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The Singing Horn Player: Enhancing Performance with Vocal Transcriptions for Horn

Item Type text; Electronic Dissertation

Authors McGillivray, Margaret

Publisher The University of Arizona.

Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction, presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author.

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/628403 THE SINGING HORN PLAYER: ENHANCING PERFORMANCE WITH VOCAL TRANSCRIPTIONS FOR HORN

Margaret McGillivray

A Research Paper Submitted to the Faculty of the

FRED FOX SCHOOL OF MUSIC

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

2018

2 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This document has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this document are allowable without special permission, provided that an accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission of extended quotations from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper, indeed this degree, would not have been possible for the participation of many people. While not an exhaustive list by any means, there are a few people that require some extra recognition.

To Daniel Katzen, for not laughing at me when I came to audition 4 months post- partum and for still believing I could finish after moving across the country and having another child.

To Edward Reid, Matthew Tropman and Kelly Thomas, for agreeing to serve on this committee and for the time and energy they devoted to my degree. To Michael Dauphinais, for being my collaborative-pianist-in-chief.

To Peter McGillivray and Jennifer Piazza-Pick for helping me to refine my thinking regarding vocal technique for horn playing and for their helpful suggestions of possible arias to transcribe and issues that might arise.

To Angela Myles Beeching for her thoughtful questions and editorial comments.

To my parents, Angus and Kathleen McGillivray, for singing to me before they knew me, and for their love and support through many countries, time zones and circumstances.

To all the women who helped to keep my family safe, loved, fed and cared for when I needed to be away to pursue my goals: Sandra, Katie, Tessa, Anne, Nadia, Lauren, Larissa, Jennifer – you are an amazing tribe of strong, capable people and I hope one day to be able to reciprocate in kind.

To Maren and Callum, for surviving the initial school residency and for their ability to adapt to any situation and go with the flow. To Lachlan, who came later and also because he has never known a mother who is not a student. You are the best things I have ever done.

Finally, to Todd, who has held my hand every step of the way and encouraged me to walk my own path. I cannot thank you enough.

4 This document is dedicated to the memory of

Joan Watson, Ed Matthiessen, and Kelly Thomas.

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ...... 9

ABSTRACT ...... 11

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 12

CHAPTER II: TRANSCRIPTION AND THE HORN ...... 20

Transcriptions or Arrangements: A Brief Study ...... 20

Transcribing for Horn – General Considerations ...... 25

Transcriptions – A Survey...... 33

CHAPTER III: VOCAL TECHNIQUES FOR HORN PLAYERS ...... 35

Audiation and the Horn Player ...... 37

Bel Canto for the Horn Player ...... 42

The Role of Text ...... 48

CHAPTER IV: VOCAL ELEMENTS IN HORN LITERATURE AND REPERTOIRE ...... 53

Writing for Horn and Voice ...... 54

W. A. Mozart: Concerto for Horn, K. 495, First Movement ...... 57

Mozart: Concerto in E-flat, K. 495, I – Applied Vocal Techniques ...... 65

Richard Strauss: Concerto for Horn in E-flat Major, Opus 11 ...... 71

Strauss: Concerto in E-flat, No. 1, I - A Vocal Approach ...... 74

CHAPTER V: PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF VOCAL TRANSCRIPTION ...... 79

Vocal Repertoire for Transcription ...... 79

Role of Text ...... 82

6 Performance Preparation ...... 84

Role in Recital Programming ...... 85

Current Applications of Vocal Transcription for Horn ...... 86

Recommendations for Teaching ...... 90

CHAPTER VI: THREE NEW TRANSCRIPTIONS FOR HORN: BACKGROUND AND PERFORMANCE GUIDE ...... 94

Transcription Preparation ...... 95

W. A. Mozart: “Martern aller Arten” ...... 96

Plot Overview ...... 96

Transcription Rationale ...... 97

Text ...... 99

The Aria ...... 101

Technical Preparation ...... 102

W. A. Mozart: “Ach ich fühl’s” ...... 107

Plot Overview ...... 107

Text ...... 108

Transcription Rationale ...... 110

Transcription Performance Guide ...... 109

Technical Preparation ...... 112

Richard Strauss: “Es gibt ein Reich” ...... 113

Plot Overview ...... 114

The Aria ...... 115

Transcription Rationale ...... 116

7 Form ...... 117

Text ...... 117

Transcription Performance Guide ...... 119

Technical Preparation ...... 121

CHAPTER VII: CONCLUSIONS ...... 124

APPENDIX A: W. A. MOZART “MARTERN ALLER ARTEN” ...... 126

APPENDIX B: W. A. MOZART “ACH ICH FÜHL’S” ...... 143

APPENDIX C: STRAUSS “ES GIBT EIN REICH” ...... 149

APPENDIX D: PITCH DESIGNATIONS/RANGE DESIGNATIONS ...... 161

APPENDIX E: SURVEY QUESTIONS ...... 162

APPENDIX F: FORMAL ANALYSIS Of MOZART’S CONCERTO IN Eb, K. 495, I ...... 164

APPENDIX G: FORMAL ANALYSIS OF STRAUSS’ CONCERTO IN Eb, NO. 1, OP. 11, I 169

APPENDIX H: COMPILATION OF KNOWN PUBLISHED VOCAL TRANSCRIPTIONS

FOR HORN ...... 171

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 177

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES Page

Fig. 2.1 “Mache dich,” Matthäus-Passion, BWV 244……………………………………………….27

Fig. 2.2. “Mache dich,”Matthäus-Passion, BWV 244, Horn in Eb………………………………27

Fig. 2.3. “Mache dich,”Matthäus-Passion, BWV 244, Concert Pitch………………………….27

Fig. 3.1. Messa di voce/Long Tone Exercise…………………………………………………………..45

Fig. 4.1. Horn Concerto in Eb, K. 495, I, Exposition, Primary theme……….……..…...….…60

Fig. 4.2. “Dalla sua pace” from Don Giovanni, opening theme…………………….…………..61

Fig. 4.3. Mozart, Horn Concerto in Eb, K. 495, I, mm. 64-75, Horn in Eb……….…………..62

Fig. 4.4. “No, che non sei capace,” Secondary Theme…………………………………………….62

Fig. 4.5. Mozart, Horn Concerto in Eb, K. 495, I, Development Theme…...…...... ….…...64

Fig. 4.6. Mozart, ”Ach ich fühl’s,” from Die Zauberflöte, Opening Melody………………..64

Fig. 4.7. Mozart, Horn Concerto, K. 495, I, mm. 36-40…………………………………………...65

Fig. 4.8. Mozart, Horn Concerto K. 495, I, mm. 47-50……………………………………………..66

Fig. 4.9. Mozart, Horn Concerto K. 495, I, mm. 51-54……………………………………………..67

Fig. 4.10. Mozart, Horn Concerto K. 495, I, mm. 97-100………………………………………....69

Fig. 4.11. Strauss, Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, I mm. 1-5………………………………………………74

Fig. 4.12. Strauss, Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, I mm. 28-36……………………………………….….75

Fig. 4.13. Strauss, Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, I, mm. 52-64………………………………………….76

Fig. 6.1: G scale, beginning on F#, 1 octave in eighth notes………………………………....103

Fig. 6.2: Mozart, “Martern aller Artern,” mm. 69-70, in eighth notes……………………104

Fig. 6.3: Mozart, “Martern aller Arten,” mm. 70-71……………………………………………..104

9 Fig. 6.4. Mozart, “Martern aller Arten,” mm. 91-92, Horn in F……………………………..105

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES, CONTINUED

Page

Fig. 6.5. Mozart, “Martern aller Arten,” m. 91, Portamento Exercise…………………….105

Fig. 6.6. Mozart, “Martern aller Arten,” mm.113-117, Horn in F…………………………..105

Fig. 6.7. Mozart, “Martern aller Artern,” mm. 264-272, Horn in F………………………..106

Fig. 6.8. Mozart, “Ach ich fühl’s,” mm. 14-16, Horn in F……………………………………….111

Fig. 6.9. Mozart, Horn Quintet, K. 407, II, Andante, mm. 53-60………………...…………...111

Fig. 6.10. Descending Portamento 7ths…………………………………………..…………………...112

Fig. 6.11. Strauss, “Es gibt ein Reich,” mm. 26-30, Horn in F……………………………...... 120

Fig. 6.12. Strauss Fanfare motive exercise………………………………………………………….122

Fig. 6.13. Strauss Fanfares in rhythm………………………………………………………………...122

Fig. 6.14. Alternating arpeggio up to high Bb………………………………………………………123

10 ABSTRACT

One possible way that horn players can improve their performance of horn literature and solo repertoire is through the study and performance of vocal transcriptions. Arias, songs and lieder provide a vehicle to learn and refine concepts of musical expression and technique. This project examines how vocal techniques can be applied to horn repertoire and culminates in the creation of three new vocal transcriptions for horn: “Martern aller Arten” from Die Entführung aus dem Serail,

“Ach ich fühl’s” from Die Zauberflöte by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and “Es gibt ein

Reich” from Ariadne auf Naxos by Richard Strauss. The creation of these transcriptions helps improve the horn player’s access to the operatic aria repertory and to the study and performance of vocal works by Strauss and Mozart, whose concerti are standard horn repertoire. In studying and performing operatic works by these composers, the horn player can have a more informed perspective of the style and intentions of the horn concerti. In addition, this paper will examine how vocal transcriptions are currently utilized and will make recommendations for including vocal techniques and music in lessons and practice.

11 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

At some point in all horn players’ careers, they may need or want to seek out repertoire from outside the established canon of horn literature. Newly commissioned works can fill some of the demand, but oftentimes hornists turn to transcriptions of music originally written for other instruments. Horn players in the early years of study frequently play transcriptions of folk tunes in method books such as those by J. E. Skornicka1 and Dale Clevenger2, and later in their careers undertake music meant for cello (e.g. Bach’s cello suites), clarinet (e.g. Schumann’s

Drei Fantasiestücke, Op. 73) and other instruments (e.g. Schubert’s various Lieder).

After the elementary and intermediate stages of development, vocal music seems to be an underutilized resource for advanced study and performance on horn and very few vocal works have become standard recital repertoire. Horn players also regularly play works by composers who are renowned for their vocal writing. These include works by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Richard Strauss, who are arguably more famous for their operas than their horn concerti. This document will examine how horn players can improve their presentation and technique through the study and performance of specific operatic arias transcribed for horn.

As part of the research done, the author conducted an online survey of 17 professional horn players who also teach at the postsecondary level. This helped provide data for an exploration of the current practical applications of vocal

1 J.E. Skornicka, Rubank Elementary Method: French Horn (Miami, FL, Rubank, Inc., 1934). 2 Dale Clevenger et al., The Dale Clevenger French Horn Methods (San Diego, CA, Neil A. Kjos Music Company, 1974).

12 transcriptions in various horn studios and helped inform the author’s pedagogical recommendations. Ultimately, three arias from diverse Mozart and Strauss operas were chosen for transcription, and a performance preparation guide for each aria was created. Also included in this study is an investigation of general issues surrounding transcriptions for the horn player and how transposition can affect a composer’s intent. This document will survey selected vocal techniques for use in horn study to include audiation, bel canto techniques and the role of text and language. It is suggested that Mozart’s Concerto in Eb, K. 495 and Strauss’ Concerto

No. 1, Op.11 are examined for vocal elements and a vocal approach for each concerto’s first movements.

The purpose of transcribing operatic arias for horn is multidimensional.

Transcribing arias that have not been played by horn players greatly expands the repertoire, especially with regards to musical periods where little was written for solo horn or where the composers wrote for a different and less modern instrument and technique. In choosing the operatic genre over art song and lieder, the horn player is participating in the ultimate gesamtkunstwerk3 or total art form. But the heart of this project belongs to more expressive considerations. When hornists play the vocal works of such composers as Mozart, Strauss, Schubert or Mahler, we can learn to expand our ability to create phrases in a way that transcends our instrument, aiming to create a tone and line that sound achingly human. When hornists apply these singing concepts to horn-specific literature, the predictable results include improved expression, phrasing, legato and intonation.

3 KFE Trahndorf, “Ästhetik oder Lehre von Weltanschauung und Kunst,” 1827.

13 The three arias chosen for this project each represent different facets of singing (and playing) that the horn player can use to address musical concepts found elsewhere in Mozart and Strauss. The first aria, “Martern aller Arten” from Die

Entführung aus dem Serail, is a virtuosic, dramatic coloratura work that showcases technical verve and agility. The second Mozart aria, “Ach ich fühl’s” from Die

Zauberflöte, is a lyrical, plaintive reflection on melancholy requiring a light, legato touch. The final transcription is Strauss’ “Es gibt ein Reich,” the crown jewel of

Ariadne auf Naxos. This dramatic soprano aria contains hallmarks of shifting moods, colors and harmonies. All three pieces challenge the horn player to ‘sing’ through the instrument and to experience the music of these two composers in a more vivid and dynamic context.

As students, horn players are routinely asked to sing in lessons. They may also have been asked to “sing” through their instrument (adopting a more vocal, lyrical style to the piece of music that they are playing). Teachers, performers and critics alike have been known to praise particular horn players for their singing tone or the ability to create a musical phrase on the instrument as if they were singing it.

John Humphries cites several of these examples in his book, The Early Horn, but more notably it was Reginald Morley-Pegge, who wrote:

Emile Lambert, the solo horn with the Lamoreux Orchestra in Paris, had ‘a manner of singing on the horn like the uncultured Italian tenor – not knowing how he did it, nor why – and it was a pure joy to listen to him coming through the orchestra as clear as a bell.’”4

That same cohort of people has probably been less admiring of horn playing that is not vocal in its approach to melody, regardless of the beauty of tone or the

4 John Humphries, The Early Horn: A Practical Guide (UK, Cambridge UP), 73.

14 flashiness of technical prowess on display. Some horn teachers have sent their students to study with voice teachers or have recommended recordings of famous singers for close listening and inspiration. To Hermann Baumann, the great German horn soloist and pedagogue, the relationship to singing is of prime importance:

Singing is the number one in life. I sang as a 2 year old, as a 12 year old and as a 70 year old. I always sing…everyday. And everyone who plays the horn should sing everyday, too, but most horn players don’t do that…the first step should be without the horn and sing. Only then will it start to sound…when one begins to let the air to flow out from the body, then you can take the horn and play – it’s the same! Really, singing and horn playing are the same.5

To be sure, this relationship has often been taken for granted by horn players but is becoming more important in recent years. Hornists are looking outside the established canon for performance repertoire with broad appeal and inspiration in standard works that are a necessary part of advanced study. Studying vocal music an technique is an important part of that study.

Horn players have long described various facets of horn technique and playing in terms of singing. Characteristics such as tone quality and production, resonance, phrasing, lyricism, audition preparation, mental rehearsal and artistry all seem able to be expressed in vocal terms or with language that is voice-centered in nature. Cynthia Horton writes that the “beautiful sonority of the [horn] was perhaps its most admired quality. The tone, with shades of light and dark, was thought to resemble the human voice, bringing praise for its ‘singing’ qualities.”6 In Horn

5 Hermann Baumann, interview and translation by Justin Sharp, “Hermann Baumann and the subject of singing and the French Horn,” October 29, 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f- 1BS-pG_2s, accessed January 15, 2018. 6 Cynthia Horton, “The Identification of Idiomatic Writing for the Horn,” 28, (DMA Theses, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1986) accessed September 30, 2014, ProQuest Dissertation and Theses.

15 Playing From the Inside Out, Eli Epstein uses examples of vocal and choral music to help differentiate musical emotions.7 For example, Epstein writes of the famous solo in the second movement of Piotr Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No. 5 in vocal terms,

“When I think of this solo as an Italian love song, it all makes sense” and further recommending to “[sing] this solo to them [your audience], as if you couldn’t talk and all you could use was your horn sound.”8 Fred Fox, noted Hollywood studio horn player, devotes a chapter in his book, Essentials of Brass Playing, to discussing the importance of singing through the instrument:

In other words when talking one does not attempt to get the same throat resonance as when singing. There is a change in vocal production between the two…One must consciously set the throat in a singing position when playing, and keep it in that position at all times in any register and/or dynamic. By doing this, it seems as if you are virtually singing through the instrument, rather than blowing through it. 9

Berlin Philharmonic hornist Fergus McWilliam, writing about audition and excerpt preparation in the book Blow Your OWN Horn!, urges the hornist to “never stop singing while you’re playing. Whether they realize it or not, the panel is singing along too.”10 This is just a sample of horn players’ and teachers’ writings that include references to singing. The idea of singing pervades many aspects of horn playing and pedagogy, from lyricism and musical phrasing to vowel formation and resonance. Even the production of the horn sound is analogous to a singer’s sound production: when air passes through a player’s embouchure and into the

7 Eli Epstein, Horn Playing From the Inside Out (Brookline, MA: Eli Epstein Prods., 2012), 71. 8 Ibid., 142. 9 Fred Fox, Essentials of Brass Playing (Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing, 1974), 82-83. 10 Fergus McWilliam, Blow You OWN Horn! (Oakville, ON: Mosaic Press, 2011), 153.

16 instrument, the lips and air column inside the horn vibrate in a manner similar to when air passes through a singer’s vocal folds.

Once they have reached a certain level of proficiency, horn players learn certain standard repertoire. The horn concerti by Mozart and Strauss hold seminal places in this collection of pieces. These works are used for study, performance and audition repertoire throughout hornists’ careers. They are heard in almost every orchestral horn audition, be it professional or amateur. As part of their preparation, many horn teachers recommend listening to recording of operas by Mozart and

Strauss or to attend live opera productions of works by these composers to broaden their knowledge of the musical style, phrasing, form, harmony and melodic language of both composers.

Beyond repertoire-specific listening, simple exposure to hearing great singers is of the utmost importance. The tenor voice may be the most obvious choice as his range aligns fairly well with the more comfortable part of the horn’s range. All musicians would do well to listen to the tone and musical style of singers such as

Enrico Caruso, Jon Vickers, Placido Domingo, Jüssi Björling and others. But limiting oneself to tenors – or to Mozart and Strauss – limits the range of inspiration.

Listening to other voice types is fodder for inspiration with regards to tone color, musical style and phrasing. With the shifting demographics of horn playing from an exclusively white, male domain to the inclusion of women and people of color in the ranks of modern professional hornists, listening to a variety of voices makes sense for modern times. Performers such as Renée Fleming, Aretha Franklin, Jessye

17 Norman, Björk, Ella Fitzgerald and Barbara Hannigan are known for their dramatic vocal presentations and are just the start of a more inclusive list of singers to study.

Hornists are frequently asked to play in the upper octaves of their range, out of an approximate four and a half octaves. In addition, the modern professional is expected to have the proficiency and musculature necessary for playing across the entire range. Using the low register as a base for breathing, support and tonal development, yet spending so much of the solo horn repertoire playing with sustained power and endurance in the upper register, actually makes solo playing analogous to the dramatic soprano voice category or fach11. Essentially, the dramatic soprano has all the dark, round qualities of a dramatic mezzo-soprano but sings in a higher tessitura. The resulting tone color is similar to the qualities that a solo horn is seeking when playing, say, Richard Strauss’ horn works. In terms of vocal transcriptions, there is a scarcity from the soprano repertoire. The soprano canon is thus a potential treasure trove of diverse musical and emotional experiences for the horn player.

In playing and studying specific operatic repertoire, the horn player can benefit from vocal and musical techniques and apply these across the horn literature. The author asserts that by applying singing techniques to horn performance, the vocal elements within the horn works of Mozart and Strauss are better expressed. Horn players and teachers alike can use vocal transcription in

11 The German system of voice classification, or fach, organizes each voice-type (soprano, mezzo-soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone and bass) into further sub-categories. For example, sopranos may be classified as soubrette, lyric, coloratura and dramatic. Further subdivisions are also possible. Though less rigid than in former times, the fach system helps to inform singers and teachers about appropriate teaching techniques, repertoire and roles for the individual singer. Further information can be found in Richard Miller’s Training Soprano Voices (USA, Oxford UP, 2000).

18 studio and recital settings as a source of inspiration and to better understand a composer’s intent. This study intends to show how horn players’ musicianship will benefit from the study and performance of operatic arias and that by learning to consistently sing through the instrument, hornists can advance their artistry and expressive potential.

19 CHAPTER II

TRANSCRIPTIONS AND HORN PLAYING

A natural impulse of any musician is to look for new or different repertoire to play. Playing songs from one’s childhood, music heard in passing on a car radio or a tune by a favorite pop artist is a rite of passage for a young musician and a part of informal practice for many experienced hornists. As horn players seek to expand the repertoire available for performance and study, transcriptions of all kinds can play a role. Horn players are not strangers to transcriptions, though we perform and play transcriptions of vocal music somewhat less after the elementary period of study. This chapter examines the types and uses of transcriptions and the role of transposition, as well as general considerations for the horn player when transcribing and programming vocal works.

Transcriptions or Arrangements: A brief study

Transcription is defined as the “arrangement of a musical composition for a performing medium other than the original or for the same medium but in more elaborate style” or a “conversion of composition from one system of notation to another.”12 This project is focused on the first type of transcriptions: reimagining a musical work for an instrument that is different from the composer’s original intent.

Arrangement is less precisely defined, as “among musicians, however, the word may be taken to mean either the transference of a composition from one medium to

12 “Transcription,” http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy- tu.researchport.umd.edu/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e10386?q=transcription&search=quick&pos =4&_start=1#firsthit, accessed July 1, 2016.

20 another or the elaboration (or simplification) of a piece, with or without a change of medium.”13 Despite the fact that some choose to use the terms transcription and arrangement somewhat interchangeably, it is useful to examine these terms a little more closely to see where their limits lie on a spectrum between an original composition and a completely rearranged piece of music.

There are two distinct types of transcription: aural transcription and notational transcription. Aural transcription involves the creation of a written representation of a live or recorded musical performance, often from jazz or popular music sources. Notational transcriptions are those where the transcriber adapts a piece of music that was originally conceived for certain instruments in exchange for others. This may involve only the use of a score or written representation of the work. Within the category of notational transcriptions, there can be a continuum of how closely the transcriber may follow the composer’s original intent. A strict notational transcription involves a direct correspondence between all aspects of the original and adapted works. All pitches, articulations and dynamics remain the same, regardless of where the transcription lies in the range of the new instrument, and how the articulations affect the style or presentation of the musical phrases. On the other end of the spectrum, if a transcriber makes changes to pitches, articulations, instrumentation and dynamics, the piece is closer to the definition of an arrangement. If we place as examples a notational transcription of an Arban etude for trumpet in C transcribed for trumpet in Bb on one side and Lukas Foss’

13 “Arrangement,” http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy- tu.researchport.umd.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/01332?q=arrangement&search=quick&p os=1&_start=1#firsthit, accessed July 1, 2016.

