textbook, lectures, handouts, notes posted on the Web using Blackboard, biographical chapters on different theorists, instructional videos, and feature films. Below is a detailed description of the last three media, which were the focus of investigation:

Feature films. These are also referred to as cinematic films or movies, with narrative content and form. In other words, they tell a story on screen. Two films were selected for their award-winning quality and presumed overall appeal, and for 72 the relevance of both content and cinematic style to the theories for which they are shown. The first was The Secret Garden (Coppola & Holland, 1993), which focuses on childhood themes and intrapersonal as well as interpersonal conflicts. This film can be used for a wide number of theoretical interpretations, but I included it primarily for the psychodynamic approaches of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler

(Unit I, along with an introductory lecture). The second movie was Ordinary People

(Schwary & Redford, 1980), which includes themes of depression, suicide, and intense personal struggle, along with the varyingly successful (or unsuccessful) attempts of individuals in a family to come to terms with tragedy and with each other. Again, this has remained a highly-acclaimed movie that lends itself to analysis from many theoretical angles. It was introduced with the Humanistic approach as formulated by Carl Rogers, partly because of the prominent role of psychotherapy, with a psychiatrist whose approach can be compared with that of Rogers. Existential themes, represented in a chapter on Rollo May, can be discerned just as well in this movie. The Five-Factor Model was added to this part, and provided another relevant theory with which to analyze the various characters in the film (Unit II). Unit III focussed on B. F. Skinner's behavioural model, and Albert Bandura's social-cognitive approach. No more movies were shown at this point in the course, but students were able to continue using either The Secret Garden or Ordinary People, if they wished.

Instructional videos. In the study, videos refer to film productions that are didactic, or designed to provide information on specific topics for the purpose of teaching. While there are many excellent videos produced for teaching areas such as social psychology, abnormal or clinical psychology, and counselling psychology, 73 videos illustrating and explicating specific personality theories are harder to find.

Additionally, those that do address theories specifically are often quite a bit older and, sadly, less appealing to undergraduates. To enact further restrictions, I believed it best to provide biographical or semi-biographical videos, so that students' analyses would be made on the person rather than simply summarizing or reiterating concepts described. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory does have a reasonable representation on video, and the one-hour biographical production from A&E

Television Networks (Nixon, 1997) has worked well. Another intriguing production is Young Doctor Freud (Grubin, 2002), a two-hour PBS video, which I made available but only outside of class. Alfred Adler's concepts can also be used to analyze aspects of these videos, using Freud the man as the subject. For the next unit, two videos that seemed most appropriate were the demonstration interviews conducted by Carl Rogers, with different patients, for the series Three Approaches to

Psychotherapy. Of the three parts, spanning the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, Rogers participated in Parts 1 and 2 (Shostrom, 1965, 1977). While these videos are used even today by teachers and trainers from different disciplines, and undoubtedly count as prized archival material, reactions from young, contemporary students are not always as enthusiastic as one would like. Nevertheless, I consider these valuable resources, and therefore introduced the first one (Shostrom, 1965) as an alternative medium to Ordinary People. Third, while there is a fair amount of video material illustrating B.F. Skinner and his operant conditioning approach, most of this is so

4 Like movies, the physical format of these productions has changed from celluloid to tape, to DVD, and now to computer and online versions. However, the home and educational use of video tape since the late 1960s contributed to entrenching the term "video," still in popular use despite the transformations. explicit that it cannot be used readily for other approaches. Seeking something applicable to Albert Bandura's social-cognitive approach, as well, I selected Captive

Minds: Hypnosis and Beyond (Symansky, Wilson, & Zannis, 1983), which illustrates how different groups persuade individuals joining them to change their attitudes and behaviours. I omitted the first part on hypnosis and showed the last 35 minutes, which focuses on four very diverse groups and their methods of influence.

For the purpose of this study, I shall frequently use the simple terms film and video, and refer to them collectively as visual media.

Text-based biographical description. To increase the range of choices for students, I added chapter-long, biographical descriptions from academic books to provide detail, intellectual challenge, and time commitment in reading or processing the information roughly comparable to the other two media. Sources included Gay

(1998) for Freud, Hoffman (1996) for Adler, and Demorest (2005) for Freud,

Skinner, and Rogers. I selected chapters that I thought would be most interesting to students who wanted to use printed rather than visual material.

The following sequence of events incorporated all three of the above media into the course as teaching tools:

Classroom discussion of concepts. For Units I and II, lecture presentations alternated with videos and films shown in class, with at least one lecture (using

Microsoft PowerPoint) leading into each visual presentation. For the two visual media, worksheets were provided in advance. Viewings were followed by discussion of concepts, first in small groups and then the class as a whole. The instructor provided structure, clarification, and verbal feedback in all sessions. Unfortunately, 75 time did not allow for thorough treatment of the textual material in-class, and whole chapters could not be made available online due to copyright restrictions. Instead, the first two pages of selected chapters on the four theorists for whom this print medium was available were reproduced and distributed over the three units, with a brief explanation for using chapters as an alternative and finding the books in our library's

Reserves section.

Written feedback from instructor. According to my experience, students at the undergraduate level still need a great deal of explanation and guidance, both for comprehension and for application of concepts through analysis of films, videos, and case studies. Written instructor notes on the current topic and medium were provided after each discussion, either as a printed handout, or via Blackboard, the online learning program at Mount Royal College and a well-used support system in my courses. In order to ensure that all students had access to information and instructor enhancements, even those who were absent could get my notes if they downloaded the worksheet in question, filled it out by viewing the video or film on her or his own time, and gave assurance that this had been done. I also made myself available for questions via email and office hours.

Brief written assignments. Short papers (maximum 800 words) asked the students to choose one medium per unit, and a theorist and concept(s) from that unit; two assignments out of a possible three were required. Whichever assignment a student chose to complete, it was due on the day and at the time of the unit test. I requested that all assignments be submitted electronically, via Blackboard. This provided flexibility for the students, who could send it in from anywhere and at any 76 time that they had Internet access, and for the instructor who could not only mark the papers online, but also save them digitally for eventual data analysis. Written instructions on how to write the paper included the request that students provide their rationale for choosing a particular medium (film, video, or biographical chapter).

Data collected for analysis. In the second-last class of each section, students were asked to spend approximately twenty minutes filling out the questionnaire, and to give written consent for use of their assignments in the research study. With the instructor absent, a neutral collaborator administered the forms, ensured they were handed back in sealed envelopes, and delivered them to the designated storage area in the company of a student volunteer. It was made clear to the students that their participation was voluntary and confidential, and that the instructor would not open the envelopes for 61 days to preserve their anonymity until well after the course was over. These measures were intended to prevent any possible perception of pressure or bias from the instructor.

All students who completed the questionnaire also gave consent to use their assignments. From these papers, I tabulated all the reasons given for choosing a particular medium. The excerpts were compiled into one large table that identified the respondent by number and demographics, whether it was the first paper written by that student (Paper 1) or the second (Paper 2), the theorist or theory that was the assignment's focus, and the medium (film video, or biographical chapter). Added columns allowed for the beginning process of creating codes based on each set of comments. What followed was the emergent qualitative data analysis aimed at 77 evolving meaningful concepts to explain why, and how, feature films may be useful in helping students learn. 78

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

Participant Information

Enrolment in each class varied from 24 to 27. Actual participation in the survey and provision of student consent to use material ranged from 12 to 22, with a total of 72 for the study. Rate of responding per class ranged from 44.4% to 84.6%, and was almost completely dependent on who was present on the day that the survey was administered; across the four classes, from 0 to 2 people per class chose to leave instead of filling out the forms. Women in the remaining sample outnumbered men 58 to 14 (80.6% to

19.4%), respectively), a stable figure across classes and a common representation in this course overall. Age ranged from 18 to 44, with a median age of 21. Two students declined to note their age; of the remaining 70 respondents, 44 were aged 21 and below, and 26 were aged 22 and above. Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of age in this sample. Numerical data are provided in Appendix B.

2tH

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5H

§-»--• 20 21 24 25 2? 23 29 31 34 44 9

Figure 1. Frequency distribution of age of respondents (n = 70). 79

Data Extraction

Information was obtained from two sources: (a) the questionnaires, and (b) the reasons students gave for choosing a particular medium in their assignments.

Quantitative Data

Numerical responses to the questionnaire items were constructed as rankings.

Ten 5-point scales elicited information about attitudes to movies, ways of engaging in movie watching, and relationship of films in the course to other materials such as the textbook. Another two scales listed the three media under discussion (films, videos, and biographical chapters) along with common classroom resources such as the textbook, handouts, lectures in class, and lecture notes that students could download from

Blackboard at any time. Respondents were asked to rate these seven resources in order of preference from lowest (1) to highest (7), first according to usefulness and again according to enjoyability. Ratings for each were tabulated across all respondents, and relative ranks calculated. Participants were also asked to voluntarily provide their age on this form. As noted above, only two declined. Recording gender was automatic, since it came with their names when they consented to have assignments included in the study.

Other quantitative data were the frequencies counted for all the categories and themes derived from students' rationale statements. From these calculations, I generated a list of most-mentioned reasons for choosing to write on a particular medium.

Additionally, I tabulated and counted the positive as well as critical comments generated by the questionnaire, and used those and the open-ended comments to augment results of the rationale analyses. 80

Qualitative Data

Compilations of the students' own words were obtained, again, from two sources. First and predominately, each student was required to submit two papers online during the course, and 72 had agreed to be included in the study overall. Therefore, a total of 144 descriptions of rationale were expected. However, several students did not include this part, some failed to submit one or both papers, and two students wrote on two media despite instructions to choose only one. The resulting count was 132 descriptions (later specified as 131.5 because of split use of media). Since these statements of rationale ranged from one sentence to a paragraph, different amounts of information were extracted from each respondent. The descriptions, all in digital form, were tabulated and then subjected to a thorough, iterative process of coding and progressive comparison and integration. I gradually formulated concepts at several levels, which shall be discussed in detail.

The second source of qualitative data was taken from students' comments on the questionnaire, which were in response to structured questions, as well as an unstructured item at the end. The majority of respondents provided comments, but since this was a less formal, and not required, component, not all items were filled in. Analyses of these comments, solicited for both positive and critical content, were conducted similarly to the rationale descriptions. 81

Quantitative Analysis of Ratings

Scaled Items on the Questionnaire

The ratings and rankings from my Media Preference Questionnaire (Appendix

A) were designed to provide basic information on attitudes toward films and other resources in the course.

Attitudes toward films and related activities. Figure 2 displays frequency distributions of responses to the first six items. Students were asked to rank how much they like watching movies in general, how often and how they view films, and whether they were likely to read a book based on a film or to read a review of the movie.

Calculation of medians show that the two measures are generally close. In line with reported media viewing habits of young adults in Canada (Decima Research, 2005), it is clear from the graphs that the students sampled in this study enjoy watching movies.

They appear more likely to rent a film than to go to a movie theatre, which may be expected in this century of easy access to home viewing. Other means of viewing, such as on television, computer, or mobile devices, should be tapped in future studies as well.

Nevertheless, either method of participation was rated moderately high, as was the tendency to watch a movie repeatedly. By contrast, reading a related book or a movie review were considered less desirable activities by most; the ratings were fairly even, with medians either at the midpoint of the scale, or slightly below. Therefore, it seems that films in themselves have a special appeal for this population, but reading about them does not. 82

Q. 1: How much do you enjoy watching movies in your everyday life?

Median 4.5

JL 3 4 Enjoy watching movies

Q. 2: How often on average do you go to the movies?

Go to the movtos 83

Q. 3: How often on average do you rent a movie?

Median 4.0

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Q. 4: How likely are you to watch a movie more than once?

Watch mora than once 84

Q. 5: How likely are you to read a book related to a movie you have seen or heard about?

Median Z LO

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1 i i —r •—— ,— i 1 1 2 3 4 5 Read a related book

Q. 6: How likely are you to read reviews of movies?

Median 2.5

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Figure 2. Frequency distribution of ranked scores on the 5-point scales for Questions 1 to 6 (n = 72). For all scales, 1 = lowest and 5 = highest. See Appendix C for labels. 85

Attitudes toward films and textbook in the course. Figure 3 illustrates the frequencies of ratings on the use of the textbook, how familiar the students were with the two films shown, and how much they believed the films encouraged them to use other resources in the course. First, it appears that the text was utilized to a fairly high degree.

The most likely reason, in my opinion, is its essential role as a source of information on the theories, and for examinations. Given this, it is surprising that some students still reported using it very little or only to a moderate extent. There are a number of possible reasons, to be sure, and I shall revisit the issue of reading for information in later comments. Further, the textbook was perceived as only a moderately helpful source of learning; this is unlikely to be due to the nature of the book itself, which has a solid history and is usually regarded well by students. Rather, I have noticed a tendency in many students to avoid reading academic sources if they think they can manage without them. A lower interest in reading may be reflected also in the ratings on Questions 5 and

6. More information will be added with the analysis of relative rankings on Questions 17 and 18.

The students reported low to moderate familiarity with the films used in class, although two groups were evident. Recall that most of the students were female. A number of them reported verbally that they had either read The Secret Garden as a child, had seen this or another filmed version, or both. Some said it was their favourite girlhood book or story. The male students, on the other hand, may have seen or read it along with a sister, or when they were very young, but they generally expressed much less familiarity than the women, when asked. From another perspective, the date when the movie was produced (1993) would favour some exposure, since most of the group 86 were children of the right age at that time or a bit later. Ordinary People (1980), which incidentally "played" better with most of the men and was also received favourably with the women students, was significantly older, produced before most of this group were born. Those who had seen it before were typically over 30—a very small portion, indeed. As a general statement about results on this scale, I conclude that respondents were somewhat familiar with one movie but hardly familiar with the other, and that there was considerable variation in this area. It is a matter of debate whether attitudes to films as a learning tool were influenced by this factor, one way or the other. Discussion of comments from student assignments in the section on qualitative analysis should add to this. It will be seen, however, that the degree to which the students actually liked one or both films did not seem to be influenced by the movies' lack of familiarity, with perhaps a few exceptions. Finally, from Question 16, we can see that respondents generally did believe that the films helped them use other resources in the course, such as the textbook.

