Food biotechnology Food biotechnology S. C. Bhatia BE (Chemical), MBA WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD New Delhi Published by Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., 303, Vardaan House, 7/28, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com First published 2016, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. © Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., 2016 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. The consent of Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. for such copying. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. ISBN: 978-93-85059-18-6 Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. e-ISBN: 978-93-85059-67-4 Typeset by Mind Box Solutions, New Delhi Printed and bound by Replika Press Pvt. Ltd. Contents Preface xi Section I: General considerations 1 1. Food biotechnology: A review 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Biotechnology contributes to the social, economic, 4 and environmental sustainability of agriculture 1.3 Branches of biotechnology 4 1.4 Benefits of biotechnology 8 1.5 Facts about biotechnology 9 1.6 Risks of biotech foods 11 1.7 Food biotechnology safety and regulations 16 1.8 Different techniques associated with food biotechnology 16 2. Microorganisms associated with food 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Bacteria, yeast and molds 19 2.3 Primary sources of microorganisms commonly 21 associated with food 2.4 Factors influencing microbial activity 23 2.5 Micro-organisms important in food industry 29 2.6 Importance of bacteria in the food industry 32 2.7 Importance of yeasts in foods 33 3. Fermentation biotechnology 37 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Types of fermentation 38 4. Genetically modified foods 59 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Advantages of GM foods 59 4.3 Criticisms against GM foods 61 vi Food biotechnology 4.4 Regulation of GM foods and role of government 64 4.5 Labelling of GM foods 66 4.6 Most common genetically modified foods 68 4.7 Pros and cons of genetically modified foods 69 Section II: Proteins and enzymes 73 5. Cross-linking of proteins 75 5.1 Introduction 75 5.2 Maillard Reaction 77 5.3 Cross-linking of proteins 82 5.4 Role of cross-linking enzymes in meat systems 86 6. Enzymes as biocatalysts 93 6.1 Introduction 93 6.2 Characteristics of enzymes 93 6.3 Enzyme catalysis 94 6.4 Enzyme inhibitors 98 6.5 Biocatalysis 99 7. Enzymes in food industry 105 7.1 Introduction 105 7.2 Production of food enzymes from microorganisms 105 7.3 Rennet 106 7.4 Lactases 109 7.5 Catalases 110 7.6 Lipases 112 7.7 Proteases 114 7.8 Amylases 115 Section III: Milk, dairy and bakery products 119 8. Dairy products 121 8.1 Introduction 121 8.2 Properties of milk 121 8.3 Fresh fluid milk 125 8.4 Condensed and dried milk 128 8.5 Butter 130 Contents vii 8.6 Ice cream manufacture 132 8.7 Cultured dairy foods 134 9. Designer milk 143 9.1 Introduction 143 9.2 Modification of milk composition by genetic technology 144 9.3 Designer milk and nutritional significance 144 9.4 Changes in the individual casein content of milk 146 9.5 Designer milk and technological aspects 147 10. Genetically modified cheese 153 10.1 Introduction 153 10.2 Genetic modification 153 10.3 Genetically modified cheeses 154 10.4 Modification in milk composition 154 11. Bakery and cereal products 161 11.1 Introduction 161 11.2 Bread formulation 161 11.3 Bread-making procedure 162 11.4 Functions of mixing 167 11.5 Types of mixers 167 11.6 Functions of molding and dividing 168 11.7 Functions of proving 168 11.8 Changes during mixing, fermentation and baking 168 11.9 Major bread-making processes 171 11.10 Packaging of bread 174 11.11 Variety of bread products 175 11.12 Bread spoilage and stalling 177 11.13 Bread staling 179 11.14 Fermentation of cereals 180 Section IV: Fruits and vegetables 187 12. Fruit and vegetable biotechnology 189 12.1 Introduction 189 12.2 Direct and indirect benefits of biotechnology 190 viii Food biotechnology 12.3 Consumer benefits 191 12.4 Strategies for commercialization 193 12.5 Biotechnology improves nutritional quality and 193 shelf-life of fruits and vegetables 12.6 Future prospects 201 13. Genetically modified fruits 203 13.1 