ll. t. Ch . 12 ( 2
r nd, nd n, 4 . 8. . . G. r , " h Ch l ", J.Soc.Chem. Industry, 2 ( 6 b r , 0 . Al An n., "A S lf t l d lt f S n ", Nature, 2, 130, 60 4 nd "C ll nd lt t n ", ibid., 2, 130, 692-3.
William H. Brock teaches history of science at the University of Leicester,Leicester LE1 7RH , England. The 1990-91 Edel- stein Fellow at the Beckman Center, Philadelphia, he is the author of a biography of William Prout ("From Protyle to Proton"). His most recent book "At the Sign of the Hexagon, A History of Chemistry" will be published by Norton this year.
OLD CHEMISTRIES
A "Lost" Silliman Chemistry Text
William . Williams, Harding University
Published in 1866, Principles of Modern Chemistry by Ben- jamin Silliman, Jr. and George F. Barker, has gone unnoticed by chemical historians (1). This extremely rare text was the first American work to present the "new chemistry" of the 1860s. An examination of the volume reveals it to be a revision of the first section of Silliman's famous text, First Principles of Chemistry. Silliman and Barker each authored a well-known chemis- try text. Silliman's First Principles of Chemistry (2) went th l t f rt n r . r f r . St rr nt, th th r f th through 50 "editions" and sold 50,000 copies between 1847 Or n Ch tr n th rl r d t n , n f th f r t l b r r and 1875 (3). Barker's A Text Book of Elementary Chemistry, n th f ld ... h l th pr r f f rt n r h h n d th Theoretical and Inorganic (4) had 13 "editions" from 1870 to n r l p t f h tr , th t d nt ll r n z n th p 1891, sold 10,000 copies the first five years, and was translated n f th pr n pl l d d n n f r r d t n . into Japanese, Arabic and French (5). Despite the prominence of these two authors, however, their co-authored text has Subtitled, "Part I. Chemical Philosophy", the 100 pages of remained "lost" (6). The following review examines this rare Modern Chemistry were to replace the briefer and outdated, volume and its relationship to the two authors' well-known " rt II. Chemical Philosophy" section of Silliman's First texts. Principles. The prime purpose of the new edition was the Modern Chemistry was published by Theodore Bliss and introduction of the "atomic system of notation" into inorganic Co. of Philadelphia - the same publisher as Silliman's First chemistry as had already been done with organic. The old Principles. Although it never mentioned First Principles by dualistic system of expressing inorganic formulas (CaO-S03) name, the preface of Modern Chemistry left no doubt that it was was to be replaced by the simplest atomic formula (CaSO4). intended as a revision of Silliman's text. It explained that the Classification by the "theory of types" and the resulting system section on physics, "which has heretofore occupied the first of "equivalence" were recommended as less complex and portion of the work", was being omitted (7). Part I of Silliman's more easily remembered by introductory students. First Principles was indeed titled "Physics". The preface to The "new chemistry" of the 1860s was a reform of equal Modern Chemistry also spoke of "earlier editions" and of T. importance to Lavoisier's "new chemistry" of the 1790s. Steffy Hunt's organic section (8): During the first half of the 19th century, facts and theories accumulated faster than they could be systematized. Earlier It ppr pr t th t th t t h ld pp r n th b , combining atomic weights were inconsistent with Avogadro's n n f t l d n pr n pl h v b n t ht n t p f r law of equal volumes and the Dulong and Petit relationship for 6 ll. t. Ch . 2 ( 2 atomic heats. It was recognized that the accepted formula for water, HO (with H = 1 and 0 = 8), should be replaced with H20 (with H 1 and 0 = 16). In an effort to clarify inconsistent atomic weights and chemical notation, a conference of chem- ists was called at Karlsruhe, Germany, in 1860. About 140 prominent chemists attended. With Dumas presiding, they sought to correlate the contributions of Gay-Lussac, Avogadro, Berzelius, Dumas, Dulong and Petit, Gerhardt and others. Cannizzaro championed Avogadro's hypothesis that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. He argued that contradictions could be overcome by considering elemental gas molecules to be diatomic and by doubling some atomic weights. Although the delegates did not pass a resolution, Cannizzaro's recom- mendations were soon accepted (9). The resulting new chemistry involved several important reforms: * Some atomic weights were doubled. * Dualistic formulas were replaced by molecular formulas. Compounds like CO2 and SO2 had formerly been called acids and had led to the dualistic concept of a salt as an additive combination of a base with an acid - i.e., CaO•CO2or CaO.S03, * A new nomenclature was needed for the new formulas. Thus carbonate of lime (CaO-0O2) in the dualistic system became calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the new system and sulfurous acid (SO2) became simply sulfur dioxide. * Concepts of valence and types resulted from the new organization. nj n S ll n r. ( 8 6 88 These changes soon appeared in European textbooks and were widely accepted by 1865. In spite of its limited use, on Pennsylvania oil played an important role in the growth of Silliman and Barker's Modern Chemistry was the first Ameri- the eastern petroleum industry. In 1864 he visited California can text to explain the new system. Though several existing for field investigation of mining interests. His optimistic American texts added appendix chapters on the new system report on California oil potential contradicted conclusions of and some adopted the new atomic weights, Barker's 1870 Josiah D. Whitney, who headed the California State Geologi-