The numbers underlying Figures 2 and 3 are provided in Appendices C and D.

Overall, responses on these scaled items will form part of the larger discussion on whether films are indeed useful from a pedagogical perspective, and in what manner they can most productively be used.

Some possible differences were explored between groups, alternately divided into day versus evening classes, fall vs. winter and spring sessions, female versus male, and younger versus older. Of all comparisons, the only potentially meaningful divide appeared to be between age categories of 18 to 21 and over 21 on reading reviews of movies, narrowly favouring older students. 87

13: To what extent did you use the textbook for this course?

Median 4.0

; is-

si

2 Used th# textbook

Q. 14: How much do you believe you learned about the theories and concepts from the text?

Median 3.0

aH

itH

3 L,Mm«

Q. 15: How familiar were you with the films used in this course?

Median 3.0

»•

15-

10'

51

Familiar with th« f(lm« used

Q. 16: To what extent do you believe one or both of the films encouraged you to also utilize and learn from the other resources in this course, such as the textbook?

»• Median 4.0

I

1M

Encourage u*# of other r#sowrees

Figure 3. Frequency distribution of ranked scores on the 5-point scales for Questions 13 to 16 (n = 72). For all scales, 1 = lowest and 5 = highest. See Appendix D for labels. 89

Relative ranking of media and other resources. Questions 17 and 18 asked respondents to rank seven resources on a hierarchy of "usefulness" and "enjoyability" for learning in this course, respectively. The purpose of these relative ratings, where every rank is assigned to a different resource, was to gather specific information on how students felt about the media in an educational setting, and ultimately to compare reactions to movies with those related to other, more traditional media. I use the terms

"medium" and "media" liberally here, to denote any form of communication designed to reach a large group of people. Hence, while movies, videos, and presentations easily come to mind, I suggest that print material, such as textbooks and notes that regularly are posted or distributed to all students, also can be grouped within that category in a course-wide study. Accordingly, the media, or resources, included the textbook, my

PowerPoint lectures, posted lecture notes, handouts such as worksheets and comparison tables, biographical chapters from books on relevant theorists, instructional videos, and feature films. Figures 4 and 5 represent the distribution for each medium on the two rank-order scales, with the corresponding data and measurements provided in Appendix

E. Further, Table la provides the median relative rankings for all seven resources, and

Table lb gives the corresponding hierarchy of ranks overall. Figure 6 presents these hierarchies in graphic form. 90

Q. 17: Please note in the order in which you would rank the usefulness of media and resources for learning in this course, from lowest (1) to highest (7).

Textbook Usefulness Ranking Lectures Usefulness Ranking

Posted Notes Usefulness Ranking Handouts Usefulness Ranking

IS'

c 3 ST ift-

Biographical Chapters Usefulness Ranking Videos Usefulness Ranking "H

Films Usefulness Ranking

Figure 4. Frequency distribution of relative ranks for degree of usefulness assigned to each of seven media and resources in the course. Each rank from 1 (lowest) to 7 (highest) was to be assigned to a separate item on the list (n = 63). 92

Q. 18: Please note in the order in which you would rank the enjoyability of media and resources for learning in this course, from lowest (1) to highest (7).

\«\

Textbook Enjoyability Ranking Lectures Enjoyability Ranking

Posted Notes Enjoyability Ranking Handouts Enjoyability Ranking

r~~i.

Biographical Chapters EnjoyabtEity Ranking Videos Enjoyability Ranking 93

Films EnjoyabBity Ranking

Figure 5. Frequency distribution of relative ranks assigned for degree of enjoyability to each of seven media and resources in the course. Each rank from 1 (lowest) to 7 (highest) was to be assigned to a separate item on the list (n = 63). 94

Table la. Comparison of Relative Rankings for Usefulness and Enjoy ability of Seven Media and Resources

Usefulness Enjoy ability

Resource Median Median

Textbook 4.0 2.0

Lectures 6.0 5.0

Posted Notes 5.0 3.0

Handouts 3.0 4.0

Biographical 1.0 2.0 Chapters

Videos 4.0 6.0

Films 5.0 7.0 95

Table lb. Hierarchy for Usefulness and Enjoy ability of Seven Media and Resources for All Rankings

Usefulness Enjoyability

Order of Ranking Based on Order of Ranking Based on Median Resource Median

Textbook 4 7

Lectures 1 3

Posted Notes 3 5

Handouts 6 4

Biographical 7 7 Chapters

Videos 5 2

Films 3 1 96

Bio- Posted Textbook Lectures Handouts graphical Videos Films Notes Charters

Comparative Rankings of Usefulness

•o«r

21

Bio- Posted Textbook Lectures Handouts graphical Videos Films Notes Charters

Comparative Rankings of Enjoyabillty

Figure 6. Order of median ranks for seven resources used in the course, compared for the relative degree to which respondents found the resource to be useful (top), and to which they experienced it as enjoyable (bottom) (n = 63). 97

Median rankings of hierarchical results can be summarized as follows:

1. Lectures were considered the most useful (1), followed by films (2), posted notes

(3), and the textbook (4).

2. Videos (5), handouts (6), and biographical chapters (7) were reported as less

useful.

3. Films were considered the most enjoyable (1), followed by videos (2), lectures

(3), and handouts (4).

4. The least enjoyable appear to have been posted notes (5), textbook (6), and

biographical chapters (7).

A number of these results make intuitive sense. For example, students no doubt recognize that in order to be successful in the course, they need the information from the lectures, which in turn is strongly associated with the textbook and reproduced in the notes. Concomitant with my earlier report of a lack of enthusiasm for reading about movies or even using the text, I have observed that many students would rather depend on lectures, and appreciate the ready, online availability of my presentations. On a positive note, I am gratified that the time I spend in class or uploading to Blackboard has yielded benefits and that I am not, in general, boring the students. But these rankings do indicate that, often, students prefer to read less and obtain the necessary information from other sources. For the enjoyability rankings, the top spot for films confirms my previous impression that students like having movies in the class, and that videos are also appealing. I therefore conclude that visual media clearly add to the enjoyment of the course. At the other end, the lower ranking of posted notes on enjoyability is also not surprising; I did not expect a "fun factor" for these resources. And, again, the textbook and the extra chapters prove to be a relatively less attractive resource, with their lowest spot on the enjoyability scale.

Other results were more surprising. First, I provided the option of reading biographical material because I believed some students would perceive this medium favourably, compared with the relatively "captive" nature of movies or videos, when preparing assignments. I also considered the possibility of diverse styles, where visual presentations may not be a student's most preferred way of learning. The respondents who chose this avenue proved to be few indeed, and I shall discuss this more when analysing the qualitative results. Second, I note the discrepancy between the high enjoyability ranking of videos and their relatively low reported usefulness factor. This was different from expectation, because I chose my videos carefully to ensure that the topics were closely aligned with information from the text and lectures. The fact that they were enjoyed is good news, but they may not be as helpful to the students as I would wish. Interestingly, a somewhat different picture does emerge from students' comments on their papers and the written parts of the questionnaire, so the topic will be revisited in the coming sections. The third surprise, this one positive, is that the movies received top and near-top ranking for both enjoyability (1) and usefulness (2), the latter being superseded only by my lectures. While the purpose of my study indeed was to examine the pedagogical value of feature films, I was prepared for some ambiguity. The results so far indicate that films are, or can be, an asset to learning.

A glance at Figures 4 and 5 suggests that, except for the "usefulness" ranking of the textbook, there did not seem to be distinct divisions between different segments of the class, with curves in the distribution relatively even and one identifiable mode, or 99 two adjacent modes in the case of "posted notes enjoyability." In terms of textbook usefulness, we see and almost identical picture to that from the "reading a movie review" scale in favour of those over 22 years of age. I do believe that, given the less-than- favourable rankings overall for reading material, age differences in attitude toward print resources are worth pursuing at a future stage.

The next topic is about students choosing one of three media for application of concepts from various theories taught in the course. We begin with comparing how often each medium—film, video, or biographical text material—was utilized across the two required assignments.

Qualitative Analysis of Written Comments

Student Use of Media

Before presenting detailed explanations of what students wrote about their reasons, I want to establish how often they chose one medium or another for written application of concepts. With a requirement of two papers per student, the count was expected to be 2 x 72 = 144. However, a few assignments were missed, and the remaining total was

131.5. Table 2a shows that the majority of these papers (75.3%) focused on a movie, far fewer (18.2%) involved a video, and the very lowest number (6.5%) drew on a biographical chapter. These percentages may have been biased, however, through paired selections. In other words, students who were inclined to use one medium for their first paper may simply have stayed with that choice the second time, for a variety of reasons.

Therefore, a second set of calculations was made looking at pairs of choices (n = 65.75), rather than frequencies for single media. According to Table 2b, 59.7% of respondents chose films both times, 29.3% used film once and video for the other paper, and the 100 remaining combinations rank far below. These numbers may create a more accurate picture of choices relevant to the media—rather than, for example, convenience—yet still suggest a preference for using movies in written assignments. From these calculations, we can infer that in general students found the use of films appealing, since that was the largest focus for this sample, even when other media were available.

Next, I shall describe the outcomes of the coding process from students' comments of rationale. 101

Table 2a. Number of Times That Film, Video, or Biographical Text Material Were Chosen for Assignments

Film Video Biographical Text

Assignment / % / % / %

Paper 1 55.5 42.2 7.5 5.7 5.5 4.2

Paper 2 43.5 33.1 16.5 12.5 3 2.3

Total 99 75.3 24 18.2 8.5 6.5 n= 131.5

Table 2b. Comparison of Pairs of Media Choices

Media Used for Papers 1 and 2 Combined / %

Both Film 39.25 59.7

Film and Video 19.25 29.3

Both Video 0 0.0

Video and Biographical Text 4.5 6.8

Both Biographical Text 1.75 2.7

Film and Biographical Text 1 1.5 n = 65.75 102

Emergent Categories

The complexity of factors in learning from films and other media was reflected in the varied and multiple responses from students. After the initial coding of repeating ideas from the "raw data" of student comments, I formulated all the reasons that I could identify for applying course content to any of the three media. This culminated in 33 groups, which I labelled as categories of rationale. I concluded that it was the lowest number of groups at this coding level that could still account for all comments on the topic, especially before knowing which reasons would emerge as more or less prominent.

Table 3 lists the categories, organized according to broad similarities in function.

I consider this phase the first level of description and labelling, derived from summaries of statements from the original papers.

A description of the categories is presented next. Each label and brief explanation are followed by examples of original comments, along with respondent identifier (R and a number), the theorist or framework that the student is writing about, and the specific medium. Note that many of these comments are integral, expressing opinions and sentiments that flow into different categories. Such statements were coded in multiple ways, but for efficient presentation recorded only once in the list: Table 3. Categories of Reasons for Working with Specific Media

Categories Allow control Convenient Easy to process Familiar Useful Broaden perspectives Encourage critical and in-depth thinking Help remember concepts and facts Help understand theory Process through imagery Process through sensory perception Draw attention Engage through novelty and variety Evoke interest and curiosity Make learning enjoyable Arouse through action and senses Provoke emotional response Apply to real situations Connect with story Experience real-life resonance Identify with character Link to concrete examples Enjoy medium in general Enjoy sharing Enjoy specific medium Clear in content and presentation Complex Informative Relevant to themes Create meaning Draw on resources Learn with others Use creativity 104

Allow control. The medium can be used in a more direct and personalized manner; the student has control over aspects such as interpretation, review, and the flow of information."Although I would have found it more enjoyable to watch a video, I feel more in control with a book as I can underline certain points to include in my essay."

(R14, Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, biographical text.) "I am free to read the words the way I want, as there are no visual cues. In a film, the actors have been told how to portray the character, but text gives you more power, no one tells you how to feel."

(R19, Sigmund Freud, biographical text.)

Convenient. The medium is readily available and easy to access for viewing or reading. "It is also useful because you know you can always go back and watch the movie again in case you didn't understand something clearly enough the first time." (R5,

Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.) "Also, my personal interest is to prefer movies because of its [sic] ease of access. I can watch over again and pick up concepts that I missed with more pleasure rather than just reading the book." (R6, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.)

Easy to process. The medium makes it easy to absorb and apply content, and to understand its meaning. "My choice of media [sic] is primarily due to my lack of reading speed and my preference to learn by seeing and hearing simultaneously." (Rl 1, philosophical assumptions, Analysis of a Mind.) "I chose Ordinary People because I understood the movie and it was easy for me to come up with several examples to apply to all concepts that I had previously struggled to understand." (R16, Carl Rogers,

Ordinary People.)

Familiar. The respondent has had experience with this medium, often as part of everyday life, and feels a degree of comfort. Alternatively, the student knows that show 105 in particular. "I think somehow that being raised around television and computers like so many are in this age I am just much more receptive to this type of media and I have no trouble paying attention to it." (R4, Big 5 Traits, Ordinary People.) "I am reasonably familiar with the film, which makes writing the report much easier. Also I bought the movie after we had watched it in class which made it very convenient to watch again when I had a need to refer to it." (R13, B. F. Skinner, Ordinary People.)

Useful. The medium gives the students means and material for assignments and tests, either directly or indirectly. "This could be an enjoyable time and preparation for the test at the same time." (R6, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.) "Also there were numerous examples in the film in which I could pick and choose the most appropriate in order to effectively demonstrate how his various ideas applied to each character or scenario." (R35, Alfred Adler, The Secret Garden.)