21 Phorion on the other (based on Johann Sebastian Bach’s prelude for solo violin, BWV

1006), then we have a basic rubric to explore where the transcription of this project falls. The Arban etude is a fairly basic example of a transcription while Foss’s

Phorion takes substantial liberties with Bach’s original composition. This author contends that transcription is more a precise term than arrangement. The common use of the term arrangement implies that compositional liberties are taken with the original work. The purpose of an arrangement also seems different than that of a transcription. Stephen Davies, Professor at the University of Auckland, writes in his article, “Transcription, Authenticity, and Performance” that the goal of a transcription is “to reconcile the musical content of the original work with the limitations and advantages of a medium for which that content was not designed.”14

Arrangements offer an ensemble or a soloist greater liberty to take a piece and make it their own. We see this often in popular music circles, where one artist will “cover” another piece and actively try to alter it so that it reflects their personality or idiosyncratic technique but retains some of the key elements of the original work.15

Transcription, on the other hand, is more engaged with preserving the composer’s intentions. An apt comparison is when a work of literature is translated into another language. A translation attempts to be as literal as possible with the language while also retaining the rhythm and flow of the ideas and text. To draw the analogy further, an arrangement of that same piece of literature could be compared to a

14 Stephen Davies, “Transcription, Authenticity, and Performance,” British Journal of Aesthetics 28:3 (Summer 1999): 218. 15 “Arrangement and Transcription,” The Music Salon, accessed July 26, 2016, http://themusicsalon.blogspot.com/2012/09/arrangement-and-transcription.html.

22 screenplay where certain plot elements are cut or rearranged and then reimagined for the cinema or television.

Transcriptions of existing musical works have historically served many functions. As Rose French notes, this “compositional tool has been used throughout history to disseminate works to new ensembles or give rewarding repertoire to developing instruments.”16 These transcriptions have been from both aural and written sources, and have spanned all genres including sacred music, jazz and popular music with everything in between. The compositional practice of imitation, quoting or borrowing from another piece of music, especially before the age of copyright laws, is a relative of transcription techniques. From a pedagogical point of view, not only would copying a master composer’s work be excellent study for a student, but reimagining that work in a new musical context would teach much about instrumental capabilities, instrumentation, voicing and aesthetic possibilities.

For the purposes of close study and analysis of a composer’s work, the creation of a close notational transcription seems like the obvious choice for performance and study. Restricting the creation and study of these works to a notational transcription as opposed to an arrangement or a work such as a fantasy or caprice allows a performer to get closer to the original composer’s style, making it easier to draw parallels between the vocal work and the composer’s original horn compositions. The problem that horn players and teachers run into is often one of range. For example, some soprano arias lie at the extreme high end of the horn’s

16 Rose French “Three New Transcriptions for Horn, Cello and Piano: Works of Beethoven, Brahms and Glinka and the Esthetics of Transcriptions” (DMA Essay, Arizona State University, 2008) accessed September 28, 2014, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 1.

23 comfortable range. A selection of lieder may lie beautifully in a lyric soprano’s mid to high tessitura, but for the hornist, although technically capable, it is uncomfortable precisely because it relies on the same register for so long. When playing a song originally written for baritone or mezzo-soprano, for example, there may also be a problem with balance between the soloist and pianist. Transposition, in these cases, becomes a necessary part of transcription.

The question of whether a transposed transcription is more of an arrangement than a true transcription is an interesting one. It could be considered that transposition is the first of many interventions that deviate away from a faithful notational rendering of the original work. After all, the composer undoubtedly chose the original key for a specific reason, be it a technical or a more artistic one. Many musicians will agree that some keys have certain characteristic idiosyncrasies or proclivities for the individual or for a certain instrument. For instance, brass players are somewhat known for their preference of flat keys (Bb, Eb, etc.) possibly because the majority of brass instruments can most easily locate the fundamental of their harmonic series on a flat note (Bb trumpet, trombone, euphonium, etc.).17 There is some evidence that string players anecdotally prefer sharp keys (A, D, etc.) for similar reasons: a beginning violinist’s first major scale is often a sharp key scale to be able to take advantage of the open strings and instrument’s full resonance. The major scales associated with the fundamental harmonics or open notes of most modern brass instruments are usually flat keys or contain flats. The implication of

17 Charles John Vincent, The Brass Band and how to Write for It (London, Vincent Music Co., 1908).

24 such a preference is that a transcriber for brass needs to consider transposition as a component of their transcription.

Composers have long been aware of the connections between emotional characteristics and certain keys, a famous being the association of d minor with melancholy.18 People with a certain type of musical synesthesia have a condition that can manifest itself as replacing or associating a specific tone or modality with a color.19 These are not to be taken lightly when considering transposition for a possible transcription. However, if one is taking a purist’s view of notational transcription and it is unavailable to the transcriber, a limit is placed on the repertoire that can be transcribed. It eliminates certain keys and tessituras, as well as any literature for voice types that are outside an instrumentalist’s range. With transposition as a tool, the transcriber has a wealth of literature to draw upon and may select the very best and most effective pieces that work well for the horn player on multiple levels.

Transcribing for the Horn – General Considerations

Using transposition when reimagining a vocal work for horn may actually help a horn player get closer to the composer’s primary intent. If the original work lies comfortably in the middle register for a singer, without ranging too far across the passaggio, or voice break, it should lie easily in the middle range without

18 “Affective Musical Key Characteristics,” accessed September 4, 2017, http://www.wmich.edu/mus-theo/courses/keys.html. 19 Jessica Mahklin, “Chromesthesia as Phenomenon: Emotional Colors,” (Loyola Marymount University), accessed September 14, 2017, http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=arc_wp.

25 crossing a register break when a horn player interprets that same piece of music. If one were to play a purely notational transcription of the same work, the music could very easily lie in an uncomfortably high or low range, and the sense of ease and facility would be very different, not to mention the tone color. There are certain changes to the tone color that occur when using the extreme high or low registers of any instrument.

Transcribing any solo work for horn, be it vocal or instrumental, is not a task that should be undertaken lightly. Fortunately for the transcriber, by the time a horn player is ready to present solo recitals and is a candidate for serious study, she or he has usually learned to do basic transposition. For university-aged students through professionals, transposition is a professional requirement and should be thoroughly studied, given the nature of horn composition prior to 1900. It simplifies matters for the transcriber if the accompaniment remains in the same tonality. An example of this would be the famous bass aria “Mache dich” from Johann Sebastian Bach’s

Matthäus-Passion, BWV 244. The accompaniment can remain in the same key if the horn player changes the clef to treble and then reads the solo part as if it were for

Horn in Eb, or down a whole step. The solo part ends up with the correct-sounding pitches, displaced by an octave. This particular transposition has the added benefit of translating the solo part into a more comfortable range for the horn player that also has better projection and clarity. Moreover, when played with the original accompaniment part, the newly transcribed horn part actually projects very easily due to its transposition up the octave from the original.

26 Mache Dich - Open Bass Vocal Line

Johann Sebastian Bach

Bass œ œ w. œ. ? bb 128 Œ. œ œ œ œ œ Ó. Œ. Ma cheJ Dich, meinJ Her - ze rein,

Fig. 2.1 “Mache dich,” Matthäus-Passion, BWV 244. With the changed clef and key signature, tMarch Dich - Horn in E-flat,he passage can now be played Opening Solo Lineas Horn in

Eb: Johann Sebastian Bach

w œ # 12 . œ œ œ œ œ œ . . . . . & 8 Œ J œ J Œ Œ Œ

Fig. 2.2. “Mache Mache Dichdich, “Matthäus- Concert-Passion, BWV 244 Pitch, Opening, Horn in Eb . Horn Line

The sounding pitch or concert pitch is now this: Johann Sebastian Bach

bb 12 Œ. j j w. œ. Ó. Œ. & 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Fig. 2.3. “Mache dich, “Matthäus-Passion, BWV 244. Concert Pitch

The opening phrase will now sound one octave above the original pitch. The advantage to this method is that no transposition is needed in the accompaniment.

This would allow the hornist to perform “Mache dich” with the original orchestral accompaniment or with a pianist reading from the piano-vocal score instead of having to transpose the original parts.

Despite the common use of transcriptions as both a teaching and performing tool, there are some criticisms of the practice. Even though nearly any piano reduction of an orchestral accompaniment for a concerto or an aria is basically a

27 transcription, there are concerns about achieving authentic performance and study.

Stephen Davies addresses some of these philosophical queries in his article “Violins or Viols? – A Reason to Fret.” He asks if

original instruments are to be used because, as a matter of fact, they are the only available means to the production of the sound of authentic performance; or is their use part of the end of authenticity itself, in that a performance which produced the appropriate sounds but did not do so by the use of original instruments would be thereby less than ideally authentic?20

This is an interesting question for a horn player in particular. Any of the solo, orchestral or chamber music repertoire written before the mid 19th century was likely written for natural horn or waldhorn. Brahms specifically wrote his Op. 40 trio for piano, violin and waldhorn despite the availability of valve horns and players who could play valve horns at the time. Mozart’s concerti, a standard part of the horn canon, were written for natural horn. In modern times, these pieces are mostly played on valve horns, in direct opposition to Brahms’ wishes and Mozart’s sound concept. Composers writing before the widespread use of the valve horn were also somewhat limited in what they could write for horn and the range they could reasonably access. Davies notes that

[the] upper harmonics must be used if the valveless French horn is to be employed as a harmonic instrument. To retain the correct intonation it is necessary to “stop” the sound to varying degrees by placing a fist in the bell of the instrument. Inevitably, this affects the evenness of tone. Composers for the valveless French horn might have welcomed the introduction of valves (even if such a change subtly altered the instrument’s tone in other ways). Although composers did not write for the sounds of yet-to-be invented instruments one might reasonably feel that, sometimes, they would be happy

20 Stephen Davies, “Violins or Viols? – A Reason to Fret?” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 48.2 (Spring 1990), 147.

28 to allow their music to be performed on improved versions of their instruments.”21

Using another instrument as an example, one wonders if Bach’s keyboard works are materially different when played on piano, an instrument that did not exist during his lifetime. Indeed, Bach was known to transcribe works for other instruments other than the original including violin and lute sonatas. Glenn Gould, the Canadian pianist and Bach interpreter, underscored this point using the various transcriptions of Bach’s Art of Fugue as an example:

I doubt very much that he would have worried about violating some specific sonorous intention. None of the things (Art of Fugue transcriptions) really violated the music. It’s just so secure, structurally, that it’s almost impossible to do that.22

Not only have instruments changed, improved and been invented since some of these great works were composed, but the music has outlived both the composer and the original performer. This means that contemporary audiences have access to music that has withstood the test of time. Unfortunately for the modern valve horn, much of the solo repertoire written before 1850 that is representative of a certain genre or composer was not created for our particular instrument. Many composers chose the voice or a fully chromatic instrument for their solo instrument of choice instead of the horn. This may have been for any number of artistic or practical reasons but it remains true that the horn prior to 1850 was not a truly chromatic instrument with even access to all pitches across its range. We now realize the full chromatic and technical possibilities of the modern horn and have the luxury of

21 Ibid., 150. 22 Glenn Gould, “The Question of Instrument,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-jFQ- IrvDo, accessed March 20, 2018, Sony Records, SNY197504, 1981.

29 numerous composers writing for modern players and modern instruments. Having the ability to play a greater amount of music by earlier composers is a welcome addition to the repertoire.

One other point of contention for modern musicians in general and horn players in particular is that in choosing transcriptions for study and performance, we are by default not choosing the works of new composers. Jeffrey Snedeker, professor of horn at Central Washington University, articulated this in a review of a compilation of pieces that included many transcriptions, writing

At the heart of this review, however, is the question of whether hornists still need arrangements or transcriptions of famous music by other composers as part of their recital repertoire. Perhaps we do for the sake of variety or entertainment of a broader audience. Then again, for example, do vocal transcriptions really work without the words, especially among people who don’t know them?23

The implication is that horn players now have many composers writing for them on the modern instrument, as opposed to the dearth that came before. However, using transcriptions for study and performance does not necessarily invalidate the efforts of contemporary composers to write new pieces for the horn. In making repertoire choices, the recitalist is usually limited in scope by the length of the concert. Using a transcription in the recital setting means excluding another type of music, but so does choosing a piece of nineteenth century chamber music over something else.

This kind of example happens all the time. The author contends that instead of viewing a transcription as a musical interloper, it should be a welcome addition to the horn canon and recital stage for both the performer and the audience. When we choose pieces for public performance we have to balance personal and musical goals

23 Jeffrey Snedeker, “Book and Music Reviews” The Horn Call 45.3 (May 2015), 86.

30 in the mix of the program. This balance is different for every musician and will take different forms with every recital program.

The second question that Snedeker asks is whether vocal pieces work as well for instrumentalists when the words are removed. This is a similar philosophical question to what Richard Strauss asks in the opera Capriccio. Strauss is constantly weighing the importance of the words versus the music in both the text of the libretto and the symbolism of the rivalry between the Countess’ suitors Flamande the composer, and Olivier the poet and playwright. At the close of the opera, Strauss deliberately leaves the debate between words and music as unresolved.

Interestingly, Strauss arranged some of his operatic works for orchestra without singer, such as the Suite from Der Rosenkavalier, in which the horn has a prominent role as both an orchestral instrument and a substitute singer. If the composer himself set vocal music for orchestra, it must not be terribly diminished without the text. In examples like Der Rosenkavalier, the result is different, rather than an objective evaluation of better or worse.

The answer to Snedeker’s question is more nuanced and less objective for a variety of factors, not just for the text. The characteristics of the vocal piece in question are of prime importance here. Is the piece syllabic or melismatic? Is the vocal line very closely aligned, possibly even doubled with the accompaniment, or is it more independent? Is the work strophic or through-composed? Is the text of the piece the primary driver for the music or does it work more in tandem with the musical line? Is the text very repetitive? Are there any words at all or does the singer simply phonate on a variety of vowels? Is the texture homorhythmic or

31 contrapuntal? Is the vocal range extremely limited? Does the piece have a rich and varied accompaniment? All these questions and more need to be answered before going ahead with a successful transcription and will be dealt with in a later section.

Still, all musicians at their most basic are artists and storytellers. Audience members regularly attend concerts and operas where they do not understand the language or languages being sung. While using a translated libretto or supertitles can be helpful, it can also distract from the musical portraiture and emotions being depicted. Interestingly, Robert Harris writes that “[to] open yourself up to the power that opera can undoubtedly have, you must let the music speak to you as it would if it were a piece of orchestral music.”24 This belies the notion that words have supremacy in all vocal music, and while they are undoubtedly the driving force for many composers, the music, its sonorities, and its emotional content is enough reason for many others.

Snedeker also refers to the need for variety in horn players’ recital programs.

This is a common concern for students, teachers and professionals alike when planning a concert program. While horn repertoire is constantly expanding and new, well-written pieces are making their way into the horn catalog, it cannot compete with the piano, violin or voice for depth, range and flexibility of masterful works. It would be more difficult, although not impossible, for a horn player to plan a recital around a narrow theme simply because the horn’s repertoire contains fewer works. For example, while a singer could plan an entire recital of art songs dedicated to the poets of World War I, hornists would be scrambling to have enough

24 Robert Harris. What to Listen For in Mozart (Toronto, ON: MacFarlane Walter & Ross, 1991), 135.

32 solo pieces to merely represent that same time period, let alone the literary portion of such a theme. Conversely, if a hornist wanted to present a recital of late- nineteenth century romantic works, it would be very easy to fall into the pattern of programming a full concert of popular, traditional standards. To be clear, there are no issues with selecting such a program. However, in the performer’s role as artist and storyteller, one should be taking into account the audience’s experience.

Providing an ebb and flow to the programming takes the concert-goer and the performer through a series of emotions and experiences that can also create musical breaks or surprises for the ear. Having a plethora of good transcriptions to use in the concert hall opens a new level of programming to the horn player.

Transcriptions – A Survey

The evidence for horn players using and performing vocal music seems, at times, anecdotal. While horn players talk about singing in lessons, allude to singing while playing in numerous books by noted pedagogues or use folk-tunes in beginning method books, the proof for horn players using vocal transcriptions at the advanced level seems far from the mainstream. Since transcriptions are being widely used by horn professionals and professors throughout North America, the author devised a survey to find out more about how vocal works are being used in practice.

The survey was sent to 25 professional horn players who also teach at the post-secondary level at an accredited university in the United States or Canada. Of the original 25 hornists, 17 completed the survey though not every participant

33 answered every question. The survey questions consisted of some yes/no answers and multiple-choice answers, as well as two questions that asked the participant to create a list of possible answers or reasons. There were several optional comment sections in the survey for hornists to respond more in depth to questions. The survey was anonymous and did not require the participant to identify themselves or their institutions. However, participants who completed the survey were asked to be both professional horn players who also taught at the post-secondary level at an accredited institution. Survey results will be referenced in various chapters of this document.

34 CHAPTER III

VOCAL TECHNIQUES FOR HORN PLAYERS

For many years, teachers and performers have incorporated ideas from singers and vocalists into their daily routines and teaching techniques. While this document is not meant to be a summary of vocal pedagogy, it is useful for the hornist to understand the benefits of singing as related to horn playing. There are certain analogies to be drawn between how a singer produces sound with vibrating vocal folds and the vibrations of the embouchure for brass players. As well, brass players are always looking for new or unique ways to understand and explain breathing as no single approach works for everyone. An exploration of vocal technique for the horn player includes fresh approaches to horn performance, illuminates new works and unlocks new tools for deepening our understanding of current repertoire. There are also interesting implications for teachers looking for new pedagogical approaches in their studio.

As early as the 18th and 19th centuries, brass teachers have been telling their students to sing. Louis-François Dauprat advised his students to utilize the singing methods then taught at the Paris Conservatoire in his Méthode de Cor Alto et Cor

Basse:

Teacher of wind instruments have not been able to recommend this Singing Method too highly to their students, as it contains so many precepts that are just as useful for instrumentalists as for singers. It is particularly suitable for shaping the student’s style in that it teaches him to phrase melodies and give them expression, to play with taste, to place all the musical ornaments with

35 discernment, and finally, to imprint upon each piece the character that belongs to it.25

Arguably the most famous brass pedagogue, Arnold Jacobs (former Principal Tuba of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra) devised a flexible method based on the idea of singing through the instrument; the most important components of brass playing for Jacobs were “song and wind,” which became the title of the biographical book by

Brian Frederiksen, detailing Jacobs’ life and philosophies.26 While not a new concept, in the 20th century brass players were finally able to see the mechanics of their playing and breathing with the advent of x-ray, fluoroscopy and more recently,

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging). Timothy Solinger summarizes Jacobs’ and the medical community’s discoveries that:

What was discovered was that performing a single tone on a brass instrument is an incredibly complex maneuver that involves sophisticated coordination across a wide variety of muscle groups. Jacobs, who took what contemporaneous neurologists had learned about the nervous system and applied it to brass playing, finally simplified what was becoming more and more complicated. He found that the lips vibrate in sympathy with a standing air column within the instrument when the lips receive an impulse from the brain in the form of a note formed in the mind’s ear, in a manner very similar to how the vocal chords respond to the thoughts of a singer.

Another important concept that Jacobs brought into awareness is the idea that human beings can either use motor nerves or sensory nerves, not both simultaneously. As musicians we need to use motor nerves to impart information, not sensory nerves to process information. This recapitulates the idea that music performance must be a communicative endeavor. What had been espoused all along by teachers of every generation had now been explained scientifically; the brass musician must sing in the brain if he or she wishes for their lips to vibrate at the desired frequency. Furthermore, tone color, articulation, phrasing, the entire breathing apparatus and even

25 Louis-François Dauprat, Méthode de Cor Alto et Cor Basse (Complete English Translation of the first edition published by Zetter, Paris, ca. 1824), edited by Viola Roth (Bloomington, IN: Birdalone Music 1994). 26 Fredriksen, Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind (USA, Windsong Press Ltd., 1996).

36 emotional content are all controlled at what Jacobs called the “computer level” of the brain.27

Jacobs dealt with basics that all horn players must address from the beginning of their careers, though he worked most extensively with advanced and professional players.

Audiation and the Horn Player

Audiation, the term coined by Edwin E. Gordon, describes the process of internalizing the pitch, of “singing in the brain” and developing the musician’s inner ear. This is of great importance to the beginning horn player. The modern (single) horn, pitched in F, consists of 12 feet of tubing and uses a mouthpiece much closer to the size of a trumpet than an F tuba of the same length, making the first notes a player sounds likely to be higher in the harmonic series than for other instruments.

In fact, the beginning range of notes is often at least an octave farther away from the fundamental of the harmonic series than any of the other brass instruments. This means that for the beginner, the first notes are located in the part of the range where the partials (notes of the overtone series) are closer together than for other brass, making the notes much harder to find as even a small adjustment of the embouchure or air flow can change the pitch. The issue of pitch accuracy in young horn players can conflict with a band teacher’s desire to start their beginners playing songs and pieces as an ensemble. If not addressed early on, this could lead to

27 Timothy Solinger, “Vocal Music as a Teaching Tool for the Developing Brass Musician,” http://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/music/performances/lecture_recitals2013-14.html, accessed January 4, 2018, 3-4.

37 lifelong problems with accuracy and the creation of bad habits to address years later. In a presentation at the Midwest Band Clinic, Dr. Katherine Johnson tackled many of these concerns for band teachers and horn students alike. Her method is outlined as follows:

Singing as a Memory Tool for Pitch

• Establish a simple and direct process for learning. Pitch and singing should be major components of this routine. • When you practice something in multiple ways such as singing a phrase, buzzing a phrase and playing a phrase, you approach it and experience it from many different angles, thereby creating a deeper and more lasting connection to it. • Routines are a significant pathway to musical connections. • Singing strengthens interval memory, which in turn aids sight-reading. 28

Even though Johnson is communicating in the context of teaching beginners, all of these suggestions apply just as easily to advanced and professional-level horn players.

Further support of the application of singing in the study of horn can be found in the research of Edwin E. Gordon, a music education specialist, who developed Music Learning Theory, a system that teaches a way to hear music in the mind.29 A musician, researcher, teacher, author and lecturer, Gordon also contributed to the process of audiation through the development of Music Aptitude

Profiles, a test designed to let music educators understand a child’s inherent musical

28 Katherine Johnson, “Harnessing the Power of Pitch to Improve Your Horn Section,” https://www.midwestclinic.org/downloads.aspx?type=clinic&src=6f82f1c6, accessed January 6, 2018. 29 Edwin E. Gordon, Learning Sequences in Music, 7th Edition (Chicago, GIA, 2003).