Introduction 203 13.2 Apples 203 13.3 Citrus 205 13.4 Cherry 206 13.5 Guava 207 13.6 Apricots 208 13.7 Papaya 211 13.8 Eggplant 212 14. Genetically modified vegetables 215 14.1 Introduction 215 14.2 Tomatoes 215 14.3 Soyabeans 219 14.4 Corn 223 14.5 Carrot 225 14.6 Potatoes 227 Section V: Meat, fish and poultry products 231 15. Biotechnology of fermented meat 233 15.1 Introduction 233 15.2 Fermented meat 235 15.3 Raw material preparation 236 15.5 Fermented sausages 242 15.6 Finished product 257 16. Genetically engineered fish 265 16.1 Introduction 265 16.2 Fish feed biotechnology 265 16.3 Transgenic fish 266 16.4 Genetically engineered fish and seafood: Environmental 267 concerns Contents ix 16.5 Environmental concerns and control options 269 16.6 Interbreeding with wild fish 269 16.7 Competition with wild fish 270 16.8 Potential control options 270 16.9 Possible benefits and disadvantages of genetically 271 engineered fish and seafood 16.10 Future applications of biotechnology 272 17. Poultry industry 275 17.1 Introduction 275 17.2 Different varieties of poultry meat 276 17.3 Broilers for meat production 278 17.4 Laying hens for egg production 285 18. Impact of biotechnology on poultry nutrition 291 18.1 Introduction 291 18.2 Impact of biotechnology on poultry nutrition 291 18.3 Mechanisms of action 293 18.4 Criteria for selection of probiotics in the poultry industry 295 18.5 Evaluating probiotic effects on growth performance 297 18.6 Evaluating probiotic effects on the intestinal microbiota 297 and intestinal morphology 18.7 Evaluating probiotic effects on immune response 298 18.8 Evaluating probiotic effects on meat quality 298 Section VI: Beverages 301 19. Beverages 303 19.1 Introduction 303 19.2 Carbonated non-alcoholic beverages 303 19.3 Stimulating beverages 303 19.4 Alcoholic beverages 307 20. Biotechnology of brewer’s yeast 327 20.1 Introduction 327 20.2 Biotechnology of brewer’s yeast 327 20.3 Genetic constitution of brewer’s yeast 327 x Food biotechnology 21. Genetically modified organisms in the wine industry 337 21.1 Introduction 337 21.2 Genetically modified grapewines 338 21.3 Genetically modified yeasts 340 21.4 Genetically modified wine bacteria 341 Section VII: Special topics 343 22. Carbon footprint of food 345 22.1 Introduction 345 22.2 Ecological footprint of the global food system 345 22.3 Eating less beef will reduce carbon footprint more than 348 cars 22.4 Shrink your food footprint 349 22.5 Food transportation issues and reducing carbon footprint 354 22.6 Carbon footprint ranking of food 361 23. Nanotechnology in agriculture and food industry 363 23.1 Introduction 363 23.2 Applications of nanotechnology 363 23.3 Biosensors to detect nutrients and contaminants 366 23.4 Smart delivery systems 368 23.5 Way forward: Policy options and actions 377 24. Bioethics and biotechnology 379 24.1 Introduction 379 24.2 Goals of biotechnology 380 24.3 Ethical aspects of food and agricultural biotechnology 385 24.4 Variety of changes shaping bioethics today 388 Appendix: The case study of American carbon footprint 391 A1. American carbon foodprint at a glance 392 A2. Organic agriculture 394 References 401 Index 403 Preface Food biotechnology is not new. For thousands of years people have been discovering that fruit juices ferment into wine, that milk can be used to develop products such as cheese or yogurt, or that beer can be made through the fermentation of malt and hops. These principles were used to breed hybrid corn, wheat, and many other crops in which certain traits could be selected in order to increase plant yield. Such breeding methods largely accounted for the phenomenal gains in crop productivity during the 20th century and led to modern farming practices. Today, in the arena of food, the primary goals of food biotechnology are to provide a more abundant, less expensive, and a more nutritious food supply in order to address the needs of our growing global population. Today, food biotechnology utilizes the knowledge of plant science and genetics to further this tradition. Through the use of modern biotechnology, scientists can move genes for valuable traits from one plant to another. This process results in tangible environmental and economic benefits that are passed on to the farmer and the consumer.