Broaden perspectives. The medium encourages the student to gain new knowledge about a previously-encountered topic, or understand material from different points of view. "Through these videos I have gained a new perspective on some of

Freud's seemingly bizarre theories when put into the context of the era and of his personal experiences." (Rl 1, Sigmund Freud, Analysis of a Mind and Young Dr. Freud.)

"However, if you watch a film and then apply the concepts with a group of people who may have a different take on what the concepts mean, it helps you see them in a different way and realize that they really are real concepts that can be applied to clients." (R16,

Carl Rogers, Ordinary People) "The reason I chose The Secret Garden is because it is a movie I have seen before and I thought it would be interesting to look at it from a psychological perspective (and it was); to see all those things that I'm sure so many people miss when they are young, or simply watching the movie for enjoyment." (R20,

Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden.)

Encourage critical and in-depth thinking. The medium challenges the person to analyze situations, pursue extensive understanding of concepts, apply critical thinking, and generalize new insight to other contexts. Information is processed at a more abstract level. "I found that analyzing Conrad from this movie was quite helpful in my understanding of these scales, and the theory in general. By analyzing Conrad I had to break down his actions, tendencies, and behaviours into each category and then figure out what they meant exactly." (R4, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People) "I chose to use the film the Secret Garden over the other mediums [sic] to create more of a challenge in my own learning. I find with written factual documentation it forms more of a 'black and white' feel, and is easier to distinguish between concepts. I find with feature films it is more challenging to interpret the theoretical concepts hidden through the plot and the commentary." (R70, Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden)

Help remember concepts and facts. The medium facilitates retention of details, and the learning of necessary concepts. "I chose the film over the other two methods because it makes it easier to learn and remember the concepts. The images, for some reason, tend to go into my long-term memory easier as if I read or just listened." (R6,

Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.) "This method of learning helps me to remember concepts better because the concepts are seen and identified in the movie. After exams or quizzes, I will forget these concepts unless I can relate them to my own life or the life of someone else even if it is a movie." (R67, Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden.) 107

Help understand theory. The medium facilitates understanding of situations, concepts, and frameworks, going beyond memorization. "Watching informative films or videos helps me to apply the theories that we learn to real life situations. By understanding how they apply to people and circumstances it helps to actually learn the theories as opposed to merely memorizing them." (R5, B. F. Skinner and Albert

Bandura, Captive Minds) "The biography on Freud was insightful and made me view his concepts with more understanding of where he might have been coming from." (R61,

Sigmund Freud, Analysis of a Mind.)

Process through imagery. The medium encourages imaginal learning, as opposed to just verbal processing. The emphasis here is on creation of mental images, rather than the mere input of information. "Compared to documentary on Freud and excerpts from books, the film gave the figurative visual needed to relate these concepts to life situations." (R31, Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden.)

Process through sensory perception. The medium provides information through visual and auditory channels. Students sometimes stated that this represents their preferred "learning style." "The movie format was also far easier to remember since it incorporates both visual and auditory stimuli." (R9, Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler,

The Secret Garden.) "I chose to use video instead of an article because I am a much more visual and auditory learner so reading was not in my best interest." (R34, Sigmund

Freud, Analysis of a Mind.) "I have selected a film, Ordinary People, rather than written material based on my personal strength as a visual learner." (R69, Carl Rogers, Ordinary

People?) 108

Draw attention. The medium catches the student's attention and maintains it, making him or her more receptive to associated information. "I chose this media [sic] over the other because I find that when it's a video it keeps my attention better and thus allows me to learn the information more readily." (R4, B. F. Skinner, Captive Minds.) "I chose this medium over the other two because this is the one that grabbed my attention the most. I really enjoyed watching the movie and I found the characters so deep and very realistic." (R5, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.) "I also find learning this way more enjoyable as it captures and keeps my attention longer then lectures do. Having pre-read the chapters, I was able to link the examples in the movie to concepts I had already learned." (R45, Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden)

Engage through novelty and variety. The medium presents information in a way that is different from the usual classroom style and content. "The reason Sigmund Freud:

Analysis of the Mind appealed to me more than the other media includes two reasons: it was based on someone who is so pivotal in the area of study, and it was diverse in the way it presented the material." (RIO, philosophical assumptions, Analysis of a Mind)

"My initial reaction to this assignment was to choose to write on Freudian concepts through analysis of the film the Secret Garden because I thought this was a fresh new way to apply concepts to real life situations and would be a way to challenge myself as I am used to using text books to define concepts and understand the application of those concepts." (R58, Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden)

Evoke interest and curiosity. The content induces the participant to become highly engaged, and to want to find out more about certain aspects. That interest may extend to other situations or topics, as well. "I found the film 'Captive Minds' very 109 interesting and very enlightening as to how fragile and how gullible the human mind can be if all the right tactics are used." (R5, B. F. Skinner and Albert Bandura, Captive

Minds.) "It was as though Freud was alive, explaining his ideas and what influenced him. From his personal situation (before and after marriage) to his notions, or lack of, regarding women, were so much more fascinating." (RIO, philosophical assumptions,

Analysis of a Mind.) "I think it was a good way to learn a concept that can normally seem so bland. It makes it more interesting to be able to actually apply the knowledge gained in class to outside situations, and makes it more interesting to learn." (R20,

Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden)

Make learning enjoyable. The learning experience is made more pleasurable by presentation of the medium. "I enjoy learning in this way because it makes you think how the concepts are applied to life and keeps you from just memorizing the definitions of the ideas." (R32, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People)

Arouse through action and senses. The medium creates arousal through dynamic content and/or style. "Being able to see an example of a therapist working with a client allowed my brain to wrap itself around not only words on a page but words, action and emotions between two people." (R3, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People) "While the chapters in the book contain valuable information, they incorporate less vivid representations of the theories. Thus it is far easier to see how concepts relate to characters on screen than in a textbook. Perhaps it is merely the closer relationship between the senses involved in a movie and real life than in a book and real life." (R9, Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler,

The Secret Garden.) "It's one thing to read a definition of a pampered child, but it's 110 more illuminating and memorable to watch one acting out." (R49, Sigmund Freud, The

Secret Garden.)

Provoke emotional response. Strong feelings occur in response to content and style, stirring many possible emotions such as sadness, anger, relief, and joy. "I had chosen to analyze this film over the other media because 'Ordinary People' is a touching film that reveals evidence of May's mentioned concepts, which helped broaden my knowledge about these notions." (R30, Rollo May, Ordinary People.) "Further, on a more personal note, I thoroughly enjoyed the movie and was tremendously moved by it.

I wanted to discuss it because I personally found it so touching." (R52, Carl Rogers,

Ordinary People.) "It is an effective method of getting as much stimuli [sic] and information to the viewer as possible in order to connect them to every experience and emotion; which is quite a humanistic experience in itself." (R55, Carl Rogers, Ordinary

People.)

Apply to real situations. Situations or story aspects are seen as similar to what happens in everyday life, and may provide ideas for trying out something new. "I chose to write about operant conditioning in regards [sic] to this movie because I believe that

Skinner's ideas are very useful in regards to parenting and changing the behaviour of children." (R7, B. F. Skinner, The Secret Garden.) "Ordinary People made humanistic psychology much easier to understand. Instead of listening to different theories, this movie made me apply the concepts to real life situations." (R39, Carl Rogers, Ordinary

People)

Connect with story. Narrative within the medium provides cohesion, continuity, and context. It creates a sense of realism and relevance, giving a broader and integrated Ill base for learning concepts as related to human functioning in general. Stories also may be enjoyed in their own right. "I appreciate documentary style films because they are true and found this one easy to view and follow along with because there were so many different stories. The length of each story allowed me to recall them better to apply them to the different aspects of Albert Bandura's social learning theory." (R24, Albert

Bandura, Captive Minds) "Conrad shows a significant amount [sic] of character development as the story moves forward. His development demonstrates a number of concepts that Carl Rogers identified in his theory of Humanism. As the movie goes on

Conrad moves closer and closer to what Rogers called a fully functioning person." (R56,

Carl Rogers, Ordinary People) "I chose this movie over the other mediums [sic] I could have used because I love narratives in stories and the interactions of the characters was what brought out the concepts that I wanted to discuss." (R67, Sigmund Freud, The

Secret Garden.)

Experience real-life resonance. The medium's content appears true to life. It allows the respondent to feel that he or she is observing, or even participating in, a "real" scenario that can lead to more intuitive understanding of situations and concepts. The

"sense of reality" may even be heightened by the medium's format and style, when contrasted with actual events. "Using examples from a potentially real life situation makes the theories and ideas of Rogers much easier to understand. Anytime an idea is applied to an example it becomes much more clear." (R32, Carl Rogers, Ordinary

People) "I chose this medium as I felt the film really portrayed and brought to life

Freud's concepts." (R65, Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden.) 112

Identify with character. The participant experiences a character, situation, or whole story as if it were his or her own. It involves perceiving concrete similarities between self and a character, sharing values and goals, and feeling empathy. "I again chose the medium of how the characters illustrate the concepts because it is much more interesting to me to relate it to the characters as if they were real people. That is what gives me the motivation to consider the concepts and write about my understanding and interpretation of them. Mary Lennox is only a little girl in a fictional novel but she still serves as a great inspiration to me." (R8, Albert Bandura, The Secret Garden.) "I chose the movie 'Ordinary People' for this assignment because it more accurately portrayed a character's phenomenal field than a book ever could. The silence in particular compelled me into Conrad's field of experience and heightened my empathy for his situation. In doing so it allowed me to more readily see Carl Roger's theories in a 'real-life' scenario."

(R9, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.) "A real (or in this case fictional) example offers a better means to learn how concepts are applied, because there is a sense of identifying with real people whom you want to succeed in becoming well-adjusted and in normalizing their relationships." (R49, Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden.)

Link to concrete examples. The medium provides practical illustrations of people and situations that allow the student to relate abstract concepts to examples from what seems like real life. In fact, the examples may be more vivid or clear than they would be in actual situations. "Having an example to connect a theory to is very helpful in retaining and remembering information for exams. The movie also allowed me to view an example of what May means by his theory [sic] of the Daimonic." (R45, Carl Rogers and Rollo May, Ordinary People.) "I picked this film because it gave me a practical 113 chance to analyze a character. Conrad is the character who is suffering from psychological issues. So, by analyzing him, it helped me to relate the concepts to his situation. I found that it is more helpful to understand the concepts by applying them practically and relate them to everyday life." (R53, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.) "I was able to choose from numerous examples in the film. As a result, the practice I have had applying these concepts to the movie will provide me with the skills to apply the knowledge and concepts of Carl Rogers to other applications in the future." (R58, Carl

Rogers, Ordinary People.)

Enjoy medium in general. The student reports feeling positively overall about that type of medium. "I enjoy watching movies in my spare time so I found it to be easier to write about something that interested me rather than a chapter excerpt I had no interest in." (R35, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.)

Enjoy sharing. The respondent enjoys watching or talking about the medium with other people. "I can go to Blockbuster and pick up a film any time I want and watch with a group of friends and/or family." (R6, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.)

Enjoy specific medium. The student expresses a positive feeling about the particular medium, or presentation, that she or he is writing about. "Another compliment

[sic] was the way the movie was presented to the audience. It was entertaining, informative, and it consisted of more than just a scholar or a doctor sitting in front of the camera being interviewed." (RIO, philosophical assumptions, Analysis of a Mind.) "I enjoyed watching this film, and found it entertaining as well as a useful tool to relate the knowledge I have gained through my learning of treatment according to Carl Rogers."

(R58, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People?) 114

Clear in content and presentation. The medium presents content and ideas in ways that are straightforward, structured, and objective. "The reason I preferred the movie over the other media was the simple clarity of how the movie portrayed all the relevant ideas of Humanism." (RIO, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People?) "I chose this medium because I enjoyed the people directly telling you what they had experienced."

(R63, Albert Bandura, Captive Minds.)

Complex. The characters and stories are multidimensional; not oversimplified or obvious in characteristics, events, or themes. "We can see how humanism can be applied and seen in the movie with Conrad. We could also take these same concepts to uncover the complex personalities of all the other characters." (R72, Carl Rogers, Ordinary

People.)

Informative. The medium provides direct, concrete information about a character, event, or theory. "But often, there is not enough information given on the so called 'father of psychology' for whatever reason. This opportunity allowed a student to get into the mind of the master of minds so to speak, enabling a deeper understand [sic] of his concepts, where they were rooted from, and how they flourished into respected ideas." (RIO, philosophical assumptions, Analysis of a Mind) "As well, the examples as to why Rogers moved from psychotherapy to non-directive therapy showed a need for change." (R14, Carl Rogers, biographical text.) "I find non-fiction accounts fascinating.

The film is very informative and revealing about a subject matter not readily discussed, which grabbed my attention." (R63, Albert Bandura, Captive Minds.)

Relevant to themes. The medium's content is seen as closely related to what is being covered in the course. It fits clearly with the topics, concepts, and theories that 115 students are required to learn. "The film 'Captive Minds' viewed in class showed many good examples of the concepts we have learned in unit 3." (R5, B. F. Skinner and Albert

Bandura, Captive Minds?) "This movie provides useful examples that can be described in terms of humanistic psychology...This movie provided connections that aligned nicely with the humanistic approach." (R17, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People)

Create meaning. From the medium, the student is able to construct interpretations relevant to her or his own conceptions of the theory or of life events. "I think it is a helpful way to remember the concepts such as incongruence because by applying it to a character in the movie will give a more meaningful concept rather than just memorizing the definition from the book." (R6, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.)