38 strengths and weaknesses.30 In the tonal aptitude portion of Gordon’s MAP tests, the subject is asked to listen to examples of tones or short melodies to determine if they are the same or different. One of the most relevant findings of Gordon’s research into tonal audiation for this study is that most “[students] who scored high on tonal aptitude tests used or attempted to use a singing voice quality.”31 Gordon is not alone in his recognition of the importance of singing and its relationship to the development of aural skills for musicians. Orff, Kodály, Suzuki and Dalcroze methods all rely on the development of aural skills through listening, singing and rote learning. Kathy A. Liperote, in conjunction with Gordon et al, thinks this is because learning music is much like learning a language.32 Since humans take approximately a year to begin speaking, it follows that they also take approximately a year to listen to the language of their culture and to internalize sounds and word patterns. Most of these music methods are grounded in the idea that students should listen and develop their ears before and in conjunction with learning an instrument and Liperote believes that this aural development “will ultimately transfer to increased performance skills on instruments.”33 This is especially crucial in an age where young people’s aural skills are less developed than in decades

30 Goodwin, “Roots of Music Learning Theory and Audiation,” https://www.scribd.com/document/55727140/Roots-of-Music-Learning-Theory-and-Audiation, accessed January 6, 2018, 8. 31 Ibid., 9. 32 Kathy A. Liperote, “Audiation for Beginning Instrumentalists: Listen, Speak, Read Write,” Music Educators Journal, (September, 2006), https://www.scribd.com/document/55727140/Roots- of-Music-Learning-Theory-and-Audiation, accessed January 5. 2018, 46. 33 Ibid., 48.

39 past.34 Liperote suggests that “[activities] that involve singing…can be incorporated into warm-up activities in rehearsals and lessons.”35

On the surface, incorporating singing into lessons and daily practice for the horn player should not be a difficult undertaking. However, this is easier in theory than in practice. Many people are resistant to singing for various reasons, some having to do with being embarassed about how they sound, past criticisms of their voice, or simply a lack of vocal control. Other reasons might include a lack of awareness of techniques to use, when singing might be most beneficial to the practice session or resistance to less traditional horn methods or non-horn techniques. Unfortunately, singing in a lesson or a practice session can be a powerful tool for the horn player; choosing not to use every tool available to increase ones performance skills could actually be detrimental to playing development.

Hornists can adapt certain vocal techniques to their own use before and during playing. One can start by simply singing the main pitches of a certain tonality in order to provide context for aural development. They could then progress to singing the desired pitches, or better yet, pitch patterns of a short melody on a neutral syllable (la, ta, etc.). This combination of exercises is important because

Gordon found in his research that students learn better when dealing with context of the music (tonality) rather than notes in isolation. He writes that

[performing] vocabularies (speaking vocabularies in music) do not consist of isolated pitches or durations any more than a speaking vocabulary is dependent upon knowing the alphabet. We learn to speak words, not letters,

34 Ibid., 48. 35 Ibid., 49.

40 and we learn to perform tonal patterns (and rhythm patterns), not individual pitches and durations.36

An application to horn practice would then be to sing the resting or arrival pitches of the desired tonality or modality, followed by the pitch series or pattern that is currently being practiced. Gordon seems to be saying that using audiation for isolated pitches is less useful when out of context of the tonality of the music at large. For hornists, that means knowing and audiating or mentally hearing the tonality underneath an exposed entrance in an orchestral work or being able to internalize the key and sounds of the piano accompaniment for a solo.

Gordon’s theories and research also extended into the more expressive parts of music making. Objective evaluations of phrasing, balance and style are not easy to make, but Gordon avoided absolutes such as “good” and “bad,” asking test subjects to rate which of two examples were better. Some interesting results came out of

Gordon’s research, namely that “[most] successful students in school music scored highest on preference measures …[scores] on preference measures were highly correlated with students’ potential to learn to create and improvise music.”37

Gordon’s test asks subjects to decide which of two melody renditions sounded better. He used a synthesizer to record melodies and altered variables of timbre, rubato and dynamics in the second version of the melody for each question.38 He also tested these short melody questions on professionals and teachers, who

36 Edwin E. Gordon, “Roots of Music Learning Theory and Audiation,” https://www.scribd.com/document/55727140/Roots-of-Music-Learning-Theory-and-Audiation, accessed January 6, 2018, 10. 37 Ibid., 14. 38 Edwin E. Gordon, “Music Aptitude ad Related Tests,” https://giamusicassessment.com/pdfs/About%20Music%20Aptitude%20and%20Related%20Asses sments.pdf, Accessed February 1, 2018.

41 reliably rated them in a consistent way. Sometimes the differences were subtle: the first melody could be played without much musical inflection and then only one or two tiny changes to expression were made in the second iteration. Gordon’s preference tests measured the ability to hear and rate that difference. The ability to be creative and to hear creatively are two important points in a communicative art such as music in order to connect our music making to ourselves and to others.

Gordon regards audiation as a necessary part of this process:

It was generalized audiation is essential for music preference (which comprises creativity and improvisation) and, thus, audiation is fundamental to both music aptitude and, necessarily, music achievement…To create and improvise is to be able to audiate in a unique manner. That is, students hear what they intend to notate or perform before they notate or perform.39

Hearing what one intends to play before actually making the sound is of paramount importance for an instrument that generally plays quite far away from its fundamental pitches. It is also important to develop the sound and tone that is unique to the individual as well as the phrasing that excites and interests the listener and performer alike.

Bel Canto for the Horn Player

Some of the most recent useful contributions to the connection between horn playing and singing have been made by the work of Dr. Denise Root Pierce. Root

Pierce’s document, “Applying the study of bel canto vocal technique to artistic horn playing,” contains a useful comparison of how horn players and singing pedagogues

39 Gordon, “Roots of Music Learning,” 15.

42 describe approaches to similar technical issues.40 Bel canto translates to “beautiful singing” and is a vocal style and technique out of the Italian singing traditions of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The operatic composers whose works are most identified with the bel canto era are Vincenzo Bellini and Gaetano Donizetti. Root

Pierce writes that the “great bel canto singers of the early nineteenth century were known for their refined technique, perfect legato, even tone, sparkling agility, and beautiful musical expression.”41 The main categories that Root Pierce covers are legato, tonal evenness, agility and musical expression and she compares the writings of bel canto teachers to that of famous horn teachers and players. Root Pierce’s approach to legato starts small, with exercises that encourage taking a generous, relaxed breath42 to produce a single, beautiful tone without a tongued articulation.43

From there, Root Pierce gradually adds notes to form a smooth legato beginning with small intervals and moving to larger ones. She notes that “[this] graduated approach prevents bad habits from forming, consequently preventing injury…In addition, expanding interval exercises are very good preparation for bel canto agility.”44 Root Pierce also discusses the concept of portamento and how it may occur on the horn. Portamento, in “vocal terminology, [involves] the connection of two notes by passing audibly through the intervening pitches.”45 The horn is not as well-known for this capability as the violin or trombone; however, it is a useful

40 Root Pierce, 16. 41 Ibid., 16 42 Ibid., 51. 43 Ibid., 53. 44 Ibid., 57 45 Ellen, T. Harris, “Portamento,” Oxford Music Online, https://doi-org.proxy- tu.researchport.umd.edu/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40990, accessed January 20, 2018.

43 technique for learning to play legato over wider intervals. Mouthpiece glissandos between pitches with ever-swifter embouchure changes is a starting point for getting the feel and control over the portamento slur. Philip Farkas created a large- interval exercise in his book, The Art of French Horn Playing, to deal with the fact that the embouchure must continue to vibrate while changing notes, even over large intervallic distances. He wrote

If slurs are played too “clean,” suddenly they sound as “neat” and dry as tongued notes. Some players feel that because they “observed the letter of the law” and avoided attacking a note, they have successfully made a slur. However, the slur must not only be done right mechanically, but must also sound right musically. If it takes place so suddenly and stiffly that the ear doesn’t enjoy it, it has not accomplished its purpose. There is a correct time element between notes which produce beautiful slurs and this speed is only revealed by practice. The slur must not take place too fast. The time between two notes of music should not be too short or the slur will lose its liquid smoothness. On the other hand, the slur must not be so slow that other intervening notes are given time to sound. 46

Root Pierce concurs, writing,

Coordinating the airspeed change with the lip change is critical to the fluidity of the slur. If the changes are made too slowly, a “portamento” slur will occur, with additional notes sounding in between the desired pitches. At times this may be the desired effect, but if a smooth, musical legato is the goal, the change between notes must be perfectly timed…47

Portamento can thus be both a powerful practice aid and teaching tool or, if over- done, a negative reflection of air, lip and (sometimes) finger coordination. Striking a balance is a crucial part of developing legato on the horn.

Root Pierce also discusses the concept of tonal evenness “as a highly-valued bel canto quality” or what singers refer to as registration.48 This is the idea that

46 Philip Farkas, The Art of French Horn Playing (Summy-Birchard Inc, Miami, Fl, 1956), 47. 47 Root Pierce, 59. 48 Ibid., 67.

44 sound or tone must be consistently even across the range and that there should be no idea of major tonal differences between registers. Root Pierce recommends several exercises to help move between registers for horn players, again beginning with producing a single, beautiful note and then gradually working outwards through the range. Interestingly, Root Pierce focuses heavily on messa di voce exercises that are prescribed by several bel canto master teachers as important to registration. For horn players, messe di voce are basically long tone exercises involving various versions of gradual crescendo and diminuendo.

Fig. 3.1: Messa di voce/Long Tone Exercise with dynamics

Their efficacy is espoused by singers and horn players alike to develop sound and dynamic control. Different versions of these long tone exercises are found in most major wind methods, including books by Farkas, Marion Hesse, Maxime-Alphonse,

Eli Epstein and others. Singers also use this to improve weak notes at various points in their range, helping to smooth the transition over the passaggio or vocal break.

Cornelius Reid describes it thus:

In advanced stages of training the performance of the messa di voce must be practiced continually until there is an exact matching of both quality and intensity at the point of transition. After this technique has been mastered the ‘break’ disappears, and the singer is able to pass freely from one register to the other, from soft to loud and loud to soft, without difficulty.49

49 Cornelius L. Reid, Bel Canto Principles and Practices (New York, Coleman-Ross Company, Inc., 1950), 98.

45 Horn players do not generally use long-tone exercises to smooth embouchure breaks unless they are trying to expand the range of a certain embouchure set.

Instead, horn players work to find pivot points in phrases and exercises where they can transition from one register set-up to another, focusing on jaw positions and vowel changes. Across the literature, long tones such as the messa di voce are used mostly for strength, while scales and lip slurs between and over embouchure breaks are recommended for smoothing registers. Root Pierce focuses more on vowel changes for large interval leaps and moving between registers for the horn player than the emphasis placed on the messa di voce exercises by singers.

When it comes to agility, singers and horn players agree that slow practice with a focus on good tone production is the best way to begin. Root Pierce notes that fundamental to both the singer and horn player “is the ability to control the airstream, which affects accuracy, sound quality and intonation.”50 For both types of musicians, scales and arpeggios are integral to developing a secure, agile technique.

All of the exercises recommended by Root Pierce for horn that mirror vocalists’ training start slowly, with small-sized versions of scales and arpeggios, moving on to full versions over many octaves in various rhythmic and articulation patterns at ever-increasing tempos. Root Pierce also recommends this kind of vertical training for smoothing over the various registers changes of the horn, playing the exercises at first solely within a specific register (likely with a single embouchure set) and then transposing the exercises to the occur across register breaks.51 Root Pierce also

50 Root Pierce, 104. 51 Ibid., 121.

46 discusses the differences between consonant sounds for articulation used in different registers and the necessity of a light articulation in the upper register:

One must attempt to keep the high notes as light as possible, allowing the tongue to pop it out using fast air with strong abdominal support, rather than overblowing the [notes] with a large volume of air. Connecting two notes by means of the consonant “t” at a fast tempo enables one to play cleanly with a light mechanism in tongued passages that require agility.52

This applies to both wide leaps and rapid scale passages, found frequently in

Mozart’s and Strauss’s horn concerti..

Musical expression is the last category to be covered by Root Pierce and she understands it to be generally described as “primarily as a function of tempo

(timing) and dynamic variation.”53 This supposes that other technical requirements are in place. While singers can rely on words to help them with expressive aspects of musical interpretation, horn players are restricted to sound and self-expression.

Arnold Jacobs addressed his vocal-centric sound concept, saying

I sing in my head what has to go out the horn…my whole concentration is not on what I feel like or sound like, but what I want the audience to hear. It’s like telling a story but instead of words, you tell it with concepts of sound.54

This also fits with Gordon’s theory of audiation and musical expression. Not only is audiation a good precondition for intonation and accuracy for the brass player, it also can help to aid the sound concept appropriate for a certain emotion, character or situation. Root Pierce also considers the idea of imitation, that is of listening to great players, absorbing as much of the fine details of their performing and incorporating those ideas and sounds into one’s own playing. Having many aural

52 Ibid., 129. 53 Ibid., 130. 54 Fredriksen, 138.

47 models and using trial and error in imitating those models is crucial to the development of a musician’s sound concept, to include tone color, phrasing, articulation and even breathing.55

Also of note is how Root Pierce recommends approaching dynamics and rubato. There is a great importance placed on the messa di voce exercises for dynamic control across all ranges and dynamic levels. If the purpose of bel canto is freedom of expression56, then the horn player or singer needs to have a large variety of dynamics from which to choose, in any range, without regard for difficulty, in any range. Rubato57 is a technique that can be applied best after imitating great artists and then experimenting with one’s own performance to create some unique and personally meaningful phrasing. Root Pierce’s final point about musical expression underscores the need to gain and use the plethora of bel canto techniques to be good communicators of a personal, musical experience.58

The Role of Text

One advantage that singers have over all instrumentalists is that of text.

While there are works that are meant to be sung without words, the majority of vocal pieces are text that is set to music. This enables a singer to have ready-made

55 Kristian Steenstrup, Teaching Brass, 2nd rev. ed. (Aarhus, Denmark: Royal Academy of Music, 2007), 52-53. 56 Root Pierce, 143. 57 Defined by Alison Latham as “the practice in performance of disregarding strict time, ‘robbing’ some note-values for expressive effect and creating an atmosphere of spontaneity. Rubato is generally achieved in one of two ways. First, the pulse remains constant but expressive nuances are created by making small changes to the rhythmic values of individual notes... Second, changes in tempo are made to all parts simultaneously, the performer applying *accelerando and *ritardando at his or her own discretion.” The Oxford Companion to Music Online, 2011, accessed April 1, 2018. 58 Root Pierce, 143.

48 musical ideas and a guide to inform choices that need to be created based on the emotion of the words or the dramatic context of the story being sung. This contrasts with a large portion of the solo horn catalog that is made up of absolute music, or music that forgoes having any kind of obvious story or program.59 Absolute music encompasses some of the most beautiful pieces in any musician’s repertoire and hornists have been playing these concerti, sonatas and songs with great musical and artistic success for a long time.

From a technical standpoint, horn players use components of language every time they play. Tone is dependent on vowel sounds which change depending on where in the range the horn player is creating sound. Eli Epstein writes that “vowels are crucial to improving accuracy, clarity and centeredness of sound in all registers…Each pitch on the horn requires a specific air speed, and controlling the oral-cavity size by thinking of different vowel sounds on pitch is an effective way to produce the right one.”60 Generally speaking, the vowel sound for lower pitches tends to be more open (for example, “oh” or “aw”) while the sound for higher pitches inclines towards vowels that create less space in the oral cavity (such as

“ee”). Epstein also discusses how vowel sounds help the hornist to create legato slurs, suggesting that one should “use the ‘haw,’ ‘huh,’ ‘heh,’ and ‘hee’ when we need to slur from one note to another. The [addition of the] ‘h’ sound helps us aspirate

59 Roger Scruton, “Absolute Music,” Grove Music Online, accessed March 21, 2018, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy2.library.arizona.edu/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/ 9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000000069?rskey=ePvdwl&result=1, January 20, 2001. 60 Eli Epstein, 17.

49 with enough air to slur to the next note.”61 When demonstrating or practicing articulation, teachers and players will use a range of consonant sounds from a hard

“T” sound, through “ts” and “th” to a soft “d.” Having a range of possible “articulation sounds [adds] to our palette of expression” and it is necessary for all advanced players to develop the gamut of articulation consonants on every note of the horn.62

From an expressive standpoint, text is not strictly necessary for horn playing, though it can lend a layer of interpretation and meaning to a horn player’s preparation of a musical work. Horn players can do this in a number of ways, including creating a story line for the music in question or actually creating words for the notes of a particular phrase. Arnold Jacobs was a proponent of both of these approaches. He is quoted as saying, “Wind players must look at the phrase, think about it, put words to it if it helps. I am not telling you what your musical message should be. I’m only saying that you must have one.”63 On a larger scale, even pieces of music that have no obvious story need all the components found in a story

(introduction, exposition, conflict, climax, resolution and denouement).

From a phrasing standpoint, musicians need a plan for phrasing and expressions and should be able to locate the high and low points of each phrase and in the entire piece of music. By attaching images from a story to certain episodes in a song or movement, one can clarify one’s musical objectives in a particular section and make other decisions with regards to dynamics, pacing and articulations. On a smaller scale, horn players could then sing the phrase with their new text, instead of

61 Epstein, 22. 62 Ibid., 35. 63 Fredriksen, 154.

50 a neutral syllable, adding another way to sing in preparation for playing. This last method is particularly important when preparing a vocal transcription for performance. Singing the words, even badly, gives a sense of the syllabic stress that the singer produces. As well, if the hornist has studied the text (and its literal translation, if applicable), knowing the most important word of the phrase helps to underline the musical high points of the phrase or to create a solid case for an arrival point of a phrase if one is not immediately obvious.

This comes back to vocal transcriptions in a very tangible way. If horn players study and perform vocal transcriptions, there is the benefit of not only having access to a wider variety of music, but also to the stories and images that they convey in their texts. We can listen to a great singer singing pieces of vocal music and get new and refined concepts of sound for our inner ear. We can sing along with recordings of singers or sing the words of a song without having to write our own story or sentence. By watching a live or recorded opera production, we can gain visual inspiration. We can enrich the audiating experience of the pieces we choose to play by active listening to others and ourselves, both as horn players and singers.

We can assemble all of this information as a kind of musical cross-training, as described by Travis Netzer, tuba instructor at Northern State University. The early solo literature for tuba is even more limited than that for the horn, and tubists use transcriptions fairly regularly to supplement their repertoire. Netzer applies the sports term of cross-training “to describe using transcription as a tool that is outside the realm of work…to help the performer train in order to improve the

51 performance.”64 In this context, musical cross-training necessarily contributes to making great and imaginative music.

64 Travis Netzer, “Cross Training for Tuba: A Pedagogical Approach to Improving the Performance of Tuba Literature Through the Use of Transcriptions” (DMA Dissertation, Arizona State University, 2016) https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/170424/content/Netzer_asu_0010E_15823.pdf, accessed December 27, 2017, 4.

52 CHAPTER IV

VOCAL ELEMENTS IN HORN LITERATURE AND REPERTOIRE

This study has chosen to focus on works of Mozart and Strauss for the simple reason that all horn players who look to become professionals should play the concerti by these two composers. Once a horn player begins to learn Mozart and

Strauss concerti, they will likely return to them many times over the course of their playing career. Mozart’s Concerto in Eb, K. 495 and Strauss’s Concerto No. 1 in Eb

Major, Op. 11 are standard repertoire for professional orchestral auditions, summer festivals, university entrance auditions and various competitions. With so much emphasis placed on select composers and a limited number of their compositions, it would be easy for the horn player to experience musical fatigue when preparing these works over and over again during the course of their professions. Fortunately,

Mozart and Strauss did not restrict themselves to writing horn concerti, and are renowned for their work in many other genres, including opera. This provides a wealth of works from which to gain inspiration and understanding for the horn player outside of the context of horn playing. By studying the elements in the horn concerti that are also found in the vocal writing of Mozart and Strauss, horn players can hope to deepen their understanding of the composer’s style while enhancing their personal playing and interpretation.

There are a variety of musical elements that appear in the Mozart’s Concerto in Eb K. 495 and Strauss’s Horn Concerto, Op. 11 that happen in their respective vocal works. There are a large number of motivic similarities, almost as if both composers were quoting their own works in their concerti. Tone color and tessitura also find

53 important counterpoints between the horn works and vocal arias. Vocal approaches such as Denise Root Pierce’s application of bel canto technique to horn playing are very useful in providing an alternate language to describe and aid the horn technique needed to play these concerti.65

Writing for Horn and Voice

From the operatic stage to the symphonic world or the intimate setting of a chamber music group, horn players have often played melodies originally written for singers; they have collaborated with vocalists in chamber music and the concert stage and have been inspired to emulate beautiful singing in their playing. If there is a truly idiomatic way to write for the horn, it is helpful to remember the intervalic structure of the harmonic series of a brass instrument. Some of the most famous modern compositions for horn, such as Rheinhold Glière’s Concerto for Horn, use the harmonic series as both a technical element and melodic inspiration. This is most obvious in the opening cadenza-like section of his Concerto, where the solo hornist gradually rises through an ascending figure and the intervals gradually become smaller and smaller until the soloist reaches the apex of the phrase before launching into the main theme of the first movement. While not an exact replication of the horn’s harmonic series, there can be no doubt of the material’s origin. Larger intervalic leaps in the lower range and smaller intervals or stepwise motion in the upper reaches occur frequently in horn literature, both solo and orchestra. Another example is the opening of Richard Strauss’s Ein Heldenleben, a virtuosic excerpt

65 Root Pierce, 16.

54 covering three octaves. As in the Glière, the larger intervals occur mostly at the beginning of the excerpt in the low range, while the whole and half steps only happen once the horn player is above c2 at the top of the treble clef staff.

This kind of writing relates favorably to writing for voice. While not usually covering the same extremities of range, vocal writing features much of the same stepwise motion in the middle and upper tessituras. Larger intervallic leaps are not uncommon in the upper register; using smaller intervals to prepare the apex of a phrase for a singer may be easier from a technical standpoint. Idiomatic writing for singers is more difficult to define in a general sense, possibly because singing is even older than horn playing and has richer, more widespread influences of culture, style, history and genre. Also, writing for a mechanical device subject to the harmonic series and tubing length changes associated with pressing valves down is materially different than writing for the human voice. Often the technique required to sing a certain piece of music depends on those factors of culture, style, historical period and genre and will differ greatly between a bel canto aria by Donizetti, a Schubert lied or a popular folksong. None of these composers write anything that would typify all aspects of idiomatic voice writing when taken as a group. However, to sing each composer’s respective works requires techniques that have broad characteristics in common like breathing, posture, resonance, vowel/consonant manipulation and vibrato.

From a performing aspect there is a surprising amount of overlap in vocal music that also appears as instrumental material, either as small motives, larger themes or entire works. Sometimes these are collaborative efforts such as the aria

55 “Va tacito e nascosto” from Georg Friedrich Händel’s opera Giulio Cesare between solo horn and Julius Caesar. While the two are not heard much at the same time during the course of the aria (the horn part being often described as an obbligato), the musical material of the aria appears in both the singer’s and the hornist’s parts.