Text Book was the first widely-used American text totally cal Survey. Whitney and his former assistant, William H. based on the new system (10). Brewer, by then a Yale professor, mounted a vicious attack on Benjamin Silliman, Jr. (1816-1885) followed the scientific Silliman that continued until 1874 (13). path of his celebrated father, Benjamin Ullman, Sr. (1779- The first edition of Silliman's First Principles of Chemis- 1864), who was the first Professor of Chemistry at Yale (11). try was published in 1847. Although it had 50 so-called The younger Silliman served as his father's assistant both "editions", there were really only three different revisions - the before and after his graduation from Yale in 1837. He also content and pagination changing in 1848 (2nd ed.) and in 1852 joined his father in editing the American Journal of Science (25th ed.). Around 1856, Silliman supplemented his text with and Arts, a responsibility he continued for his lifetime. In 1842 two editions of a syllabus, Synopsis of Lectures on Chemistry he began an applied chemistry school that ultimately became Delivered in Yale College. In 1859, he wrote of desires for a Yale's Sheffield Scientific School, an accomplishment one major revision (14): biographer described as "the most important achievement of his life" (12). Except foram period from 1849 to 1853, when he h Ch tr I n t p nd [ ] f th x ll n was Professor of Medical Chemistry at the University of f r r, St h rdt nd n b . If th xt r dr tl Louisville, Sillirnan spent his entire career at Yale. When his d I h ll b bl t n t b tt r b f r t d nt th n n father retired in 1853, the younger Silliman succeeded him, x t . teaching classes in the Academic Department and the Medical School, as well as in the Scientific School. He also became George F. Barker (1835-1910) was a student under Silli- increasingly involved in industrial consulting. His 1855 report man at the Yale (later Sheffield) Scientific School in 1856-58 ll. t. Ch . 2 ( 2
and acted as Silliman's assistant the final year (15). After Modern Chemistry contained five chapters: graduation, he served two years as assistant to John Bacon, Professor of Chemistry at the Harvard Medical School. He I. Intr d t n ( tt r, f r , pr v n f h tr , l f received his M.D. degree from Albany Medical College in h , p t n f tt r 1863 while at the same time serving as professor of chemistry II. n l t r ( pl nd p nd r d l , b n r nd in that institution. After spending a year as Professor of Natural t rn r p nd , b t f d Science at Western University of Pennsylvania, he returned to III. C b n n ht (l f b n t n, t nd Yale in 1865 as Demonstrator of Chemistry in the Yale l l r ht , v l n f r d l Medical School. The 1866-67 Yale College catalog listed I . t t n ( b l f r d l nd p nd , th r f Barker as "Assistant to Professor Silliman". t p , r t n , t h tr From February 1867 until February 1868, while Silliman . Ch l h ( h n, r t ll r ph made another trip to California, Barker taught Silliman's chemistry classes at Yale (16). Barker apparently used Prin- Although the preface stated that "we have placed a series of ciples of Modern C hernistry as a supplement to Silliman's text. problems at the end of such sections as require them", no The copy in the author's possession contains a student's problems were present in the volume. Indeed, chapter heads handwritten margin note, "Feb. 20th 1867". Some margin were continued on the same page as the last line of the notes were trimmed when the volume was later bound. This preceding chapter in such manner as to suggest printing from would suggest that the original issue had a paper cover. The unfinished galley type. The 45 figures were all in the discus- extreme rarity of the imprint could be explained by the fact that sion of crystallography. it was used for only one Yale class. A comparison of Modern Chemistry with Silliman's First
A contemporary biographer gave Barker credit for the book Principles and Barker's Text book reveals very little similarity (17): with either. The format of numbered paragraphs and the degree of complexity were similar to Silliman's text, but no E rl n th pr n f 866 r f r r r r t th f r t p rt f identical passages have been found. Modern Chemistry was t xt b , nt nd d n d t n f S ll n "Ch tr ." In th b , th d rn n n l t r nd n t t n pp r d n t xt b f r th f r t t n th ntr . h th r f t p d f b f l f t n, nd th b d th th n r l n Y l C ll .