"The reason for choosing Freud's theory is that during our class lectures and discussions his concepts have demonstrated a lot of significant meaning and supports my belief that everything that occurs in one's life does have some reason or meaning." (R69, Sigmund

Freud, The Secret Garden)

Draw on resources. The student's learning with the medium is enhanced by associated materials and avenues of learning, such as class exercises, worksheets, and the course textbook. "I found the use of the organized worksheet very helpful when putting my examples on paper. By having all the concepts in front of me while I watched the Secret Garden, I was able to organize my thoughts and also had the ability to revisit my ideas at a later time to refine my analysis." (R58, Sigmund Freud, The Secret

Garden.) "With the class discussions on the films and the worksheets help remind me to look for these concepts before I even see the film. With the class discussions afterwards 116

I can find out if I am on the right track or not, which is good before a test or an essay."

(R62, Alfred Adler, The Secret Garden)

Learn with others. The student's learning through the medium is enhanced by discussion with peers and teacher, and participation in structured exercises. The exchange of ideas is seen as valuable for understanding the relationship between content and course concepts. "Having already seen the film in class and discussing it with classmates, there was not much more background work to do making this film the ideal medium to choose." (R31, Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden?) "There was a thorough discussion in class covering the major areas of this approach and I felt as though I have a competent understanding of the material at this stage to write a balanced response."

(R38, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.) "I enjoyed coming up with ideas on my own and then having the opportunity to for a collaborative discussion with my classmates afterwards." (R58, Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden.)

Use creativity. The student is encouraged by the medium to perceive and apply concepts in new ways. "The reason that I chose this medium is that one is not only able to analyze the character, but also be more creative in one's analysis. This is because the psychological aspects or theories demonstrated by the character or the story may not be as obvious or straightforward." (R23, Carl Rogers, Ordinary People.) "It was easy to see the symbolism throughout and allowed a creative view of key concepts which makes it easier to learn." (R31, Sigmund Freud, The Secret Garden.)

In the qualitative coding literature, the importance of initial selection of relevant text is stressed. I have done much of this delineation by asking students to write specifically about their reasons for choosing a medium. Once this step has been taken, 117 however, it is then seen as important to include all of the selected text in order to remain open to all possible responses; a kind of bracketing, as mentioned earlier in the description of Husserl's work. Once I had tabulated the comments, combined phrases that seemed to have the same or similar meaning (also called "binning"), and summarized these in a secondary table, I kept everything I had noted. I then worked, slowly and with frequent movements back and forth between original words and emerging categories, to retain all that had been written by the students on this topic. This also represents the iterative process described and recommended by, for example,

Auerbach (2003), Richards (2005), and Lichtman (2006). While I received inspiration for many of the categories from the body of literature on use of films in teaching, and followed the advice of several excellent writers on the practical issues of coding

(including those just mentioned), I also found that my experience guided me toward making many more decisions on my own, as the work with the "raw" text and the ever- narrowing codes progressed. I developed the names for my categories, and the themes which I shall discuss in the next section, again by drawing on the literature, but mostly by wanting them to be as descriptive and dynamic as possible.

Of course, thirty-three categories are still too much to be of use in larger-scale studies. I truly wanted to find something more essential—much like the "essence" of the phenomenological existentialists, but for now, on a smaller scale. Again following the models I had encountered in my search through various "guidebooks," I undertook the next task of consolidating my categories into larger concepts. 118

Emergent Themes

The next level of integration is displayed in Table 4. It lists eight abstract compilations of categories that represent unifying and pervasive ideas. These I have called themes.

Basic appeal. The medium addresses practical needs and provides a level of comfort. It is considered easy to access and utilize.

Challenging the mind. The medium facilitates cognitive processes. It enhances learning through increased understanding, memory, multimodal input, and opportunities for higher-level thinking.

Creating interest and motivation. The medium provides stimulation and a desire to learn more. It has new and different ways of presenting ideas, stimulates curiosity, and generally grabs the individual's attention. It also makes the learning of theory and concepts more enjoyable.

Engaging emotions. The medium increases arousal and elicits emotional responses. The individual reports being more involved by reacting to events on screen or in the text.

Making theory come to life. Events and characters are perceived to have "real life" qualities, so that a person will connect what happens in the show or text to actual experiences. The medium provides practical examples for illustration and application of abstract concepts. The individual can also become more involved through perceived similarities between a character and him- or herself.

Providing entertainment. The individual likes engaging in the medium in everyday life, such as watching movies or reading. In other comments, the emphasis is 119 on how much the specific show or text content was enjoyed. A third component is the pleasure gained from engaging in the medium in the company of others.

Qualities of the medium. Certain characteristics of the medium seem to increase its appeal and usability beyond simple convenience. The qualities noted include clarity of content and presentation, amount of relevant information provided in the medium, and sufficient complexity. The medium is seen to have a certain degree of substance.

Setting the stage for active learning. Opportunities are provided for creative application of concepts, construction of meaning, interactive learning with peers, and feedback from instructor. Also included in this theme is the integrated use of other resources with the medium.

In keeping with the dynamic ways that films can be integrated into the learning process, it seemed fitting to present the results of my coding in one visual display. The picture of a tree with categories and themes clustered like leaves was inspired by the drawing of a tree trunk that Wolcott (2001) presented to illustrate the large variety of qualitative research approaches—much like branches of a "family tree." I have arranged them roughly to reflect the "hierarchy" of importance that will emerge from the further discussion of results. Table 4. Categories of Reasons Grouped Within Themes

Themes Categories Basic appeal Allow control Convenient Easy to process Familiar Useful Challenging the mind Broaden perspectives Encourage critical and in-depth thinking Help remember concepts and facts Help understand theory Process through imagery Process through sensory perception Creating interest and motivation Draw attention Engage through novelty and variety Evoke interest and curiosity Make learning enjoyable Engaging emotions Arouse through action and senses Provoke emotional response Making theory come to life Apply to real situations Connect with story Experience real-life resonance Identify with character Link to concrete examples Providing entertainment Enjoy medium in general Enjoy sharing Enjoy specific medium Qualities of the medium Clear in content and presentation Complex Informative Relevant to themes Setting the stage for active learning Create meaning Draw on resources Learn with others Use creativity * *• I,

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Figure 7. Learning with films: Themes and categories represented as branches 122

Having formulated categories and themes for the reasons students are inspired to choose different media for a learning-related activity, what is their relative occurrence in comments across media? What might be the most important factors that make films a preferred medium for some, versus videos or print material? Can we discern advantages and disadvantages of films compared to other resources? What can they tell us about the effectiveness of films in the classroom?

Occurrences of Categories and Themes Across Media

Two extensive sets of frequency counts were conducted, related but each telling a slightly different story. In the first instance, using only the eight themes, events that had been extracted for each paper in the pool were counted and tabulated under associated media, resulting in a comparison of how many theme events could be recorded for each medium. In the second set, the same procedure was used to count events for all thirty-three categories as tied to each medium. Relative percentages were calculated, ranks were assigned, and the two sets of results were displayed together to provide a broad picture of students' perceptions of their own learning through films, videos, and text material. Since each theme includes more than one category, theme events, naturally, numbered less than category events. In some cases, a particular medium yielded many events, and in other cases only one or a few. These comparisons are designed to demonstrate which of the reasons given are most prominent, and how the three media rank on each of them.

Comments on rationale from assignments. Table 5 shows the total number of theme events, the number of category events, and the shares for both apportioned to each theme along with their ranks. Two themes emerge as most prominent: Making Theory 123

Come to Life (Rank 1 for themes and 2 for total categories) and Challenging the Mind

(Rank 2 and 1, respectively). For the remaining themes, ranks for number of theme events are the same as for category events. We see a clear gap between the "top two" and the next in rank, Qualities of the Medium, after which the decline is more gradual. In order, the last five are Creating Interest and Motivation, Basic Appeal, Providing

Entertainment, Setting the Stage for Active Learning, and Engaging Emotions. We should keep in mind that these are relative scores and do not imply that those ranking lower are unimportant to a larger understanding of the educational value of media.

Nevertheless, it is interesting that what is seen as the avenue for practical application, on the one hand, and cognitive challenge and facilitation, on the other, seems very much in the forefront of what is valued about media in learning.

The next step was to extract differences both in the total count and in shares of that count for each medium. The associated questions were: Do films, videos, and text material each have areas where they feature more prominently than the others? Will that help us understand the qualities that make each attractive for learning in a different way?

And, ultimately, how do films emerge from this comparison?

The tables for this section were organized so that the order of names for themes reflect their overall rank, with the top two ranks reversed when we look at categories

(Table 5). Tables 6, 7, and 8 provide the frequencies, percentages, and ranks for each medium, related to both themes and categories. For total numbers, films far surpass videos, while videos in turn garnered noticeably more events than the biographical chapters. The high number of events for movies is concomitant with the large percentage 124 apportioned to films in respondents' overall choices, and the pattern emerges clearly of a greater focus on films than on the other two media.

Table 5.

Frequency of Theme Events, Category Events, and Associated Ranks Based on Student Comments in Assignments

Theme Events Rank Category Events Rank Themes / / Making Theory Come to 101 1 149 2 Life Challenging the Mind 97 2 172 1 Qualities of the Medium 56 3 74 3 Creating Interest and 49 4 61 4 Motivation Basic Appeal 35 5 52 5 Providing Entertainment 30 6 36 6 Setting the Stage for Active 21 7 30 7 Learning Engaging Emotions 21 8 24 8

Total 410 598 125

Table 6. Number of Theme Events, Category Events, and Associated Ranks For Films

Films Themes Categories

Events Percent Rank Events Percent Rank Themes / % / % Theory Come to Life 84 26.1 1 126 27.3 2

Challenging the Mind 78 24.2 2 136 29.4 1

Qualities of the 36 11.2 3 43 9.3 3

Medium

Creating Interest 33 10.3 4 41 8.9 4

Basic Appeal 25 7.8 6 33 7.1 6

Providing 28 8.7 5 33 7.1 6

Entertainment

Active Learning 19 5.9 8 28 6.1 7

Engaging Emotions 19 5.9 8 22 4.8 8

Total 322 100.0 462 100.0 126

Table 7. Number of Theme Events, Category Events, and Associated Ranks For Videos

Videos Themes Categories

Events Percent Rank Events Percent Rank

Themes / % / % Theory Come to Life 13 18.1 4 19 18.1 3

Challenging the Mind 16 22.2 2 30 28.6 1

Qualities of the 18 25.0 1 25 23.8 2

Medium

Creating Interest 13 18.1 4 16 15.2 4

Basic Appeal 6 8.3 5 8 7.6 5

Providing 2 2.8 8 3 2.9 6

Entertainment

Active Learning 2 2.8 8 2 1.9 8

Engaging Emotions 2 2.8 8 2 1.9 8

Total 72 100.0 105 100.0 127

Table 8. Number of Theme Events, Category Events, and Associated Ranks For Biographical Text Material

Biographical Text Themes Categories Events Percent Rank Events Percent Rank

Themes / % / % Theory Come to Life 4 25.0 2 4 12.9 5

Challenging the Mind 3 18.8 4 6 19.4 3

Qualities of the 2 12.5 5 6 19.4 3

Medium

Creating Interest 3 18.8 4 4 12.9 5

Basic Appeal 4 25.0 2 11 35.5 1

Providing 0 0.0 8 0 0.0 8

Entertainment

Active Learning 0 0.0 8 0 0.0 8

Engaging Emotions 0 0.0 8 0 0.0 8

Total 16 100.0 31 100.0 For ease of reporting, I shall abbreviate some of the names of my themes, and hope that they remain clear.

From the data in Table 6, it appears that students tended to choose movies more often for reasons encompassed in the themes of Theory to Life, and Challenging the

Mind. These top rankings for themes as well as for associated categories are the same as for the overall order of ranks, reflecting the dominance of films in the total counts. Some variation is evident where Basic Appeal (Rank 5 overall) ranks sixth with films, and takes the sixth spot for categories contained in the same theme along with

Entertainment. However, these variations from the overall rankings are very small.

Looking at the pattern as a whole, then, ranks for films are very similar to the total outcome, indicating that films determined much of what these categories and themes are about.

Relative placements for videos (Table 7) and biographical chapters (hereafter also referred to as text material) (Table 8) are more divergent from the total rankings, demonstrating that respondents did have different perceptions of the value of these resources compared with films. Those differences are evident for the first five themes and associated categories, but not for the bottom three, where rankings are almost identical across all media. For videos, the highest rank goes to Qualities, emphasizing, for example, the value of information that is perceived as relevant, and delivered in a clear manner. The second rank is for Mind, placing the importance of that theme on a level similar to films. Life ranked only fourth with videos, at the same level as

Motivation. For biographical text material, the highest rank was shared by Life and

Basic Appeal. Since the chapters were biographical, this ranking for Life fits my intent 129 to provide similar content across media, that is, some personal story rather than mere delivery of information. For Basic Appeal, most comments suggested the value of convenience.

Since there were large differences in volume of comments from students, there may be a problem with taking the numbers too literally. These variations should be independent of the choice of medium, but the fact that there were so many more papers that used film likely inflated the differences in percents. For that reason, in Table 9,1 recorded the percentage share of total events for each medium, and then calculated how much of a theme overall and how many of the categories in that theme were apportioned to films, videos, or chapters. For example, for the eight themes combined, films made up 78.5% of the total events. However, that percentage was not consistent across all themes. Thus, films associated with the theme of Life 87.2 % of the total across media, but only 67.4 % for Motivation. By contrast, videos accounted for 17.6 % of total theme events but only garnered 12.9 % within the theme of Life, while their percentage share across media of

Motivation was 26.5 %. I have marked the highest percentage shares for each theme and for the associated category events with an asterisk to indicate where each medium seems most prominent. The following pattern can be seen: (a) Films take the highest share for

Life, Entertainment, Active Learning, and Emotions; (b) videos are more prominently associated with Qualities and Interest; and (c) biographical chapters seem most associated with Basic Appeal. These results appear consistently in counts for themes and for associated categories. Themes do cover all the media to some extent and are therefore not exclusive to any one medium. A negative exception is the complete 130 absence of Entertainment, Active Learning, and Emotions for biographical text in the frequency counts.