This can be particularly interesting when the melodic texture alternates between horn and singer and serves to punctuate the musical phrases being sung. Charles

Burney, a noted English music historian in the eighteenth century, wrote of the aria,

“The French-horn part, which is almost a perfect echo to the voice, has never been equalled in any Air, so accomplished, that I remember.”66

There are many famous examples of composers transcribing vocal songs into their compositions. Some of the most famous and beloved ones admired by horn players are found in the symphonies of Gustav Mahler. Revered during his life as a conductor, particularly of opera, Mahler never extended his composing into the operatic world. Instead, Mahler wrote a series of lieder and song cycles that also formed the musical foundation of many of his symphonies. The relationship between Mahler’s Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (1884-85) and Symphony No. 1

(“Titan”) (1887-88) is fairly explicit, with the second lied of the cycle, “Ging heut’ morgens über feld,” permeating the first movement as a whole and horn parts in particular. Music historian Robert Greenberg commented in a 2008 interview on the close connection to vocal music, saying

I think for Mahler, his symphonies were his operas, his all-inclusive artworks…In Mahler’s ear, the same moods of natural beauty, tinged by the

66 W. D. H. Blandford, "Händel's Horn and Trombone Parts," The Musical Times, 80.1160 (1939), 697, http://www.jstor.org.proxy-tu.researchport.umd.edu/stable/pdf/921745.pdf, accessed January 3, 2018.

56 bitter pain of rejection existed in the first symphony, as well. Without the words, it’s still the same music, and it represents the same mood.67

Mahler also incorporated soloists and chorus into several of his symphonies, so writing for voice within the context of a complex instrumental musical work was also an important part of his compositions. Brass players can experience the song cycle Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen as a transcription and it is widely used in recital by various instruments.

W. A. Mozart: Concerto for Horn, K. 495, First Movement

Composed for Mozart’s friend and horn virtuoso Joseph Leutgeb, the concerto was completed in 1786, shortly after Le nozze di Figaro. The original manuscript was composed in multi-colored ink and scholars for many years suggested that the colors and the additional commentary by Mozart were part of a joking relationship with Leutgeb, meant to distract the legendary hornist.68 New scholarship by Karsten Notielmann has suggested that the colors of the ink may be related to a collaborative effort between Leutgeb and Mozart and that the concerti may have been co-composed to a certain extent by both men.69 If this were indeed the case, it would have been an interesting meeting of the minds: Leutgeb obviously knew his instrument quite intimately while Mozart, during this period, was coming into the maturity of his compositional powers. The process of writing and

67 Robert Greenberg, interviewed by Liane Hansen, Weekend Edition Sunday, “The Operatic Punch in Mahler’s Symphonies,” Sunday, May 18, 2008, accessed February 3, 2018, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=90465330. 68 Michael Thomas Roeder, The History of the Concerto (USA, Amadeus Press, 2003). 69 Karsten Nottelmann, “’Die Solo gab Leitgeb dazu’: Neues zu Mozarts Hornkonzerten,” Acta Mozartiana, 59:2 (2012), 124.

57 completing the concerto, while not directly related to the Figaro, came on the heels of a successful foray into the opera world.

The Concerto in Eb, K. 495, was written for hand horn and its attendant technique, of which Leutgeb was a recognized master. Leutgeb was known for the virtuoso acrobatics of playing but especially for his cantabile style in lyrical passages and even across wide interval leaps. Horace Fitzpatrick notes, “this ability to slur smoothly and expressively over wide intervals has remained a definitive feature of the Austrian horn-playing style to the present day.”70 At this point, hornists were placing their hands in the bell of the horn, the wrap of the horn was tighter than it had been previously to accommodate this and the bell throat was also enlarged.

Instead of staying mainly with triadic notes in arpeggiated figures, composers could now compose using more stepwise motion, using the open notes of the harmonic series as the melodic landmarks. The horn player used a stopped sound to lower the pitch of open notes and this helped fill in some of the chromatic notes that were previously unavailable. Since the natural horn can only start to approximate stepwise motion after the 7th harmonic partial, this was a major innovation in the

19th century. The hand horn player could also gently modify the pitch of those open harmonics that were too out of tune for previous solo or ensemble use, thus making even more available pitches for the player and composer. Cynthia Horton, writing about this period of emerging hand-horn technique, notes that

[the] beautiful sonority of the hand-horn was perhaps its most admired quality. The tone, with shades of light and dark, was thought to resemble the human voice, bringing praise for its “singing” quality. Aspiring horn players

70 Horace Fitzpatrick. The Horn and Horn Playing and the Austro-Hungarian tradition from 1680-1830 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 65.

58 were first recommended to train in the art of singing to develop the ear and breath control required to play such a slippery instrument.”71

Modern-day horn players would likely agree with Horton’s evaluation that the horn can be a “slippery instrument,” with or without valves.

In the first movement of Mozart’s K. 495, one of the notable characteristics that set it up for comparison with his arias is the range which, used in the first movement is quite limited. Fitzpatrick writes that in “none of his concerti does

Mozart exhaust the range limits of the Eb horn, and although he wrote fairly high notes in Concerti No. 2 and 4, he did not employ them very frequently.”72 This is a curious thing because horn players in Mozart’s time tended to specialize in the low or high registers. A soloist of Leutgeb’s caliber must have been accomplished in both areas though not without a preference for where he wished to play. The total range of the first movement for Eb horn is bb to eb2 in concert pitch. If one were to exclude the solitary bar of g (Eb horn) in measure 131, then the total range of the first movement would be bb1 to eb2 (concert pitch). This constitutes about one and a half octaves and is not dissimilar to the range used by Mozart for his arias. This particular pitch set could possibly even be used for a mezzo-soprano. What is also interesting about the range of the concerto is that Mozart doesn’t compose the horn part to stay in the upper end of the range. Instead, the horn part stays mostly in the middle of the range, with only a few incursions to c3 (Eb horn) in the exposition and recapitulation and none at all in the development section. When comparing K. 495 to the high, clarino-like playing required in Josef Haydn’s Symphony No. 31, called “Mit

71 Horton, 28-29. 72 Fitzpatrick, 62.

59 dem Hornsignal” and composed 21 years earlier, or to the pitch of Carl Maria von

Weber’s Concertino for Horn, composed 29 years later, Mozart’s range looks eminently more reasonable. Also, because Mozart doesn’t require the hornist to play continuously in the higher end of the range for the first movement, both the player and the audience members are given ample opportunities for physical and aural rest.

Mozart borrowed extensively from his own works for musical and thematic material, using ideas in new and unique ways or sometimes directly quoting one work in another piece. Mozart’s horn concerti are no exception to this phenomenon and it is possible to use these connections and similarities to gain a new and deeper understanding of motives within the larger work. There are several motives in K.

495 that parallel ideas found in Mozart’s operas. A horn player can use this information to experience the music in a different way and create a more imaginative context for the horn concerto.

The opening theme of the second exposition is an example of a motive that Concerto in Eb, K. 495, mm. 43-46 can be found elsewhere in Mozart’s arias. Mozart

w ˙ œ œ . œ œ œ & c w œ œ œ Œ

Fig. 4.1. Mozart, Horn Concerto in E-flat, K. 495, I, Exposition, Primary theme. (Horn in Eb)

A close cousin to this 4-measure motive can be found in “Dalla sua pace” from Don

Giovanni, composed just a year after the K. 495 horn concerto, in 1787.

60 Dalla sua pace

Mozart

œ # 2 œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ & 4 œ J

Fig. 4.2. Mozart, “Dalla sua pace” from Don Giovanni, Opening theme. (Horn in Eb)

Other than meter and key, one of the largest differences between the two motives is that the aria is more embellished than the horn concerto motive. The downbeats of the first three measures of the tenor solo cover an arpeggiated triad, much like the horn concerto. However, the weaker beats of measures 2 and 3 contain triads that fill out the musical motion and give the words a harmonic and melodic purpose. The measures that follow (mm. 4-5) are remarkable in their likeness to the horn concerto’s motive. The same scalar descending motion appears after the high note, and the phrase concludes with a decorated appoggiatura figure.

The aria contains a bit more embellishment before resolving to the main chord tone in the second beat of measure 5. The other primary difference is the location within the scale where the motive takes place. The horn concerto begins on the tonic and outlines a tonic triad in mm. 43-45 while the tenor solo begins on the dominant, outlines the tonic triad within m. 2 and moves through IV harmony (m. 3) with the downbeat falling on the 6th scale degree before arriving back on the tonic in m. 4.

The overall harmonic motion is that of tonicization, but Mozart is a bit more adventurous harmonically with the voice than with the horn.

The secondary theme of the horn exposition gives over to florid, virtuosic scales in the solo part, not unlike some of the coloratura passages in “No, che non sei capace,” a concert aria composed by Mozart for Aloysia Weber, his wife’s sister.

61 Aloysia Weber was one of the premiere sopranos of the era and was well known for her high range and virtuosic technique as well as her prodigious musicianship. The secondary theme of the aria matches the horn concerto in structure but is far more decorative and difficult, probably because Mozart wrote the passage with Aloysia’s particular technical gifts in mind. It is notable because of its place in the aria and how its occurrence seems to closely parallel the harmonic rhythm of the horn concerto. This is no doubt due to Mozart’s adaptive use of sonata form in both pieces of music.

No, che non sei capace Fig. 4.3. Mozart, Horn Concerto in E-flat, K. 495, I, mm. 64-75, Horn in Eb. W. A, Mozart

˙ œ œ œ #˙ œœ œœ œœ œ œ #œ œœ œ œ œ œ & c ˙ !œ œœ œœ œ ! ‰ ‰

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ#œ œ œ œ œ#œ œ œ & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ ! œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ#œ J œ œ œœ œœœ œœœ œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ & J œ œ#œ œ

˙ #˙ œ. . œ & œ #˙ œ œ ˙ œ ˙. œ œ œ Œ Ó " Fig. 4.4. Mozart, “No, che non sei capace,” Secondary Theme.

" " " & 62

& " " "

& " " " Something interesting about these two ideas is how similar the structure is while being so obviously written for different instruments and technical capabilities. Both passages rely on a secondary dominant (V of V) for their underlying harmony, and seek to outline that chord throughout much of both passages, with a brief pass at the dominant before the final cadence and reaffirming the new key of the secondary theme. The aria almost seems to be a variation on the horn theme with many more scalar passages and extremes of register, especially in the second half of the theme.

The other observation is how idiomatically Mozart writes for the instrument for the technique of specific singers (such as Caterina Cavalieri or Aloysia Weber) and it is intriguing to imagine how he might have written for the modern horn and horn player.

In the development section, Mozart chooses a minor key. For the natural horn player, this section is not just darker in terms of tonality, but also because of a greater number of the pitches that would need to be stopped or semi-stopped in order to be achieved. The development section also contains a simpler melody than the more virtuosic scale passages of the exposition. Perhaps this is for reasons of melodic contrast but it allows the performer to show off superior tone and to explore the middle range of the horn before the recapitulation, which re-enters the upper register. The contrast between the textures of the exposition and the development bring to mind the melodic contrasts found between the exposition and development sections of “Ah, se in crudel Periglio” from Lucio Silla. The singer engages in wild coloratura in the exposition and recapitulation of this sonata form aria. Mozart writes a much simpler theme in a lower tessitura and a minor key for

63 the development. The aria’s development section is more abbreviated than the first movement of K. 495 and does not contain a return to a major tonality with the singer, unlike the major key theme that emerges for the soloist in the horn concerto.

Instead, the aria reverts back to the recapitulation after a cadence in the minor key.

Motivically, the development section of Horn Concerto K. 495K. 495 - Development’s first movement has a close

W.A. Mozart correspondence with the opening melody of “Ach ich fühl’s” from Die Zauberflöte.

˙ œ ˙ œ œ j & c œ œ œ ˙ #œ Œ œ œ œ. œœœ ‰ œ b˙ #˙

œ. Achœ œ ichœ fuhl's#œ -n œopening#œ nœ themeœ. œ œ Œ & J J Fig. 4.5. Mozart, Concerto in E-flat, K. 495, I, Development Theme. (Horn in EW. A.b) Mozart

b 6 œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ & b 8 Œ ‰ œœ œœ‰ œ ‰ œ. œœœ œ#œ ‰ œ œ œ. œ œ ‰ Œ.

Fig. 4.6. Mozart, ”Ach ich fühl’s,” from Die Zauberflöte, Opening Melody.

Both motives have a five note descending scale in a minor tonality followed by a wide leap up to the top note of the motive. In the case of the horn concerto, the descending pentascale has a small appoggiatura figure at the bottom of the motive’s melodic contour before leaping up the interval of a minor 7th. “Ach ich fühl’s” does not have the appoggiatura figure and remains on the tonic at the bottom of the pentascale before jumping up the slightly larger interval of an octave.

64 Mozart: Concerto in Eb, K. 495, I – Applied Vocal Techniques

The first movement of K. 495 has long, legato lines, flurries of agile scalar passages and neatly delineated musical phrases. Beginning with the horn entrance in m. 36, a continuous legato buzz, coupled with a steady airstream and gentle articulation, connects the phrase as a whole.

Fig. 4.7. Mozart, Horn Concerto, K. 495, I, mm. 36-40. (Horn in Eb)

The legato portion of the melody requires a generous breath in the first two beats of m. 36 and what Denise Root Pierce calls a portamento buzz throughout.73 This helps maintain the smoothness of the line because the buzz remains continuous between notes and the air maintains the buzz with well-supported breaths. Articulations should employ a gentle “dah” consonant so as to minimally interrupt the air stream and the line, even at the end of the phrase in m. 39, beats 3 and 4, which is traditionally articulated. Some separation of notes can occur here, but the musical line should carry through, bringing the notes forward through the musical energy as they lead to the downbeat of m. 40. The author has placed the arrival point of the phrase, or what Pierce calls the pivot-point, on the downbeat of m. 39 and there could be a slight diminuendo from that point until m. 40,without losing too much momentum as the rest of the movement is yet to come.74

73 Root Pierce, 145. 74 Ibid., 146.

65 The solo horn part really begins in m. 43, with the first theme of the second exposition. In mm. 43-46, beauty of sound and direction of the musical line are paramount as the horn opens with long durations. The hornist must take a large breath to support a steady airstream and gradual crescendo through mm. 43-45, since the arrival point on the dissonant downbeat in m. 46, resolves harmonically in beat 3. The downbeats of each measure should be articulated with a soft “dah” consonant making every effort to maintain an uninterrupted air flow so as to keep the legato line intact. The consequent phrase in mm. 47-50 expands upon the range that the horn player used previously, starting in the middle register

Fig. 4.8. Mozart. Horn Concerto K. 495, I, mm. 47-50. (Horn in Eb)

The horn player, like the singer, must be conscious of having to alter the vowel placement (and thus the oral cavity) upon ascending from the a1 – a2 in m. 47 from

“ugh”/ “ə” to “ee” and must control the pace at which that vowel shape descends and ascends again in mm. 48 and 49. The arrival point of this phrase is in m. 50 on the downbeat and feels even more dissonant than the previous phrase. On the natural horn, the d#2 would have been a strong, hand-stopped note resolving to an open harmonic. This play between dark and light tone color combined with the dissonance of the appoggiatura needs to be maintained on the valved horn as well.

The final phrase of the first theme begins as restatement of the consequent phrase, but is altered to show off the hornist’s technical agility and to cadence in the tonic key of Eb Major.

Fig. 4.9. Mozart, Horn Concerto K. 495, I, mm. 51-54. (Horn in Eb)

The horn player must prepare for the high c3 in m. 52 by carefully placing the vowel on the first note of the phrase (g1) carefully in a modified “ugh/ə”.” This action therefore aids the transition to the “ee” vowel shape so that the acceleration of the air speed and lip vibration as the melody ascends smoothly into the high range. Also essential is the agility necessary to play this rapid scalar passage. To maintain a singing style, Root Pierce notes that “[to] move quickly and easily one needs to resist the attempt to play with a ‘big’ sound, bearing down or pressing into the notes, and instead concentrate on phrase direction, portamento buzz and playing with a light concept.”75 The arrival point of the phrase actually produces the high note on the g2 of the downbeat of m. 53, which helps the performer see a musical goal beyond the scale itself. The articulation of the scale in this phrase can cause the horn player trouble if it is over-articulated and heavy. A better approach is to focus on keeping the air moving and a light tongue with just enough of a point on it to provide definition to the notes. Also, having a forward, focused sound and tongue placement on the descent of the scale is important since the melody line jumps back to g2 in m.

53 and an overly open oral cavity would make that leap more difficult to play.

The transition theme begins in m. 56 and ends in m. 64 in the dominant key

(F Major). Of importance for the horn player is maintaining the legato style and airstream of the first theme while keeping the articulation from interrupting the

75 Root Pierce, 150.

67 flow of the phrase. Appoggiatura in m. 58, 60 and 62 should be attended with subtle emphasis on each one before resolving to the harmony of the rest of their respective measures. The next phrase from mm. 64-70 signals the beginning of the secondary theme and an exploration of virtuosic scale motives. Each scale gets progressively higher at its apex, requiring the horn player to move from the comfortable middle register to the upper register without a break or reset of the embouchure. Instead of external changes to ease these passages, the horn player must set the vowel sound for the initial pitch of each scale a bit more closed and closer to “ee” than they might normally. This helps to make sure that the reduction in size necessary for the oral cavity as pitch moves from c2 to c3 is not as extreme. The size reduction of the oral cavity also helps the necessary increase in air speed and vibration as the hornist ascends. It is also imperative that the tongue not be placed too high and played lightly or too much disruption will take place behind the embouchure. Eli Epstein’s consonant-vowel combination “tseh” for the first three notes (c2 to d2) of this passage moves to “tee” or “dee” for the notes e2 and above.76 This author prefers a voice “th” consonant for the entire scale passage, with the vowel changing from “eh” to “ee” around e2. Subtle articulation differences can arise due to variations in anatomy and equipment from person to person.

The rest of the secondary theme from mm. 70-75 is a chance for the horn player to show off beautiful tone and phrasing through the relatively longer half- notes. Arnold Jacobs’ idea of adding ones own words in the passage would be especially helpful to play without care for the approaching climax of the phrase on

76 Epstein, 31.

68 the first beat of m. 74 and the consequent cadence in m. 75. The interlude to the codetta section in mm. 75-79 is the first hint of a more hunting horn style. Even so, using the vocal technique of vowel modulation “ee” to “eh” in m. 77 will help the horn player execute the interval without hitting any other harmonics if the switch is coordinated and fast. The codetta begins at m. 79 and again involves long durations that could easily lose musical focus. The horn player should begin in m. 79 with a piano dynamic on g2 and crescendo steadily through the whole notes of mm. 80-82.

In m. 83, the momentum of the crescendo should continue, though the hornist can take advantage of the ascending line beginning in m. 84 to regroup and build to the trill for a satisfying end to the exposition.

The Development section opens with a theme previously unheard in the movement and has a descending linear movement, unlike the main themes of the exposition. The tonality moves to minor and the horn player can darken the tone by covering the bell slightly with the hand, if desired. The first note of the opening phrase, d2, should be played to a luxuriously full value and the appoggiatura on the descending line should be stressed.

Fig. 4.10. Mozart, Horn Concerto K. 495, I, mm. 97-100. (Horn in Eb)

The second iteration of the opening motive deserves the same treatment, with the arrival point occurring on the down beat of m. 100. Care should be taken with the sixteenth notes of m. 100 so they are not played too quickly. As the phrase continues in mm. 101-104, the horn player should not be too flippant about the

69 highest note of the phrase in m. 102, especially if slurring to the f2 and then tonguing the following e2. A portamento buzz through this second phrase is important and the horn player must thread the line between the chromatic notes, making sure the airstream is connected throughout and the subtle embouchure changes are finely choreographed.

The phrase at mm. 112-115 is the first instance in the entire concerto of such large intervals. First the horn leaps downwards from c2 to c1 then up to g2, necessitating large changes in vowel shape, air speed and embouchure. Many horn players breathe before the g2 in m. 115, allowing a complete reset of everything and allowing complete reset of the placement of the embouchure and vowel for the agility needed to play the lip trills in mm. 117 and 118. The third main idea of the

Development section follows at mm. 120-124 and comes from the miniature horn hunting call in the interlude to the codetta. Vowel shape is crucial here to shape slurs from a higher partial to a lower one, especially when the interval increases from a major third to a perfect fourth. The last solo horn phrase in mm. 128-132 of the development requires agile octave leaps from g2 to g1 to g; after holding out the high note for two measures, the tongue then requires nimbleness for the eighth notes on the g1 and g as the oral cavity expands rapidly between the intervals. The tongue placement needs to be low enough for the middle octave, but not too much, so as to leave room for the low g. Practicing octave leaps slowly and slurred with what Root Pierce calls an expressive portamento buzz would be a good exercise to prepare for this passage.77

77 Root Pierce, 151.

Richard Strauss: Concerto for Horn No. 1 in E-flat Major, Opus 11

Richard Strauss was born in Munich in 1864 to a musical family. His father,

Franz Strauss, was the pre-eminent horn player of the day, playing in the pit orchestra for Wagner’s Ring Cycle operas, and had a profound effect on Strauss’s musical career that lasted into his senior years. Not only did Strauss grow up around music and musicians, he had a unique understanding of the horn and its technique and troubles through exposure to the artistry and sonority of his father’s playing.

The horn parts in Strauss’s tone poems, operas and chamber works are immensely satisfying to play, despite being some of the most unwieldy in the literature. The two horn concerti act almost like bookends in a storied career. The first, the Concerto No.

1, Op. 11 was written for Franz Strauss, around the younger’s Strauss’s admittance to the Üniversität-München for the study of law. Despite a sixty-year separation between the first and second concerto, and so many intervening styles and harmonic practices that are found in Strauss’s other works, the horn concerti are linked by their connection to Franz Strauss and the homage to his father’s musical conservatism in both works.

The connection of Richard Strauss’s instrumental works to his vocal ones are often less motivically and directly tangible than the parallels found in Mozart’s works. Instead, Strauss’s instrumental writing, particularly for horn, has a more visceral link to his vocal music for the performer and listener. One would be much harder pressed to find the clearly motivic correlations between Strauss’s horn concerto and his operas than we find in Mozart’s works. Strauss’s composing for

71 horn, while incredibly informed by the horn’s harmonic series and horn technique, retains an obvious vocal quality.

Both of Strauss’s horn concerti are still played on a regular basis; theyhold a place in any serious horn player’s collection, serve as some of the most often requested audition materials and are performed in recital or with orchestras constantly. The first concerto may be played a little more frequently than the second, which is one of the reasons of the attention being focused on it in the study.

Interestingly, Strauss’s Horn Concerto No. 1, Opus 11 was not his first attempt at a concerto. He undertook a violin concerto not long before that has not survived as well into common usage. Arnold Whittall, writing in a collection of essays focusing on the concerto, witheringly compares the horn concerto to the violin concerto:

“The First Horn Concerto is better built, making up in thematic freshness and integration for it (sensibly) lacks in adherence to full-scale symphonic structuring.”78 The construction of the horn concerto is certainly of a tight-weave knit, following a rubric that would have been familiar to Mozart and other composers of the neoclassical era. Eighteen year-old Strauss was, at the time of its composition, a student at Üniversität-München, and very much under his father’s spell in terms of musical taste. Franz Strauss, despite being the horn player who premiered Richard Wagner’s giant works, was no fan. Harold C. Schonberg noted

[his] father, a peppery, opinionated, outspoken man …was a composer who thought that Wagner was a subversive and that no true music had been written since Mendelssohn and Schumann. Richard inherited his father’s musical instincts…Franz Strauss kept his son on a very conservative musical

78 Arnold Whittall, “The Concerto in Modern Times: ii Central Europe in the Twentieth Century,” A Companion to the Concerto (New York, Schirmer Books, 1988), 273.