Any plans to continue the revision of Silliman's First Principles were abandoned. Barker incorporated the new chemistry concepts into his own text, brought out in 1870. Silliman's text continued to be published until 1875 with no changes from the 1852 copyright. As a result of continued attacks by Whitney and Brewer, Silliman resigned from Yale College and the Sheffield Scientific School in 1870. He re- tained his positions with the Medical School and the American Journal of Science and Arts until his death. Barker was Professor of Physiological Chemistry and Toxicology in the Yale Medical School from 1867 until 1873, when he moved to the University of Pennsylvania as Professor of Physics. His subsequent career was as physics professor and researcher, industrial consultant and expert court witness. Silliman, in his 1874 American Contributions to Chemis- try, omitted any mention of Modern Chemistry under his own name or under Barker's name. He did, however, insert an interesting comment about his First Principles in which he claimed that "the fundamental ideas of the so-called 'New Chemistry' were first distinctly brought out in a text-book in the organic portion prepared by Dr. Hunt" (18). This claim was very similar to the sentence about Hunt in the preface of Modern Chemistry quoted above. G r . r r ( 8 0 8 ll. t. Ch . 2 ( 2 much more detailed than the brief sections on theory and (W l h, l , nd C ., C br d , 868 . rt r Principles crystals in First Principles. Barker's Text book had a more of Chemistry (A. S. rn , Y r , 20th d t n, 868 dd d elementary, outline format and also failed to exhibit any p t n t th nd f h f r r d t n. xpl n d n th identical passages with Modern Chemistry. A full-page pr f : " t th d nd f r t xt b nt n n th l t r "Electro-chemical Series" was identical, but the discussions th r f Ch l h l ph , th p bl h r h v xt nd d th were not the same. f r r d t n t br n p rt v n pl t It is not clear how Silliman and Barker shared the author- xp t n f th d th r , t th r th n r x r ship of Modern Chemistry. The preface used the plurals "our" n th n n n l t r ." . E. Lessons in Elementary and "we" in referring to the authors. At that time, however, Chemistry (W . W d, Y r , 868 , th f r t A r n d t n S Oman was heavily involved in the California oil controversy f th 86 r t h r , d th n t thr h t S. W. and other consulting work. Since Barker was more interested hn n p bl h d f v p p phl t, Chemical Notation and in the new chemistry, he probably did most of the writing - a Nomenclature, Old andNew ... ( hn W l & S n, Y r , 8 , method quite common with junior authors of today's texts. h h t p n h d t d A r n d t n f r n t xt . hn t n Manual of Chemistry (Ch rl lv r, h l d l References and Notes ph , 8th d t n, 8 pl d 2 p pp nd x n th n t n h n h n d f r r d t n . . St l Fourteen Weeks in . . S ll n nd G. . r r, Principles of Modern Chemis- Chemistry (A. S. rn , Y r , 868 r v d t nt n th try arranged on the Atomic System of Notation. Part I. Chemical n h tr n 8 , b t th ld v r n l nt n d f r Philosophy, h d r l & C ., h l d lph , 866, 00 p . v r l r . h National Union Catalog l t nl n h ld r, C l b Un v r . f r n , pp. 4 8 440 r f r n 4, pp. 20 E. . t . h th r h bt n d r f l f th t v l . h n n C. C. G ll p , d., Dictionary of Scientific Biography, K l n, n l d bl S ll n b r ph r, t t th t h h n l. 2, S r bn r , Y r , , pp. 4 4 4 . n n t l d p n th Y l r h v (p r n l n t n . 