Table 9. Percentage Share of Themes and Categories Among Film, Video, and Biographical Text Material

Themes Categories Film Video Bio Txt Film Video Bio T

% % % % %_ Overall Share of 78.5 17.6 3.9 77.3 17.6 5.2 Events % Themes % % % % % %

Theory Come to Life *83.2 12.9 4.0 *84.6 12.8 2.7

Challenging the Mind 80.4 16.5 3.1 79.1 17.4 3.4

Qualities of the 64.3 *32.1 3.6 58.1 *33.8 8.1

Medium

Creating Interest 67.4 *26.5 6.1 67.2 *26.2 6.6

Basic Appeal 71.4 17.1 •11.4 63.5 15.4 *21.1

Providing *93.3 6.7 0.0 *91.6 8.3 0.0

Entertainment

Active Learning *90.5 9.5 0.0 *93.3 6.7 0.0

Engaging Emotions *90.5 9.5 0.0 *91.7 8.3 0.0

These numbers indicate a relatively high percentage share for that theme, compared with the medium's overall share of events. 131

The reader may be interested in the details of which of the 33 categories were more strongly represented with each medium. I have provided these data in Appendix F.

For example, although Qualities ranked third in the 8-point hierarchy for films, not all associated categories were represented equally within that theme. Here, the category of relevance to course concepts and theories (Relevant to themes) counts most prominently at just over half of the 43 category events for Qualities. Yet, within the same theme, the category of providing information (Informative) included only 2 events. Within the theme of Challenging the Mind, the category for understanding of concepts (Help understand theory) produced the highest count, and in the theme of Theory to Life, it is the category for practical examples (Link to concrete examples) that stands out, followed much further down by the sense of real life that movies impart to the viewer (Real-life resonance). On the other hand, films still had the overwhelming share of the "real-life" category events across media, taken as a proportion of all counts for that category; it demonstrates that sheer numbers mean very little on their own here, but must be seen in context. For videos, a similar difference in distribution can be seen for Mind, which ranks at or near the top for that medium. The highest loading is on the degree to which the video leads to better understanding of concepts (Help understand theory) but, paradoxically perhaps, only 2 events out of the category total of 30 for that theme are recorded for aiding memory (Help remember concepts and facts). Lastly, biographical text was best represented in Basic Appeal, but gave a slight edge to convenience, and the opportunity to exercise control over how the medium is used (categories of Allow control and Convenient, respectively) over the other categories in that theme. For this 132 medium, however, there were fewer events to count overall, and these were distributed more evenly than events for the other media.

Because the numbers result from the investigator's subjective criteria, they are, to a certain degree, arbitrary; therefore I suggest that a visual display of outcomes and comparisons remains the most appropriate format for reporting results at this time. With all the different strategies and calculations, the pattern does emerge that, although the three media shared many of the themes for why students chose them for assignments, the reasons for each preference can set one medium apart from the others.

Comments from the Media Preference Questionnaire

A final set of results comes from the comments sections of the questionnaire. The approach is different from the assignment comments; in the latter, students were asked to give reasons for why they chose one medium over another to write about, while on the questionnaire, they were asked what they liked and disliked about all three media under discussion. The final question was specifically on films. From 72 questionnaires, all students provided some comments, but within the questionnaires, some of the commentary items were left blank and others were very brief and added little information. Nevertheless, 68 students responded in some fashion to Question 7: "What, if anything, did you like about using the films in this course?" and Question 9: "What, if anything, did you like about using the videos in this course?" Only 50 comments were counted on Question 11: "What, if anything, did you like about using the biographical chapters in this course?" A number of comments on this last item showed confusion about what was meant, suggesting another reason why these text resources were so limited in their use for assignments. In future, more emphasis may have to be placed on 133 the biographical chapters, and further clarification will be needed when administering the form.

Positive responses. The positive comments were coded according to categories and themes in the same way as the assignments. Table 10a provides frequency distributions for the totals, for themes, and for categories within the themes. Two sets of corresponding ranks are included. Table 10b shows the separate ranks for each medium on theme events and category events. To a large extent, these results corroborate the outcomes from the rationale comments. The themes of Making Theory Come to Life and

Challenging the Mind again occupy the first two ranks, for total events and separately for films and videos. They also ranked high with the text material, although here they were edged out by Qualities of the Medium. Setting the Stage for Active Learning and

Engaging Emotions again ranked last across media. Creating Interest and Motivation came out higher this time than in the previous rankings for films and videos.

The data in Tables 10a and 10b suggests that results depended somewhat on the questions asked. From the assignments, we obtain an idea of how the value of specific media is perceived as different. From the questionnaires, we extract information on what is valued about one or all of the media, and these comments may easily overlap. Even more varied results are seen from statements on Question 19, inviting respondents to add any further comments about movies or the use of films in courses such as this one. This question may have been seen as redundant by some, as only 40 students wrote comments here. It was, however, the most open question, likely eliciting more spontaneous remarks. Again, the usual coding was performed, and results are featured in Table 11.

This time, the theme of Creating Interest and Motivation ranked highest for all calculations. Theory to Life and Challenging the Mmd were still considered as highly important themes for learning with and from movies, tying for second and third place, hence both are given the Rank of 3. Active Learning moved up a little to sixth place for theme events and fifth for associated categories. Engaging Emotions, although a more salient theme for films than for the other media, still occupies the last rank on this table.

Table 10a. Rankings of All Media for Theme Events and Category Events from the Questions: "What Did You Like? " (Q. 7, 9, and 11)

Theme Events Rank Category Events Rank Themes / / Making Theory Come 72 2 79 2 to Life Challenging the Mind 78 1 89 1 Qualities of the 45 4 45 4 Medium Creating Interest and 48 3 63 3 Motivation Basic Appeal 24 5 26 5 Providing 15 6 15 6 Entertainment Setting the Stage for 6 7 7 7 Active Learning Engaging Emotions 3 8 3 8 Total 291 327 Table 10b. Rankings Films, Videos, and Biographical Chapters for Theme Events and Category Events from the Question: "What Did You Like?"

Ranks for Theme Events Ranks for Category Events

Themes Films Videos Chapters Films Videos Chapters

Making Theory 1 1 3 1 2 3 Come to Life Challenging the 2 2 2 2 2 2 Mind Qualities of the 6 4 1 6 4 1 Medium Creating Interest and 3 3 4 3 3 4 Motivation Basic Appeal 4 5 6 4 5 5 Providing 5 6 5 5 7 6 Entertainment Setting the Stage for 7 7 8 7 7 8 Active Learning Engaging Emotions 8 8 8 8 8 8 Respondents: n = 72 for both a. and b. 136

Table 11.

Frequency of Theme Events, Category Events, and Associated Ranks for Films in Response to the Item: "Add Any Other Comments." (Q. 19)

Theme Events Rank Category Events Rank Themes / / Making Theory Come to 19 3 19 3 Life Challenging the Mind 19 3 25 3 Qualities of the Medium 3 7 4 7 Creating Interest and 21 1 27 1 Motivation Basic Appeal 6 5 6 6 Providing Entertainment 7 4 7 5 Setting the Stage for Active 5 6 7 5 Learning Engaging Emotions 0 8 0 8 Total 80 95

Respondents: n = 72 Critical responses. The last description is given to the critical comments, taken from Questions 8, 10, and 12, with the wording: "What, if anything, did you dislike about using the (films, videos, biographical chapters) in this course?" Responses on these negative items numbered about half those for the positive questions (comments for films, n = 26; for videos, n — 26; for biographical text, n = 27). On the open-ended item, only six statements were critical for the 40 participants who made comments on

Question 19. However, these responses were again informative for me as both instructor and researcher. Some of the criticisms were more about delivery than the media per se, such as the classroom furniture being uncomfortable, especially during lengthy viewing, poor sound quality, or too much light from windows in daytime classes, even with the blinds down. Other, media-related comments were of the following nature:

1. For the films, the main criticism was that students found it hard to remember

details, because of the length, the pace of events, or the sheer amount of

information in the story. Sometimes scenarios were unclear, causing confusion.

A few students did not like one or the other of the films and reported feeling

bored and restless. Most of the latter made reference to The Secret Garden.

Mention was made of the "datedness" of the movies. For Ordinary People, one

student found part of the content offensive, because of the "swear words, sex,

and violence." (I don't see much sex in there, but the other content does occur.)

Some students wrote that they needed more help in linking concepts to events in

the films. Last, the amount of class time taken by the movies was seen by a few

as excessive. 138

2. For the videos, critical comments were mostly the same as for films, including an

uncomfortable physical setting, poor light and sound environment, and the

difficulty of noting and remembering details that the students knew they would

have to repeat on assignments and tests. Datedness and time taken from class

were also mentioned. Additionally, videos were sometimes singled out for being

more "dry" or "boring," and less true to life than films. The same respondent who

objected to the content in Ordinary People also commented on the "anti-religious

bias" of Captive Minds.

3. For the biographical chapters, comments were that they would take up too much

extra time to read, were "dry and boring," were not as directly relevant to the

course, and repeated information already in the textbook. Several students said

simply that they did not like to read.

Yet, with all the criticisms, it must be remembered that there were many more positive comments. Especially in the open responses, students offered that they liked the movies, found personal meaning in the films, felt inspired to apply course concepts, believed that the films helped them understand, appreciated the novel approach, and saw them as adding dynamic and enjoyable features to the course.

It is to be expected that students express varied reactions, and that either the format, the content, or both will not appeal to everyone. All comments gathered were valuable sources of information, and provide a rich basis for further interpretation and discussion. It is nevertheless clear that the majority of respondents in this study perceived the use of films as a positive approach to learning. CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Discussion

People generally like watching movies, and in this study I explored whether full- length feature films also have distinct pedagogical value. In line with expectations that were based on formal studies and informal observations, the results showed that respondents perceived the use of feature films as positive. Over several classes in an undergraduate course on personality theory, movies were rated highly on a number of measures, both in terms of enjoyment and of usefulness for learning.

Ratings on the questionnaire indicated that the students enjoy movies in their everyday lives, and tend to watch them fairly often. However, it appears that they do not often read reviews about films or books associated with the movies. Those who did report reading to a greater extent tended to be older, but with age distribution weighted in favour of 21 years and under, any age differences detected in this sample should be seen as tentative. Other responses on the scales suggested moderate use of the textbook and a perception that use of films does provide encouragement to use other course materials as well.

Relative rankings of seven classroom resources, or media, suggested that what students like is not always what they find most useful. For example, videos ranked high on enjoyment but relatively low on usefulness. Lectures were ranked highest on usefulness but somewhat lower on enjoyability. The results were more consistent with films, which ranked high overall. Biographical text material consistently scored lowest on both measures. For this last observation, possible reasons were that (a) most students found watching and utilizing films and videos more attractive than reading, (b) the 140 contents or topics of the chapters were less appealing than those of the visual media, (c) it was easier to use what they were already offered in full in the classroom, rather than make an extra trip to get the rest of a biographical chapter, and (d) I, as the instructor, facilitated more extensive discussion for the visual media, which made it easier for students to understand and apply concepts of their choosing to a film or video. In future,

I would like to pay more attention to the extra print material, because I believe it remains a viable alternative for some students. Unfortunately, time constraints within the course make equitable exposure difficult.

Qualitative analysis of written comments on assignments was performed with different levels of coding, and led to the formulation of categories and higher-order themes. Frequency counts provided information on, first, students' choice of media for application; a majority of the student sample had chosen to apply theoretical concepts to one of two movies, regardless of what theories were being covered. Second, the analysis of comments from assignments dealt specifically with the reasons why a film, video, or chapter was chosen by a student, pointing at distinct advantages for each medium.

Concomitant with the large proportion of papers that focused on films, the total number of comments for movies was also much higher when compared with the other two media.

Videos were second in representation, and the biographical chapters were a distant third. Nevertheless, it appears that each medium had its relative strengths. Films were favoured for the life-like nature of examples, and the opportunity for viewers to become engaged with the characters and situations. They were also reported most as providing entertainment, and encouraging creativity and interactive learning. Videos ranked relatively high for being clear, informative, relevant to course content, and raising one's level of motivation within the course. For those who used any of the biographical articles, this medium had the advantage of being easy to absorb, and more under the user's control for such qualities as pace and note-taking. Again, however, with some exception for the sparsely-used chapters, all categories were represented across all media.

Information derived from comments on the questionnaire largely corroborated results from the papers, despite the fact that items on the instrument posed somewhat different questions. Because the nature of the assignment implied that the media used were pedagogically useful, it was just a matter of which medium a student preferred; therefore, comments focussed overwhelmingly on how—rather than whether—a film, video, or chapter was perceived as helpful. This approach to measuring students' attitudes toward media might be compared to a forced-choice strategy. By contrast, on the questionnaire, respondents were asked to state what they liked or did not like about each of the three media, and a final item asked for spontaneous comments about the films in particular. Therefore, students were encouraged to express their opinions freely on the media as part of the course. Frequencies of comments related to movies, videos, and text materials, for both themes and categories within themes, again placed Making

Theory Come to Life and Challenging the Mind at the top of what respondents liked about the media. This time Creating Interest and Motivation ranked a little higher, in third place, and actually ranked highest in comments on the open item about films.