72 diet, and the result was apparent in Richard’s juvenile compositions. They were skillful but they represented the early part of the nineteenth century.79

Instead the elder Strauss held to a deeply Mozartean creed, with a love of Mozart’s melodies and formal structures that were almost the antithesis of Wagnerian ideals.

Richard Strauss wrote the first horn concerto with this very much in mind. His rejection of anti-Wagnerian ideas came soon after in 1886 with the composition of the tone poem, Don Juan. While he was developing his new way forward with some of the musical language passed down from Wagner, he maintained a lifelong devotion to Mozart and as he reached his later years, he returned more and more to elements of the musical conservatism of his youth.

Strauss’s first concerto for horn is admittedly not his most adventurous work. He hadn’t come under the Wagnerian influence that was to point him in some obtuse directions in the middle of his career. His harmonic and melodic language is not fully his own, still tempered by a neoclassical ideal of the four-measure antecedent-consequent phrase. Even though he wrote the piece while attempting to gain a more well-rounded education at his father’s behest, he had yet to apply the theories and philosophies of Schopenhauer and Nietszche to his compositions. And yet, the piece stands alone with its counterpart sixty years later as some of the most important works for the modern horn player. A great deal of this has to do with the pleasure horn players take in playing it and also in how audiences perceive it. The work shows every aspect of mainstream horn playing – range, articulation, sostenuto, beauty of sound, flexibility, facility – that horn players love to play and

79 Harold C. Schonberg, The Lives of the Great Composers (New York, W.W. Norton & Co, 1970), 415.

73 audiences love to hear. Ultimately, the sonorities and soaring lines are what make this concerto both valuable and beloved.

Strauss: Horn Concerto in E-flat, Op. 11, I - A Vocal Approach

Strauss opens the concerto with a declamatory fanfare, setting up the primary motive that permeates the entire work in various forms. This fanfare should be approached with all Straussof the bravado and heroic 1 Opening display the performer can muster. Richard Strauss

Solo b U U œ ˙. œ. œ œ œ. œ & b c Ó Œ œ. œœ œ. œ œ. œ œ ˙ energico œ œ. f ˙ Fig. 4.11. Strauss, Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, I mm. 1-5. (Horn in F)

Not initially vocal in nature, Strauss transforms the opening theme in various ways during the course of the concerto, allowing its more graceful and lyrical iterations in later episodes. In examining the second theme of Strauss’s first movement, there are certain technical aspects involved in playing that theme that could cross over to singing the same theme in a comparable register for the voice. Some concepts that both a singer and a hornist would use to describe the passage would include breathing, placement, vibration, resonance, vowel formation, tongue placement and ease of production. As in the Mozart Concerto K. 495, there is much in common with how these two groups of musicians talk about their technique and the following description would likely be familiar to both sets of people:

74 Beginning at mm. 28-29, it is important to place the first note of the phrase in preparation for the octave leap on the downbeat of the following measure. Root

Pierce acknowledges this in her research on bel canto master teachers that “lower pitches leading up to a climax tone be approached with the lighter, higher note in mind.”80

Fig. 4.12. Strauss, Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, I mm. 28-36. (Horn in F)

It must not be too heavy and the tongue as well as the vowel shape must be placed fairly high and forward to accommodate the leap comfortably. The vibration should continue without ceasing from note to note so as to create a smooth legato with a portamento buzz. This can be aided by knowing where the climax of the phrase is and moving the air through the phrase towards its arrival point in m. 35. In the second phrase, beginning at m. 36, it’s important to prepare an open space in the mouth and throat to preserve resonance while at the same time moving the air and tongue forward to prepare for the high bb2. It is also helpful to have moved from a more open vowel sound “ah/eh” to something where the tongue is higher in the mouth and there is less open space than with “ee.” This aids in controlling the highest notes of the tessitura. As the phrase winds its way back down the Bb arpeggio, one must be careful not to relax too much and keep the descent of the

80 Root Pierce, 162.

75 vowel sound from “ee” to “eh” very gradual or the intonation and accuracy may suffer.

In the transitional phrase from mm. 47-52, one should conserve energy but keep each entry as a focused response in a dialogue with the orchestral part. In the final part of the B section (mm. 52-64), gradually modifying the vowel shape and tongue placement while working the way up the phrase towards the bb2 helps to prepare the face and air for the climax of the phrase.

Fig. 4.13. Strauss, Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, I, mm. 52-64. (Horn in F)

It’s imperative to use the air to sing through the high note, knowing that there is still more to play. The best analogy for both singers and horn players here is that the high note is not the end of the phrase.

Continuing on to the next section, Strauss begins at m. 76 with a descending arpeggio, an inversion of the opening fanfare. The ascending scale that follows in m.

77 must not be played too short, despite the staccato articulation markings. Instead, the hornist must drive the air over the tongue, keeping the forte dynamic to the top of the scale. The arrival point of this phrase actually occurs in m. 79 on bb1, despite its lower register, and from there Strauss pivots back towards a more legato melodic line. The same lessons from mm. 28-36 apply here: maintain the buzz and

76 connection between notes, using vowel modifications to facilitate changes of pitch and move towards the arrival point of the phrase, not just the highest note. In m.

103, Strauss transitions away from the elegant cantabile writing to a more scherzando treatment of the musical material. In m. 108, the rising fanfare figure of the opening returns in a triplet rhythm. The hornist must take care to keep the articulation light and the air facile. In terms of agility, the section from mm. 108-123 requires slow, deliberate practice, placing each note in its center before gradually increasing speed. Singing this section through with a metronome can be very helpful so long as the hornist is fussy about intonation while singing. It could also help the horn player to audiate the harmonic modulations that occur and work to improve intonation. The first movement closes with a variant of the aforementioned descending arpeggio of the opening of the second section, except at a higher pitch.

While the same principles apply, the hornist will use the middle part of the tongue to make a smaller oral cavity and more compressed vowels sounds due to the higher pitches. Care should be taken in the descending arpeggio in m. 125 to maintain the vowel placement of the higher pitches, keeping the oral cavity’s space intact.

Approaching the concerti of Mozart and Strauss from a singer’s perspective give the horn player a new vocabulary for dealing with musical and technical issues as they arise. For the hornist who has hit a plateau in one or both of these categories during the course of preparing these concerti, reframing the specific concern in terms of vocal technique can point towards new or creative solutions. For those approaching these concerti multiple times over the course of a long career, emulating vocal techniques and singers’ exercises provide fresh perspectives and

77 reminds one to draw inspiration from singers and elsewhere. Identifying vocal elements and developing a singing mindset in Mozart and Strauss’ symphonic or chamber music writing would be another application of this perspective. Indeed, by focusing on vocal elements and techniques in all areas of horn playing, and borrowing educative materials from other musicians, our performance and preparation becomes richer, leading to more well-rounded artists.

78 CHAPTER V

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HORN TRANSCRIPTION

In choosing to use vocal works to help the horn player learn more about vocal techniques and vocal elements in horn repertoire, there are practical matters of application to be discussed. This chapter will focus on operatic repertoire, the role of text in the performing and transcribing process and using a vocal transcription in recital programming. The author will also examine the results of the survey of 17 horn professors seeking to understand how vocal transcriptions are currently being used in the studios of today’s music conservatories and universities.

In addition to general considerations for transcribing vocal music for horn, there are some specific recommendations made regarding the inclusion of singing and song into the teaching and studio environment.

Vocal Repertoire for Transcription

Choosing vocal works to transcribe for this project was a challenging process.

Not all vocal music works equally well for performance on other instruments.

Focusing on operatic works came about because of the added dimension of an overarching storyline, dramatic sets and costumes and technical aspects. The hornist can draw inspiration for the sound concept from the music as well as the characteristic voice type or fach that the operatic role requires. From there, choosing the works of Mozart and Strauss seemed to be the music most practically applicable to horn playing, as both composers are also renowned for their concerti

79 for horn. In addition, those same concerti by Mozart and Strauss are some of the most required audition material for orchestral auditions and competitions.

Though orchestral auditions and competitions have tended to branch out recently in their solo repertoire choices, it remains that Mozart’s Concerti, K. 417, K.

447 and K. 495 as well as both of Strauss’s concerti are the most often played in high-pressure situations for hornists. Such a limited rotation of pieces that need to be played by all aspiring and professional horn players for the duration of their playing careers can require enrichment and new inspiration from time to time.

Ultimately, this is the purpose of choosing to play operatic arias by Mozart and

Strauss: to find a new way to present the musical style and technical requirements of these great composers farther afield from the horn’s mostly commonly-played repertoire.

Several approaches were considered in the choosing and preparation of the transcriptions for horn performance. Ultimately the transcriber chose to focus on works by composers who have also written major works for horn because the relationship to horn repertoire is fairly clear and the vocal works can serve as an enriching musical exercise as well as extending the performance repertoire. Instead of choosing art songs or concert arias, the wealth of both aural and visual resources of opera can enhance a performer’s understanding of the music to be played. This is especially useful when the performer does not understand the language being sung.

A visual recording can help to create a mental picture or serve to comment on the action and emotion of an aria. Of all the art forms, opera is unique in that it combines the performing arts (music, theatre and dance) and visual arts (sets,

80 costumes, makeup) and a (usually) coherent storyline into one enormous undertaking. As discussed elsewhere, it is helpful when creating an interpretation of a piece of music to have external images and stories from which to draw.

Musicians sometimes do this with pieces of absolute music, when they attach a story of words or images to the music in order to help them create the desired musical phrasing or organization. When using an aria transcription, there are so many sources of inspiration for the horn player that they can creatively pick and choose from amongst available images and aural examples to create an internal background and narrative for they work they are playing. There is a focus on operatic arias for the female singer, primarily because the transcriber is both female and a soprano, so singing the selected arias at their original pitch is a technical possibility.

The Mozart aria “Martern aller Arten” was chosen primarily for its virtuosity and form, which has parallels in the K. 495 horn concerto. Both the aria and the first movement of the horn concerto have extensive scalar passages and a modified sonata form, a kind of sinfonia-concertante with dialogue between the solo and accompanying orchestral parts. There are motivic similarities as well between the two works. If anything, “Martern aller Arten” is more technically difficult with longer scale passages and less rest for the performer. “Martern” also requires the horn player to assume the role of dramatic coloratura, a bigger voice with greater sustaining power than a regular coloratura but still nimble with flawless agility.81

The other Mozart aria, “Ach ich fühl’s,” was chosen for its minor key and resemblance to the development theme in first movement of Mozart’s K. 495.

81 Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices (New York, Oxford UP, 2000), 8.

81 Beyond that, it allows the horn player to experience a full range of melancholic character found in the aria that is only hinted at in Mozart’s solo horn works. The fach for Pamina is that of a lyric soprano, a lighter, flexible voice that encourages the hornists to match the delicate beauty of sound. The Strauss aria, “Es gibt ein Reich” was chosen for the similarity of some of its motives to musical material found in both Strauss concerti. As well, in the dialogue between the singer and the chamber orchestra required for Ariadne auf Naxos, the horn and singer alternate motives and excerpts. Motives are heard now in the voice, now in the horn and vice versa, with the character of Ariadne, singing some very horn-like fanfares that recur throughout the aria. The role is that of a dramatic soprano, the largest female voice type with much “depth and brilliance of timbre.”82 Ariadne may also be sung by a spinto soprano, another voice type known for its sostenuto in higher tessituras but is lighter in color than a true dramatic soprano.83

Role of Text

In transcribing vocal works for horn, one of the most interesting dilemmas to deal with is text. This is from a purely technical standpoint and less from an expressive, interpretive one. In vocal works, the text dictates a great deal of the articulations required in a phrase because of the consonants used. These are entirely lost when songs are played by instrumentalists. The transcriber, then, is left with the quandary of how closely to follow the written articulations of the original composer, or if further articulation indications are needed. While every attempt was

82 Miller, 11. 83 Ibid., 9-10.

82 made to preserve as much of the original articulation markings as possible in transcribing these pieces, occasionally this made for unwieldy legatos or a seemingly excessive amount of articulated notes that detracted from the overall legato line. For example, at the end of “Martern aller Arten” there is a virtuosic passage in mm. 265-277 sung on a single vowel by Konstanze in the opera and is feat of coloratura requiring stamina and precision. When this same passage is played on horn entirely as legato in emulation of the singer, the effect is not the same and tends to sound imprecise and less impressive. However, judiciously adding in some articulations for variety, as hornists of Mozart’s day would have added to his horn concerti, the passage regains its sparkle and excitement and seems to better exemplify the articulation/technical possibilities of the horn.

The other articulation issue appears when the vocal line is both changing both syllables and notes of the melody line, but not the actual word. If this happens frequently, as in “Es gibt ein Reich,” then the overall musical line is more difficult for the horn player to create. There is some guidance for this in the piano accompaniment and in an examination of the orchestral accompaniment as well.

This author contends that slurring the words that occur over moving notes helps to break up the amount of notes that would otherwise be tongued articulations and helps to provide some variety that gets lost with the omission of text. Some of the variety occurs with the loss of different vowel sounds that create different tone colors for the singer. Also, the unintended consequence of tonguing everything that the composer did not mark with a slur is that some notes may get more or less

83 emphasis than they would when sung because of the importance of one syllable over others in the words themselves.

Performance Preparation

When preparing operatic arias for horn performance, there are certain similarities to a vocalist’s method that can be used in addition to more horn-specific technical requirements. The primary preparation that is usually undertaken is a close examination of the score, looking for indications of tempo, rhythm, meter, style, dynamics, tonality and harmony. A major part of this is an examination of the text of the aria in question and its translation. Even though an instrumentalist will be playing the melody and not singing the words of an aria, the libretto of an opera in general and the text of an aria in particular is of fundamental importance to the structure and meaning of the work. Horn players are not as lucky with their concerti and solos in that they often have very little indication of the background or meaning that a composer might assign to a piece of absolute or non-programmatic music.

With respect to text preparation of arias, singer and pedagogue Martial Singher advises his students to “study the translation…[imbue] yourself with the meaning of each word, then with meaning of each verse, the meaning of the entire piece, literally and in its human significance.”84 Singher also believes in speaking through the text in its original language. Singers are trained in the diction of several languages and often learn to converse in some of those languages, so they may have some idea of text comprehension from simply reading it. Even if one does not

84 Martial Singher, An Interpretive Guide to Operatic Arias (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), xv.

84 understand the language of a given aria, reading the text out loud will give an idea of the vowels that are used with which to sing as well as the rhythm of the words.

Given the importance of the text, it would be appropriate for it to appear with a translation underneath in the transcription, just as it would appear in a piano-vocal score.

Secondary to the text would be the transcribed aria’s place in its opera.

Knowing the plot and the action surrounding the aria further deepens the understanding of the music and lends dramatic context. The process of score study is thus an enhanced experience, where the music and words have a richer meaning.

In addition to working with the score, it would be helpful for the horn player to have certain exercises that help to prepare the technical passages of the work, to include lip slur studies, scales, and articulation practice.

Next, an important part of preparation would be close observation of several interpretations of the aria, preferably with a score: watching a recorded production of the opera containing the aria in question or attending a live production of the opera. A final strategy for preparation is to present the transcribed aria to a noted expert in the vocal field. An accomplished vocal coach or voice teacher would be most helpful in bringing out the subtleties that instrumentalists may lose because of the lack of text or the technical demands of the horn.

Role in Recital Programming

When planning a recital or concert featuring solo horn, transcribed arias and vocal works have a role to play for the professional and advanced student.

85 Depending on the work or works chosen, the aria could feature as one of the main works of a recital. One of the primary reasons to program vocal works is to provide a variety of musical styles. Vocal works offer the horn player a chance to program music based on a theme and the vocal work chosen can serve to narrow a possible theme or to familiarize a specific composer or time period. For example, if the program only features music of the early twentieth century and leans heavily towards serious works for horn, the recitalist could include a jazz work from the same period. Vocal works can provide an emotional break from more serious pieces of music or they can provide an emotional counterpoint by serving as another perspective on the same set of emotions. An interesting pairing of this might include

Gabriel Fauré’s “Pié Jesu” from the Requiem with Francis Poulenc’s Élégie. Shorter arias and lieder can provide physical rest from demanding concerti and sonatas.

Classical or Romantic era songs are an opportunity to provide something tonal in a program focused on contemporary works for horn. An aria might be an excellent occasion to use a multi-media approach, featuring costumes, video or other visuals.

The recitalist’s prospects for using vocal works in a recital are only limited by the bounds of their imagination.

Current Applications of Vocal Transcription for Horn

Professional horn players and professors of horn have been using transcriptions in meaningful ways in their personal practice and teaching lives. This has been well known in the horn community although it has not been well- documented. To get a sense of how hornists were using vocal transcriptions, the

86 author designed a survey to verify the practice and inquire about repertoire choices, performance venues and especially professional hornists’ reasons for choosing vocal transcriptions for their students or their own performance and study. The comments sections of the survey proved most enlightening, with several respondents taking the time to answer questions more fully than they expected.

The results of the survey were both validating and helpful. All 17 respondents had played vocal transcriptions in performance and most all (92%) had students who also had performed a vocal transcription in public. The most common place for a vocal transcription to be performed was at a recital (64% of respondents) followed by a place of worship (14% of respondents). All the participants agreed vocal transcriptions were an important part of horn study and performance and the comments elucidating this position (in q.6) were especially revealing. One of the most commonly agreed upon reasons for playing vocal music had to do with lyricism, with one respondent writing, “Lyrical playing is an essential skill. Learning from the great vocal artists through listening and performing that repertoire is one way to develop this skill.”85 Another wrote, “Vocal transcriptions connect horn playing to phrasing and resonance in a lyrical way,”86 while yet another colleague replied that vocal music helps to “encourage [a] lyrical approach to playing, phrasing, breathing, etc.”87 There were some responses having to do with repertoire and recital choices and one participant noted interestingly, “[it] bridges the gap between musicians and non-musicians. Whether it’s from a hymn or jazz

85 Survey respondent, December 16, 2017. 86 Survey respondent, December 14, 2017. 87 Survey respondent, November 28, 2017.

87 music or popular music, if the audience recognizes the melody, they’ll be more susceptible to sit through the ‘boring’ stuff.”88 One comprehensive response touched on several subjects:

In the modern world of horn pedagogy, more and more hornists are writing books that draw huge comparisons between singing and playing the horn. By singing through these works and listening to how vocalists interpreted them in my practice, I not only developed an ability to play those pieces more musically, but my playing overall became more musical and fluid. When studied in the proper environment, performing vocal works develops a greater sense of musicality, consistent air flow, and (when read straight from the vocal score) transposition. On top of all of that, it gives players the ability to perform some of the most beautiful music ever written.89

It seems that while vocal transcriptions are initially thought to have particular or restricted uses with regards to programming or technique, they actually have far- reaching effects beyond the performer’s original purpose. The benefits of studying and performing transcriptions can be as varied as the musicians playing them. One remarkable survey finding was that no respondents had a single reason for recommending vocal transcriptions: every person mentioned multiple reasons for playing songs meant for singers. All respondents agreed that lyricism was an important reason to play vocal transcriptions and they also chose at least one other reason to play and study transcriptions. Respondents even mentioned reasons not prompted by the survey author such as intonation or transposition practice, as well as “learning the repertoire of your own folk music/cultural heritage.”90

With regards to recommended repertoire, the answers were varied, as the people who took the survey undoubtedly came from many different backgrounds

88 Survey respondent, December 15, 2017. 89 Survey Respondent, December 1, 2017. 90 Survey respondent, December 14, 2017.

88 with many different ideas. Some of the responses were fairly obvious, such as the mention of lieder by Schubert, Brahms, Strauss, various operatic arias, Italian art song and vocalises by Bordogni/Concone. Some responses, at least for this author, were more unexpected: this included Bach chorale tunes, lieder by Alban Berg and jazz tunes by Duke Ellington and Mose Allison. The variety of repertoire suggested indicates there are few limits to the depth of vocal literature that can be explored.

The survey demonstrated several implications for incorporating vocal transcriptions into a well-rounded curriculum for hornists of all levels. One respondent commented, “Do it! I think it’s a great balance between learning to play the instrument and learning how to sing through the instrument!”91 Another looked to future applications of vocal transcriptions in their studio, writing “I hope to use more vocal works/transcriptions in my own performance and in my students’ performances in the future!”92 and implying that the survey may be a catalyst for this action. A thoughtful response about using vocal music in a holistic sense revealed the following:

I believe that introducing vocal music early on in a beginning student’s study of the horn may yield some great long-term benefits to their development. At the very least it would likely lead to a strong sense of musicianship from a young age, but I predict that it would also lead to them developing very strong aural skills and playing efficiency at the same time. Combined with standard etudes to reinforce strong rhythm and articulation, this could yield very fine, well-rounded horn players from the beginning.93

This fits nicely with Gordon’s theory of audiation and the importance of singing and developing aural skills for horn players.

91 Survey respondent, December 14, 2017. 92 Survey respondent, December 14, 2017. 93 Survey Respondent, December 1, 2017.

89 Recommendations for Teaching

The most obvious recommendation by this author and others is for the hornist to sing and lesson and in the practice room. The first reason is to prepare for playing by activating the same breathing apparatus that singers and horn players share and to prime the inner ear for the tonality of the piece or exercise to follow.

Singing helps hornists determine how they want to approach a musical phrase, from the starting note to the arrival point or a phrase and subsequent denouement. It helps horn players internalize the melody and rhythm so they can mentally rehearse without fatiguing the embouchure.

Still, not all horn players will want to sing in lessons or in the practice room.

Many instrumentalists are resistant to singing for any number of reasons ranging from lack of control over the vocal folds to be self-conscious about the sound of their own voice to psychological trauma to apathy. Horn teachers must convice their students of the benefits and importance of singing by regularly singing with students in lessons and masterclasses so that it becomes part of the culture of the teacher’s studio. This requires a certain amount of fearlessness on the part of the instructor if they lack confidence in this area. If a student is very resistant to the idea of singing, the instructor may be able to begin with humming and move progressively to open-mouth singing, then start to refine technique by changing vowels in the context of the horn music being addressed. After this, the instructor can move on to demonstrating and expecting an increased dynamic palette of the student with a view to developing a musical phrase from start to finish. This progression of events supposes that the student can match pitch with their singing.

90 If this is not the case, the instructor will likely need more remedial methods but should not give up on singing as an important tool for horn playing.