2. . . C , " nj n S ll n", Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci., 2. . S ll n, r., First Principles of Chemistry for the Use of 1885, 20, 2 . Colleges and Schools, H. C. & h d r l , h l d lph , . r d n f th l ntr v r , : G. . Wh t , 8 0, 480 p . Scientists in Conflict: The Beginnings of the Oil Industry in Califor- 3. B. S ll n, American Contributions to Chemisry, C ll n , nia, nt n t n br r , S n M r n , 68. Wh tn nd r r h l d lph , 8 4, p. 6. l d th t S ll n pr n nt f pr n f r 4. G. . r r, A Text-Book of Elementary Chemistry, Theo- l r t v n lt n f . Wh n n l pl pr v d t b fr d retical and Inorganic, C. C. Ch tf ld & C ., v n, 8 0, 42 l ntl " lt d" th t rn l, th tt p n S ll rn n nt n p . f d. S v r l S ll n b r ph r h v n l d d th t h t . W. M l , American Chemists and Chemical Engineers, tr t n f h t nd th t h br th r n l h v b n A r n Ch l S t , W h n t n, .C., 6, pp. 2 24. r p n bl f r th d t. 6. h t tl n t l t d n . C. lt n A Select Bibliography 4. Q t d n . I. K l n, " nj n S ll n, r.: h S nd of Chemistry r th r b bl r ph . It n t n n l t f S ll n", n . G. W l n, Benjamin Silliman and His Circle, p bl t n n S ll rt b r ph . h nl r l t d h h S n t r bl t n , Y r , , p. . d nt n th t tl E. h n, "G r r d r r r", . f r n , p. 2 h n, r f r n 6, pp. x xx x Proc.Am.Phil.Soc.,1911,50,xxiv,in l t f p bl t n b r r. An n , " r ph l t f G r . r r", Pop. Sci. . f r n , p. v . Monthly,1879, 15 , 6 6 E. . S th, "G r r d r r r", 8. Ibid., p. [v]. rt n r rl r ld h v b n 8 2, A . Jour. Sci.,1910, 180, 22 2 2 An n , "G r r d r h h r th nt l t r v n f th r n t n f r r r", Sci. A ., 1887, , 2 2 2. S ll n First Principles. 6. S ff n 86 C l f rn tr p d l d nt d. l ft . r d t l f th K rl r h n r , : A. . Ihd , " h n t t b n C l f rn b rl M r h nd n A t h r t Y l K rl r h C n r : A C nt nn l tr p t", J. Chem. Educ., r d nt W l th t h ld n t b bl t b b f r th f ll 1961, 38, 8 86 A. ndl , A Hundred Years of Chemistry, t r nd d th t r r t h l . ( f r n , pp. rth nd C ., nd n, 48, pp. 40 4 A. . , Chemical nd . Atomism in the Nineteenth Century, Oh St t , C l b , O , . f r n , Pop. Sci. Monthly, p. 6 4. 84, Ch p. 0 nd C. M lt, "C rl W ltz n nd th C n r t 8. f r n , p. 6. K rl r h ", Chymia, 1948, 1, 6 . A Manual of Inorganic Chemistry 0. C. El t nd . St r r William . Williams is Professor of Chemistry at Harding ( r nt d f r th A th r , t n, 86 d th n t , b t University, Box 602, Searcy, AR 72149-0001 and is a fre- r t n d f th d l t f r l . . C n rp r t d th quent contributor to the Bulletin. n t n r t n h First Principles of Chemical Philosophy