However, all of the themes were mentioned at some time in relation to one or more of the three media. 142

From the above results, I believe that comments on the questionnaire provide additional evidence that the themes formulated from students' rationale statements on the assignments have value for educational practice, in that they can tell us what is important about using media such as films and videos. In the context of a postsecondary psychology course, at least, students value the practical examples and involving nature of stories and situations that resemble real life, as well as the increased understanding of concepts and the challenge to engage in higher-level thinking. Entertainment, ease of use, and the opportunity to apply concepts and theories in discussions and practical application exercises were also mentioned, but not commented on as much as were the challenging and real-life qualities of film and similar media. In my opinion, this relative lack of mention may not mean that those qualities are valued less, but that they are taken more for granted. For example, if a feature film were not entertaining, does it make sense that students would get involved or pay attention to the lessons they might learn from it? If viewers were not emotionally engaged in the story, or see themselves in the characters, would they find a movie stimulating? Would they be encouraged to pay attention to its deeper meaning? The fact that Creating Interest and Motivation ranked highest among comments on the questionnaire's open item suggests that, when students are not constrained by the notion that films—and other media—first should be seen as useful, they may be more likely to include the enjoyment and stimulation they receive from movies in their list of desired characteristics. The nature of assessing students' perceptions of media in an educational environment likely drew more responses related to learning than one would obtain in purely personal and social settings. Nevertheless, the observation that these learning-related comments ranked far ahead of the others in 143 their variety and frequency suggests that there is substantial pedagogical value in using films and videos.

To a lesser degree, the preceding conclusion also may apply to biographical material, even if it is in printed form. However, as an educator, I suspect a declining level of interest in reading text material, as visual and electronic media gain prominence.

This phenomenon has been discussed recently, by, for example, Small & Vorgan (2008) and Tapscott (2008); an overview in Maclean's Magazine describes the general issue of how the "Net generation" appears to have grown up with entirely new ways of processing information (George, 2008). While new strategies and skills are being gained, the ability for sustained attention and in-depth processing may be diminishing. I believe this is reason for concern, as good novels or plays, for example, can be rich and stimulating sources of illustrative scenarios, emotional involvement, and complex themes—if students could be induced to read them fully for a course other than English literature. Some students would do so, of course. Furthermore, there is a vast body of writings on the appeal and importance of literature to human functioning in the modern age. It would be interesting to examine further some of the studies comparing attitudes to print media with those toward the visual forms in undergraduate classrooms.

Nevertheless, these media have different features that give each their own, special qualities in the context of higher-level learning. With this thought, I would like to return to a discussion of those qualities most pertinent to feature films.

To begin, are the themes and categories meaningful in the context of teaching and learning with films? A positive indicator is that the categories extracted from my students' comments concur with reasons conceptualized by other instructors who 144 reported on their use of feature films. In addition to the broad factors I outlined earlier

(see Review of the Literature, pp.14 and 15 of this manuscript), it may be illuminating to read more specific descriptions:

Proctor (1990, 1998), based on his own literature survey and experience teaching interpersonal communication, highlighted the following advantages:

In summary, feature films are a useful tool for communication instruction because they (a) heighten student interest without sacrificing academic rigor, (b) utilize an existing and available resource with which students are comfortable, (c) allow classes to observe and evaluate communication processes in action, (d) expose students to worlds beyond their own, (e) provide affective as well as cognitive experiences through vicarious involvement, and (f) offer opportunities for discussion, values clarification, and personal assessment. (1990, p.4)

These factors are reflected in my categories, as well. Relating them to the larger themes,

(a) above is subsumed under Creating Interest and Motivation, (b) under Basic Appeal,

(c) under Making Theory Come to Life, (d) under Challenging the Mind, (e) under

Engaging Emotions as well as Theory to Life, and (f) under Setting the Stage for Active

Learning.

Another example of reasons offered that are similar to my emergent ones comes from a detailed discussion by Kuzma and Haney (2001), who had been using films to teach foreign policy. They summarized their views that feature films (a) stimulate the senses, (b) make abstract concepts concrete, (c) engage emotions, (d) create bridges to the past, and (e) advance the "learning paradigm" (p.36). The authors explain this latter point as opportunities provided by films for active discussion, individual interpretation and assignment of meaning, exercising creativity, and a sense of autonomy when students are encouraged to participate freely without the "authoritarian" influence of the 145 instructor (p.36). Comparable categories derived from my investigation are included in the themes of Engaging Emotions, Making Theory Come to Life, Challenging the Mind, and Setting the Stage for Active Learning.

A third comprehensive list can be derived from an article by Bluestone (2000) on using feature films to teach psychology. Her headings of descriptions of rationale include (a) active learning and critical thinking, (b) films as reflections of psychological reality, and (c) the placement of psychological concepts in historical context.

I had drawn on some of the points made by the authors from the preceding paragraphs to label my own formulations. The categories and themes, derived from my student's responses, do encompass all of the above factors. I believe that these comparisons provide confirmation of my results and interpretations. However, my purpose in the study was not simply to create a set of concepts in learning from film that are similar to those suggested by other researchers and teachers. Rather, I also wanted to explore which of these factors would be seen by students as most important in their learning process. One of the recurrent themes in the reports by Proctor (1990), Kuzma and Haney (2001), and Bluestone (2000) is the sense of real-life resonance and involvement, creating what Proctor (1990, 1998) and Proctor and Adler (1991) conclude is a rich, stimulating, and readily available source of case examples for classroom observation and discussion. This reflects Making Theory Come to Life, one of the top two themes that arose from my analysis. The other high-ranking theme, Challenging the

Mind, also shows up consistently through the concepts of providing broader contexts for conceptual understanding and expanding students' perspectives. While the remaining rationales given by each of the authors represent themes not expressed as frequently by 146 my own respondents, they nonetheless formed part of the results. As I suggested earlier, the strategies used to elicit data, such as items on a questionnaire or instructions on assignments, may tap some of the features of films in learning but overlook others. The fact that I was induced by the comments to formulate themes encompassing all of the above factors is an indication that these areas are worth including in future investigations.

I shall now attempt to link the outcomes of my study with theoretical models in the field of psychology. In this way, I hope to further our understanding of various qualities that seem to make feature films a useful teaching tool.

The confluence of education and psychology can be seen in different models of learning, as introduced in my beginning chapters. These models are represented in major theories that explain phenomena, not only in qualitatively divergent ways, but at different levels of analysis. We can work our way from "bottom to top": The most detailed, molecular or "micromodal" approach would be at the level of neuroscience, with progressively "macromodal" frameworks as we move through individually-oriented models (such as psychodynamics and trait theory), social-environmental approaches

(such as behaviourism, social learning theory, and social constructivism), to the most philosophically oriented theories (such as humanism, phenomenology, and existentialism). Since theories overlap in their level of analysis, many variations are possible in the understanding of how people learn.

How, then, can we use psychological viewpoints to explain outcomes of this study? How can both empirical observations and theoretical frameworks help us specify effective strategies for teaching with films? 147

The theme that I described as Making Theory Come to Life can be linked with developmental theory, such as that of Jean Piaget5 that emphasizes the crucial process of associating new ideas and concepts to what is already known through experience.

According to Piaget's theory, infants first learn through sensory input and concrete experience of their own bodies as they become active in—and interact with—their surroundings. This is followed by a stage where children seem guided most by their own, immediate perceptions (the preoperational stage) and are still learning to reason out causal relationships among events in the real world. The concrete operational stage in middle childhood focuses on learning concepts based on actual examples, and precedes that of formal operations in adolescence and adulthood, when abstract concepts are more readily formed and "as-if' reasoning more easily accomplished. Yet, even in adulthood, we seem to rely a great deal on concrete examples and prior knowledge to help us learn.

Piaget's classic approach is one of many now that highlight the importance of concrete experience in development, and in learning that continues throughout life.

More recent formulations for learning and development include information acquisition approaches that focus on how events from the outside world enter the brain through sensory input, are held in temporary (short-term) memory for further processing, and may become stored in long-term memory through in-depth semantic and imaginal processing. It has been suggested that the more varied the input, the greater the opportunity for learning, as long as it does not overload the individual; consider work on cognitive load and dual coding (pictorial and verbal) carried out by, for example, Mayer

(2001) and Mayer and Moreno (2003). It is here that much has been written on the role

5 In the context of educational theory and practice, see, for example, Gredler (2008, Ch. 8). 148 of visual media (e.g., Solso, 1996), and films in particular (e.g., Tan, 1996), in providing

"multimodal" input and the opportunities for sensory, imaginal, linguistic, and conceptual learning all at once. Accordingly, research into the connection between films

and neuroscience has come to focus on the activation of different brain regions during movie watching. For example, a fascinating study by Hasson et al. (2008) involved the measurement of brain activity during film viewing, using functional magnetic resonance

imaging (fMRI). They found that spatiotemporal responses varied with motion picture

sequences, and differed with aspects of content and style. The authors propose further

studies of this kind in a convergence of filmmaking, films studies, and neuroscience which they dub "neurocinematics."

I refer the reader to my initial description of these topics in the literature review.

A range of discussion also is offered in the compendium by Anderson and Anderson

(2005).

Following this brief survey of developmental, information-processing, and

neuroscientific models of learning, we can turn back to one of the oft-expressed themes,

Making Theory come to Life, where I have combined categories for real-life sensation

with those of personal identification and involvement. The appeal of practical examples

embedded in a vivid simulation of reality emerged as one of the most important features

of learning with film. The other prominent theme of Challenging the Mind is also

represented by these approaches, through the role of learning through sensory modalities

and self-reported learning preferences. Some of my students noted that they were "visual

learners," or "auditory learners," or both. Further, the categories of increased 149 understanding of concepts and films as an aid to memory are supported by the information processing models.

An approach that straddles information processing and the broader realm of cognitive-behavioural theory is the social-cognitive approach of Albert Bandura.

Initially called social learning, his theory encompasses the notions of how we pay attention to a model from whom we may learn, how we retain or remember what we observe, how we practice acting on that information, and ultimately how we are motivated to actually carry out the resultant behaviour (Bandura, 1977, 1986). While

Bandura's formulation of the sequence was meant to apply to observational learning, I believe it can be merged with the information processing model of stages of memory, which is then expanded to illustrate how learning can lead to behavioural outcomes.

Thus, students who are watching a movie need to be motivated to stay throughout the show, remember what they see and hear, understand how the information relates to concepts under discussion, and engage in various behaviours such as discussions, written exercises, and application of concepts in assignments and on tests. That means that other themes, including Interest and Motivation as well as Active Learning, should indeed be considered an important part of learning with films, even though they were not as

strongly or explicitly expressed by the respondents in my study.

The earlier mention of learning preferences is of interest, because it is possible that films are received and processed differently by individuals depending on such variables as gender, age, aptitude, personality traits, or cognitive style. To my knowledge, little research has been done that relates movie watching directly to learning preferences, for example. I believe it may be worthwhile to look for a correlation of specific reasons with any of these factors, but with the evidence that using movies in the classroom appeals to the majority of students, a preference for learning with films may not show much differentiation; recall that more than three-quarters of my sample chose to write on films at least once, and more than half chose this option twice, even though they had alternatives. The multimodal and otherwise complex and stimulating nature of films likely guarantees that there is something of value to most students, an assumption explicitly supported by other authors, such as Gregg, Hosley, Weng, & Montemayor

(1995). One may question also whether cognitive styles, learning styles, or learning preferences (see, for example, Keri, 2002, Riding & Raynor, 1998, Sternberg & Zhang,

2001, for detailed discussions on this topic) are as important as the nature of the topic being taught. Willingham (2005) presented evidence and arguments for choosing teaching strategies based on content, rather than attempting to teach according to each student's style or preference—what he termed "modality theory." Even Gardner (1983,

1999, 2006) wrote that his theory of multiple intelligences (such as verbal-mathematical and kinesthetic) does not imply that teachers should always accommodate individual students, but instead incorporate different modalities of learning into their teaching overall. It makes sense, therefore, to ensure that feature films are well-positioned within the lesson plan, and accompanied by a variety of strategies for helping students receive and process the information that the instructor wants them to learn.

What about complex thinking and learning, and from a different view the role of personal meaning construction? While higher-order cognitive processes are well- represented in my results, the notions of meaning making and creativity have not been emphasized. As with emotional responding and general motivation, I believe that such 151 concepts are not made explicit because they are themselves more abstract, and therefore difficult to express. Levels of learning are well-defined by information processing theory, through the depth-of-processing approach, and also by a distinctly educational theory reaching back half a century. The more philosophical aspects of meaning, empowerment, and creativity, on the other hand, are inherent in the humanistic tradition and in social constructivism.

Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) revised a theory of assessment and—as later formulated—teaching that began with Benjamin Bloom's edited book in 1956. The

"taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing," as it is now defined, presents six increasingly complex and abstract levels of learning, embedded within two "dimensions" of knowledge and cognitive process. The names given to the six levels are remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. The categories I formulated and compiled within the theme of Challenging the Mind relate to almost all of these, and the least complex level, remember (formerly called knowledge), also provides a direct link between this theme and Theory to Life. Conversely, my category of "Link to concrete example" is close to the third-level taxonomical category of apply. Analyze and evaluate, the fourth and fifth levels in the taxonomy, refer to my categories of "Broaden perception" and "Encourage critical and in-depth thinking." The sixth level, create, requires that knowledge and understanding gained through one process now be applied to new and different examples or situations. In my strategies for using films, I realize that I worked with all of these levels to some extent: Students were first exposed to the concepts through lecture and reading (remember), given explanations and brief examples (understand), provided with worksheets during the movie (apply), encouraged 152 to discuss with peers as well as the instructor (apply and analyze), asked to analyze a movie (or other medium) according to specific concepts in assignments (apply, analyze, evaluate), and required to use the same cognitive processes for analyzing a different case or character on examinations (create). I propose that this set of progressive techniques be worked into the process even more effectively by creating an explicit, systematic structure based on the revised taxonomy.

Finally, the categories, and themes involving personal engagement and meaning, active learning, interest, and motivation can be seen in those approaches that emphasize the uniqueness and growth-orientation of the individual (e.g., Rogers, 1961; May, 1991).