The second way to incorporate vocal music in lessons us by using music that the student brings in to a lesson, whether it is popular music, jazz, Broadway or particular music from other cultures. This could be in sheet music form or as something they may have ‘lifted’ or aurally transcribed from another source such as the internet, television, radio or from their personal collection or a cultural event.

The advantage to this scenario is that the student will already be familiar with the music and more likely to audiate the music because of their previous experience with it. Also, in representing music that may not be used typically in classroom, lesson or concert hall situations, this may be a way to reach students resistant to playing more mainstream horn music and open the door to other music and technical experiences on and off the horn. They will figure out quickly what vocal transcriptions work for horn and provide both technical challenges and musical engagement.

Another implication for teaching is in the language that horn teachers use with their students. If the student or teacher is focused on a particular technical or musical issue, sometimes reframing it in terms of another instrument can help. Paul

William Stevens, in his dissertation, “Bowings for Brass: A Visualization Tool for

Horn Players,” recommends using the movement and weight of a violinist’s bow to help the horn player “aid our effectiveness as performers” and “to describe a possible tool with which to apply and implement…stylistic ideas where

91 appropriate.”94 In using terms like Root Pierce’s “portamento buzz,”95 describing the changes in oral cavity space with vowel sounds,96 or comparing the continuous buzz of the embouchure to the constant vibrations of the vocal folds, we expand our language of teaching toolbox. This may help teachers reach students for whom more horn-related language is too abstract or who may already have a background as a vocalist.

Horn players can also use vocal exercises as warm-ups or to work on technical issues, especially legato ones. Root Pierce cites many exercises in her dissertation on bel canto technique’s application to horn playing. Modern valve horn players can use almost any arpeggiated vocal exercise and then transpose it using various valve combinations. Indeed, many of the technical exercises in books like

Philip Farkas’s The Art of French Horn Playing,97 Frøydis Ree Wekre’s Thoughts on

Playing the Horn well98 and Marion Hesse’s Daily Routines for Horn99 could also be used as vocal exercises, allowing for differences in range. Horn players may be able to get more out of their own technical routines and exercises if they sing them before playing. This will help to establish tonality as well as the audiation process and focus the mind on the phrasing or legato goals if applicable.

Lastly, this author would recommend that students and professionals alike create their own vocal transcriptions. There is a vast and largely untapped reservoir

94 Paul William Stevens, “Bowings for Brass: A Visualization tool for Horn Players” (DMA Diss., Los Angeles, University of California, Los Angeles, 2002), 2. 95 Root Pierce, 152. 96 Epstein, 22. 97 Farkas, 33-38, 47, 58-59. 98 Wekre, 4, 8-9, 14-17. 99 Exercises 1, 3 and 5 out of any routine would work with a legato, vocal approach. Marion Hesse, Daily Routines for Horn (Flagstaff, AZ, Mountain Peak Music, 2011).

92 of repertoire from which to choose. By going through the complete transcription process including choosing repertoire, listening, text translation and analysis, musical and story background, articulation and breathing considerations, the hornist gains insight into almost every facet of vocal preparation and can apply those lessons directly to horn repertoire. It gives hornists a valuable dramatic tool that acquaints them with a “composer’s declamatory style, dramatic and harmonic language and characteristic approach”100 on a scale we don’t always experience with solo horn compositions. It also allows the horn player to play works by composers who didn’t write for the solo horn and experience singing through the horn in a new way. The benefits can include an enhanced confidence in approaching other horn repertoire, with greater attention to detail and a more complete, dramatic performance.101

100 Tara Diane Warfield, “A voice teacher prepares: Using art song as a teaching tool for the Role of Sophie in der Rosenkavalier” (DMA Essay, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, 2011), 5. 101 Ibid., 5.

93 CHAPTER VI

THREE NEW TRANSCRIPTIONS: BACKGROUND AND PERFORMANCE GUIDE

In selecting arias for transcription and performance, the author focused on operatic works by Mozart and Strauss. Operatic arias (as opposed to concert arias or lieder) offer the horn player visual and overarching plot components for inspiration.

There are the visual components of opera production (sets, costumes and action) and the libretto lend context to a larger story behind the text of each aria. Operatic arias demand a multi-layered approach because of the text and the context of its role in the opera that go hand-in-glove with the technical demands of stand-alone pieces of music. The overarching intention of using transcriptions is to supplement and enrich the horn repertoire and to expand the expressive capacities of players.

Opera is a particularly rich resource for hornists to use for these purposes in study and performance.

In this chapter, we will focus on two works by Mozart, “Martern aller

Arten” and “Ach ich fühl’s,” and one by Strauss, “Es gibt ein Reich.” Each piece has been chosen for its similarities to certain aspects of the concerti by Mozart and

Strauss and also for how they place greater musical demands on the horn player than what is found in the concerti. “Martern aller Arten” has similarities of virtuosity and endurance to the first movement of Mozart’s Concerto in Eb, K. 495, but pushes the horn player farther and longer than in the concerto. The plaintive aria “Ach ich fühl’s,” gives the horn player a chance to play sensitively in a minor key, something that Mozart only hints at in the development sections of his horn concerti. Strauss’s

“Es gibt ein Reich” challenges the hornist to expand upon the sound concept from

94 the Concerto No. 1, Op. 11. While playing lush legato lines and horn-like fanfares, the hornist can also develop their tone color palette and sense of rubato to reflect the emotional content of the text. As with any piece of music, the experience of playing these arias is richer when one understands the background of each work, the context of the arias, and the text and its meaning, after having laid good technical groundwork in preparation for a musical performance. Included in this chapter are notes on specific technical and conceptual approaches that will help more players prepare to perform these works. These performance notes are based on the author’s own experiences in preparing and performing these transcriptions.

Transcription Preparation

For each transcribed aria, two editions of the solo part exist. The first edition is taken directly from the piano-vocal score and includes very little in the way of dynamics or other expressive indications. Slurs have been added where indicated in the score and also where a word occurs over more than one note, even if the syllable changes. There is no text or translation for the first edition, mainly so that a copy of the aria exists for a soloist to use to add their own markings and preferences. The second edition of the solo part contains the original text with a literal translation of the text underneath. The literal translation was prepared by the author and differs from the more poetic translations by other scholars included in each aria’s performance guide. The focus of the score translation is to be able to understand each word of the text without losing the sense and meaning of each sentence. This facilitates following along with the words, even if the performer does not speak the

95 original language of the aria. More dynamic and expressive indications have been added, using the score as the basis for most of the decisions and some tenuto marks have been added over notes to indicate where the more important word or syllable and pivot-point of the phrase occurs.

W. A. Mozart: “Martern aller Arten”

Possibly the most famous aria from Mozart’s singspiel Die Entführung aus dem Serail, “Martern aller Arten” is celebrated for its virtuosic coloratura passages.

The opera was composed in 1781-1782 and premiered in Vienna at the Burg-

Theater on July 16, 1782. The aria is a kind of sinfonia concertante for soprano and four solo instrumentalists within the orchestra and features an unusually long, florid introduction in the orchestral part. Mozart had the vocal technique of the singer

Caterina Cavalieri in mind when writing for the character of Konstanze and for

“Martern aller Arten” in particular.

Plot Overview

The plot of Entführung is summarized as being a rescue opera: Belmonte, with the help of his servant, Pedrillo, seeks to rescue Belmonte’s lover Konstanze and her servant Blonde from the seraglio of Pasha Selim. “Martern aller Arten” occurs in the second act of the opera, after Blonde has rebuffed the advances of

Pasha Selim and Konstanze has sung about her lost love, Belmonte. Konstanze then refuses the Pasha Selim in a tour de force performance from the Italian bravura tradition. Konstanze’s two major arias in the second act could not be more

96 contrasting. Mozart intimated as much when he wrote, “I have sacrificed

Konstanze’s aria a little to the flexible throat of Mlle. Cavalieri.”102 While her first aria of Act II (“Traurigkeit wird mir zum Lose”) is Konstanze at her most natural and heartfelt, “Martern aller Arten” is the character at her most defiant and ambitious.

For Hermann Abert, the noted German music historian, the aria is overly artificial in comparison to Konstanze’s earlier aria. Abert writes, “it is dramatic to a fault and, by being treated as an Italian bravura aria, it makes a mockery of Konstanze’s entire character.”103 While Abert’s assertion may be true, one may legitimately speculate that Mozart wanted to create a multidimensional heroine, capable of great emotional and musical breadth.

Transcription Rationale

For a horn player, bravura, coloratura and intensity make Konstanze’s aria a great technical challenge and adventure. The aria, exceptional in its length for

Entführung, makes for a substantial piece of work into which we can delve. For the hornist, it poses a challenge in terms of endurance and the sheer quantity of virtuosic melodic passages requiring great agility. It can last anywhere from 8-10 minutes, depending on the soloist, and makes full use of a coloratura soprano’s voice, having a range of b1-d3, but most often resting between g1-c3. If the horn player were to play the music as written without any transposition, this would be an incredibly taxing piece of music. There are few breaks for the soloist after the initial orchestra introduction and there are far fewer periods of rest as compared to the

102 Hermann Abert, W. A. Mozart (New Haven, Yale University Press, 2007), 620. 103 Ibid., 677.

97 first movement of Mozart’s K. 495. Even with the vocal line transposed to a lower key than the original, “Martern” remains a demanding work, requiring endurance beyond the needs of Mozart’s horn concerti.

Transposition, in this case, serves to make the aria a little more accessible to less-advanced players and makes it easier to program in a recital by not exhausting the embouchure in a single piece. The key of the aria is C Major and for the horn transcription, I have elected to use the key of G Major for the modern horn pitched in F. This transposition seemed optimal with the horn player in G Major, keeping the sounding pitch or concert pitch in C Major, albeit an octave lower than the original.

Therefore, no transposition of the accompaniment part is required, making it easy for a pianist to accompany from the piano-vocal score or to use the aria as a solo with an orchestra. An unintended benefit of transposing the aria is to G is also that the horn player can choose to play directly from the piano-vocal score as well, reading the score as Horn in C. This would facilitate following along with the text without having to insert the lyrics in the horn part, which would traditionally be published without text. While F Major and Eb Major were both considered so as to move the pitch into flat keys more stereotypically associated with brass playing, they came across as being too low for the higher passages of the aria to sound as if they were taking place in the higher tessitura of the horn’s range. Transposing to a higher key, while possible, made extended passages in the upper register very tiring in this enervating aria. The writing of “Martern aller Arten” tends to stay in a part of the tessitura that makes it easy for a soprano to project and spin out a sound. Even though the corresponding register on horn has some of those same characteristics,

98 Mozart gave the soloist in his horn concerti more opportunities for rest and moved between high, middle and low registers so that the lips and embouchure stay flexible. As the larynx is analogous to the embouchure in how they both produce sound, the embouchure has the added factor of mouthpiece pressure on the lips.

Even the most efficient horn player needs to be relieved of mouthpiece pressure and contact from time to time.

“Martern all Arten” is a particularly good transcription for horn because it uses some of the virtuosic scalar idioms found in the horn concerti in a more exaggerated manner. After playing “Martern aller Arten” most of the Mozart horn concerti will look quite a bit easier in comparison with the constant, driving energy needed to produce such a tour de force. From an expressive point of view, Mozart’s horn concerti are rarely as dramatically raging as “Martern aller Arten” can be. All the emotional and technical senses are heightened and intensified and will inspire the hornist to find new points of drama, conflict and resolution in their own canon of Mozart’s works.

Text

“Martern aller Arten” takes places after Pasha Selim demands that Konstanze succumb to his advances or suffer the consequences of torture. In her dramatic response, Konstanze sings that she will suffer torture, pain, misery and death rather than be unfaithful:

Martern aller Arten Tortures of every kind Mögen meiner warten, may await me; Ich verlache Qual und Pein. I scorn torment and pain. Nichts soll mich erschüttern. Nothing will shake my resolve;

99 Nur dann würd' ich zittern, I would tremble only Wenn ich untreu könnte sein. if I were untrue to him. Lass dich bewegen, verschone mich! Be moved to pity, spare me! Des Himmels Segen belohne dich! The heaven's blessing shall reward you! Doch du bist entschlossen. But you are determined. Willig, unverdrossen, Willingly, unflinchingly Wähl ich jede Pein und Not. I accept every pain and grief. Ordne nur, gebiete, Then order, command, Lärme, tobe, wüte, bluster, roar and rage! Zuletzt befreit mich doch der Tod. Death will liberate me in the end.104

The singer has an important advantage over the instrumentalist in that lines of text can be repeated in a myriad of ways: text sometimes repeats over the same music while other text repetition takes place over different music; text repetitions can happen consecutively or with a break in between. For the horn player, these repetitions of text are especially problematic when they are set to the same music and occur consecutively. For a younger or less advanced player, it would be tempting to play an abridged version without the repetitions but this would avoid an opportunity to think of creative ways to present the material differently. Because of the length and variety of musical material in “Martern aller Arten,” the use of consecutive repetition of both text and music is actually not too excessive. Most of those instances can be interpreted with a creative use of dynamics so that both the musician and audience can feel that they’re not experiencing the same thing twice.

Like Konstanze, the hornist must find a reason, emotional or narrative, to repeat the musical material. As Konstanze’s character evolves over the course of the opera, so too must it evolve during the aria. At the end of the aria, Konstanze is fully

104 Camila Argolo Freitas Batista, “Martern aller Arten” translation, http://www.aria- database.com/search.php?individualAria=281, accessed July 26, 2017.

100 empowered to create her own destiny. She needs to start from a different emotional place so the aria isn’t simply one mood or character throughout. Hornists can achieve this by beginning the aria at less than a full forte, leaving room for the sound to grow in warmth and dynamics as the character progresses from desperation through despair and then resolute strength.

The Aria

As stated earlier, one of the benefits of transcribing “Martern aller Arten” for horn is the possibility that if the horn player plays from the original piano-vocal score and reads it as Horn in C, then playing along with the text becomes possible.

Many piano-vocal scores include a translation of the text underneath, although the translation may sacrifice accuracy for artistry if the aria is possibly to be sung in

English. Some voice teachers and coaches recommend for their students to do their own translations of the original language of an aria, going word for word and aiming for literal accuracy. In this case, however, the emotions are the driving factor of the text and are relatively simple and binary. In contrast, Mozart’s melodic writing depicts Konstanze’s agitation and energy and is anything but simple. Konstanze is defiant in her refusal until m. 91, where she pauses at the end of the phrase Nur dann würd' ich zittern, Wenn ich untreu könnte sein (I would tremble only if I were untrue to him). After that, she attempts to plead with Selim and the music at first bears her out with a more legato, melismatic theme, although this too is given a coloratura treatment as the theme progresses. With the Allegro assai, she resumes with defiance and anger. The aria closes with one of the most famous scale passages

101 of the opera world, with Konstanze singing of the injustice of her situation with indefatigable energy that affirms her resolute resistance.

This aria’s transcription follows the original cuts made by Mozart, as indicated in the 2007 Bärenreiter Verlag edition of the score.105 The excised material does not appear in the new transcriptions for horn. Instead, the score is presented without breaks or cut indications and continues as if the material were never present. This version of “Martern aller Artern” is generally accepted for standard use in the opera world, although exceptions exist and some singers choose to perform the unabridged version. For recital situations, further cuts are possible in the introduction portion of the aria, so the performer is not left standing on stage for the entire sixty measures. There is precedence for this as many pianists will make a cut in soprano auditions situations. The introduction appears in the transcription in its entirety so that if a cut is desired, the hornist may choose where to place a cut and how much material they wish to use in performance. In addition to the cuts, the hornist may choose to add material, much as they would add their own cadenza or eingänge106 to a Mozart concerto. One such spot is indicated in the critical edition of the solo part, where the hornist may choose to add a miniature cadenza in m. 91.

Technical Preparation

There are a few components in the aria that stand out as being of technical note and a horn player would do well to focus on exercises to strengthen and build

105 Simon P. Keefe, Mozart in Vienna: The Final Decade (UK, Cambridge UP, 2017), 103. 106 Eingang: “A short improvisatory passage that leads into a statement of thematic material.” April Nash Greenan, “Eingang,” January 20, 2001, Grove Music Online, accessed April 1, 2018.

102 technique so as best to support the music. Particularly noteworthy are the scalar passages, not only because of the variety and quantity but also for their duration. In the horn concerti, Mozart’s use of scales was limited somewhat by the mechanics of hand-horn technique on the natural horn. But in “Martern aller Arten” the composer explores a wide vocal range and other technical possibilities of the soprano voice, obviously a fully chromatic instrument. The modern horn player should be looking to develop the same facility and ease that a singer would be aiming for throughout the aria. As well, great endurance is necessary to play such passages for a much longer duration than ever occurs in the horn concerti.

Many of the following scale exercises are based on the tonic scale, G Major

(Horn in F), and dominant scale, D Major (Horn in F), but can also be transposed to different keys for further endurance and agility training. They are based on passages from the aria and some exercises closely mirror those passages while others use smaller motives for practice. All passages can be buzzed on the mouthpiece to help focus sound, pitch and airflow. The first exercise is a one-octave G scale that should be played slurred, tongued, in different articulation patterns and in various rhythms.

In tongued articulations, it is important to use a lighter articulation as the pitch ascends and change the vowel sound gradually from “eh” to “ee” as the line ascends, keeping the airstream and tongue movingMAA Fig. forward 2 .

The next exercise is the same G scale, but beginning on the leading tone:

4 œ œ #œ œ œ & 4 . #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ .

Fig. 6.1: G scale, beginning on F#, 1 octave in eighth notes.

103 Again, this scale should be played slurred, tongued, in different articulation patterns and in various rhythms. Combining those two ideas, this exercise is based on measures 69MAA Fig. 3 -70, after Konstanze’s solo begins:

4 œ œ#œ œ#œ œ œ œ œ#œ ˙ & 4 #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ Ó

Fig. 6.2: Opening scale passage mm. 69-70, reimagined in eighth notes for clarity.

A horn player could also make this a more circular exercise by adding a repeat that turns the passage into a perpetual movement scale, breathing where needed.

This exercise, from the descending figure at m. 70, is another variation on the scalar motion with a repeated note inserted into the scale to alter the rhythm.

Hornists should particularly watch for f#2 and e2 at the beginning of the figure since they both are typically played on second valveMAA Fig. on the B4 b side of the horn. Some horn players may find an alternate finger such as Bb1&2 helpful on the e2. [Composer]

4 œ œ #œ œ œ œ & 4 œ œ œ œ œ #œ ˙ Ó Fig. 6.3: Mozart, “Martern aller Arten,” mm. 70-71, descending scale pattern.

It can and should be transposed to aid facility with other fingering patterns and key centers.

The horn player Josef Leutgeb was particularly known for his facility in making large interval leaps with ease. Intervals such as the minor 9th found in m. 91 require special attention for the hornist to display the same proficiency.

104

Fig. 6.4. Mozart, “Martern aller Arten,” mm. 91-92, Horn in F.

In practice, the interval requires portamento slurs to “taste” the connection between the two notes and feel the change in vowel from a more open “eh/ah” to “ee.”

Fig. 6.5. Mozart, “Martern aller Arten,” m. 91, Portamento Exercise.

This exercise should be buzzed on the mouthpiece before playing on the horn. Once the slur is securely in place, the tongue should be added lightly to the top note.

The hornist may choose to breathe after the c#1, especially considering the comma that comes after the word “sein,” but must mentally connect and audiate the interval to increase the percentage of accuracy on the high note. An even bigger intervallic leap takes place in m. 117 after a long descending passage with whole note durations in mm. 113-116.

Fig. 6.6. Mozart, “Martern aller Arten,” mm.113-117, Horn in F.

This minor 13th must be a legato slur because the text is a single word, “belohne”

(reward) and the singer would sing this interval on a single vowel, with no consonant break. For the singer and the horn player, this interval requires a significant register change and vowel modification. Farkas’ portamento/glissando

105 exercise is of utmost importance here to facilitate the interval and keep the musical phrase flowing.

The final and most difficult portion of “Martern aller Arten” is the scale pattern at the end of the aria in mm. 264-272. It requires good breath control, a light tongue and excellent agility, especially for the slurred f#2-e2 at the top of the pattern because of the shared fingering.

Fig. 6.7. Mozart, “Martern aller Arten,” mm. 264-272, Horn in F.

The hornist must maintain focus because the entire passage repeats in mm. 272-278 and there is little time to breath when playing at performance. Coming at the end of the aria, this is a tiring passage and endurance can be difficult, especially if previous technical and sustained passages are not well-supported with air. Slow practice is essential to building a solid foundation here and will help build up endurance. Also, recognizing that the singer is using a bright, forward vowel for the majority of the passage will help remind the hornist to not begin with a vowel sound that is too open, in preparation for the higher notes of the scales and to help with efficiency. If the oral cavity is too large, the scales are more tiring because the passage will require more dependence on the embouchure musculature rather than creating the phrase on a fast, supple stream of compressed air.

106 W. A. Mozart: “Ach ich fühl’s”

Mozart’s last opera, Die Zauberflöte, was composed in 1791and premiered in

Vienna’s Freihaus-Theater auf der Werden just two months before his death. The work is an example of German Singspiel, a subgenre of opera with spoken dialogue.

In Mozart’s time and keeping with Enlightenment tenets, singspiel exhibits a tendency for somewhat simpler, occasionally strophic tunes and ballads. “Ach ich fühl’s,” Pamina’s plaintive aria from the second act, is a deceptively simple foil to the murderous rage and virtuosic coloratura found in “Der Hölle Rache” sung by her mother, the Queen of the Night, in the previous scene.

Plot Overview

The plot of Die Zauberflöte is complicated and contains elements of masonic imagery107 and Enlightenment philosophy. Set in Egypt, the opera mingles elevated mysticism and unpretentious humor with a nod to exoticism. The plot follows

Tamino, a prince lost in the desert, who is rescued by the Queen of the Night’s minions and in return he agrees to rescue the Queen’s daughter, Pamina. He falls in love with Pamina’s portrait before ever meeting her. What begins as a rescue opera takes a turn when Tamino realizes that Sarastro, the person from whom he is supposed to rescue Pamina, is actually good and wise. Tamino, finally encountering

Pamina for the first time, decides to join Sarastro’s society and must undergo a set of tests and trials for full membership into Sarastro’s order as well as the privilege of marrying Pamina. This complicates his relationship with Pamina, who is not privy to

107 It is well-documented that Mozart and the librettist, Emanuel Schikaneder, were Masons.

107 details of the tests and trials and subsequently misinterprets his silence as evidence that he has fallen out of love with her. She considers suicide with the knife given to her by her mother that was originally meant for an attempt on Sarastro’s life. The lovers are reunited for a final trial and they emerge unscathed thanks to the power of Tamino’s magic flute. Through all of this, comedic relief is provided by Papageno’s character who inevitably fails all the trials that Tamino completes and is ever in search of his elusive mate, Papagena. Monostatos, Sarastro’s lustful and wicked servant, is a constant impediment to the lovers’ happy ending, and is eventually cast out of Sarastro’s temple and into darkness, along with the Queen of the Night and the Three Spirits.