It is postulated that each person perceives events from a unique perspective

(phenomenology) and creates meaning from his or her own experiences, perceptions, needs, values, and goals. Alfred Adler can be considered a precursor to this approach because of the teleological nature of his theory: that people establish unique perceptions and goals early in life, which then guide their behaviour and shape future attitudes (e.g.,

Engler, 2009, Ch.4; McAdams, 2006, Ch.l 1). It is within this context, also, that the role of narrative may be explored.

Narrative theory, applied to psychology, implies that we build life stories and shared myths in order to create identity and make sense of ourselves and the world

(McAdams, 2007). Feature films, by definition, tell a story that can be interpreted thematically, such as through symbols, myths, and archetypes (see Campbell, 1968;

Campbell & Moyers, 1988; Jung, 1964). Joseph Campbell's concept of the "hero's journey," with its stages of challenge, obstacles, defeat, and ultimate triumph has been repeated and modified by screenwriters who delve into the way movies project these 153 universal themes and transformations, even as they reflect unique cultural and historical concerns (Indick, 2004a, 2004b, 2008; Vogler, 2007; Voytilla, 1999). Therefore, movies are seen to have appeal, in part, because they present stories, characters, and contexts that touch the viewer on a personal level. My categories of emotional response, on the one hand, and identification with a character, real-life resonance, and evoking interest and curiosity can all be seen as connected, even though I have them straddle different themes. I continue to believe that these are important components of learning from films, even if students do not or cannot often articulate them as such. Again, different assessment techniques may do more to tap these features.

The last step in the discussion is to ponder what my results, and the theoretical explanations, can offer to help develop effective strategies for teaching with film. Some indicators come from the critical comments that were also part of the data, and have been echoed by others writing on this topic.

Students were critical when they were bored by a film, saw it as outdated, judged it as not relevant enough to the topics under discussion, or even were offended by the content. A few also wrote that the time would have been better spent on lectures and focused discussions. Therefore, care must be taken to choose movies that are appealing to the largest student audience possible, while at the same time being vigilant of individual sensitivities. A practical concern arises with comments on the discomfort of watching lengthy films and even videos in a classroom: chairs that are uncomfortable, lighting that is too bright, and sound projection that is less than optimal. The possibility of booking a more suitable room should be explored. 154

Other authors provide examples of drawbacks and cautions. Sprau and Keig

(2001), teaching college history, underlined the importance of committing oneself to the films approach, which they formulated in experiential terms. They acknowledged that not every instructor will be comfortable with using films, or may fail to provide enough structure, incentive, and feedback to create a proper learning environment. Nevertheless, these authors strongly recommend the effort. In sociology, Leblanc (1998) also urged teachers to embrace the use of feature films, and engaging students in in-depth discussion, rather than staying with cursory illustrations and points. Kuzma and Haney

(2001), following outcome research with their own students in foreign policy, emphasized the use of contemporary films that have proven relevance and touch on students' lives. In addition, these authors all presented an array of strategies, making sure that the lessons to be learned were supported with structure and a variety of application techniques.

It has been my own experience, as both student and instructor, that using films to learn content and concepts can be stimulating, providing a novel way to study facts and concepts that may otherwise be less interesting or meaningful. My students have reacted positively, too, as long as they experienced movies as interesting, relevant to their lives, and clearly applicable to the concepts and theories being covered in class. Through exercises and discussions, students seem able to make sense of the films, forming links to abstract concepts from lectures and text. In order to make appropriate use of class time, the teacher has to demonstrate at every step that students can enhance their learning, for interest and also for practical application on graded assignments and tests.

The instructor's own enthusiasm and belief in the efficacy of the films approach should not be overlooked as a motivator for students, in turn, to become fully engaged in the learning process.

A recognition of this strong interest serves as a caution, however, to critically examine the validity of using commercially produced movies, many of them still with the stamp of Hollywood. Is it possible that we, instructors and students, respond to the charms of sensual stimulation and absorption in a story and make ourselves believe that these also serve a useful purpose in education? Although the lure of cinematic feature films has the potential to cloud one's judgment, I believe there already is overwhelming evidence for useful purpose in the classroom, given the large number of instructors who already have been practicing this technique, collectively over many years and in different disciplines. Collectively, they have provided us with overwhelmingly positive results from whatever assessments have been done. Looking at my results as well, the evidence points to students' perceptions that they find in movies a usefulness for learning far beyond the enjoyment that they also gain.

There is a further interest in using of films beyond the level of mature, adult learners, for elementary and high schools as well. This is another area entirely that can be integrated in future with a continuing search for understanding in the field.

A parting thought, to be explored in further writings, is that the categories and themes derived in this study can and should be refined, with more of them combined based on outcomes of my analysis. This represents another rich opportunity to go from the practice at the base of teaching in the classroom to larger theory-building, as would be done in grounded theory, for example. There are still further branches in the tree. 156

Conclusion

In this study, my goal was to explore the efficacy of teaching with feature films by examining students' perceptions more extensively than had been done before. My approach to gathering and analyzing data was largely qualitative, as I worked from comments made by students in response to assignments and written items on a questionnaire. Quantitative methods were included by way of rating scales and compilation of frequency counts. Each of these methods yielded data that corroborated the other. Over three semesters and four classes in personality theory, I elicited responses from roughly two-thirds of enrolled students. The results indicate that students liked the use of movies in their course, and that they valued most the opportunities for better understanding of theories by linking abstract course material to situations illustrated in the films. Respondents also perceived films as a means for higher-level learning, and felt challenged to examine theories and concepts in new ways. Although other aspects were not emphasized as much, such as entertainment, emotional engagement, active participation, and stimulation of interest, these features nevertheless formed part of the response set. I therefore believe that all of them are important, in some ways, to the learning opportunities offered by cinematic films.

In the process of qualitative analysis, I arrived at 33 categories which were then compiled into eight abstract themes. Those reasons for using films in teaching previously outlined by other writers were all reflected in my formulations. While they were the results of one person's coding and therefore subject to individual interpretation,

I believe that my themes are credible, and provide a basis for others who want to launch investigations of their own. 157

By examining results more closely and in the light of various psychological and educational theories, I attempted to provide explanations within different frameworks.

These, in turn, may point the way to more focused studies, and add to an already multifaceted and multidisciplinary body of literature.

The exploratory nature of my research leaves much room for refining strategies and measures. A larger variety of questions could be asked of the students, expanding on their personal preferences and viewing habits, and asking more specifically what they think about each of the movies, and videos, so that other choices can be considered within the course. Since movies have different appeal for viewers, I recommend expanding the choice and making adjustments. For example, one should consider setting up different viewing times, and create specific discussion groups to ensure students follow through on the process. With continued accumulation of participants in an ongoing study, I may also be able to determine differences based on gender, age, cultural background, and other sources of diversity that should be taken into account.

The analysis process also could be modified, especially by involving colleagues and/or students in the coding process for corroboration and exchange of ideas. To be sure, there are risks and advantages both to working together and alone. Nevertheless, I see collaboration as an important next step. There are many more opportunities for both research and practice in this field. 158

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APPENDIX A

The Media Preference Questionnaire

Media Preference Questionnaire

Note: The following two Items are not mamMmy. if you de choose » provide this information, itmll be used only for d&imtgmpMe purposes. Age: Gender: M

The following questions are about your personal experience with films, and your feelings about movies in general:

1 How much do you enjoy watchi rig movies i n your everyday life?

1 2 3 4 5

Not at -1! Agr-est de~J

How often on average do you go to the movies?

1 2 3 4 5

Newer or less tfusn a ft least, four

3. How often on average do you rent a movie?'

12 3 4 5

or less than At least once a ft leastfour times a ft At least e«e a

How likely are you to watch a roowie more than once?

1 2 3 4 5

Not at all Hi#%fe%'

How 1 i kely a re ya u to read a booh related to a mowe you have seen or heard a bout?

i 2 3 4 5

Not at si Hgh^'*a|f

Howlikelyareyouto read'reviews of movies?'

1 2 3 4 5

Notatal Highiy likely 172

The fcrf lowing questions are about yoy r reactions to the use of media in this class:

7. What, if anything did you likeaboutusingthe films in this course?

8. What, :if a netting, did you dislike about using the films In this course?

9. What, if anything, did you I ikeatoout using the videos in this course?

10. What, if anything did you dislike about using the videos in this course?

11. Wmt, if a nything, did you I ike about using the biographical chapters 1 r» this course?

12. What, if anything did you dislike about using fie biographical chapters in Wis course? 13. TowmatedEntdidlyiHiiffiB the textbook fcr this course?(Hease mark the numberthat most closely corresponds to your exp-e nence. •

12 3 4 5 Not at tS A great <

14. How much do you beJiewe you learned aboutthe theories and concepts from the test?

12 3 4 5

Not at sil

15. How familiarwere you with the f tans used in this course? Please check whether yoy are referring to one or toft EMw ene_ B«h 12 3 4 5

Not at si W|f%

16. To what extent do you believe one or both of the films ertiCGuraj^dyou to also utilize and learn from the other resources in this course, such as the textbook?

12 3 4 5

Mot i To a)

17. Please note in the order in which you would rank the usefulness of media and resources for leamingin this course, from lowest (1) to highest;?). E*en if you think some are very close to each other, gjvea rough estimate. In your ranking, inciudethe following;

T= Textbook H = Handouts and other B = Biographical text supplementary materials L= Lectures in class V = Instructional videos

N = Lecture notes posted by instructor F= Feature films

1= 2 = 3 = 4= 5 = 6 = 7 =

Hghest

IS. Please note in the order in which you v.culd rank the enicvabilitv of media and r in this course, from lowest (1) to highest (7J.

T= Textbook H= Handouts and other B= Biographical text supplementary materials L= Lectures in class V= Instructional videos

H = Lecture notes posted by instructor F= Feature films

1= 2 = 3 = 4= 5 = 6 = 7 =

H^hest 174

19. You ire welocNme toad d any further comments you may have about ramies ami the use of films in courses sail as this one: 175

APPENDIX B

Frequency Distribution of Age of Respondents

Age of Respondents / %

18 6 8.6 19 11 15.7 20 11 15.7 21 16 22.9 22 5 7.1 23 6 8.6 24 3 4.3 25 2 2.9 27 5 7.1 28 1.4 29 1.4 31 1.4 34 1.4 44 1.4

Total 70 100.0

Median 21.0

Note. Two respondents declined to give their age and represent missing values. They have been excluded. APPENDIX C

Frequency Distribution of Ranked Scores on the 5-Point Scales Measuring Use of and Attitude Toward Films in General

Q. 1: How much do you enjoy watching movies in your everyday life? Rank / %

1-Not at all 1 1.4

2 1 1.4

3 9 12.5

4 25 34.7

5 - A great deal 36 50.0

Total 72 100.0

Mean 4.31 Median 4.5

Q. 2: How often on average do you go to the movies?

Rank / % 1 - Never or less than once a 4 5.6 year

2 - At least once a year 6 8.3

3 - At least four times a year 32 44.4

4 - At least once a month 27 37.5

5 - At least once a week 3 4.2

Total 72 100.0

Mean 3.26 Median 3.0 177

Q. 3: How often on average do you rent a movie?

Rank / %

1 - Never or less than once a 5 6.9 year 2 - At least once a year 7 9.7

3- At least four times a year 11 15.3

4 - At least once a month 35 48.6

5 - At least once a week 14 19.4

Total 72 100.0

Mean 3.64 Median 4.0

Q. 4: How likely are you to watch a movie more than once?

Rank / %

1 - Not at all 3 4.2

2 10 13.9

3 24 33.3

4 22 30.6

5 - Highly likely 13 18.1

Total 72 100.0

Mean 3.44 Median 3.0 178

Q. 5: How likely are you to read a book related to a movie you have seen or heard about? Rank / %

1-Not at all 13 18.1

2 20 27.8

3 17 23.6

4 10 13.9

5 - Highly likely 12 16.7

Total 72 100.0

Mean 2.83 Median 3.0

Q. 6: How likely are you to read reviews of movies?

Rank / %

1-Not at all 14 19.4

2 22 30.6

3 12 16.7

4 15 20.8

5 - Highly likely 9 12.5

Total 72 100.0

Median 2.5 APPENDIX D Frequency Distribution of Ranked Scores on the 5-Point Scales Measuring Use of and Attitude Toward Textbook and Films in the Course

Q. 13: To what extent did you use the textbook for this course? (Please mark the number that most closely corresponds to your experience.) Rank / % 1-Not at all 1 1.4

2 5 6.9

3 21 29.2

4 22 30.6

5-Agreatdeal 23 31.9

Total 72 100.0

Mean 3.85 Median 4.0

Q. 14: How much do you believe you learned about the theories and concepts from the text? Rank / %

1-Not at all 0 0

2 11 15.3

3 27 37.5

4 20 27.8

5-Agreatdeal 14 19.4

Total 72 100.0

Median 3.0

Q. 15: How familiar were you with the films used in this course? 180

Please check whether you are referring to one or both: Either one Both_ Rank / %

1 - Not at all 22 30.6

2 9 12.5

3 17 23.6

4 19 26.4

5 - Highly familiar 5 6.9

Total 72 100.0

Mean 2.67 3.0

Q. 16: To what extent do you believe one or both of the films encouraged you to also utilize and learn from the other resources in this course, such as the textbook? Rank / %