Text

Pamina’s aria takes place after having a particularly difficult time in her encounters with Tamino, Monostatos and the Queen of the Night. Essentially,

Pamina experiences a parallel series of trials to the ones undertaken by Tamino. At this point in Act II, Pamina believes herself to be rejected by her lover, not knowing of Tamino’s test of silence. Then, after fending off the advances by Monostatos, her own mother demands that she assassinate Sarastro for usurping their family’s position of power over the temple. Pamina’s heartbreak and hopelessness are palpable in the slow tempo (marked Andante, but still interpreted as very slow) as she pleads for a reaction (“fülhst du nicht der Liebe Sehen”) and slowly sinks into hopeless despair.

Ach ich fühl’s, Ah, I feel it, es ist verschwunden. it is gone.

108 Ewig hin mein ganzes Glück, Forever gone, all my happiness Ewig hin, der Liebe Glück. Forever gone, love’s happiness. Nimmer kommt ihr Wonnestunden Never will you, hours of delight, Meinem Herzen mehr zurück. Return to my heart anymore. Sieh’, Tamino, diese Tränen Look, Tamino, these tears Fliessen, Trauter, dir allein. Flow, beloved, for you. Fühlst du nicht der Lieben Sehnen If you don’t feel the love’s yearning So wird Ruhe im Tode sein. Then there will be peace in death.108

In Pamina’s text, there is no defiance or hope of rescue from her emotional state.

Transcription Rationale

For the horn player, “Ach ich fühl’s” represents a musical and emotional side of Mozart’s writing that we rarely get to experience. In Mozart’s horn concerti, minor tonality themes are relegated to the development sections of first movements and one of the secondary themes of the third movement rondos. These minor interludes, while usually lyrical and darker than the main themes, are invariably brief, with Mozart’s writing pivoting to a major tonality after eight measures or in the case of K. 495, sixteen measures (though much of the musical material is repeated). Pamina’s aria offers the horn player a chance to explore Mozart’s approach to minor tonality and melancholy in a much more comprehensive way.

Transcription Performance Guide

“Ach ich fühl’s” begins with a short orchestral introduction followed by the entry of the voice in a descending line, musically imitating the sigh of the word

“Ach.” The hornist would do well to heed Martial Singher’s advice in the first phrase

108 Singher, 169.

109 to play “a long ‘Ach,’ stress the appoggiaturas…[and play] the low G of the interval

‘es ist’ very light and already high in resonance so as to match the upper G.”109 The first phrase sets the tone of hopelessness and also the technical flow of the rest of the aria; hornists must take their time to perfect the simplicity of the phrases, purity of sound and facility of the intervals, in the face of some of the rhythmic intricacies involved.110 Focusing on the large beats of the underlying meter, despite the slowness of the tempo, can help to organize each phrase into upbeats and downbeats and extends the musical line instead of getting bogged down in the individual eighth-note beats.

The ability to play delicately and slowly in the high register is greatly prized by horn players and notoriously difficult to execute because of the closeness of the harmonics in the high register. The first challenge occurs in m. 6 with the first high

Bb of the aria on the word “Liebe” (love). The height of the pitch underscores the emotional importance of the word and the horn player must approach the interval with care. It is helpful to know Jenna Simeonov’s advice for singers in this measure to remember “lots of vowel modification while you finding the sweet spot for the Bb” and to play the “D on ‘der’ with spin and height, sending it right to ‘Liebe’,”111 “Ach ich fühl’s” has no complete counterpart in Mozart’s horn concerti but instead the precision and sensitivity required to play passages such as mm.14-15 does occur in the horn part of the Andante in Mozart’s Horn Quintet, K. 407.

109 Singher, 170. 110 Ibid., 170. 111 Jenna Simeonov, “Aria Guides: ‘Ach ich fühl’s’,” November 29, 2016, https://www.schmopera.com/aria-guides-ach-ich-fuhls/, Accessed January 26, 2018.

110

Fig. 6.8. Mozart, “Ach ich fühl’s,” mm. 14-16, Horn in F.

Fig. 6.9. Mozart, Horn Quintet, K.407, II, Andante, mm. 53-60.112

The staccato notes in m. 16 are meant to be played with some tempo flexibility and working out the pacing is a matter of personal taste. Singing through the passage in mm. 14-16 will help the hornist decide on pacing, the point of arrival and where using rubato is most comfortable and convincing.

With regards to the last phrase of the aria, interpreting the fermata can be a problem for both the singer and horn player. Simeonov suggests

This odd little lick is best treated as though it were part of the bel canto school. There’s rhythm in the cadenza and the points of tension are clear. You can find a shape to Mozart’s cadenza by taking out the fermata and singing the whole thing in time. Try conducting a version that includes the fermata, and see how that leads to the final “sein.” Like anything with ornamentation or embellishment, it’s really helpful to keep returning to the fermata-free version, totally in time, reminding yourself of where the beats fall.113

Singing can help the horn player get a better sense of the pacing here and conducting while singing gives the hornist a visual orientation of the time. Since a

112 W.A. Mozart, Quintett in Es für Horn, Violine, zwei Violen und Bass, K.407, ed. Ernst Fritz Schmid, Urtext Edition (Kassel, Bärenreiter-Verlag, 1958), 7-8. 113 Simeonov, 1.

111 horn player cannot combine conducting and playing the horn with ease, singing is an excellent alternative when incorporating this visual practice technique.

Technical Preparation

There are several descending interval leaps such as the minor sevenths in mm. 6, 24, 27 and 29. Some are slurred and some are articulated. For these, the author recommends an interval exercise, a variation on Farkas’s portamento/glissando slur exercise, altered for descending sevenths.

Fig. 6.10. Descending portamento 7ths.

This should be played slowly, hitting all the pitches in between the interval before gradually speeding up the glissando/portamento exercise and eventually phasing it out to create a smooth, rich slur. A final step, once the slurs are secure would be to add a light tongue between the notes while trying to maintain the connection of the portamento buzz. The author recommends expanding the range of the exercise to include playing at a pitch above the highest descending seventh in m. 29 to reinforce security and confidence. By far the most difficult descending interval of the entire aria is found in m. 34. It is difficult for the horn player to descend smoothly from the high register on the upper g2, while the low c#1 is meant to be tongued. The embouchure must retain enough suppleness to make a very fast adjustment to the c#1. It is important and helpful to practice this extreme interval change using portamento techniques, much like the descending 7ths is important and helpful. The

112 hornist would do well to use a focused, energetic airstream to support the higher note in order to help prevent the embouchure from spreading and tightening, thus decreasing the elasticity of the lips.

Richard Strauss: “Es gibt ein Reich”

Strauss was raised in a musically conservative household, where Mozart’s operas and symphonies were preferred to more contemporary composers of the era. Strauss’ preferences and compositional style changed with his exposure to

Wagner and his mature writing style dates from the composition of the tone poem

Don Juan in 1886. Despite his experimentation with harmonies and form, Strauss never forgot his fondness for Mozart and the neoclassical era. He was one of the first composers of the twentieth century to attempt a return to neoclassicism, albeit with an expanded harmonic and aural palette. The educational introduction ad resource guide materials for the Pacific Opera Victoria production of Ariadne auf Naxos in

2014 note this juxtaposition as well:

With Ariadne, Strauss ventured into 20th century neo-classicism before Prokofiev and Stravinsky made it fashionable. The recitative and coloratura styles, the sprightly dance tunes for the commedia dell’arte figures, the trouser role for the Composer, the trappings of opera seria – all bring a classical clarity to the work…Perhaps the opera that most resembles Ariadne in terms of kaleidoscopic beauty and variety is The Magic Flute: both dazzle us with melody, sublimity, and astounding coloratura turn; both mingle the comic with the tragic, opera seria with opera buffa. Both can be enjoyed with ease, but in each there is an entire music and philosophical underpinning that you are free to explore if you like.114

114 Maureen Woodall, “Ariadne auf Naxos Guide,” Pacific Opera Victoria, February 2014, http://www.pov.bc.ca/pdfs/ariadne_guide.pdf, accessed August 1, 2017, 11.

113 At the time, Strauss probably didn’t call what he was doing neoclassicism. But with the composition of Ariadne auf Naxos, the plot themes, combination of opera styles and use of form point toward a reimagined neoclassical era.

Ariadne auf Naxos was composed in 1912 with a libretto by Hugo von

Hofmannsthal and was originally meant to be a 30-minute mini-opera to follow the

German adaptation (also by Hofmannsthal) of Molière’s play, Un bourgeois gentilhomme. This proved to be a less than popular pairing, some for logistical reasons at the premiering locations and also because the combination of the play and opera was long and expensive. Hofmannsthal reworked the libretto so as to create a Prologue that helped to explain the juxtaposition of a serious drama and the silliness of the characters from the Commedia dell’Arte. Strauss set the Prologue, the

Opera became the de facto second act, and the new version was performed in

1916.115

Plot Overview

The plot of the 1916 version of Ariadne auf Naxos is, like all plays within a play, a bit convoluted. Set in the home of a wealthy patron in Vienna, a young composer has been commissioned to write an opera seria for the patron’s guests’ entertainment. The Prologue contains the preparation for the evening’s entertainment where the composer is aghast to learn that his opera will be followed by a comedy troupe. To make matters worse, the Major-Domo announces that,

115 There are some differences to the Opera portion of the 1916 version and the original. For instance, the Zerbinetta’s show-stopping aria contains some cuts and different modulations from the original. There are also no spoken interjections in the 1916 version and the Opera ends with a duet between Ariadne and Bacchus, not with Zerbinetta and company.

114 because dinner has run late, both entertainments will run simultaneously. The rest of the Prologue deals with the composer and the performers trying to salvage the performance, singers vying for the most stage time and the petty rivalries between the serious and commedia dell’arte performers. Zerbinetta, a member of the comedy troupe, sings a hymn that is a tribute to music and the composer, and then storms off stage after realizing the futility of it her actions.

The Opera/Second Act opens on the island of Naxos, where Ariadne has been abandoned by Theseus. She’s watched over by three Nymphs and is waiting for the god Hermes to arrive so that he may accompany her to the realm of death. The comedy at this point intervenes and Zerbinetta tries to persuade Ariadne to find a new lover as the best way to get over Theseus. Ariadne, offended, retires to her grotto while the comedy troupe deploys the clowns to compete for Zerbinetta’s attention. The Nymphs announce a new visitor to the island and Ariadne hopes it is

Theseus, her errant love who has come back to rescue her from death. Instead, the ship carries Bacchus who professes his love for Ariadne. She returns his sentiment and is amazed at the change in her attitude. Zerbinetta closes out the opera by singing again of her views on love, that when a new love approaches, we surrender to that emotion.116

The Aria

“Es gibt ein Reich,” is one of the most important arias of the opera and belongs to the titular character of Ariadne in the Opera/second act portion. Ariadne,

116 Robert Holliston, “Ariadne auf Naxos Guide,” Pacific Opera Victoria, February 2014. http://www.pov.bc.ca/pdfs/ariadne_guide.pdf, accessed August 1, 2017, 4.

115 played by a dramatic (or sometimes a spinto) soprano, is a melodramatic character belonging to the opera seria portion of the entertainment. In the Prologue, she plays the role of The Diva and is petulant, self-important and occasionally unreasonable in her demands and her devotion to her art. In the Opera, Ariadne retains some of the unreasonable nature of The Diva while at once singing some of the most glorious music in the twentieth century soprano canon. The aria alternates between despair at her situation of abandonment and ecstatic desire for transformation and release.

It musically alternates between the somber, speech-like patterns that take on a chant-like feel to a more hopeful, fanfare theme. The aria culminates in a glorious melismatic climax, with Ariadne singing in full voice up to a high bb2. The orchestration, previously transparent and nuanced, is rich in its support of her sustained melodic effort and belies its own size as a chamber orchestra. We hear the juxtaposition of the fanfare theme under this high point before Ariadne melts into the reflective calm of her anticipated meeting with the god of death.

Transcription Rationale

For the hornist, “Es gibt ein Reich” is an opportunity to perform the other side of a work that already prominently features the horn. Several fanfare figures within the aria are exchanged between horn and voice. In choosing an aria for transcription from amongst the many possible Strauss works, “Es gibt ein Reich” stands out for its comfort of range and organization to the horn concerti. The dramatic affectation found throughout Ariadne’s aria can be compared to the dramatic facility required of the horn player throughout the concerto. Each section

116 of the Concerto No. 1, Op. 11 has a distinct character, with the rising, arpeggio fanfare of the opening serving as a common thread throughout the work. Ariadne’s aria also has a recurring fanfare arpeggio that binds the melodies together. Ariadne’s lament can help to build a technical and stylistic foundation for the horn player before and during their study of Strauss’ works for horn.

Form

Pinning down the form of “Es gibt ein Reich” is a little less clear than simply describing the musical event. Strauss wrote the Opera portion without dialogue or breaks, creating sections that dovetail into one another. Ariadne’s aria is no exception to this rule. However, it seems to contain clearly delineated sections that are interrelated, not unlike Strauss’s horn concerti.

Recitative A – Fanfare Recitative B-Fanfare

Voice: monosyllabic asc. Arpeggios monosyl. Orch: Str. Accomp. ostinato/arp. MM: 1-15 16-32 33-38---47 48-56 57-65 Key: F:V(Bb)------I(Bb)Db-F--cb------V of Eb Eb------g Bb pedal------

Recitative C – Fanfare Cavatina Coda

Voice: 1st melisma Orch: Orch. Trans. B Fanfare------MM: 65-73 73-76 77-85 86-97 97-110 Key: g---G------V of Bb Bb------V------I------

Text

The recitative sections are more somber and melancholic in nature. The text during those sections reflects Ariadne’s hopelessness at her abandonment. During

117 the fanfare sections, the text changes and the mood lightens as she describes the god

Hermes and the transition away from the isolation she currently faces. Interestingly, the fanfare-like motive will return when Ariadne meets Bacchus later on in the opera and is united to him in her new love and life.

Es gibt ein Reich, There is a realm Wo alles rein ist: where everything is pure: Es hat auch einen Namen: It has also a name: Totenreich. Dead realm. Hier is nichts rein! Here nothing is pure! Hier kam alles zu allem. Here everything comes to everything.

Bald aber naht ein Bote Soon a messenger will approach. Hermes heissen sie ihn He is called Hermes. Mit seinem Stab With his staff Regiert er die Seelen: he governs the souls: Wie leichte Vögel, Like light birds, Wie welke Blätter. Like withered leaves Treibt er sie ihn. he drives them.

Du schöner, stiller Gott! You beautiful, peaceful God! Sieh! Ariadne wartet! See! Ariadne waits! Ach, von allen wilden Schmerzen Oh, of all wild pain Muss das Herz gereinigt sein; The heart must be cleaned; Dann wird dein Gesicht mir nicken, Then will your face nod to me, Wird dein Schritt vor meiner Höhle, You will step before my cave, Dunkel wird auf meinen Augen Darkness will be on my eyes Deine Hand auf meinem Herzen sein. Your hand will be on my heart.

In den schönen Feierkleidern, In the lovely celebration dresses, Die mir meine Mutter gab, That my mother gave me, Diese Glieder warden belieben These members will remain, Stille Höhle wird mein Grab. This silent cave will be my grave.

Aber lautlos meine Seele But quietly my soul Folget ihrem neuen Herrn follows its new Master, Wie ein leichtes Blatt in Winde Like a light leaf hoisted in the wind, Folget hinunter, folget so gern. So will I gladly follow.

Dunkel wird auf meinen Augen Darkness will be on my eyes Und in meinem Herzen sein. And in my heart.

118 Glieder werden bleiben These members will remain Schön geschmückt und ganz allein. Beautifully adorned and all alone.

Du wirst mich befreien You will set me free! Mir selber mich geben, By giving myself to me, Dies lastende Leben This oppressive life Du nimm es von mir. You take from me.

An dich werd’ ich mich ganz verlieren, I will lose myself completely to you. Bei dir wird Ariadne sein. With you Ariadne will remain.117

Transcription Performance Guide

The text elucidates the differing emotional state of distinct parts of the aria and horn players must have an understanding of the differences in emotion in order to make rapid adjustments to their sound concept for each section. The opening passage found in mm. 1-15 is a trance-like theme, emphasizing Ariadne’s descent into depression and embrace of death as an escape from the impurities and burdens of the world. The hornist needs to direct the musical phrase towards the most important words: “Reich” in m. 2, “rein” in m. 4 and the first syllable of “Namen” in m. 6. Of utmost importance in the trance-like recitative sections is to balance the need to articulate the repeating notes without disturbing the line and flow, much as the singer would use the least amount of consonant attack and move the air from vowel to vowel.

At m. 16, one hears the fanfare motive that permeates the aria, first in the

English horn and then in the solo part. Until this point in the aria, the fanfare motive has been used as an undercurrent in the bass line. Ariadne’s ecstatic declamation of

117 Karen Patterson, “English Translations of Arias: Es gibt ein Reich,” http://www.karentuckerpatterson.com/pdf/English%20Aria%20Translations.pdf, accessed August 3, 2017.

119 “Hermes” on a high Bb is answered by an extended version of the fanfare motive in the accompanying horn part. From mm. 22-37, the solo continues with several arpeggiated passages, giving the horn player an indication of where the phrase is leading. The upper notes of the arpeggio figures need to be well-controlled as they are not always the arrival point in the phrase or even where emphasis should be placed:

Fig. 6.11. Strauss, “Es gibt ein Reich,” mm. 26-30, Horn in F.

The g2 of “Du” needs to propel towards the first syllable of “schöner” (beautiful) while the whole phrase should arrive on the downbeat of m. 30 on the first syllable of “wartet” (waits). This kind of context provided by the words is why the translation is so helpful. Hornists need to be aware of where the syllabic stress in general but especially in “Es gibt ein Reich.” Oftentimes the important words or syllables of the libretto fall on appoggiatura (though exceptions exist) and having the text as a reference aids the performer in identifying these moments.

The intervals at mm. 42 (Major 6th-Major 7th-Major 6th) are difficult for both singer and hornist. Great care should be taken to audiate them accurately (making sure to include the tonality here as Strauss has modulated from the home key of Bb) and prepare the intervals with portamento exercises described earlier in the chapter. The soloist can take time in m. 46 through the chromatic line to emphasize

120 the legato during the word “Herzen” (heart) and pace the transition back to melancholy.

The fanfare and recitative sections will alternate once more before the arrival of the cavatina in m. 77 and the first instance of true melismatic writing in mm. 78-

81. The hornist will enjoy this moment for its long, fluid scale knowing that the aria has a bit longer to go. Strauss begins building towards the climax of the aria in m. 86 with a return of the fanfare theme and the repetition of the text “du nimm es von mir, dies lastende Leben.” The hornist needs to use firm air support and vowel during the passages in between the middle and high registers. Also, because the pitch and emotional climax of the piece occur in m. 97, the dynamic level at m. 86 must be bright and confident but not so loud as to leave dynamic space nor tax the horn player’s endurance too soon. There is a sustained descending line after m. 97 that requires continued air speed and support, making only tiny adjustments so the intonation stays constant. The coda, coming soon after, almost seems like an easy way to end the aria, yet vigilance and engagement are crucial in mm. 104-107 and it helps the hornist to remember that Ariadne is not finished with the opera, just this particular section. Ariadne must remain in character for her coming confrontation with Zerbinetta’s comedy troupe in the next scene.

Technical Preparation

Ariadne’s aria does not require the same technical prowess with the regards to scales as in “Martern aller Arten” or the delicacy of high register playing in “Ach ich fühl’s.” After all, lyrical beauty and variety of tone color is of prime importance.

121 Hornists need to develop their palettes and messa di voce exercises are helpful if executed on all the pitches of the aria. They should be carried out particularly in the high register to develop strength and dynamic possibilities in preparation for the bb2 in m. 97. Ariadne’s fanfare motive and its variations are important to practice and study as well.

Fig. 6.12. Strauss Fanfare motive exercise.

This exercise should be sung, audiated, buzzed and then played on the horn. Each fanfare can be repeated as necessary and hornists need to maintain the portamento buzz, particularly through the slurred exercises.

Fig. 6.13. Strauss Fanfares in rhythm.

The rhythms are extrapolated directly from the aria, as the next logical step for practicing in isolation. The same process applied to Fig. 6.11 is important here as well.

122

Fig. 6.14. Alternating arpeggio up to high Bb

This last exercise takes the contour of the fanfare and extends to the upper register for the purposes of range-building, tonal evenness and security. Quick vowel adjustments are helpful to keep the line clean and legato.

By taking the time to understand all aspects of transcribed arias, horn players can build a rich musical experience for themselves and their audiences.

Understanding the plot of the opera as well as the text and translation of the individual arias helps to make better musical decisions with regards to phrasing, dynamics, tempo and rubato. In addition, the hornist must create musical opportunities out of features such as the repetition of both text and musical material to ensure the performance does not become tiresome. They can analyze the character’s development and plot subtext for clues to develop an appropriate musical approach. Managing the technical features of the arias such as scale patterns and interval leaps is vital to serving the musical goals. All the conceptual and musical devices learned in aria transcriptions can be applied to other musical compositions by the same composers. This allows the hornist to hear the music with a new perspective and enriches the experience of playing horn repertoire.

123 CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSIONS

In reflecting on the benefits of working with vocal transcriptions, it is clear that there is much more potential for their use. The author contends that hornists don’t sing enough in their lessons or practice and that as a group, we don’t expose ourselves to singers and vocal literature as much as we could. Musicians of all stripes can get locked into their instrument and the mechanics involved in the technical aspects of playing to the extent that we can’t see outside our self-made boundaries. Granted, there is much that horn players need to learn about playing and performing on the instrument. Horn playing has been compared to stunt acting, tightrope walking, flying a fighter jet and riding a mechanical bull. However, focusing exclusively on the horn, its technique and its virtuosos is not the only way to become a better musician.

When the author focused on the study and preparation of the vocal transcriptions in this project, the experience pushed the boundaries of what was previously thought possible. The approach became more personal and internalized and ultimately more joyful and meaningful. This may be because of the sheer amount of time spent with the arias; however, that could also be true of several other pieces of standard literature. The vocal transcriptions provided a way to investigate a different relationship with the instrument, with performing, and with music.

When horn players choose to sing through their instrument, they are ultimately able to give voice to their musical expression. Active study and

124 performance of arias and other vocal literature create a more balanced and musical performer who is capable of multilayered preparation. As musicians, we are constantly in search of better methods to free ourselves from the boundaries of our technical and musical limitations. Playing vocal literature and “singing” on the horn allows us to transcend the bounds of our instrument and immerse ourselves in the artistic treasures of another musical medium. This enables us to hear and be more creative in how we approach the horn in our everyday lives. It is, after all, a divinely challenging instrument.

125 APPENDIX A

W. A. MOZART, “MARTERN ALLER ARTEN”

126

127

128 129 130 131 132

133

134

135

136 137

138

139

140

141

142 APPENDIX B

W. A. MOZART, “ACH ICH FÜHL’S”

143 144 145

146

147

148 APPENDIX C

STRAUSS, “ES GIBT EIN REICH”

149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159

160 APPENDIX D

PITCH DESIGNATIONS

RANGE DESIGNATIONS

161 APPENDIX E

SURVEY QUESTIONS

1. Have you ever performed a vocal transcription in a public forum (e.g. recital, competition, masterclass, place of worship, community event, etc)?

Yes or No

2. Have any of your students performed a vocal transcription in a public forum (e.g. recital, competition, masterclass, place of worship, community event, etc)?

Yes or No

3. If you answered yes to any of the above, where have you or your student(s) performed a transcription of a vocal work?

o In Recital o At a place of worship o At a masterclass o At a community event o In a competition o I never play vocal transcriptions o Other (please specify)______

4. Of those venues, where do you or your students most often play a vocal transcription?

5. What are the primary reasons you or your student(s) have performed a vocal transcription?

o Additional repertoire for a recital o For a wedding, funeral, party event, etc. o Other (please specify)

6. Do you agree that vocal transcriptions are an important part of study and performance on horn? Why or why not?

7. Are there any vocal works that you might study but not perform?

o I think you should play everything! o I don’t play/recommend any vocal transcriptions o Some – see below in the comments______

162 8. What is the value in playing/performing/studying vocal works? Check all that apply.

o Transcriptions enhance my understanding of a composer’s style and intent o Transcriptions help teach me lyricism in a new way o Vocal transcriptions provide an enhanced musical experience compared to a composer’s other works for horn o Vocal transcriptions provide an enhanced technical experience compared to a composer’s other works for horn o Vocal Transcriptions can create a new experience for a horn player if that composer did not write anything for solo horn o Vocal transcriptions can enhance my understand of orchestral works and excerpts by a composer o Other (please specify)______

9. What vocal works do you perform or recommend to your students most often?

o None – I don’t recommend vocal works for study or performance o Some – see below in the comments for a list______

10. Any other thoughts about using vocal works/transcriptions for performance by horn players?

163

APPENDIX F

FORMAL ANALYSIS OF MOZART’S CONCERTO IN Eb, K. 495, I

Mozart’s use of sonata form in his concerti owes much to his development of sonata form in the operas composed in the ten-year period before K.495 was written. In terms of form, the concerto and aria have long had a close relationship.

While often using sonata-allegro form as a basis, Mozart’s use of sonata form in his concerti and arias is more closely related than how he expresses it in his symphonies or other instrumental works. Mozart abbreviates some parts of sonata form, particularly the development and recapitulation sections, in both his concerti and arias. This is remarkable in several of the arias in Idomeneo as well as the horn concerti. Indeed, it seems as if Mozart gained more control and mastery of sonata form in his mature years than the development sections suffer in length and complexity, as if the composer would rather focus efforts on the musical ideas within the exposition. For scholar and pianist Charles Rosen, the moniker of sonata form can be misrepresented by a strict adherence to the formal attributes found in specific works. Rosen writes that “[it] is not a definite form like a minuet, a da capo aria or a French overture; it is, like the fugue, a way of writing, a feeling for proportion, direction and texture rather than a pattern.”118 This same sentiment applies to Mozart’s arias and concerti. Even when there are certain inconsistencies within the details of the form, interesting comparisons can be made between the two genres.

118 Charles Rosen. The Classical Style (New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1998), 30.

164 Mozart organized the first movement of K. 495 in a concerto sonata-allegro form. This allowed him to use what could be categorized as a double exposition, where expository material is supposed to be presented twice, once by the orchestra and once by the soloist. In this example, however, the exposition does not contain two versions of the same music by the orchestra and soloist. Instead, the composer incorporates more traditional forms of organization, hearkening back to the ritornelli of Baroque concerti. By reaching into more antiquated forms, Mozart is able to present varying themes in the orchestra that are not repeated or adapted by the soloist. It also encourages a greater number of themes to be presented, even outside the confines of the exposition, and gives the first movement of K. 495 a playful richness of contrasts and characters.

W.A. Mozart: Concerto for Horn in Eb, K. 495, I. Formal Analysis.

Exposition

1st Exposition 2nd Exposition Solo: Cod.1 A Bridge2 B2 Acc. Trans.1 Orch: A (bridge1) B1 Trans. Cod.1, 2 B1 MM: 1-12 13-16 17-32 32-42 43-56 56-64 65-78 79-86 Key: I (Eb)------V(Bb)------

Interlude/ Post-Cadential Passage

Solo: Orch: Bridge 1 Trans.2 MM: 87-94 94-96 Key: V------vi(c)

165 Development

Solo: C1 C2 Motive Seq. Trans.3 Retransition Orch: MM: 97-112 113-120 121-124 125-131 132-141 Keys: vi------IV(Ab)------ii------V------

Recapitulation

Solo: A+Bridge1+A Bridge2, B2, B1, Trans.1, ext. Cadenza Orch: Cod.2 Trans. 4 Bridge+Trans.1 MM: 142-154 155 173 177 189 199 200-204 Keys: I------I------

Coda

Solo: Cod. 1 Orch: Cod.1, 2 MM: 205-218 Keys: I------

Finding a formal counterpart to K. 495’s first movement is more art than science. As Mozart moved through his career, his compositional style and use of form changed significantly. With regards to sonata form found in Mozart’s operatic arias, Nathan John Martin argues that his ideas synthesized and became more dense, creating shorter but more emotionally poignant experiences for the characters and audience.119 Martin made a brief study of this phenomenon, examining the formal structures of arias from Idomeneo (1780) through to Die Zauberflöte (1791), concluding that full sonata recapitulations became progressively rarer in Mozart’s

119 Nathan John Martin, “Mozart’s Sonata-Form Arias,” Formal Functions in Perspective: Essays on Musical Form from Haydn to Adorno. 38.

166 arias over the course of the decade. Sonata expositions, on the other hand, continue to figure prominently in his designs. Of the eleven arias in La clemenza di Tito, for instance, all but three (the two rondos and Servilia’s “S’altro che lacrime”) begin thus. One expects, as a result, to find a substantial collection of techniques for abridging, compressing or otherwise condensing the complete recapitulations found in Idomeneo and Die Entführung.120

While this presents a small problem of creating the perfect formal counterpart to K.495, it means that formal elements rather than a complete structure can also be used. Of the arias that Martin analyzed, he concludes that the most frequent use of various versions of sonata form take place in Idomeneo, where it appears in no less than twelve arias. Some of the arias contain complete development sections, others have a contrasting middle section in a different tempo and some omit the development section altogether in favor of going straight from exposition to recapitulation material.121 Rosen, writing about the phenomenon in

Mozart’s later operas of sonata-form arias without development sections, remarks that one “cannot label something a development section merely because it is to be found sandwiched between an exposition and a recapitulation.”122 This shows a composer less interested in perfecting executing a form than exploiting elements of that form for dramatic or musical ends.

As an example of an earlier and more pro forma use of sonata form in arias,

Martin analyzes in depth the aria sung by Ilia in the third act of Idomeneo, “Zeffiretti

120 Ibid., 46. 121 Ibid., 42. 122 Charles Rosen, Sonata Forms (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1988), 70.

167 lusinghieri.” There are some similarities between it and the concerto-sonata form of the first movement of K. 495. They both contain an orchestral introduction that functions as exposition/ritornello and contains some of the subsequent melodic material from the exposition. The Idomeneo aria, however, is a little more literal in the relationship between the two expositions while the horn concerto has different main themes in its expositions. Instead, smaller motives or secondary themes are what connect the sections. Both pieces of music contain post-cadential passages after the exposition that lead to a contrasting middle section or development and are not based on themes of the solo exposition, but rather of the orchestral introduction. Both pieces also approach the middle section in a minor key and with a theme that is not closely related to the expository material. They also both return neatly to the solo exposition material, and both main themes are restated, with necessary adjustment to the harmonic and melodic structures so as to reinforce the tonic key.

168 APPENDIX G

FORMAL ANALYSIS OF STRAUSS’ CONCERTO IN Eb, NO. 1, OP. 11, I

Despite having a reliable classical overall structure for his concerto – three movements in a fast/slow/fast configuration – Strauss eschews traditional sonata form for his first movement. Instead, Strauss composed a series of clearly delineated themes in a quasi-rondo configuration. The opening themes function as a common Strauss 1 Opening thread through the first movement, as well as the concerto as a whole.Richard Strauss

Solo b U U œ ˙. œ. œ œ œ. œ & b c Ó Œ œ. œœ œ. œ œ. œ œ ˙ energico œ œ. f ˙ Strauss: Horn Concerto No. 1, Op.11, I, mm. 1-5 (Horn in F).

This arpeggiated figure is dominant throughout the whole work. What is particularly notable about the opening fanfare theme is the arpeggiation of the tonic chord in measure 1 that leads to the upward passing tone in the second measure.

This melodic contour appears later in the 1st movement (C Section) and in the main theme of the third movement rondo.

A simplified representation of the form of the first movement would look like this:

Strauss: Horn Concerto in Eb, No. 1 Opus 11, I

Theme A Theme B Solo: Unaccomp. B1 B2 Orch: Triplets Trans. MM: 1-5 6-28 28-46 46-64 64-75 Key: I(Eb)------iii(g)--

169

Theme C C, development Theme A Solo: C1 C2 Triplets Cadential Orch: Patetico Th. Triplets MM: 76-83 84-108 108-124 125-131 131-163 Key: V(Bb)------Various------V (Bb)------Trans. to Ab

There are no true breaks between movements for either of Strauss’s horn concerti. In the first concerto, Strauss simply moves the accompanying triplet figuration in the orchestra from AStrauss 1-flat major to a Trans to II,-flat minor to signal 162-163 the onset of the next movement. Richard Strauss

œ 3 œ œ œ b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ & b b 4 œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ Piano œ 3 œ œ œ œ œ œ ? b 4 œ. œ œ œ œ. œ b b 4 œ Œ Œ œ 3 œ Strauss 1, Trans to II, 164-164 Strauss: Horn Concerto No. 1, Op.11, I, mm. 162-163, modulated to Ab major. Richard Strauss

3 3 b b b 3 œ œ œ & b b b b 8 œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ Piano œ œ œ œ ! ? b 3 œ. œ. b bbbb 8 œ. œ. b

Horn Concerto No. 1, Op.11, II, mm. 1-2, ab minor.

The form of the second movement is ternary, a common middle movement form for the concerto. The slow tempo allows not only for contrast with the outer

170 movements but a surprising number of small modulations in relatively few measures, sometimes using secondary dominants as the harmonic structure.

Strauss: Horn Concerto in Eb, No. 1 Opus 11, II

A Section

Solo: a b a Orch: Intro Trans. MM: 163 165-182 183-195 196-211 212--16 Key: iv(ab)------vi(c) iv(ab)

B Section A Section Codetta

Solo: Based on Theme B of 1st mov’t a Th. B Orch: Triplet fanfare accomp. b cl. obbl. MM: 217-230 230 - 238 238-251 252-267 268-274 Key: #I/bII(E)------pivot V(Bb)---(Ab) (ab)------Neap. 6 chord

The final movement is in rondo form with its similarities not in quite the same vein as the rondos found at the end of Mozart’s horn concerti. The basis for the rondo’s A theme is both the triplet theme (C) and the opening fanfare (Theme A) from the first movement. The melodic contour corresponds to Theme A of movement I, but the rhythmic pull of the theme reimagined in 6/8 is closely aligned with Theme C. This is the culmination in this piece of music of Strauss using the idea of “thematic metamorphosis” where one theme, through manipulations of tempo, meter, rhythm and harmony, can become many.123 It binds the structure of the concerto tightly together so that even though there is a full stop after the second movement, Strauss’s intention for the concerto to continue without a break are reinforced by his use of cyclical themes.

123 Michael Steinberg, The Concerto: A Listener’s Guide (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998).

171 Strauss’s final movement is truly a romp to the end, broken up by a thoughtful quotation of the first movement’s opening fanfare.

Strauss: Horn Concerto in Eb, No. 1,Op. 11, III

A Section B Interlude Solo: A a b c Th. A, 1st mov’t Orch: Intro A Tutti MM: 275-282 282-298 298-316 317-334 335-358 359-402 403-407 Key: Var.---I(Eb)------II(F)------(Gb)--(F)—(Bb)—-----(Eb)------

A Section B section A Int./Cadenza Solo: a b Patetico Th. Orch: A tutti A Tutti MM: 407-419 420-435 436-456 457-472 472-488 489-509 510-521 Key: I(Eb)------(E/Fb) I(Eb)------V------

Coda Solo: a a’ b c Orch: MM: 522-39 540-557 558-574 Key: I(Eb)

172 APPENDIX H

COMPILATION OF KNOWN PUBLISHED VOCAL TRANSCRIPTIONS FOR HORN

Title Composer Transc. Publisher Acc.

• O Holy Night Adam, A. Green, A. Warwick Piano • Wondrous Love Am. folksong Hal Leonard Piano • Nobody Knows Am. Spiritual Bissill, R. Faber Piano • Jesu Joy Bach, J. S. Hal Leonard Piano • Be Thou with Me Bach, J. S. Ohanian, D. Hal Leonard Piano (Bist du bei Mir) • Ein' Feste Burg Bach, J. S. Jolley, D. IMC Piano • Nun Komm' der Bach, J. S. Jolley, D. IMC Piano Heiden Heiland • Bessie Bobtail Barber, S. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano • Marmotte, Op. 52 Beethoven, L. v. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano • Abschiedgesang an Beethoven, L. v. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano Wiens Bürger • Die Ehre Gottes Beethoven, L. v. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano aus der Natur, Op. 48 • Ich Liebe Dich Beethoven, L. v. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano • Vaga Luna Bellini, V. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano • Casta Diva (Norma) Bellini, V. Höltzel, M. Schott Piano • A Simple Song Bernstein, L. Hilliard Boosey Piano • Psalm 23, ii Bernstein, L. Hilliard Boosey Piano • Tonight Bernstein, L. Elliot, D. Boosey Piano • Somewhere Bernstein, L. Elliot, D. Boosey Piano • Something's Coming Bernstein, L. Elliot, D. Boosey Piano • One Hand - One Heart Bernstein, L. Elliot, D. Boosey Piano • Psalm 23, ii Bernstein, L. Elliot, D. Boosey Piano • A Simple Song (Mass) Bernstein, L. Elliot, D. Boosey Piano • There is a Garden Bernstein, L. Elliot, D. Boosey Piano • Lucky to Be Me Bernstein, L. Elliot, D. Boosey Piano • It Must Be Bernstein, L. Elliot, D. Boosey Piano • Chanson d'Avril Bizet, G. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano • Je crois entendre encore Bizet, G. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano • Give Me the Simple Life Bloom, R. Bissill, R. Brasswind Piano • Regenlied Brahms, J. Höltzel, M. Schott Piano • Nachtklang Brahms, J. Höltzel, M. Schott Piano • Sebben, crudele Caldara, A. Böhler, F. W. Uetz Pno/Org • Vittorio, mio coro Carissimi, G. Ohanian, D. Hal Leonard Piano • Vittoria, Vittoria! Carissimi, G. Böhler, F. W. Uetz Pno/Org • Pour Diane Charpentier, J. Alphonse Piano • The Little Horses Copland, A. Hilliard Boosey Piano

173 • Zion's Walls Copland, A. Hilliard Boosey Piano • Air de Lia Debussy, C. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org from L'Enfant prodiges • Come Again, Sweet Death Dowland, J. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org • Folksong Suite (The Ash Grove,English tune Jones, M. Schirmer Piano Ye Belles and Ye Flirts, accomp. The Dusky Night) by Jones • Trois Romances Fauré, G. Bourgue, D. Hamelle Piano sans paroles, Op. 17 • Pie Jesu Fauré, G. Green, A. Warwick Piano • Après un rêve Fauré, G. Wekre, F. McCoy's Piano • Delight of Melancholy Franz, R. Yancich, M. Wind Music Piano • Caro mio ben Giordani, G. Böhler, F. W. Uetz Pno/Org • O Merveille (from Faust) Gounod, C. Campbell, A. Faber Piano • Sing, Smile, Slumber Gounod, C. Holmes Rubank Piano (Sérènade) • Solveijg's Song Grieg, Edvard Yancich, M. Wind Music Piano • I See a Huntsman Händel, G. F Jones, M. Schirmer Piano (From Giulio Caesare) • Come Unto Him Händel, G. F Rutherford, L. Hal Leonard Piano • Lament (Laschia ch'io) Händel, G. F Hal Leonard Piano • Lascia ch'io pianga Händel, G. F Böhler, F. W. Uetz Pno/Org • Mirth Admit Me of Thy Händel, G. F Campbell, A. Faber Piano Crew (from L'Allegro) • How Beautiful are the Feet Händel, G. F Green, A. Warwick Piano • V'adoro Pupille Händel, G. F Höltzel, M. Schott • (from Giulio Caesare) Piano • Se pietà Händel, G. F Höltzel, M. Schott Piano • Lascia ch'io pianga Händel, G. F Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org from Rinaldo • Fra un dolce delirio Haydn, F. J. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org from L'Isola Disabitata • Brother Come Dance with Me Humperdinck, E. Campbell, A. Faber Piano from Hansel and Gretel) • Press Thy Check Against Jensen, A Yancich, M. Wind Music Piano My Own • Row Gently Here, Jensen, A. Yancich, M. Wind Music Piano My Gondolier! • O Canada Lavallée, C. Hal Leonard Piano • Kling leise, mein Lied Liszt, Franz Reynolds, V. Belwin Mills Piano • Lieder eines fahrenden GesellenMahler, G Kerekes, B. Cherry Cla. Piano • Lieblingsplaetzchen, Op.99 Mendelssohn, F. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano • Minnelied Mendelssohn, F. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano • Then Shall the Righteous Mendelssohn, F. Ohanian, D. Hal Leonard Piano Shine • Meet Me in St. Louis, Louis Mills, Kerry Hal Leonard Piano

• Lasciatemi morire from AriannaMonteverdi, C. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org • Non, Più Tutto Ascoltai Mozart, W. A. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano

174 • Fear not, beloved / Mozart, W. A. Schirmer Piano Non temer amato bene from Idomeneo • Cherubino's Aria Mozart, W. A. Ohanian, D. Hal Leonard Piano • Un'aura amorosa Mozart, W. A. Campbell, A. Faber Piano • Der Hölle Rache Mozart, W. A. Höltzel, M. Schott Piano from Die Zauberflöte • Porgi amor Mozart, W. A. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org from Le Nozze di Figaro • Song of Khivria Mussorgsky, M. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano • Les oiseaux dans Offenbach, J. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org la charmille from Les Contes d'Hoffman • Ah Sofia mio caro bene Paër, F. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org from Sargino • Sicilienne Classiques No. 6 Pergolesi, G. B. Alphonse Piano • O mio babbino caro Puccini, G. Kelley, D. Last Resort Piano from Gianni Schicchi • Let Her Believe / Puccini, G. Schirmer Piano Ch'ella mi creda from La Fanciulla del West • Nessun Dorma Puccini, G. Bissill, R. Faber Piano • Recondita armonia Puccini, G. Campbell, A. Faber Piano from Tosca • Nessun Dorma Puccini, G. Ricordi Piano

• In quelle trine morbide Puccini, G. Ricordi Piano

• O mio babbino caro Puccini, G. Ricordi Piano

• Quando m'en vo Puccini, G. Ricordi Piano

• Un bel di vedremo Puccini, G. Ricordi Piano

• Vissi d'arte Puccini, G. Ricordi Piano

• Ch'ella mi creda Puccini, G. Ricordi Piano

• Senza mamma Puccini, G. Ricordi Piano

• E lucevan le stelle Puccini, G. Ricordi Piano

• Recondita armonia Puccini, G. Ricordi Piano • I Attempt From Purcell, Henry Jones, M. Schirmer Piano Love's Sickness to Fly • Ah! How Pleasant Purcell, Henry Hal Leonard Piano 'tis to Love • Ayre from The Double DealerPurcell, Henry Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org • Vocalise Rachmaninov Wekre, F. McCoy's Piano • Rendons un hommage Rameau, J-P. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org eternel from Hyppolite et Aricie • Das Bild der Rose Reichart, J. F. Jones, M. Schirmer Piano • Cujus animam Rossini, G. Böhler, F. W. Uetz Pno/Org • Cavatina Rossini, G. Yancich, M. Wind Music Piano from The Barber of Seville • Se Florindo è fedele Scarlatti, A. Böhler, F. W. Uetz Pno/Org

175 • Pietà Signore Scarlatti, A. Böhler, F. W. Uetz Pno/Org • To Music (An die Musik) Schubert, F. Green, A. Warwick Piano • Du bist die Rüh Schubert, F. Reynolds, V. Belwin Mills Piano • My Peace Thou Art Schubert, F. Yancich, M. Wind Music Piano • Ich Grolle Nicht Schumann, R. Ohanian, D. Hal Leonard Piano • Widmung Schumann, R. Wekre, F. McCoy's Piano • Abendlied Schumann, R. Wekre, F. McCoy's Piano • Der Hidalgo Schumann, R. Reynolds, V. Belwin Mills Piano • 2 Waldszenen (Solitary FlowersSchumann, R. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org • &At the Inn) - Horn in Eb • 2 Waldszenen (Solitary FlowersSchumann, R. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Guitar &At the Inn) - Horn in E-flat • Abendlied Schumann, R. James, Ifor Ed.Marc Reift Piano • The Water is Wide Scottish tune Hal Leonard Piano • Kirchen Aria Stradella, A. Jones, Mason Schirmer Piano • Allerseelen/All Soul's Day Strauss, R. Schirmer Piano • Zueignung Strauss, R. Ohanian, David Hal Leonard Piano • Wie solleten Wir Geheim Strauss, R. Reynolds, V. Belwin Mills Piano Sie hakten • Allerseelen/All Soul's Day Strauss, R. Voxman, H Rubank Piano • He is an Englishman Sullivan, A. Hal Leonard Piano • Welcome Joy, Sullivan, A. Ohanian, D. Hal Leonard Piano Adieu to Sadness • Take a Pair of Sparkling EyesSullivan, A. James, Ifor Ed.Marc Reift Piano • Moon and I Sullivan, A. James, Ifor Ed.Marc Reift Piano • Danny Boy (Londonderry Air)Trad . Hal Leonard Piano • Shenandoah Trad. Am. Hal Leonard Piano • Here's That Rainy Day Van Heusen, J. Bissill, R. Brasswind Piano • Inaffia l'ugola from Otello Verdi, G. Campbell, A. Faber Piano • Va pensiero from Nabucco Verdi, G. Mourey, C. Ed.Marc Reift Pno/Org • Domine Deus Vivaldi, A. Böhler, F. W. Uetz Pno/Org • Memory Webber, A. L. Campbell, A. Faber Piano The Gardener (Der Gartner) • Wolf, Hugo Ohanian, D. Hal Leonard Piano

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