1-Not at all 1 1.4

2 8 11.1

3 21 29.2

4 28 38.9

5 - To a great extent 14 19.4

Total 72 100.0

Median 4.0 181

APPENDIX E

Comparative Rankings of Media and Resources for Usefulness and Enjoyability

Textbook

Usefulness Enjoyability

Rank f % / %

1 10 15.9 24 38.1

2 13 20.6 8 12.7

3 7 11.1 11 17.5

4 7 11.1 11 17.5

5 7 11.1 6 9.5

6 5 7.9 3 4.8

7 14 22.2 0 0.0

Total 63 100.0 63 100.0

Median 4.0 2.0 182

Lectures

Usefulness Enjoyability

Rank / % / %

1 4 6.3 4 6.3

2 2 3.2 5 7.9

3 4 6.3 5 7.9

4 8 12.7 12 19.0

5 8 12.7 21 33.3

6 20 31.7 10 15.9

7 17 27.0 6 9.5

Total 63 100.0 63 100.0

Median 6.0 5.0 183

Posted Notes

Usefulness Enjoyability

Rank / % / %

1 6 9.5 8 12.7

2 4 6.3 18 28.6

3 10 15.9 18 28.6

4 7 11.1 7 11.1

5 15 23.8 6 9.5

6 12 19.0 4 6.3

7 9 14.3 2 3.2

Total 63 100.0 63 100.0

Median 5.0 3.0 184

Handouts

Usefulness Enjoyability

Rank / % / %

1 4 6.3 4 6.3

2 12 19.0 13 20.6

3 16 25.4 14 22.2

4 13 20.6 19 30.2

5 7 11.1 11 17.5

6 6 9.5 2 3.2

7 5 7.9 0 0.0

Total 63 100.0 63 100.0

Median 3.0 4.0 185

Biographical Chapters

Usefulness Enjoyability

Rank / % / %

1 33 52.4 21 33.3

2 17 27.0 17 27.0

3 4 6.3 7 11.1

4 3 4.8 7 11.1

5 5 7.9 6 9.5

6 1 1.6 3 4.8

7 0 0.0 2 3.2

Total 63 100.0 63 100.0

Median 1.0 2.0 186

Videos

Usefulness Enjoyability

Rank / % / %

1 4 6.3 2 3.2

2 9 14.3 2 3.2

3 17 27.0 7 11.1

4 10 15.9 7 11.1

5 9 14.3 8 12.7

6 10 15.9 33 52.4

7 4 6.3 4 6.3

Total 63 100.0 63 100.0

Median 4.0 6.0 187

Films

Usefulness Enjoyability

Rank / % / %

1 2 3.2 0 0.0

2 6 9.5 0 0.0

3 5 7.9 1 1.6

4 15 23.8 2 3.2

5 12 19.0 3 4.8

6 9 14.3 8 12.7

7 14 22.2 49 77.8

Total 63 100.0 63 100.0

Median 5.0 7.0 THEMESfGategorles Total Total Fim- cate­ Video - cate­ Text- cate­ theme category tftemes gories themes gories them©s gories events everts BASIC APPEAL 35 52 25 33 6 7 4 11 Allow control 3 0 0 3 Convenient 13 T 3 3 Easy ID process 18 12 4 2 FamSiar 8 5 0 1 Useful 12 9 1 2 CHALLENGING THE MIND 97 172 78 136 16 30 3 6 Broaden perspective* 15 understand theory 67 52 13 2 Process through imagery 2 2 u 0 Process through sensory perception 31 24 7 0 CREATING INTEREST AND MOTIVATION 49 61 33 41 13 16 3 4 Draw attention 5 7!> 2 0 Engage through novelty and variety 11 S £ 1 Evoke interest and curiosity 38 2a 'i 3 Make learning enjoyable 7 s i 0 ENGAGING EMOTIONS 21 24 16 22 2 2 0 0 Arouse through action and senses 8 8 i^ 0 Provoke emotional response 18 14 v. 0 MAKING THEORY COME TO LIFE 101 149 84 126 13 18 4 4 Apply to real situations 10 8 2 0 Connect with story 5 3 2 0 Experience real-lrfe resonance 28 25 •HI 0 Identify with character 21 17 2 2 Link to concrete examples 85 73 10 2 PROVIDING ENTERTAINMENT 30 36 28 33 2 3 0 0 Enjoy medium in general 8 8 2 0 Enjoy sharing 3 3 0 0 Enjoy specific medium 25 24 1 0 QUALITIES OF THE MEDIUM 58 74 36 43 16 25 2 8 Clear in content and presentation 11 3 6 2 Complex 19 15 2 2 Informative 12 •> 6 2 ^"3 Relevant to themes 32 Aw 9 0 SfcTTIMG THE STAGE FOR ACTIVE LEARNING 21 30 19 28 o 2 0 0 Create meaning 4 3 1 0 Draw on resources 6 6 0 0 Learn vwtti others 15 14 1 0 Use creativity 5 5 0 0 410 598 322 462 72 105 16 31

APPENDIX F Frequency Counts for Films, Videos, and Biographical Text Within Themes and Categories 191

APPENDIX I Participant Consent Form: University of Calgary hi

Name of Researcher, Faculty, Department, Telephone & Email: Mgnica.Baehr, B.A., MSc. Division of Applied Psychology, Faculty of Education (403) 283-0322 mbaekr^mtroyal. ca

Supervbor: Dr. JoknH. Mueller Division of Applied Psychology, Faculty of Education (403) 220-5664 muelhr^ucalgary. ca

University ofCaigary:

Title of Project: An Exploratory Study of the Efficacy of Feature Films in Undergraduate Psychology Teaching

This consent form, a copy of which has been given to you, is only part of the process of informed consent. If you want more details about something mentioned here, or information not included here, yon should feel free to ask. Please take the time to read this carefully and to understand any accompanying information.

The University of Calgary Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board has approved this research study. purpose of the Study:

The purpose of this study is to examine how useful it is to incorporate different types of media in teachmg psychology, In particular, the researcher Mends to compare feature films with video or text material in a course on pers onality theory. A I! those enrolled in sections of Personality (Psyc 3383} taught by Monica Baehr at Mount Royal College vail be asked for their participation, on a purely voluntary and confidential basis. The study mil span several semesters, but each student is asked for their involvement only withm the time frame of their current class.

What Will I Be Asked To Do?

Them am few ways in which you am askedfa participate. You may agree to either one, to both, or to none. Your participation is completely voluntary, and your consent forms mil remain sealed and anonymous for the duration of the course and for 61 days after the end of the current semester. You are assured that your response will not affect your grades or any other aspect of your involvement in the course. You may also request wthout penalty, that your agreement be mthdrawn at any time. A contact number is provided separately.

If you are willing to participate in the collection of data for this study, you mil be asked

1. to allow the researcher to use your media analysis papers to examine and categorize various aspects of film, video, or printed text use. The focus mil Be on your individual ideas and persona! opinions, not on format, academic content or any other aspect related to evaluation;

and/or

2, to fill out a questionnaire regarding your own experience mth and attitudes toward feature films, it mil include items on familiarity, frequency of viewing films, feelings about watching movies in general, and attitudes toward use of films as well as other media in the classroom. Completing the questionnaire will take approximately twenty (20) minutes, and it will be administered within the last tv/o weeks of classes.

What Type of Personal Information Will Be Collected?

There are several options for you to consider if you decide to take part m this research. You can choose all, some, or none of them. Please read carefully andput a check mark on the corresponding line{s}.

Request No. 1: By necessity, your name appears on the papers while the course is in progress. If you do not wish to consent to the use of your assignments, they will not be included and your name will not be visible to the researcher, or anyone else, once the data from this class are added to the study. If you do give consent jcoor name will be eliminated from ail materials once they am placed in the data pool, sixty-one (61) days after the end of the current semester. The only personal information that the researcher wishes to mtain is gender. However, this also remains a matter of choice for you. Regarding the inclusion of your papers in the data pool, please check Yes or No for the following options:

I consent to the use of my media analysis papers for information on students'reactions to the use of media in this course. There is a waiting period of 61 days after the end of the current semester, and my name will be deleted from the material before it is added to the Yes Wo date poo?.

/ consent to the inclusion of my gender in the data pool. (Leave blank if you checked No for the previous statement.) Yes No 193

Request No. 2: For the questionnaire, your name ts not requested. The only personal information appearing on this form ts your age and gender, to be used for demographic comparisons. You have a choice as to v/hetheror not to include this information. If you agree to this request, your completion and submission of the questionnaire is considered consent for using these responses in the study. If you choose to fill in the questionnaire but do not want to include your age and/or gender, leave these spaces blank.

Are there Risks or Benefits if I Participate?

Them are no risks to your participation other than a small expenditure of time in filling out the consent form and completing the questionnaire. None of the data collected mil affect you adversely. Asa hoped-for benefit, you are given the opportunity to express your opinions in an in-depth and detailed manner, and to contribute to the development and implementation of teachhg with media in post-secondary classes such as this one. You may obtain a summary of responses for your class after preliminary compilation of the data. Contact the researcher {your instructor) for ways to do this.

What Happens to the Information I Provide?

A person other than the investigator/researcher and who is not normally acquainted with students in this class is administering this consent form as well ss the quesbonnaire. The investigator—your instructor—wii not be present in or around the classroom at that time, to ensure your anonymiy. Your forms will be placed in an envelope, sealed, and stored until sixty-one (61) days after the end of the current semester. At forms that are handed out mil be collected so that no discrimination can be made as to whether or not you choose to participate. Interim storage location will be the Behavioural Sciences Resource Area, Rm. EA2020. under the supervision of the Instructional Assistant.

After the 81-day waiting period, only the investigator and her supervisor at the University of Calgary will have access to the names on the consent form, to the anonymous m ateriai of the assignments, and to the completed questionnaires. It is emphasized, again, that all names mil be deleted from the papers before they are added to the data pool.

To summarize, participation is completely voluntary and confidential. You are free to withdraw your consent at any time during the study, using the contact number which is provided separately. There are no names on the questionnaires, and demographic data that include age and gender may also be omitted, if you wish. Only group information will be s ummanzed for any presentation, for the researcher's dissertation, and/or for the publication of results. The papers and questionnaires are kept in a secure location which will include both computer and physical storage. These will remain accessible only to the researcher and her supervisor. 194

Signatures (written consent} Your signature on this form indicates that you 1) understand to your satisfaction die information provided to you about your participation in this research project, and 2) agree to participate as a research subject. hi no way does this waive your legal rights nor release the in%*estigators, sponsors, or involved institutions from their legal and professional responsibilities. You are free to withdraw from this research project at any time. You should feel free to ask for clarification or new information throughout your participation.

Participant's Name: (please print)

Participant's Signature Date:

Researcher's Name: (please print)

Researcher's Signature: Date:

Q uestio n s/C oncem s

If you have any further questions or want clarification regarding this research and/or your participation, please contact:

At Mount Royal College:

Sinclair Afegffeg Chair, Human Ethics Res earch B oard

Researcher's contact information: Monica. B.aehr At Mount Royal College: Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts (403) 440-8993. [email protected]

Supervisor Dr. John H. Mueller University of Calgary: Di¥ision of Applied Psychology, Faculty of Education (403) 220-5664, mueller&vcalgary. ca At University of Calgary: If you have any concerns about the way you've been treated as a participant, please contact Bonnie Scherrer, Ethics Resource Officer, Research Services OfEce, University of Calgary at (403) 220-3782; email bonnie.scherrer^ucdgary.ca.

A copy of this consent form has been given to you to keep for your records and reference. The investigator has kept a copy of the consent form. 195

APPENDIX J Participant Consent Form: Mount Royal College

Consent to Be Included in Research on Media Preferences in a Psychology Course Mount Royal CoBege^ Calgiuy, ABetM

You are invited to participate in a research study of students' media preferences in learning concepts in Personality Theory. This study is conducted by MoMca.ilgeJfc, your instructor, as part of ongoing research into the efficacy of innovative teaching through media, such as videos, written articles, and feature films. The instructor is also a Pjyj candidate in Applied Psychology at the University of Calgary, and intends to use the outcomes of the study, up to August 2008. for her doctoral dissertation.

You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you are enroled in the Personality course and in a section taught by Monica .8§eJ}g,- If you decide to participate, your identity as a participant, and any other personal information gathered about you during the study, will be kept strictly confidential and will never be made public. AH data containing personal information from which you could be identified will be stored in a locked cabinet in EA2020 (the fiehayjgujal Sciences Research Area) during the study, and only the researcher and her supervisor at the University of Calgary will have access to the data. When the study is completed, all data containing personal information from which you could be identified will be destroyed. The published results of the study will contain only statistical or group data from which no individual participant can be identified.

You are being asked to make a voluntary decision whether or not to participate in this study. Please read and think about the information given in the form. If there is any part of the information you do not understand, please ask for an explanation from any of the involved parties. If you would like to consult with someone not associated with this study, references are provided. If you decide not to participate, or if you later decide to discontinue your participation, your decision will not affect your present or future relations with Mount Royal College, or result in any other penalty. If you decide to participate, you will always be free to discontinue participation at anv time, and all data collected up to that time as a result of your partial participation wiH be destroyed without being used in the study. If you decide to participate, please put your signature where indicated at the end of the form. Your signature below indicates that you have read, considered, and understood the information provided above, and that you have decided to participate.

If you have any questions now, please ask the person who is administering the consent form. If you have additional questions later, the researcher (your instructor) mill be happy to answer them whenever they arise. If at any time you have concerns about this research study, you may contact the CoEege's Research Officer at 440-6495, or Sinclair ^fegRaje, (Chair, Human Ethics Research Board) at 440-6543.

A copy of this form is provided to you for your records at the time of signing.

This Study has been approved by the Mount Royal College Human Research EtMcs Board. 196

Signatures (written, consent} Your signature on this form indicates that you 1) understand to your satisfaction the information provided to you about your participation in this research project, and 2) agree to participate as a research subject.

In BO way does this waive your legal rights nor release the investigators, sponsors, or involved institutions from their legal and professional responsibilities. You are freet o withdraw from this research project at any time. You should feel free to ask for clarification or new information throughout your participation.

Participant's Name: (please print)

Participant's Signature

Date:

Researcher's Name: (please print) Ifisearcher's Signature:

Date: