Kalba Ir Kontekstai

VILNIAUS PEDAGOGINIS UNIVERSITETAS

FILOLOGIJOS FAKULTETAS

KALBA IR KONTEKSTAI

Mokslo darbai 2011 m. IV (1) tomas

2011, Vilnius

ISSN 1822-5357

Mokslo darbų ,,Kalba ir kontekstai“ IV (1) tomas apsvarstytas Filologijos fakulteto Tarybos posėdyje 2011�� 05 1�6 (protokolo�� N�r�. 5��) ir rekomenduotas spaudai.

Redaktorių kolegija / Editorial Board

Atsakingoji redaktorė / Editor-in-Chief

Prof. dr. Ernesta Račienė Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas (Filologija 04H) Vilnius Pedagogical University (Philology 04 H)

Atsakingosios redaktorės pavaduotojas / Vice-Editor-in-Chief

Doc. dr. Linas Selmistraitis Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas (Filologija 04H) Vilnius Pedagogical University (Philology 04 H)

Nariai / Members

Dr. Klaus Geyer DAAD lektorius, Vokietija (Filologija 04 H) DAAD lecturer, Germany (Philology 04 H) Prof. habil dr. Jean-Pierr Levet Limožo universitetas, Prancūzija (Filologija 04 H) University of Limoge, France (Philology 04 H) Doc. dr. Daiva Verikaitė Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas (Filologija 04 H) Vilnius Pedagogical University (Philology 04 H) Prof. dr. Susan McKinney Centrinės Floridos universitetas, JAV (Edukologija, 07 S) Andersen University Central Florida, USA (Educology, 07 S)

VILNIUS PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY

LANGUAGE IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS

Research papers 2011 Volume IV (1)

Vilnius, 2011

Turinys I. Žodis ir kontekstas / The Word in the Context Ksenija Banuševičienė, Rasa Matonienė Étude typologique sur les catégories grammaticales du pronom français et lituanien...... 11 Prancūzų ir lietuvių kalbų įvardžio gramatinių kategorijų tipologinė analizė. . .20 Marija Liudvika Drazdauskienė New Words in English and the Power of Language...... 21 Nauji žodžiai anglų kalboje ir kalbos galia...... 36 Skaidra Girdenienė Zur schwachen Substantivdeklination im Deutschen: Korpusgestützte Untersuchung der schwach deklinierbaren substantivischen Nichtlebewesen...... 37 Apie vokiečių kalbos silpnosios linksniuotės daiktavardžių, žyminčių daiktus, linksniavimo tendencijas ...... 46 Agnė Nakutienė, Linas Selmistraitis Juxtaposition of Linguistic Characteristics of Entries in English and Lithuanian Dictionaries ...... 47 Žodyno straipsnių lingvistinių charakteristikų gretinimas angliškuose ir lietuviškuose žodynuose ...... 59 Rūta Sirvydė Metaphorical and Metonymic Diagnosis ...... 60 Metaforinė ir metoniminė diagnozė...... 69 Andrew Tollet, Jurgita Trapnauskienė On Some Common Problems of English Article Usage...... 70 Dažniausi anglų kalbos artikelio vartojimo sunkumai...... 80 II. Tekstas ir pragmatika / Text and Pragmatics Teresė Aleknavičiūtė Mokslo populiarinimo diskursas: laikraščio „Mokslo Lietuva“ analizė teksto funkcijų aspektu...... 83 Popular Scientific Discourse: the Analysis of Text Functions in the Articles of the Newspaper “Mokslo Lietuva” ...... 89 Margit Breckle Handlungsträger in Kundenzeitschriften. Eine medienlinguistische Untersuchung am Beispiel der Apothekenbranche...... 90 Veikėjai klientų žurnaluose. Žiniasklaidos kalbos tyrimas vaistinės verslo pavyzdžiu...... 98

Janina Buitkienė Discourse Markers in English and Lithuanian Texts...... 99 Diskurso žymikliai anglų ir lietuvių kalbų tekstuose...... 107 Nida Burneikaitė Questions in Linguistics Master’s Theses ...... 108 Klausimų vartojimas kalbotyros magistro darbuose...... 122 Jacek Karpiński Formulare im Unterricht Niderländisch als Fremdsprache...... 123 Formuliarai nyderlandų kaip svetimos kalbos mokyme...... 130 Jean-Pierre Levet L’expression du futur en vieux-perse:Étude de grammaire comparée...... 131 Būsimojo laiko raiška senojoje persų kalboje: lyginamosios gramatikos studija...... 140 Irina Moore Различия в понимании концепции термина «психолингвистика» в русской и англоязычной литературе и положение лингвистической этнографии в области британских исследований...... 141 Skirtinga termino „psicholingvistika“ samprata rusiškoje ir angliškoje literatūroje ir lingvistinės etnografijos situacija britų tyrimuose ...... 153 Eglė Petronienė Process as Theme in Lithuanian and English Sentences...... 154 Procesas kaip tema lietuvių ir anglų kalbos sakiniuose ...... 162 Goda Rumšienė Land of Make Believe: Social Relationship versus Communication Style on the Internet ...... 163 Svajų šalis: socialiniai santykiai ir bendravimo stilius internete...... 170 Tatjana Rusko Strategies and Tactics of Self Presentation in Modern English Conversational Discourse...... 171 Savęs pristatymo strategija ir taktika šiuolaikiniame šnekamajame diskurse anglų kalba ...... 179 Jurgita Sriubaitė Types of Modality in Lithuanian Art Reviews: a Diachronic Approach . . . 180 Modalumo rūšys lietuviškose meninių tekstų recenzijose: diachroninis aspektas ...... 187 Benita Sušinskaitė Girdinčiųjų ir sutrikusios klausos bendruomenės narių kalbinių nuostatų skirtumai: sociolingvistinis aspektas...... 188 Differences of Linguistic Attitudes among the Members of Hearing and Hearing Impaired Communities: Sociolinguistic Aspect...... 197

III. Kalbų ir kultūrų kontaktai / Linguistic and Cultural Contacts Vilma Asijavičiūtė, Nino Phartenadze Gender Concepts in O. Henry’s Creation: Comparative Translation Analysis...... 201 Lyties sąvokų O. Henry kūryboje lyginamoji vertimo analizė...... 209 Vytautė Daugėlaitė Translation Strategies Used in Translating Culture-Specific Food Items from English into Lithuanian of “Blackberry Wine” by Joanne Harris. . . . . 211 Vertimo strategijų pritaikymas verčiant kultūrinius valgių pavadinimus iš anglų į lietuvių kalbą Joanne Harris romane „Gervuogių vynas“ ...... 220 Jurgita Kohrs Wissenschaftlich oder journalistisch? Überschriften populärwissenschaftlicher Zeitschriftenartikel im deutsch-litauischen Vergleich...... 221 Mokslinis ar žurnalistinis stilius? Gretinamoji mokslo populiarinimo straipsnių pavadinimų analizė...... 232 Ernesta Račienė Zum Gebrauch der fremdsprachlichen Wortbildungselemente von typ Bio-, Euro- in der Deutschen und der Litauischen presse- und Mediensprache. . . . 233 Apie svetimų kalbų žodžių darybos elementų vartojimą vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbose...... 241 Sigita Stankevičienė Vokiečių kalbos veiksmažodžių abstraktų vertimo polinkiai...... 242 Patterns in Translation of German Deverbal Nouns...... 251 Vaiva Žeimantienė Zur Verbsemantik in ausgewählten mit dem lateinischen Gerundiv vergleichbaren deutschen und litauischen Konstruktionen: eine Analyse anhand juristischer Texte ...... 252 Apie vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbos su gerundyvu palyginamose konstrukcijose vartojamų veiksmažodžių reikšmę: pavyzdžiais iš teisės tekstų paremtas tyrimas...... 261 IV. Svetimų kalbų mokymas / Foreign Language Teaching Loreta Andziulienė, Nida Kožemiakaitė Užsienio kalbos kompetencijų svarba ir jų ugdymas anglų kalbos pamokose. . . . 265 The Importance of Foreign Language Competences and Ways to Develop them in English Classrooms ...... 274 Inga Banytė, Raminta Inčiūrienė Teaching Culture through Language...... 276 Kultūros mokymas per kalbą...... 284

Marek Derenowski Investigating the Development of Students’ Intercultural Competence . . . 285 Studentų tarpkultūrinės kompetencijos ugdymo tyrimas ...... 299 Ondrej Halas Massmedia, Family and Sociocultural Aspects ...... 300 Masinės komunikacijos priemonės, šeima ir sociokultūriniai aspektai . . . . 306 Laima Erika Katkuvienė Promoting Writing Instruction in English in the Lithuanian Context. . . . . 307 Anglų kalbos rašymo gebėjimų plėtojimas lietuviškajame kontekste...... 313 Rūta Navickaitė, Eglė Selevičienė Motivation Factors in Learning Legal English at Mykolas Romeris University. .315 Motyvacijos faktoriai mokantis teisinę anglų kalbą Mykolo Romerio universitete ...... 324 Mirosław Pawlak Identifying, Describing and Appraising Grammar Learning Strategies: Another Piece of the Puzzle...... 325 Gramatikos mokymosi strategijų nustatymas, aprašymas ir įvertinimas – dar viena galvosūkio dalis...... 338 Liudmila Pogožilskaja, Olga Ušinskienė Application of Distance Learning Tools in Full-time ESP Studies ...... 340 Distancinio mokymo taikymo galimybės dieninėse profesinės užsienio kalbos studijose...... 348 Ernesta Stankevič Term Recognition of the Pre-service English Language Teachers: The Changing Competence ...... 350 Būsimų anglų kalbos mokytojų terminų atpažinimas: kintanti kompetencija. . .359 Loreta Šernienė Vertinimo įtaka mokinių mokymosi motyvacijai mokantis antrosios užsienio kalbos...... 360 The Influence of Assessment over Secondary School Students’ Motivation in Learning a Second Foreign Language ...... 366 Loreta Vilkienė Dvikalbis ugdymas Lietuvoje: už ar prieš?...... 367 Bilingual Education in Lithuania: the Pros and Cons?...... 375 Bartosz Wolski Towards a Successful Integration of Language, Technology, and Acculturation with Undergraduate EFL Students ...... 376 Sėkmingas kalbos, technologijų ir akultūros integravimas mokant studentus anglų kaip užsienio kalbos ...... 390

I. Žodis ir kontekstas / The Word in the Context

10 Étude typologique sur les catégories grammaticales du pronom français et lituanien

Ksenija Banuševičienė, Rasa Matonienė Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas, Studentų g. 39, LT – 08106 Vilnius, Lietuva, [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT Some scientists (Hamon, 1991) claim that the pronoun substitutes the noun. Others (Grevisse, Riegel, Pellat, 1994) consider that the pronoun itself expresses thingness. As Paulauskienė (2006) puts it, pronouns are referential signs. Having carried out the deeper investigation of the pronoun, we noticed that the pronoun as a part of speech is difficult to define. The word “pronoun” means any word which can substitute the noun (“pro” means “instead of” ). It is the word used instead of the noun. In French grammar the pronoun is an inflectional functional word, the main function of which is to substitute any element. However, some pronouns do not substitute nouns. They indicate thingness directly. Both English and Lithuanian pronouns have 3 common grammatical categories: person, gender and number. The forth one – the category of case – is charactericstic only to the Lithuanian language. In French this category is expressed partially. Only personal, relative and interrogative pronouns have 5 cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative and locative. Other types of pronouns are indeclinable. Key-words: étude typologique, catégorie grammaticale.

1. Définition des pronoms français et lituaniens

Dans cette partie nous allons parcourir les définitions du pronom présentées par différents grammairiens dans les deux langues cibles. Selon M. Grevisse (1995, 111) «le pronom est un mot qui, en général, représente un nom, un adjectif, une idée, une proposition. Le pronom est parfois employé ab- solument: il ne représente alors aucun nom, aucun adjectif, aucune idée, aucune proposition exprimés, et c’est improprement qu’il est appelé «pronom»: l’appellation qui lui convient est celle de nominal.» M. Riegel et J. Pellat (1994, 122) élargissent un peu cette définition dans la «Gram- maire méthodique du français» en disant que le terme même du pronom, tradition-

11 nellement défini comme «un mot qui remplace un nom» est doublement malheureux. D’abord, les pronoms fonctionnent assez rarement comme l’équivalent d’un nom isolé. D’autre part, il est à noter que beaucoup de pronoms «ne remplacent» strictement rien, mais désignent directement leurs référents en vertu de leur sens codé. Dans «Le Petit Larousse» (1999, 829) le pronom est présenté comme un nom, un adjectif, une phrase et dont les fonctions syntaxiques sont identiques à celles du nom. Le linguiste A. Hamon (1991, 70) présente une hypothèse: «si le nom peut avoir des «compagnons» (articles et adjectifs), il a aussi des remplaçants: ce sont des pronoms». Il importe donc de préciser que diverses linguistiques modernes utilisent sans difficulté apparente la notion du pronom, qui appartient à l’inventaire traditionnel des neuf parties du discours. Il est mis en évidence que le terme par lui-même est pourtant trompeur. Dans son ouvrage «Lietuvių kalbos morfologijos pagrindai» (2006, 118) A. Paulauskienė souligne que «le pronom est une partie du discours ayant une fonction démonstrative». Le grammairien lituanien Z. Zinkevičius (1980, 87) affirme que «le pronom est une partie du discours unissant les mots de sens abstrait dont la fonction principale est de désigner des objets, des choses, les qualités particulières ou leur nombre in- déterminé». On peut noter que d’autres théories pourraient prétendre aux mêmes avantages que ceux mentionnés jusqu’ici. Ainsi en comparant les pronoms dans les deux langues cibles il est à mentionner qu’un grand nombre d’auteurs lituaniens présentent une idée que «les pronoms sont les mots vides qui acquièrent le sens s’unissant avec les autres mots» (A. Rosinas, 1996, 6). Bien sûr, on peut constater que dans les deux langues cibles on trouvera une définition qui soit identique ou pareille pour les pronoms français et lituaniens: le pronom est un mot remplaçant le nom dans la phrase, il désigne la personne, la chose, l’action. Il faudrait préciser que différents auteurs et grammairiens reviennent toujours ou presque toujours à la même définition du pronom. Nous entendons par pronom (du latin pronomen, pro nomine: à la place du nom) un mot qui remplace le nom ou désigne directement des personnes, des choses. En grammaire française, le pronom est un mot-outil variable dont le rôle principal est de se substituer à un élément quelconque, linguistique ou non.

2. Catégories grammaticales des pronoms français et lituaniens

Cette partie a pour objectif d’analyser les catégories grammaticales des pronoms français et lituaniens.

12 En ce qui concerne les catégories grammaticales du pronom, trois d’entre elles sont communes dans les deux langues: celle du genre, du nombre et de la personne. La catégorie du cas qui est propre au pronom lituanien n’est que partiellement ex- primée en français.

2.1. La catégorie de la personne en français et en lituanien. En français et en lituanien, la catégorie de la personne est propre aux pronoms personnels et aux pronoms possessifs. Les trois personnes grammaticales sont: 1. la première personne, c’est-à-dire, l’énonciateur ou le locuteur (je, nous/aš, mes); 2. la deuxième personne, c’est-à-dire, le destinataire ou l’interlocuteur (tu, vous/tu, jūs); 3. la troisième personne, c’est-à-dire, la personne absente, celle dont on parle (il, ils/jis, jie, elle, elles/ji, jos), que certains linguistes appellent la non-personne parce qu’elle ne participe pas à la situation d’énonciation. La première personne du pluriel («nous/mes») inclut obligatoirement la première personne du singulier (un seul et unique «je/aš»), plus: • soit la deuxième personne du singulier (un ou plusieurs «tu/tu»); • soit la troisième personne du singulier (un ou plusieurs «il, elle/jis, ji»); • soit une combinaison de ces deux hypothèses. La deuxième personne du pluriel («vous/jūs») inclut obligatoirement la deuxième personne du singulier (un ou plusieurs «tu/tu»), plus éventuellement, la troisième personne du singulier (un ou plusieurs «il, elle/jis, ji»). Le pronom «ils/jie» signifie: un il/jis« », plus: • soit un ou plusieurs «il/jis»; • soit un ou plusieurs «elle/ji»; • soit une combinaison de ces deux hypothèses. Le pronom «elles/jos» signifie toujours: deux elle/ji« », ou davantage.

2.2. La catégorie du genre en français et en lituanien. La catégorie du genre dans les deux langues cibles n’est pas toujours indiquée dans les pronoms. La variation en genre concerne les pronoms personnels. Mais la question du genre ne s’y pose qu’à la troisième personne (il, elle, ils, elles / jis, ji, jie, jos). Cependant pour je, tu, nous, vous / aš, tu, mes, jūs, cette variation ne se manifeste que par les accords des adjectifs attributs, ces pronoms ne changeant pas de forme selon le genre, qui correspond au sexe de la personne ou des personnes désignées.

Je souriais, mécontent d être content. (H. Bazin, 1979, 314) Mes enfants, disait madame Grandet, je suis heureuse. (H. Balzac, 1983, 212) Taip, dabar aš jau tik buvęs kariškis, žinovas. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 89) Aš pabūsiu jums sava, - pasakė ryžtingai Erika Bauch. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 104) 13 Par contre, l’opposition entre le masculin et le féminin est nettement exprimée dans le système des pronoms possessifs (le mien / la mienne, le tien / la tienne, le sien / la sienne; manasis / manoji, tavasis / tavoji, savasis / savoji) et dans les pronoms démonstratifs (celui / celle; šitas / šita).

J’ai perdu mon stylo, une amie m’a prêté le sien. (J. Rey-Debove, 1999, 949) Soudain, une ombre se dessine sur le sable, entre le tunnel et le bouddha, une silhouette qu’il reconnaît aussitôt, qui lui est plus familière que la sienne. (G. Rolin, 1985, 23) Celui qui n’atteindra pas cent ans sera maudit. (G. Rolin, 1985, 9) Ça te fera de la compagnie. Celle de la chatte me suffisait [...]. (G. Rolin, 1985, 25) O kas man da skaudžiau, tai šitas, jog aš tyčiomis tamistai ir žirgą, ir šarvus rinkau ir [...] (V. Pietaris, 1989, 93) Girdėjau, būtin ir jis tokią vieną rojaus paukštę atgabeno, bet ta kelionėje bevežant nustipo. (V. Pietaris, 1989, 95)

Le genre est aussi exprimé dans les pronoms relatifs et interrogatifs.

Vargais negalais Radušis perkalbėjo buvusių medžiotojų seniūną Baltramiejų Bieliūną, kuris dėjosi bajoru [...]. (K. Boruta, 1975, 12) O ir miesto sodyba atrodė kaip geras dvaras, kuri tęsėsi visu pašešupiu, atitverta nuo gatvės aukšta žaginių tvora, lyg kokia tvirtovė. (K. Boruta, 1975, 14) Na dabar, širdele, katrą iš žirgų imsi, katro tau dažas labiau patinka? (V. Pietaris, 1989, 66) Jeigu katra iš tų kronikų meluoja, tai katra? (V. Pietaris, 1989, 16)

Mais en français ce ne sont que les formes composées qui sont susceptibles de marquer le genre (lequel / laquelle).

J’ai rencontré un copain. Lequel? ou J’ai rencontré une copine. Laquelle? Quand Sophie ouvrit, elle vit d’abord un ballot derrière lequel se tenait un petit homme grassouillet. (G. Rolin, 1985, 94) Ma soeur est la personne à laquelle vous venez de parlez. (J. René-Debove, 1999, 582)

Parmi les pronoms indéfinis, les uns varient en genre (certain, certaine, aucun, aucune, chacun, chacune / kažkoks, kažkokia, joks, jokia, kiekvienas, kiekviena), les autres sont invariables (chaque, personne / kas, šis tas, niekas).

Chacun déplore la dureté du monde, chacun la subit [...].(G. Rolin, 1985, 22) Chacune d’entre elles a reçu un cadeau. (J. Rey-Debove, 1999, 150) Personne ne viendra te déranger. (G. Rolin, 1985, 153)

14 «Išrinkti tiek mokesčių – padūmių, čyžių ir pagalvių, kad jų užtektų apmokėti nuomą už seniūniją DLK iždui, paliktų šis tas didžiūno kiaurai kišenei, o ir jo vietininkui kai kas nubyrėtų, buvo beveik neįmanoma arba reikėjo gerai suktis ir spausti, kur tik galima.» (K. Boruta, 1975, 22)

Il faut remarquer que certains pronoms en lituanien ont le genre neutre: tas, tai, (tatai) šitai, kita, visa, tandis que le français a perdu ce phénomène durant son évolution.

Tau tik tas ir terūpi, barasi Karalienė. (I. Simonaitytė, 1977, 41) Tai tegul bus tavo asmeninis metodas [...]. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 6)

En lituanien, les pronoms dits «adjectivés» ont la catégorie du genre (tas, toks, koks žmogus; ta, tokia, kokia, moteris). Les pronoms dits «substantivés» tamsta, kas, šis tas n’ont pas de catégorie du genre. On les appelle «negimininiais».

Kuomi ji kalta? Tamista dvigubai kaltesnis esi nei ji. (V. Pietaris, 1989, 209)

Les pronoms kas, kažkas, niekas s’emploient avec les adjectifs qui ont la forme du masculin et qui indiquent des personnes.

Visa tai niekais pasibaigė, ir vaitas buvo spėjęs apmiršti nemalonų kaimyną paseniūnį, nes tas kurį laiką nė akių nerodė Sudūniuose, tiktai staiga kažkas šovė į galvą tam suktam, [...], senberniui [...]. (K. Boruta, 1975, 16) Kas spėjo, sprūdo į pelkes, į girias įpuolė; kas nespėjo, žuvo po kardu ar ėjo verguvėn. (V. Pietaris, 1989, 22)

2.3. La catégorie du nombre en français et en lituanien. La troisième catégorie commune dans les deux langues cibles est celle du nombre. Le problème du nombre pour les pronoms en français et en lituanien se pose aussi d’une manière différente. La notion du nombre est très vivante dans les pronoms personnels, démonstratifs et possessifs (je/nous, tu/vous, il/ils, elle/elles/ aš/mes, tu/jūs, jis/jie, ji/jos; celui, ceux / tas, tie; le mien, les miens / manasis, manieji).

Celle-ci comporte plus de cases, plus de branches qui filent dans toutes les directions. (G. Rolin, 1985, 47) [...] je n’aime pas les machines, moins encore celles qui parlent, surtout avec une voix que je m’efforce d’oublier. (G. Rolin, 1985, 25) Je vais passer le Noël avec les miens. (J. Rey-Debove, 1999, 639)

15 Je t’appellerai dimanche, vers minuit, pour avoir des nouvelles. Pas des miennes, bien sûr. (G. Rolin, 1985, 25) Kas širmius pažįsta, tas žino, jog juosius ir lyginti nėra ką su šio kampo žirgais tyriniais, O šitie ir už širmius geresni. (V. Pietaris, 1989, 65)

Dans les pronoms relatifs et les interrogatifs français, l’idée du pluriel n’est expri- mée que dans les formes composées, pourtant en lituanien les pronoms de ce groupe varient en nombre (kuris/kurie, koks/kokie, kelintas/kelinti, etc.) sauf kas, keliolika, keletas, abejetas.

Net tie, kurie paskendo raistan neva uogautų ar krembliautų, neina gilyn [...]. (Vaižgantas, 1984, 11) Kas gesina ugnį, o kas laužiasi į kalinį. (V. Pietaris, 1989, 44)

La plupart des pronoms lituaniens indéfinis varient en nombre tamsta/tamstos,( kažin koks/kažin kokie, kažkoks/kažkokie, kažkuris/kažkurie, kuris nors/kurie nors, bet kuris/bet kurie, etc.), cependant en français il y en a peu (par exemple, tout/tous).

O kuom gi tamstai nusikalto tautininkai? – nepatiko Smetonai jo Tautininkų sąjungos supeikimas. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 66) Ar tamstos susipažinote jau? – paklausė. (V. Pietaris, 1989, 392) Ne craignez rien, tout demeurera entre nous. (G. Rolin, 1985, 74) Tous lui avaient manifesté leur sympathie. (G. Rolin, 1985, 154)

En français et en lituanien, on trouve des pronoms qui ont seulement le singulier ou le pluriel (rien – niekas, quelque chose – kažkas, plusieurs – keletas).

Rien ne trahit plus un homme que sa démarche. (P. Cauvin, 1983, 53). Quelque chose tremble dans les yeux. (P. Cauvin, 1983, 57). Plusieurs d’entre nous pensent qu’il faut partir. (J. Rey-Debove, 1999, 771) Niekas juk nežino, kad aš buvau pas tave tą valandą, kai jie atėjo tavęs suimti? (A. Eidintas, 2008, 37)

En lituanien il existe la troisième forme du nombre - duel, dite «dviskaita» quand deux personnes ou choses sont désignées. Cette forme est restée de l’ancienne langue. Elle n’est pas populaire. Aujourd’hui on la considère comme une variante dialectale. Le plus souvent on utilise les formes comme: mudu, mudvi, judu, judvi, juodu (jiedu), jiedvi. Il faut remarquer qu’on peut constater que la troisième forme du nombre en lituanien est appelée duel, dite «dviskaita» à cause de la désinence des pronoms «du», «dvi» qui signifie en français «deux». Donc, d’ici vient la dénomination de la troisième forme du nombre - duel, dite «dviskaita».

16 Les formes: tiedu (tuodu), tiedvi, šiuodu, šiedvi, anuodu, aniedvi, šituodu, šitiedvi, katruodu, katriedvi, kariuodu, kariedvi sont très rares. C’est surtout des Samogites qui utilisent ces formes.

Juk ir mudu, Vytautai, atsitiktinai Kaune susitikome, - aiškino pusbalsiu Paragis [...]. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 78) Judu galite abu kartu kelti vestuves, pataria Lankutienė. (I. Simonaitytė, 1977, 127). Kurgi jiedu galėjo susipažinti? – nusišypsojusi truputį paklausė Ruškienė, nepatymėtinai sekdama būdą tarimo Erdivilo. (V. Pietaris, 1989, 392) Tačiau jūs abu su Paragiu tvirtinote, kad tiedu buvo jūsų nukauti. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 70)

En français, le nombre duel «dviskaita» est exprimé par d’autres moyens lexicaux (mudu - nous deux).

Le dimanche, nous deux assisterons à la grande messe, dans l’église de Saint-Clair. (Fr. Mauriac, 1989, 91)

2.4. La catégorie du cas en français et en lituanien La troisième catégorie grammaticale du pronom est la catégorie du cas. Dans les langues indo-européennes anciennes ainsi que dans celles, vivantes, qui, comme le lituanien, le russe, ont conservé des vestiges plus ou moins importants de l’ancienne flexion nominale, la notion de cas permet de mettre en évidence l’équivalence de désinences morphologiquement disparates. Les pronoms lituaniens ont encore cette catégorie. Le lituanien dispose six cas:  le nominatif (Vardininkas) (tas, kitas, aš, kuris...) Tačiau aš noriu kuo pilniau atkurti mano gyvenimo dienas, kurių aš negaliu pamiršti [...] (A. Eidintas, 2008, 6) Tie, aiškindami, kad jei ne tie rusai, tai kitą dieną Lietuvą būtų užėmę vokiečiai, rodo simpatijas sovietams. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 31)

 le génitif (Kilmininkas) (to, kito, manęs, kurio...) Abu viltingai svarstė, kad, galimas daiktas, juos jau medžioja, tikriausiai laukia jų kur nors [...](A. Eidintas, 2008, 38) Jie to nenorėjo, nors mes tai mėginome jiems įkalbėti per derybas Maskvoje dar 1939 metų spalį. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 88)

 le datif (Naudininkas) (tam, kitam, man, kuriam...) Man tikrai darėsi įdomu – žmogus ruošėsi papasakoti apie tai, ko nei vienas iš jo aplinkos dar nepasakojo [...]. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 5).

 l’accusatif (Galininkas) (tą, kitą, mane, kurį...) Tą jau ne vienas žmogus pasakojo. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 39)

17 Gerai, aš vartysiu, ką parašė Zenonas savo dienoraštyje, jei tik prisiminsiu, nes manau, kad turite žinoti ir pamėginti mus suprasti, kodėl mes taip darėme tais laikais. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 5).

 l’instrumental (Įnagininkas) (tuo, kitu, manimi, kuriuo...) Reikia benzino, bakas tuštėja, o Kaltinėnuose žinau gerą žmogų, kuris juo prekiauja. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 38) Savanoris Lingys dar pamokė, ką sakyti Daukšai, kad patikėtų jais. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 41) Ten jūsų lauks tie, kurie gerai žino, kaip atrodote, jie jumis ir pasirūpins, - sako tas Denauskas. (A. Eidintas, 2008, 86)

 le locatif (Vietininkas) (tame, kitame, manyje, kuriame...) [...] jei tą kroniką nors skaitė Vytautas, - tai mes galėtume sakyti, jog joje yra gryna teisybė. (V. Pietaris, 1989, 15).

Il faudrait souligner qu’en français la catégorie du cas est exprimée en partie. La catégorie du cas n’est propre qu’aux pronoms personnels, aux pronoms relatifs et aux pronoms interrogatifs. En français, ils ont cinq cas: - le nominatif (cas sujet). Ce sont les pronoms que l’on utilise comme déterminants des verbes je, tu, il, etc. et les pronoms relatifs et interrogatifs qui, lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles.

Si tu veux, je te mettrais dans le square, sous notre banc. (G. Rolin, 1985, 21) Nous nous sommes tus très longtemps. (P. Cauvin, 1983, 22) C’est encore lui qui inventait les jeux. (G. Rolin, 1985, 8)

- l’accusatif (cas complément d’objet direct). Ce sont les pronoms que l’on place entre le sujet et le verbe: me, te, le, la, les, etc. et les pronoms relatifs et interrogatifs que, lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles.

Jamais les parents n’ont cessé de les pleurer, ni les petits de l’attendre. (G. Rolin, 1985, 11) Les convives l’appellent «pépé» et la main qu’il a posée sur la nappe est, en effet, une main de grand-père [...]. (G. Rolin, 1985, 9) Que dites-vous, père? (G. Rolin, 1985, 9)

- le datif (cas complément d’objet indirect). Ce sont les pronoms que l’on utilise avec des verbes comme donner, envoyer et offrir: me, te, lui, leur, etc. et les pronoms relatifs et interrogatifs à qui, à quoi, auquel, à laquelle, auxquels, auxquelles.

D’un battement de paupières, Laurent lui conseillerait de renoncer [...]. (G. Rolin, 1985, 10) À qui le léguer? (G. Rolin, 1985, 10)

18 Celui, auquel il a été volé une chose. (M. Pagnol, 1976, 54)

- le locatif (y) et le pronom relatif et interrogatif où.

Ils y glissaient des messages, des questions, des requêtes. (G. Rolin, 1985, 11) On entend, derrière le mur, la musique du film: grand orchestreoù dominent les cordes. (P. Cauvin, 1983, 31)

- le génitif (en) et les pronoms relatifs et interrogatifs de qui, dont, de quoi, duquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles.

Pour s’en assurer, elle s’arrête devant la façade vitrifiée d’une pharmacie. Au début, elle ne distingue qu’une forme sombre. Elle s’en approche, si près qu’à la hauteur des lèvres elle couvre l’image de buée. (G. Rolin, 1985, 62) Je devinai aussitôt de quoi il s’agissait mais je me tus pour ne pas rompre le charme. (G. Rolin, 1985, 32) Elle est parfaite, Mme Formier, cette dame dont le mari a eu un grave accident. (P. Cauvin, 1983, 19)

Conclusion Le pronom, comme son nom l’indique, est avant tout le remplaçant privilégié du nom, il est susceptible d’avoir les mêmes fonctions que le nom. Le pronom n’a géné- ralement pas de genre et de nombre propre, il prend le genre du nom qu’il représente ou de la réalité qu’il désigne. Les pronoms, quand ils ne sont pas invariables, portent les marques des catégories grammaticales de genre, de nombre et de personne qui sont propres dans les deux langues. La catégorie du cas qui est propre au pronom lituanien n’est que partiellement exprimée en français. En lituanien, toutes les espèces des pronoms ont les quatre catégories tandis qu’en français, ce sont: - les pronoms personnels de la 3e personne, les pronoms démonstratifs, les pronoms possessifs, certains pronoms indéfinis, les pronoms relatifs et les pronoms interrogatifs qui sont variables en genre et en nombre; - les pronoms personnels et les pronoms possessifs qui sont variables en personne. - les pronoms personnels, les pronoms relatifs et les pronoms interrogatifs qui se déclinent.

Bibliographie 1. Grevisse M. 1995. Précis de grammaire française. Paris: Editions J. Duculot. 2. Hamon A..1991. Guide d’analyse grammaticale et logique. Paris: Hachette. 3. Le Petit Larousse. 1999. Paris: Larousse.

19 4. Paulauskienė A. 2006. Lietuvių kalbos morfologijos pagrindai. Kaunas: Technologija. 5. Rosinas A. 1996. Lietuvių bendrinės kalbos įvardžiai. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. 6. Rey-Debove J. 1999. Dictionnaire du français. Paris: Clé International. 7. Riegel M. Pellat J. Rioul R. 1994. Grammaire méthodique du français. Paris: PUF. 8. Zinkevičius Z. 1980. Lietuvių kalbos istorinė gramatika 1. Vilnius: Mokslas.

Sources 1. Balzac. 1983. Eugénie Grandet. Paris: Librairie Générale Française. 2. Bazin H. 1979. Vipère au poing. Moscou: Editions Du Progrès. 3. Boruta K. 1975. Skambėkit vėtroje, beržai. Vilnius: Vaga. 4. Cauvin P. 1983. Dans les bras du vent. Paris: Jean-Claude Lattès. 5. Eidintas A. 2008. Erelio sparnų dvelksmas. Vilnius: Versus aureus. 6. Mauriac Fr. 1989. Thérèse Desqueyroux. Librairie Générale Française. 7. Pagnol M. 1976. Le château de ma mère. Paris: Editions Presses Pocket. 8. Pietaris V. 1989. Algimantas. Vilnius: Vaga. 9. Rolin G. 1985. Souriez, ne bougez plus. Paris: Flammarion. 10. Simonaitytė I. 1977. Vilius Karalius. Vilnius: Vaga.

SANTRAUKA Prancūzų ir lietuvių kalbų Įvardžio gramatinių kategorijų tipologinė analizė Ksenija Banuševičienė, Rasa Matonienė

Vieni kalbininkai (A. Hamon, 1991) teigia, kad įvardžiai pakeičia daiktavardį, kiti (M. Grevisse, M. Riegel, J. Pellat, 1994) mano, kad patys įvardžiai gali turėti daik- tiškumo reikšmę. Anot A. Paulauskienės (2006), įvardžiai – gramatiniai rodomieji ženklai. Atlikus platesnę analizę, galima teigti, kad įvardis – sunkiai apibrėžiama kalbos dalis. Žodis „įvardis“ reiškia bet kurį žodį, kuris gali pakeisti daiktavardį (pro – vietoje...), tai žodis, vartojamas vardo vietoje. Prancūzų kalbos gramatikoje įvardis – kaitomas tarnybinis žodis, kurio pagrindinis vaidmuo – pakeisti kokį nors, lingvistinį ar ne, elementą. Tačiau kai kurie įvardžiai nepakeičia jokio žodžio, jie reiškia tiesiogiai. Ir lietuvių, ir prancūzų kalbų įvardžiai turi tris bendras gramatines kategorijas: asmens, giminės ir skaičiaus. Ketvirtoji (linksnio kategorija) būdinga lietuvių kalbai, o prancūzų kalboje ji tik dalinai išreikšta. Asmeniniai, santykiniai ir klausiamieji įvardžiai turi 5 linksnius: vardininką, kilmininką, naudininką, galin��inką ir vietininką. Kiti prancūzų kalbos įvardžiai nelinksniuojami.

20 New Words in English and the Power of Language

Marija Liudvika Drazdauskienė Wszechnica Polska, Plac Defilad 1, 00901 Warsaw, Poland, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The avalanche of new words in English raises lexicographical problems but the problem of the present paper is the influence of new words on the potential meaning of language, which identifies with the power of language. The paper is based on the most recent studies of the English vocabulary, while the material is drawn from a dictionary of neologisms and from the BBC Learning English site (www.learningenglish.bbc.co.uk). While reviewing the research material, ways of the formation of new words and the tendency to the non-standard in the process are noted. The evidence of the research is related to the meaning of new words and their functioning in single units, to peculiarities of a small number of collocations and to new structural units in English. While discussing the meaning of new words, the stylistic aspect is brought to the fore. Professor David Crystal‘s rejection of the lowly new words is treated as the injunction to the foreigner. The informality of new words and the broken English of the Internet help highlight the role of culture in language. Brief references to the logical (Bertrand Russell) and functional conceptions (M.A.K.Halliday) of meaning in language are given to explain that the direct and elementary relations between the word and a thing or a known concept are retained in the perception of new words as they are in learning a foreign language, which does not depreciate human understanding one bit. It is stated in conclusion that new words do not contribute to the potential meaning of language; they rather upset it because words contribute to the power of language only through their lexicogrammatical integrity. As new words is a major contribution of Americans to the English language, the role of new words in identifying professionals, in classifying and consolidating American society is found to be the language’s major potential, although historically it had been a distinctive feature of British English. Key-words: neologisms, word building, perception, new menaing.

Introduction With a growth of migration and social changes in recent years, as well as with the spread of the Internet, we have been witnessing an intensive influx of new words

21 into the English vocabulary. New words appear in the media and in routine communication, but they are most obvious on the Internet. Never scarce, studies of the English vocabulary have continued appearing from major publishers. My research and observations in this paper have been based on the study of recent publications on the vocabulary of English, as for instance, Gallimaufry by Michael Quinion (Quinion, 2006), Damp Squid by Jeremy Butterfield (Butterfield, 2008) Jolly Wicked, Actually by Tony Thorne (Thorne, 2009) and others, while the material has been drawn from a dictionary of neologisms, Fifty Years Among the New Words, Edited by John Algeo (Algeo, 1993), and from the section “Keep Your English Up to Date”, on the BBC Learn- ing English website (www.learningenglish.bbc.co.uk - 2008, 2009, 2010). When the focus is on the recorded new words, they appear somewhat fixed and legitimate. Such records of new words permit to bypass a lexicographical problem, that of “descriptive objectivity” and that of verifiable citations (cf.: Quirk, 1982, 87). But the question in focus in the present paper does not at all concern specific lexicographical problems. Some observations in lexicography will be relevant to the present discussion and they will be referred to further on. The question raised in the present paper is of a more general linguistic character: it is how new words affect the power of language and how they contribute to the potential meaning of language.

1. THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS 1.1. The concept of the potential meaning of language. The concept of the potential meaning of language is a narrowed down concept of language as meaning potential (Halliday, 1973, 1976, 1978). This concept encom- passes both the historically inherited meaning in language and language as a means of meaning (Halliday, 1978, 39-47). To focus on the potential meaning of language is to ignore the potentiality of language to convey meaning. But this narrowed down focus is useful for the division of labour. Otherwise, the concept of language as meaning potential should not be split. It has always been a guiding concept in theory and practice. But Michael A.K.Halliday himself has highlighted different potentiali- ties of meaning in his works. He was aware, for instance, that language as meaning potential taken wholly is not identical with the meaning potential of language in concrete situations. It is obviously possible to narrow down the concept of language as meaning potential. In the present paper I question how new words add up to the potential meaning of language, i.e. to that sector of meaning in language which is inherited historically, whether in the latest ten or in four hundred years, and is hidden or idiomatic. The potential meaning of language is its power. The culturally inherited meaning would be the formality of Good afternoon! And the informality of Hi!, the scarcity of relations

Cf.: “When we talk about ‘uses of language’, we are concerned with the meaning potential that is associated with particular situation types…” (Halliday, 1978, 34)

22 implied by Yours faithfully in a letter and friendly relations implied by Yours sincerely in the same context. It would be beauty and enjoyment expressed informally by gorgeous in “Thank you so much for yourgorgeous gift”; it would be very noticeable beauty and attractiveness also informally expressed by drop-dead gorgeous in “a drop-dead gorgeous Hollywood star” (OALD 7th). It would be naming beauty plainly in “I see, not feel, how beautiful they are!” (Coleridge), and saying the same in a sophisticated way in, “It is a beauteous evening, calm and free” (Wordsworth). This little should be said about the covert meaning in individual words. Phrases and idioms are especially rich in covert meaning or in inherent connotations. Some English idioms imply how their idiomatic meaning developed. For example, to blow the horn historically was a neutral phrase as it meant to give a signal of oneself or to announce something. Through centuries, the meaning of this phrase centred on the personal aspect and, with its slightest changes, acquired the meaning of the praise of one’s own abilities and achievements, as in: to blow your own trumpet (Br.E.) and to blow/toot your own horn (NAm.E.). Today, both these idioms are informal and imply a critical attitude. It is a long-standing truth that the vocabulary of a language encapsulates its history, that “our vocabulary bears witness to our past” (Algeo, 1993, 1). Yet I have not included any review of this kind of studies which have been numerous in English (cf.: Ellis, 1939; Barfield, 1953; Wagner, 1968). It is interesting that the historically inherited meaning still clings to the commonest words but we simply are not aware of it. John Algeo has observed that today our words about writing books record fos- silized culture. Similarly, today’s new words record the newest culture. For example, wags, which means wives and girl friends of football players, has come into being during a football match in continental Europe (Crystal, 2008), and records a liberal attitude of this generation to relations of football players (and of other celebrities). The making of the word, which is a kind of an acronym as it is a collection of the first letters of the words: wives + and + girlfriends, also records liberal social and linguistic attitudes of modern society in general. The word is a case of a modern practice to produce acronyms out of many names and clip the words for the sake of brevity and in accord with the tempo of life. This knowledge is no extravagance or exterior complication of the meaning of new words. I shall point out further on how indispensable the origin of the new word is in its acceptance and use. In this context, I have been trying to explain what potential meaning in language is, how deeply hidden it may be and how it makes language – its phrases and words – idiomatic. The potential meaning of language is the power of the language in its own right. The question, then, remains, how new words contribute to the historically inherited meaning which is potential in the words of a language.

“When we talk about writing books today, our use of the words write and book fossilize a culture much different from ours. For write comes from a root word that meant ‘to scratch’, and book from one that also gives us beech (tree), thus suggesting that early records were scratched on beech wood” (Algeo, 1993, 1).

23 1.2. The study of new words. The story of new words and work with them is not new. The dictionaryFifty Years Among the New Words (Algeo, 1993) publishes a history of how new words were studied and collected in America, and recorded in a periodical, American Speech. The Editor claims that Among the New Words “is the longest running documentary record of new English words” (Algeo, 1993,1). It, in fact, records the study of new words between 1941 and 1991. The aim of the endeavour was scholarly. John Algeo and his colleagues defined a new word as “a form or a use of a form not recorded in general dictionaries. /…/ The form of the word itself may be novel, a shape that has not before been seen or heard in English (…), or the newness may lie in a novel use of an existing form” (Algeo, 1993, 2). These criteria in identifying a new word have been applied by most lexicographers. I have borrowed this initial definition for clarity’s sake because I have studied the new words already collected, recorded and described. The sources of my study have been several, most of them British (see p. 1 above).

1.3. Typical patterns of the formation of new words in English. It has been known that new words in English follow a number of typical patterns of formation. Thus John Algeo has found that, although there may be a small number of words the origins of which are unknown (E.g.: hassle, snazzy, shmoo, wuss(y), etc.), a majority of new words in English are formed by way of: 1) creation, generally onomatopoeically (bleep, blimp, bebop, gobbledegook, etc.); 2) borrowing: a) simple loanwords (discotheque, magicienne, messagerie, (la) nouvelle cuisine, etc.), b) adapted loanwords (spelunker, cybernetics, ataractic, etc.), c) loan translations or calques (animator, basket, fourth force, new cuisine, etc.); 3) combining: a) prefixation (anti-pot, neo-Deweyism, eco-awareness, documusical, etc.), b) suffixa- tion (phonogenic, beatnik, telecast, workaholic, etc.), c) compounds (blacktop, user- friendly, toyboy or toy-boy, tinseltown or tinsel-town, etc.); 4) shortening: a) clipping (yup from yuppie, disco(theque), jet(-propelled plane), double-digit (figure),etc .), b) alphabetism (ack-ack, IBM, OCD, POW, etc.), c) acronymy (ROK, ZIP, OPEC, WASP, etc.); 5) blending (femspeak, Binac; grayout, moonquake; magdraulic, republocrat simulcast, etc.); 6) shifting (or: conversion) (fast-food, whodunit, bypass, microwave, etc.; blue print, full-dress, tabloid, virus, etc.) (Algeo, 1993, 4-14; cf.: Jackson, 1991, 29-34). The material of my research give evidence of the frequency of these patterns in reversed order.

“The aim ofAmerican Speech was to observe and record the language of the populace, without concern for correcting it – to be descriptive, not prescriptive, in its approach to its subject, to glory in the vernacular” (Algeo, 1993, 2).

24 1.4. Motives and tendencies in the formation of new words. There are also observable motives of the formation of new words. The first motive is pragmatic. This means such cases when the need for a new word brings it about. American and British linguists have even put forward a rule to take in new words “when there are new things to talk about” (Algeo, 1993, 14; cf.: Pinckert, 1981, 50-51). It has also been known, though, that new words appear without a specific connection with “the practical values of conceptualization, communication, management, and cooperation. Language is also a field of play and poetry. /…/ We use some new words because we take delight in them” (Algeo, 1993, 14-15). Many new words of the end of the twentieth century and of the beginning of the twenty-first century indicate playfulness with language. With respect to poetry in relation to new words, John Algeo commends Shake- speare by saying there was “something sublime and overwhelming about the words he used” (Algeo, 1993, 15). Although new words appear in modern poetry, too, the process is much more prosaic in general communication. This is to say that new words, around the turn of the twenty-first century, indicate a certain degradation in verbal excellence. The formality and sophistication of new words definitely depend on the social milieu in which they appear, but there are also symptoms of a general growth of lowly language at present. I have already mentioned that new words indicate liberal attitudes of modern society. But British authors have noted this tendency more emphatically. Marking the basic points of tendencies in the development of the English vocabulary in the last two hundred years, Tony Thorne mentions the beginning of the use of jargon related to the permissiveness of “social upheavals like the agricultural and industrial revolutions” (Thorne, 2009, 4), the tumultuous changes of the middle of the twentieth century, which annoyed and exasperated cultured people, and the onslaught of colloquialisms and slang or ‘bad language’ which “is everywhere” (Thorne, 2009, 8). This author sums up the tendency to the informal and low very definitely: “A tolerance for the non-standard has become a celebration of the outlandish, and older texts, even from popular publications, look strangely stilted or formal to our eyes” (Thorne, 2009, 8). The loss of verbal refinement and low colloquial are very distinct in English because it is the language of a socially stratified society, which has for centuries marked the speaker’s social background. But the tendency to the non-standard is general in a globalised world, and therefore the eye on the new words and on how they behave is an important engagement.

1.5. New words as a difficulty to the speakers. New words are no play for linguists nor are they for the speakers because new words create problems. Whatever the quandaries of lexicographers (cf.: Quirk, 1982, 86-98; Algeo, 1993, 2-3), the number and meaning of new words are primary questions. The number of new words and their meaning are interrelated questions. In matters of the functioning of language, meaning comes first. Foreigners are aware of

25 the difficulty with word meaning, but adult native speakers confront this problem precisely and in particular only when they encounter new words. New words increase the mystery of language. They multiply difficulties in understanding for any speaker, especially for a foreigner. Even and advanced learner of EFL who has an idea of the structure of English and of regularities in its vocabulary, is baffled and confused when confronted with new words, in which some natives may delight. But the problem is very much the same for the native speakers, as some authors confirm. Meaning in language is a complex phenomenon as the major theories attest.

1.6. The logical conception of meaning in language. In theory, meaning in language is not a simple matter and the meaning of the word is rarely as direct as traffic lights. Bertrand Russell, for instance, differentiated between ‘object words’, the meaning of which can be defined only with reference to respective objects (Russell, 1965, 23, 64-65), which can function isolated and which can express a whole proposition (Russell, 1965, 23), and logical words (not, or, the, all, some), which presuppose relations and language per se (Russell, 1965, 65). This author singled out, respectively, the ‘object language’, which he identified with the ‘primary language’ and defined as the language in which “every word ‘denotes’ or ‘means’ a sensible object or a set of objects” (Russell, 1965, 17). Logical words applied, for him, to languages of higher orders, in which words ‘mean’ in other and more complicated ways” (Russell, p.17). ‘Propositional attitudes, which are based on such verbs as believe, desire, doubt, added, natural human language becomes a language of a higher order with a complicated system of meaning.

1.7. The functional conception of meaning in language. A major contemporary author, Michael A. K. Halliday, saw the complexity of word meaning while integrating the word into the system of language and ascribing lexicon to “the most delicate grammar” (Halliday, 1978, 43). Halliday emphasised, specifically,

It is not for nothing that learning the vocabulary has been noted as a major task and difficulty in foreign language learning. Cf.: “…many studies have come to agree that the heart of communicative competence is the lexical knowledge of the language. As Coady (1997), cited in Nation (2001), states, “vocabulary learning is central to language acquisition, whether the language is first, second, or foreign. This interest results in a number of researches that explore issues of foreign and second language vocabulary.” Available at: http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/blogs/badri/ importance-l2-vocabulary . Cf: (The words of conservative thinkers) “are certainly more familiar and pleasant on the tongue than the postmodern neologisms of Butler and her colleagues. /…/ They have been with us so long that we don’t need to think very hard when we encounter them; they’re like a green light on the road; we hardly notice it. They are commonsensical. /…/ Thinkers with new ideas must first free readers from the old. That often requires the making of new words; and a new word on the page often looks like a gauntlet in the face, a challenge: “betcha can’t figurethis one out1” It infuriates; it distracts; it perplexes. It slows down the amber light, or stops us cold like the red one. We hate red lights: we’re in a hurry.” (Lakoff, 2001, 58-59).

26 the integrity of the vocabulary (lexicon) of a language and of its grammar by virtue of both being carriers of meaning. He found that semantics had been treated rather narrowly in its usual conception often encompassing only the vocabulary (Halliday, 1976, 82). Following Firth, who found both lexical and structural relations equally meaningful (Halliday, 1976, 82), Halliday noted that what some authors (Danes, Svoboda) understand as grammatical, i.e a ‘purely formal’ component is (also) a functional component and “equally ‘semantic’” (Halliday, 1976, 27-28). He specified this further by saying that each component whether lexical or structural “has both semantic and lexicogrammatical connotations” (Halliday, 1976, 28). Simultaneously, Halliday explained the limitations of the association of ‘semantics’ with lexis alone. However comprehensive, the major theories refer but partially to the processes in which speakers tackle the meaning of new and unknown words.

1.8. Elementary processes in the perception of the meaning of the new word. Because of the capacity of the human brain and body, and man’s experience, in usage, though, words function analytically and synthetically simultaneously and on different levels of abstraction. Theoretical explanations therefore do not apply wholly to concrete utterances in concrete contexts. Some matching between a word and a thing, however primitive it may be, or between a foreign/new word and an equivalent concept/a known word, as in the case of a foreign language and new words, goes on in understanding and even in speaking a foreign language. Similarly, the integrity of the lexical and the structural in Halliday’s conception, happens to be somewhat fragmented in speaking a foreign language and in its understanding, as in the understanding of new words. Irrespective of the theoretical conceptions of the complexity of meaning in language, words for the speaker are blinking lights in communication. If all, or at least most words are familiar, the mind runs through structural generalities simultaneously, and the speaker sees the light. Possible inaccuracies of meaning are generally discounted or adjusted in concrete contexts of situation. As a foreigner in EFL knows, this process recurs with all words, even with words in idioms and with polysemic words. It is just that idioms and polysemic words resist a transparent resolution of meaning, as a rule. But the simple and direct matching of a word to its meaning or to an equivalent is undeniable in understanding a foreign language and new words. That is why new words, especially when many, can turn the native language into a puzzle to its speakers. It becomes clear in this context how the meaning of new words and their number combine to multiply the difficulty in understanding. This does not, however, exhaust the difficulties with the meaning of new words. It is in usage that the “primitive” relations between the word-meaning-object cease to be sufficient and finer aspects of the meaning of the word, which are often potential, acquire prominence. The finer aspects of the meaning of the word are social and cultural components of meaning, and the degree of formality stands out among them. For “language and social man – is a unified conception” (Halliday, 1978, 12), while “the image of language as merely the

27 direct reflection of subject matter is simplistic and unsound” (Halliday, 1978, 33). In a different argument, thus, Michael Halliday echoes Bertrand Russell and concludes that “there is much more to (language) than that, and this is what the notion of register is all about.” (Halliday, 1978, 33). I have just approached this aspect of meaning in new words from the angle of usage.

2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 2.1. The evidence of the present study: the formation of new words. The material studied shows that all the ways of the formation of new words in English reviewed above are productive in reverse order. Shifting or conversion (to excessorise = to indulge in excessive amounts of sth (Crystal, 2008), to sloganise = to express in slogans or influence by slogans (Algeo, 1993, 72); to downsize = to make smaller or fewer (G.Dudeney, 2008); to spam = to pollute inboxes (Crystal, 2008); to wuss = to be weak and ineffectual wuss(y)/ = ineffectual, indecisive, weak/ (Crystal, 2008); to buff =to polish and shine /from buff =attractive and fit/ (Pettiward, 2009); acronyms (wysiwyg, meaning ‘what you see is what you get’ (Crystal, 2009); BRB = ‘be right back’, used in online chat (Dudeney, 2008); bogof = ‘buy one get one free’ (Pettiward, 2009); clippings (chav = a youth, uncultured, antisocial, marked by a very bad taste /from Romany chavy=a child or chaval=a boy/ (Crystal, 2008); cred = fashionable, trendy /from ‘credibility’/ (Crystal, 2008), peeps = (my) people, mates, guys /from ‘people’/ (Crystal, 2008); a pre-nup = (an advance/prenuptial) agreement (Crystal, 2008) and compounds (gobsmacked = astounded /from ‘gob’=mouth + ‘smacked’/ (Crystal, 2008) seem to be most productive.

2.2. The evidence of the present study: individual new words and collocations. New words in English appear and function predominantly as single items of vocabulary. E.g.: funky = stylish, unconventional, sth that’s off beat: Somebody’s being very funky (=cowardly, panicky). That smellsfunky (=musty). I’m feeling funky (=un- comfortable, awkward). That’sfunky. Go on, get rid of it! (=tasteless, useless). (Crystal, 2008); awesome = smth beyond what is usual, sth exceptional, very impressive: That was an awesome car I just saw. That was an awesome cast on the show. It’s awesome (meaning unclear). (Crystal, 2008); manky = worthless, defective, a bit inferior: My torch is all manky. (=grimy or dirty) ‘Oh, he’s got manky socks.’ (=smelly) That baby’s nappy is manky (=soiled) (Crystal, 2008); numpty = silly billy, novice: Thatnumpty’s talking on his mobile phone while he was driving.’ Politicians are numpties (Crystal, 2008). Several collocations of two words have also been traced in the sources studied. E.g.: binge drinking = heavy, excessive drinking; street cred = having reputation or status among your mates on the street; lad mag = magazines with a male orientation; also: technical subjects, adventure stories; lovely jubbly = excellent, brilliant, great; tipping point = the point of no return /which is almost a cliché/ (Crystal, 2008) .

28 The spread of new words in use in English appears to be relatively limited and no fixed patterns with new words have been recorded. But a few new words have been found in idioms. E.g.: mardy = whining, sulking, petulant, moaning, grumpy: ‘You’ve got a mardy on.’ = You’ve got a real mood on today, a sulky mood. ‘You’re in a right mardy.’ ‘Right mardy, you are.’(which is especially impressive when pronounced with a regional accent) (Crystal, 2008); naff = worthless, tacky, unfashionable: The décor is naff. That’s naff. The party was naff. Those clothes are naff. (= unenjoyable, poor quality). ‘Stop naffing about!’ (=? Stop fooling about!) ‘Naff off!’ (It has been reported that Princess Anne has so directed paparazzi) (Crystal, 2008); manky = worthless, defective, inferior: ‘I’m feeling manky.’ (= rough, unwell). ‘You’re going to mank it up.’ (= to mess it up). Something’s being mankified (= messed up). (Crystal, 2008). The appearance of nests of new word (verbs, nouns and adjectives together) is also attested in the Dictionary of new words (Algeo, 1993).

2.3. The evidence of the present study: new structural units. New words as single units are the most frequent usages. New structural units or regular structural units with new words are by far rarer. A few have been traced in the material studied, though. E.g.: (to be) like: “So I was talking to a friend the other day about this series, and he was like, ‘Why are you doing that?’ and I was like ‘Actually, it’s quite fun’ and he was like ‘No way!’ and I was like ‘Way!’…(Dudeney, 2009). This structural unit is quite common at present in recounting a story or an encounter with someone else. Gavin Dudeney reports that “it’s now quite common to hear the speaker introducing each piece of reported speech with the word ‘like’”. It is no longer a hedge or a paraphrase it used to be, but it is usually accompanied by some paralinguistic feature to recreate the original conversation. It originated in California but is now becoming more and more spread in British English. It tends to replace the older similar devices such as ‘go’ (So he went ‘Where are you off to?’ and I went ‘Just down to the shop for some milk’.) and ‘be all’ (I was all ‘Why isn’t anyone working?’ and Sue was all ‘It’s lunchtime, John… calm down!’). As a structural unit, this phrase looks more obviously non-standard than single new words. But it is quite spread on the internet (E.g.: “Because it’s like you forget they’re there, and then suddenly, as if someone threw something on your car’… (SBC New York News // Yahoo News, 16 Oct. 2010). “What we found was a block, a tombstone, like when you’re in an elevator and the doors open between the floors.”(Yahoo News, 6 Oct. 2010). “I like ankle boots because somehow they give a great shape to my leg, like I’ve been working out a lot!” (Yahoo News, 12 July 2010). “ …, I feel like I can be a woman but also relate to a man.” (Ya- hoo News, 12 July 2010) and appears even in modern fiction (E.g.: I thought all you media chicks are on the Pill, like, forever. ‘… You’re only a fucking gossip columnist in a magazine that like no-one ever reads!’ (David Mitchell. Cloud Atlas, p.91) Another quite widely spread structural unit that is new and as non-standard is (thirty/twenty)-something. As professor David Crystal reports, ‘We started to hear

29 ‘twenty-somethings’. And now we’ve got ‘forty-somethings’ – that was a television show in 2003, ‘Forty-Something’. (Crystal, 2008). The meaning is obvious and this usage spreads quickly in English, especially on the internet. E.g.: The Disney company developed theme parks, with something for everybody – even the thirtysomething crowd. (Algeo, 1993, 15). …so he probably doesn’t much care what others are thinking – a lesson that bears repeating for fiftysomething politicians and teenage girls alike. (Yahoo.News, 14 September 2010) Prince Harry is 26 – and like many 20-somethings, he is working on his birthday. (Yahoo News, 15 September 2010). Like many 30-somethings, I made a lot of financial mistakes before I finally grew up.(Yahoo News, 23 October 2010). The spelling of this phrase is yet unsettled, as the examples above indicate, but it seems to be quite popular and tends to establish the tendency towards the non-standard. The use of whatever as a summarizing or dismissive word in utterance-final position seems to be quite new and no less frequent than the structural units described above. Whatever had had a currency as a pronoun (‘Whatever happened?’) and as a determiner (‘Wear whatever dress you like.’) in English. What has happened at present is that instead of introducing a clause in a regular grammatical structure (‘We’ll go by bus or train or whatever else might be available.’), whatever was singled out while the clause was shortened. So now, and this is new usage, whatever is used as a par- enthetic end of an utterance, which is quite emphatic, as a separate word, which is more emphatic still. E.g.: ‘We’ll go by bus or train or whatever!’ or ‘We’ll go by bus or train. Whatever!’ (Crystal, 2008). This usage is so spread that even older people, not only teenagers indulge in it. Not used as an emphatic negative particle in a tag-like position in an utterance instead of its usual middle position is another novelty in English. It is “usually used after an opposite point of view” Professor David Crystal has reported it used on coming out of a cinema: “O, yeah, it was great film, not!’ Cf.: ‘This is a cool website, not!’ ‘Sure we’re ready, not!’ Professor David Crystal assesses that this usage might be only a fashion and “it might not last.” For the time being, though, it is there in English and needs be watched out. But if it doesn’t last, says Professor David Crystal, “you can always say, ‘That’s a cool bit of slang, not!’” (Crystal, 2008). As this last remark indicates, academicians with classical education like Professor David Crystal and other cultured people have a clear sense how substandard this and similar usages, whether structural or lexical, are. This cultured awareness of the degradation of English speech under the pressure of neologisms should forewarn foreigners against indulgence in seemingly intriguing and fresh novelties. At least with British English, the more conservative you are, the safer you are in your speech and its acceptability. A contraction of the standard tag isn’t it to make it ‘Innit’ is one other widely current new structural unit in English today and as markedly non-standard. E.g.: ‘It’s there. Innit?’ It currently replaces other tags, such as doesn’t it, aren’t we and others. E.g.: ‘We need to go on the bus, innit?’ ‘I’m going, innit?’ ‘You’re going, innit?’ This, usage, although clearly substandard, reminds Professor David Crystal of analogous uses in other languages which have a fixed phrase in such syntactical positions. For example,

30 the French n’est ce pas? or the German nich wahr? But Professor David Crystal observes that “English has never gone in that direction, until now” (Crystal, 2008).

2.4. The evidence of the present study: the style aspect in new words. I have already mentioned the finer aspects of the meaning of the word in addition to its basic meaning and the sophistication related to matters of register in language. The subtle aspects of the meaning of the word, known as its stylistic meaning, feature in new words like they do in most English words. It is not for nothing therefore that the linguists whom I have quoted for the new words above, have kept pointing out delicate shades of meaning in the new words which they have introduced. These are stylistic senses and they are especially distinct in adjectives: some are positive, some negative and some are in between. For instance, lovely jubbly (=excellent, brilliant, great) is wholly positive in meaning. But Professor David Crystal mentions that this word later moved into London slang, although he heard it used only for “anything that was excellent”: very tasty food is “lovely jubbly food”, “lovely jubbly antiques” are beautiful antiques, and, similarly, “lovely jubbly people”. Since the sphere of this phrase is slang, a foreigner should think twice before using it. In contrast to this, chav (= uncultured, a bit anti-social, perhaps violent and marked out by very bad taste) is wholly derogatory: a chav, chavs, chav behaviour, chav insults. This is a recently “re- activated word” according to Professor David Crystal, because it featured as a slang word as early as Eric Partridge’s record of slang in his Dictionary of Underworld and Unconventional English. Some of the new words in the present study originated or have been current in regional dialects not only in slang and their meaning depends on the tone of their utterance. For instance, funky had been positive in meaning for a long time (funky clothes, funky cars, funky food) and meant something stylish, especially unconventional, something that’s off beat. I have quoted above its negative meaning in the United States (That smells funky. I’m feeling funky.). But this word can be positive in meaning, which considerably depends on the tone of voice, and the speaker has to be sensitive while hearing it used. Cf.: ‘Hey, that’s funky’, meaning ‘that’s wicked’or ‘that’s great’; clever slang would be funky slang. A regional word originally, manky has a wide range of meanings: My torch is manky (= it’s not working properly, is inferior). That dustbin is manky(= it’s disgusting, it’s got a smell of some kind). In Scotland, it has been used quite nastily: ‘You manky so and so’, which is quite harsh. Apart from meaning quite mildly ‘silly billy’, numpty may be quite strong, with a difference in the tone of voice, as for example: ‘That numpty’s talking on his mobile phone while he was driving’, when it can mean ‘that idiot’, ‘that prat’, ‘that numskull’ (Crystal, 2008). These shades of meaning are very significant in communication with native speakers, while some of the new words can be softer in meaning. For example, while explaining the meaning of clueless as derived from ‘clue’ and meaning ‘having no clue, knowledge or ability’, Professor David Crystal noted its informal sense equivalent to ‘I’ve no idea. I can’t think what’s happening.’ It appears that, as an adjective, clueless is

31 quite a mild word; it is far less strong than ‘stupid’, although it means ‘absent minded, scatty’, with an implied idea ‘you could probably do it if you kept your mind on it’. One more item signals dangers with new words in English. It is the noun peeps. This is a derivative from ‘people’ with the plural ending added. Professor Crystal records it used in songs in the meaning ‘my mates’, “especially in the context of a gang – ‘my fellow gang members’, ‘my peeps’, and this is its common meaning. The word has also been used with reference to parents and to people coming to a party. Professor Crystal concludes that, in general usage, it means ‘close pals’, ‘people you hang out with’ and remarks: “But it’s definitely a young usage – I have peeps, I suppose, but I’ve never, ever, referred to them as such”(Crystal, 2008). The final remark is really important: if a native British speaker, a professor with classical education, does not emphatically relate to such usage, it requires no comment to know how cautious and careful with new words a foreigner should be. Since new words are young, their meaning, like their spelling, may be unsettled but, most importantly, their stylistic nuances may not be overt. That is why the linguists who commented on the new words, on www.learningenglish.bbc.co.uk, kept giving the basic facts about the origin and regional spread of the more sensitive new words. Cf.: chav (from Romany), funky in its negative American senses, the harsh Scottish ‘You manky so and so!’ or wuss (= an ineffectual person, indecisive, weak), which is of American origin, and happens to mean ‘a coward’ in a liberal wuss said of a politician. It is possible to conclude that, when the stylistic meaning of the word is not clear or is not yet formed, its etymology can guide the speaker while informing him of the area, situation and register that the word might belong and that might affect its meaning. Therefore, minding the wealth of knowledge that new words in English bring along with them, I am inclined to remind the foreigner that he has to be very attentive when listening and very cautious when using new words in English. The style aspect in the meaning of the word extends to general verbal usage and to culture in language. I have made no mentioning of online English and skipped the question of the numerous clippings in it. But hols, as old-fashioned for ‘holidays’, con, as short for ‘convict’, or veggies for ‘vegetables’ are recorded in major dictionaries. Although expats for ‘expatriots’, carbs for ‘carbohydrates’, tix for ‘tickets’ or trans for ‘transformed’ are not respectively recorded, they are current clippings and are obvious in the contexts of their use on the internet. I have certainly ignored the language of online discussions with its thnx for ‘thanks’, u for ‘you’ and its other “beauties” (cf: Hi Muhamed Iqbal u promised to give me Dr.Ruqayya Hussain article abt verbal communication …and since then im waiting for ur generosity. Plz tell me abt some other material too. – 17 March 2010). This is broken English rather than neologisms, and since the internet gains in time by speed, it can spare the language. The rest is the culture of the speaker. So long as there are at least a few dozens of speakers like Professor Crystal (see above), and there more in Britain and US, any user of English who indulges in the above quoted orgy of abuse online or on paper, passes the sentence

32 of exclusion on himself in English as the language of Great Britain and the USA. The foreigner can take it or leave and rue the day.

2.5. New words in English and their influence on the language. When new words are many, and they are very numerous in today’s English, they cause difficulties to the speakers and unsettle the language. When new words function as single units, they are just spare parts in the language if we discount the problem of meaning. Until the meaning of new words is not very well and widely known, new words do not permit any liberties to the user because of vagueness and of the uncertainty of their stylistic meaning. New words do not permit even play on words, especially if the participants do not share the same level of knowledge about them. Except for evaluative words, which may be insulting, all neutral words of the basic word stock can be used like mere counters. This is what happens and sometimes is consciously done in small talk. Until the extralinguistic context is not exposed or questioned, the speakers can use all neutral words without ever relating to their meaning. For example, one can say ‘I have enjoyed the party’ without having attended any or ‘I spent a week in Rome’ without having travelled there. The words themselves never confirm the truth. Therefore small talk may involve, the speakers may exchange pleasantries, smile, laugh, pay compliments and have a good time without really saying anything factual. It is neutral words, which are generally known, that permit such a play. New words do not permit anything of the kind and are dangerous to the speaker, especially to the foreigner. New words are an extra difficulty in matter-of-fact communication. As I have already mentioned, new words unsettle the language because of their number. As my illustrative material has shown, the meaning of new words depends on their etymology, undergoes changes and is adjusted in usage. The processes of the development of meaning include narrowing, extension, polysemy, amelioration, pejoration, a contribution of the community and of individual speakers (Butterfield, 2008, 70-77). These processes increase the flexibility of language, which does not contribute to its potential meaning and to the power of language. Moreover, until new words function as single items, they do not contribute to the potential meaning of language because “their true functioning is in collocations” (Butterfield, 2008,6 8-69). As the conception of the functional theory of language envisages, the vocabulary and grammar are integrated components in the system of language and both are meaning components. It is obvious that new words can contribute to the potential meaning of English only through their structural integrity, as my initial explanation of the concept of the potential meaning of language and examples also confirmed. The words of a language have also systemic integrity, which is not formed for the new words. For example, the new word clueless was used of President Obama last February in an internet article: Paul Krugman of the New York Times called the president “clueless”. (Yahoo News, 11 February 2010). The first thing the reader wonders at is whether this was not insulting. The president had obviously forgotten certain facts about activities of certain companies and made no acknowledgement

33 as was expected. The word is evaluating and hence is the question. As David Crystal reports, although clueless means ‘absent minded, scatty’, “it’s a much milder word than stupid” (Crystal, 2008). But it obviously belongs to the semantic field to which ‘stupid’ belongs. As clueless is a new word, few speakers of English are certain as to its evaluative meaning. That is why we wonder. When this word will have a definite place in this semantic field in accord with its dictionary meaning, the question of the appropriateness of this word will be resolved for the foreigner, at least. At present, this is a sensitive word, especially when used so directly of a world leader. Therefore I have to conclude that new words are weak elements of language because of their flexible meaning, but especially because of their unsettled place in the lexical and in the lexicographical system of language. Consequently, new words do not contribute to the power of language, they rather unsettle it.

Conclusions The present avalanche of new words in English is a phenomenon inviting investigation but it must be a plight rather than a pleasure to the native speakers. It is difficult to predict whether a majority of today’s new words will be integrated into the English language. Some will, but some will die out. Professor Crystal says the following of the noun wuss, which came from the United States in the 1980s and has a very unclear etymology: “I didn’t think it would last, but it’s still here.” The linguist’s opinion prompts a demise for some of today’s new words. Some will remain but, minding the tendency to the non-standard, British speakers are likely to reject still more of the new words of today. Some new words have relatively established themselves. For instance, the radio and the internet are sufficient to know that binge drinking is an established word in British English today, probably because the English had had no standard word for heavy drinking and this one seems to have won the place. As I have shown, clueless has some currency as do awesome, downsize, and, with some reserve for linguists, thirtysomething, be like, whatever, and a number of others. The stylistic meaning of the word is very important in the use of new words and when it is unknown, the etymology of the word assists the speaker considerably. This paper confirms that, contrary to the opinion of some linguists, etymology is conducive to learning a foreign language. Linguistic theories of the complexity of meaning in language and the integrity of words in its system do not help the speakers when they tackle new words for meaning because psychological processes in the perception of language and in understanding include analysis and synthesis simultaneously and involve the simple and direct matching of the known and unknown, of the word and thing, of the word and concept. When new words are abundant, they unsettle the language and do not contribute to its power. Until new words are not integrated in the lexical and lexicogrammatical system of the language, they are weak components of meaning which cause problems in lexicography and in usage. There is the social aspect to the treatment of new words.

34 The British and Americans record new words diligently and thus keep hold on their own language, which serves the world. Lithuanians protest against the influx of English words and neologisms and call for the purity of the tongue. Both languages suffer in the present conditions, but attitudes differ as do the languages. But the US seems to contribute to the language considerably through the building of its vocabulary, while the stability of the lexicogrammatical system of English may draw somewhat on the speech of the conventional society. It is known that language identifies social class in Britain. The building of the vocabulary through new words in American English is likely to identify professional classes in the US. This may be an extra bit of evidence confirming how language differentiates and consolidates society.

References 1. Algeo, John. 1993. Fifty Years Among the New Words. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2. Barfield, Owen. 1953. History in English Words. London: Faber and Faber Ltd. 3. Butterfield, Jeremy. 2008. Damp Squid: The English Language Laid Bare. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 4. Crystal, David. 2008, 2009. Keep Your English Up to Date. Available at: www. learningenglish. bbc.co.uk 5. Dudeney, Gavin. 2008, 2009. Keep Your English Up to Date. Available at: www. learningenglish. bbc.co.uk 6. Ellis, Willis A. 1939. Word Ancestry. Interesting Stories of the Origins of English Words. New York: The American Classical League. 7. Halliday, M.A.K. 1976. System and Function in Language. Edited by Gunther Kress. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8. Halliday, M.A.K. 1978. Language as Social Semiotic. London: Edward Arnold. 9. Jackson, Howard. 1991. Words and Their Meaning. London and New York: Longman. 10. Lakoff, Robin Tolmach. 2001. The Language War. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: Universityof California Press. 11. Pettiward, Jim. 2009. Keep Your English Up to Date. Available at: www. learningenglish.bbc.co.uk 12. Pinckert, Robert C. 1981. The truth About English: How to write, to speak and think with theLanguage. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 13. Quinion, Michael. 2006. Gallimaufry. A hodgepodge of our vanishing vocabulary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 14. Quirk, Sir Randolph. 1982. Style and Communication in the English Language. London: Edward Arnold. 15. Russell, Bertrand. 1965. An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth. Harmondsworth: Penguin. 16. Thorne, Tony. 2009. Jolly Wicked, Actually. The 100 Words That Make Us English. London: Little, Brown Book Group. 17. Wagner, G. 1968. On the Wisdom of Words. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.

35 SANTRAUKA Nauji žodžiai anglų kalboje ir kalbos galia Marija Liudvika Drazdauskienė

Ypatingas pastarojo meto naujų žodžių antplūdis anglų kalboje atkreipia dėmesį į leksikografijos problemas, bet kalbininkui aktualesnis naujų žodžių įtakos kalbai ir jos galiai klausimas, kuris yra šio straipsnio problema. Darbas paremtas naujausiomis žodyno studijomis ir medžiaga iš naujadarų žodyno bei iš BBC mokomojo tinklapio (www.learningenglish.bbc.co.uk). Kalbos galios sąvoka yra tapatinama su kalbos potencialiąja reikšme. Analizuojant tyrinėjimo medžiagą, apžvelgiami tipiniai naujų žodžių formavimosi būdai ir kalbos prastėjimo tendencija šiame procese. Tyrinėjimo rezultatai atskleidžia pavienių naujų žodžių reikšmę ir vartojimo ypatumus, nedide- lio skaičiaus žodžių junginių savybes ir naujus struktūrinius vienetus anglų kalboje. Apibūdinant naujų žodžių ir junginių reikšmes, ypatingai išryškinama stilistinė naujo vieneto reikšmė, atkreipiant dėmesį į Profesoriaus D.Crystalo bekompromisinę nuos- tatą nepriimti žemo tono žodžių. Todėl dominuojantis naujų žodžių familiarumas ir laužyta interneto kalba pasitelkiama išryškinant kultūros kalboje reikšmingumą, ypač užsieniečiui. Elementaraus reikšmės supratimo suvokiant ir vartojant naujus žodžius paaiškinimui trumpai reziumuojamos loginė (Bertrand Russell) ir funkcinė (M.A.K. Halliday) reikšmės kalboje sampratos. Teigiama, kad tiesioginis ryšys tarp naujo žodžio ir daikto arba žinomos sąvokos išlieka svarbus priimant naujus žodžius, kaip ir mokantis užsienio kalbos. Akcentuojami naujų žodžių sudaromi sunkumai kalbantiesiems ir teigiama, kad nauji žodžiai nestiprina kalbos galios, o greičiau ją išbalansuoja, nes potencialioji kalbos reikšmė yra tik leksikogramatiškai integruotų vienetų funkcionavimo rezultatas. Daroma prielaida, kad gausūs naujadarai JAV anglų kalboje identifikuoja profesionalus ir taip klasifikuoja bei konsoliduoja visuomenę, nors ši kalbos galia istoriškai reikšmingiausia Didžiojoje Britanijoje.

36 Zur schwachen Substantivdeklination im Deutschen: Korpusgestützte Untersuchung der schwach deklinierbaren substantivischen Nichtlebewesen

Skaidra Girdenienė Pädagogische Universität Vilnius, Studentų Str. 39, LT-08106 Vilnius, [email protected]

Abstract The research object is German nouns denoting objects / things that should follow the weak declension because of their form. The material from German press in the Internet proves that authors do not always follow the rule of the weak declension, for instance, there are such cases as am Automat and am Automaten, mit einem Brillant and mit einem Brillanten, des Komet and des Kometen and others used. The research was based on three German corpora: Cosmas II, DWDS-Kerncorpus, Projekt Deutscher Wortschatz. The research has revealed a certain tendency of inflecting weak-declension German nouns according to the strong declension instead. The article analyzes what nouns and how much they are affected by this tendency in written texts; the frequency of forms is calculated and on this basis the three corpora are compared. The conclusion is drawn that such nouns as Bankomat, Paragraph, Satellit, Brillant most frequently depart from the weak declension. Nouns with the suffix -graph as well as Automat and Hydrant take the middle position whereas the nouns Trabant, Komet and Planet are least influenced by the tendency to change their declension. Key words: Substantiv, Nichtlebewesen, Deklination, Flexionsklassenwechsel, Ko- rpusuntersuchung.

EINLEITUNG Die Anregung zu diesem Beitrag gab die Lektüre der deutschen Presse im Internet. Beim Lesen ist aufgefallen, dass die Autoren nicht immer den Regeln der schwachen Substantivdeklination folgen, zu der, wie bekannt, auch manche Substantive Nicht- lebewesen gehören, die folglich die Kasusendung -en in obliquen Kasus bekommen

37 müssen. Es kommt aber vor, dass man gegen die Regel der schwachen Deklination verstößt, z.B.: (1) Als er dann erstmals den Planet Saturn mit dessen Ringen gesehen hatte, war es geschehen (…) (WUL: donaukurier.de, 26.09.2006) (2) Die Schreibweise des Wortes „stop“ jedoch ist nach der bisherigen Regel keineswegs beliebig, sondern in erster Linie eingedeutscht mit nach kurzem Vokal verdoppeltem Endkonsonant. (Cosmas II: Frankfurter Rundschau, 12.11.1997) Die konsultierten Grammatiken gehen auf das Problem kaum ein (Sommerfeldt /Starke, 1998; Engel, 1991; Weinrich, 2007; Helbig/Buscha, 2001). Nur in der 7. Auflage der Duden Grammatik finden sich Ausführungen zum Wegfall der Kasusendung-en . Laut der Duden Grammatik bestehe eine gewisse Tendenz die schwache Kasusflexi- on aufzugeben und die betreffenden Substantive stark zu flektieren. Dabei werden folgende Beispiele angeführt: dem Elefant, des Helds, einen Held, aus dem Automat, diesen Narr. Zum Teil sei der Flexionsklassenwechsel standardsprachlich anerkannt, z. B. neben der Form des Magneten, existiere auch die Form des Magnets (Duden. Die Grammatik, 2005, 218), was auch in den Wörterbüchern fixiert ist (Duden Univer- salwörterbuch, 2007) Das Ziel des vorliegenden Beitrags ist mit Hilfe schriftsprachlicher Korpora nachzuprüfen, inwieweit die Substantive der schwachen Deklinationsklasse von der Tendenz zum Flexionsklassenwechsel in der deutschen Schriftsprache betroffen sind. Die vorliegende Untersuchung beschränkt sich nur auf die Substantive Nichtlebewe- sen, die wegen ihrer Form schwach flektiert werden. Das Untersuchungsmaterial ist folgenden schriftsprachlichen Korpora entnommen: 1. Cosmas II des Instituts für deutsche Sprache in Mannheim, Archiv der geschriebenen Sprache (weiter Cosmas II). Bei der statistischen Auswertung beschränkt sich die Untersuchung nur auf das Korpus der Neuakquisitionen. Dieses Korpus enthält Presse-Beispiele aus dem Jahr 2008-2009 (weiter Cosmas II N). 2. DWDS-Kerncorpus der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissen- schaften (weiter DWDS). 3. Projekt Deutscher Wortschatz der Universität Leipzig (weiter WUL). Die Aufgaben des Beitrags bestehen in der Analyse und Beschreibung der Um- gebung der betreffenden Formen sowie in der Berechnung der Gebrauchsfrequenz der starken und schwachen Formen. Auf diese Weise werden auch die Korpora miteinander verglichen.

Abrufbar unter: https://cosmas2.ids-mannheim.de/cosmas2-web/ Abrufbar unter: http://www.dwds.de/ Abrufbar�� unter: http://wortschatz.uni-leipzig.de/

38 1. EMPIRISCHE UNTERSUCHUNG DER SCHWACH DEKLINIERBAREN SUBSTANTIVISCHEN Anhand von Wörterbüchern und Grammatiken wurde für die vorliegende Unter- suchung eine Liste von Substantiven zusammengestellt, die Nichtlebewesen bezeichnen und den Regeln entsprechend schwach flektiert werden sollen (siehe Tabelle 1). Das sind Bezeichnungen für Geräte (Automat, Barograph, Hydrant), mathematische Größen (Quotient, Koeffizient), astronomische Bezeichnungen (Komet, Planet) u. a. (Duden Grammatik, 2005, 217; Helbig/Buscha, 2001, 213; Duden Universalwörter- buch, 2007; DWDS-Wörterbuch). Im Folgenden werden die Substantive nach den Suffixen behandelt. Demnach ergeben sich sechs Gruppen:

Suffix Substantive -ant Brillant, Diamant, Hydrant, Konsonant, Quadrant, Trabant -at Automat, Bankomat -ent Koeffizient, Quotient -et Komet, Planet -graph bzw. -graf Barograph, Chronograph, Graph, Heliograph, Kinematograph, Oszillograph, Pantograph, Paragraph, Phonograph, Seismograph, Sonograph, Spektrograph, Tachograph, Telegraph -it Satellit Tabelle 1: Gruppen der schwach deklinierbaren substantivischen Nichtlebewese

SUBSTANTIVE AUF -ant Konsonant steht oft ohne Artikel, mit oder ohne Attribut, mit oder ohne Präpo- sition und bekommt kein erwartbares -en: (3) Einbegriffen ist (…) die Schreibung mit dreifachemKonsonant bei Wortzusam- mensetzungen (…) (Cosmas II: Mannheimer Morgen, 30.07.2005) Nach einem Artikelwort kommt Konsonant auch nicht dekliniert vor: (4) So ist jedem Konsonant, jedem Ton und jedem Intervall eine bestimmte Bewe- gung zugeordnet. Cosmas II: Nürnberger Nachrichten, 06.03.1999) Konsonant sowie andere untersuchte Substantive kommen in einer Aufzählung sehr häufig endungslos vor: (5) Zum Beispiel haben sich Umlaute aus Vokal, Konsonant und i gebildet. (WUL: archiv.tagesspiegel.de, 06.04.2005)

�Es ��gibt ��noch ��mehr� ��Substantive,�� ��die� Nichtlebewesen�� bezeichnen�� und�� schwach�� ��dekliniert� ��wer�� den sollen, z. B. Myzet, Gamet, Heterograph, Limnograph, Kosmograph u. a., ein Teil dieser Substantive wird sehr selten gebraucht, manche kommen in den Korpora überhaupt nicht vor. Der Grund dafür kann eine sehr fachspezifische Verwendung dieser Substantive sein, auch sind heutzutage die von ihnen bezeichneten Gegenstände außer Gebrauch und ihre Bezeichnungen sind daher nicht mehr aktuell. Solche Substantive werden im Beitrag nicht behandelt. Manche Substantive kamen in den Korpora vor, aber nur im Nominativ Singular oder im Plural. Sie sind aber für die Untersuchungsaufgabe nicht relevant.

39 Es besteht im Deutschen auch die Tendenz Brillant und Diamant stark zu dekli- nieren, parallel mit in Wörterbüchern angeführter schwacher Flexionsklasse: (6) Sie erbeuteten dabei (…) Schmuck (eine Herrenarmbanduhr; zwei goldene Her- renringe, einen mit Brillant und einen mit Karomuster, und eine goldene Halskette). (Cosmas II: Tiroler Tageszeitung, 28.08.1996) (7) Einen Weißgoldring mit einem Diamant im Wert von 19.900 S gewonnen hat Marika Zangerl aus Landeck im Uhren- und Schmuckhaus Winkler (Cosmas II: Tiroler Tageszeitung, 30.11.1999) Genauso verhält es sich mit dem mathematischen und astronomischen Begriff Quadrant: (8) Wegen der Symmetrie der trigonometrischen Funktionen ist bei ihnen zu klä- ren, in welchem Quadrant der gesuchte Winkel liegt. (Cosmas II: Trigonometrische Funktion, http://de.wikipedia.org: Wikipedia, 2005) Substantiv zur Bezeichnung der Zapfstelle zur Entnahme von Wasser – Hydrant − wird auch unterschiedlich flektiert, Belege mit starker Flexion kamen aber nur in Cosmas II und WUL vor: (9) Viele hatten in der letzten Saison schon gedacht, ich würde als Feuerwehrmann den Hydrant nicht finden. (Cosmas II: Mannheimer Morgen, 22.10.1999) Das Substantiv Trabant bzw. Erdtrabant im Sinne Satellit wird überall regelge- mäß flektiert, dagegen kommt Trabant als Automarke nur als Vertreter der starken Deklination vor10: (10) Zwei Briten sind mit einem 40 Jahre alten Trabant von Plymouth in Groß- britannien nach Banjul im westafrikanischen Gambia gefahren. (WUL: fr-aktuell.de, 22.01.2005) SUBSTANTIVE AUF -at In den Wörterbüchern wird nur die schwache Flexionsklasse von Automat angegeben, es kommt kein Beispiel vor, wo dieses Substantiv in obliquen Kasus stark dekliniert wäre, z. B.: den Automaten regelmäßig auffüllen, er arbeitet mit der Präzision eines Automaten, Zigaretten am Automaten ziehen (DWDS-Wörterbuch; Duden Universalwörterbuch, 2007). Dagegen ist in den untersuchten Korpora das Bild ganz anders. Es ist offensichtlich, dass Automat und die Zusammensetzungen mit der Komponente Automat Doppelformen aufweisen. Dies beweisen folgende Belege aus den Korpora: (11) Die spannendste Geschichte ist die zwischen dem arbeitslosen Erdkundelehrer Lukas und der Fernsehfrau Sonja, die dem Automat ihre Stimme geliehen hat. (WUL: fr-aktuell.de, 29.09.2005) (12) Zum großen Glück aber gibt es jetzt BP-Stationen, die nachts, wenn ihre Warte ruhen, ihr Benzin durch Automat im Selbstbedienungswege an die Autofahrerschaft verteilen. (DWDS: Eva und das Auto, Hamburg: 1966)

10 Für die vorliegende Untersuchung ist Trabant nur in der Bedeutung Satellit relevant.

40 Automat liefert sehr viele Belege in allen drei untersuchten Korpora, und es liegt auf der Hand, dass starke Deklinationsvariante häufig und in verschiedensten Ver- bindungen vertreten ist. Im Folgenden werden einige Wortgruppen oder abgekürzte Sätze mit stark flektiertem Automat aus dem WUL-Korpus angeführt: (…) sehen wir auch einen Automat zum Proberauchen; den Automat Instand setzen; der Umgang mit dem Automat; am Automat Geld abheben; Preis für Automat; zwischen Kaffeeauto- mat und Paletten mit Papierbögen; aus dem Automat Beutel nehmen; Ticketkauf per Internet und Automat bekannter machen; Filialen ohne Automat. Automat ist als Bestandteil in das Wort Bankomat eingegangen. Dieses Substan- tiv ist vor allem in Österreich gebräuchlich und soll nach den Angaben des Duden Universalwörterbuchs schwach (wie auch Automat) dekliniert werden. Parallele Formen existieren aber auch in diesem Fall, wobei die starken Formen eindeutig überwiegen: (13) Der 52-jährige Hauptangeklagte war nach dem Verlust seiner Karte am Ban- komat mit dem Wagen gegen die Tür der Bank in der Frankfurter Innenstadt gefahren. (Cosmas II: Mannheimer Morgen, 10.09.2008) SUBSTANTIVE AUF -ent Mathematische Begriffe Koeffizient und Quotient werden den Regeln entsprechend überwiegend schwach flektiert. So kommt im DWDS-Kerncorpus kein Beleg vor, wo Koeffizient stark flektiert wäre. Trotzdem gibt es Belege, die von der Abwei- chung von der Regel zeugen: (14) Bei gleicher Punktzahl und Satzdifferenz konnte der KTV Rotkreuz nur dank besserem Koeffizient in die Relegationsrunde (…) verwiesen werden. (Cosmas II: St. Galler Tagblatt, 19.01.1999) (15) Das i-te Glied ai einer geometrischen Folge mit dem Anfangsglied a0 und dem Quotient q berechnet sich aus (...) (Cosmas II: Geometrische Folge, de.wikipedia. org: Wikipedia, 2005) Es fällt auf, dass Koeffizient endungslos gebraucht wird, wenn dabei ein Zahlwort steht, Artikelgebrauch ist unwichtig: (16) Mit dem Koeffizient 1,833 aus den beiden letzten Ausscheidungen wäre die Schweiz dem dritten von sieben Töpfen zugeteilt worden (…) (Cosmas II: Die Südost- schweiz, 15.10.2005) SUBSTANTIVE AUF -et Hierher gehören zwei Substantive, die ziemlich häufig in der Presse vorkommen, u. z. Planet und Komet. Neben zahlreichen Belegen, in denen sie regelgemäß schwach flektiert werden, kommen auch nicht wenige Belege vor, wo sie stark flektiert werden, u. z. in allen drei untersuchten Korpora, sowohl im direkten als auch im übertragenen Sinne sowie als Namen. Planet und Komet werden gewöhnlich mit einem Artikelwort und sehr häufig mit einem Attribut gebraucht: (17) Am 15. Oktober wird Saturn vom strahlenden Planet Venus überholt. (Cosmas II: St. Galler Tagblatt, 02.10.2007)

41 (18) 1861 entdeckte ein Amateurastronom in Australien den Komet Tebbutt (…) (Cosmas II: Donati, http://de.wikipedia.org: Wikipedia, 2005) Weitere Wortfügungen aus den Korpora: auf den fernen Planet, auf dem Encke- schen Komet, auf diesem Planet, auf dem Planet, mit blinkendem Komet (Cosmas II, WUL). Nicht konsequent erscheint der folgende Beleg, wo Komet in demselben Satz im Akkusativ schwach, im Genitiv dagegen stark flektiert wird: (19) Auch 1910 gab es nochmals einen „Tageslicht“ -Kometen, wenige Wochen vor der Wiederkehr des Komet Halley. (Cosmas II: Erde, http://de.wikipedia.org: Wiki- pedia, 2005) Noch eine Inkonsequenz in einem Satz: (20) Die Beziehungsgespräche zwischen Lois Lane und Superman gleichen einem Flug von Planet Pathos zum Kitsch-Kometen. (WUL: stern.de, 17.08.2006) Stark flektiert werden die Substantive in den Präpositionalgruppen mit von ... zu, für und zwischen. In solchen Präpositionalgruppen stehen die Substantive ohne Artikel, z. B.: (21) So könnte eine Sonde völlig ohne Treibstoff von Planet zu Planet kreuzen. (WUL: archiv.tagesspiegel.de 21.06.2005) (22) Beginnend an der Promenade nahe dem Teepott und dem Leuchtturm lässt sich Planet für Planet erwandern (…) (DWDS: Ketman, P., Wissmach, A., 1986) Wenn das Substantiv als Name fungiert oder im Titel steht, bekommt es keine Endung: (23) Im alten „Komet“ war es immer laut, verraucht und wahnsinnig nett. (WUL: abendblatt.de, 08.04.2005) SUBSTANTIVE AUF -it Das einzige Substantiv dieser Gruppe ist Satellit. Es kommt in den obliquen bzw. Präpositionalkasus grundsätzlich in der schwachen Form vor. In Verbindung mit einer Präposition, besonders häufig mitvia, per, über wird dagegen die endungslose Form vorgezogen, was auch im Duden Universalwörterbuch (2007) angeführt wird: einen Satelliten in eine Umlaufbahn bringen;aber: ein Fernsehprogramm über Satellit empfangen. Folgende Beispielsätze aus den untersuchten Korpora zeigen die Neigung zur flexionslosen Form: (24) Nun kann die Position jedes Busses per Satellit verfolgt und bei Störungen schnell eingegriffen werden. (WUL: berlinonline.de, 15.01.2005) (25) Auch in der US-Erdbebenwarte in Golden (Colorado), wo via Satellit Daten von 350 Meßstationen rund um den Globus einlaufen, ging das Alarmgerät los. (WUL: welt.de, 04.01.2005).

42 SUBSTANTIVE AUF -graph Substantive auf -graph11 bilden die größte Gruppe von schwach deklinierten Sub- stantiven, die Nichtlebewesen bezeichnen. Der Grund dafür ist eine große Anzahl von Geräten, die durch Substantive auf -graph bzw. -graf bezeichnet werden. Die folgenden Belege beweisen aber, dass auch diese Substantive neben den schwachen Formen auch starke Formen aufweisen: (26) Die Strommessung wurde mit dem Oszillograph Tektronix vorgenommen. (Cosmas II: Zeitschrift für angewandte Physik, 1971, Nr. 4) (27) Der passionierte Klavier- und Orgelspieler Musger verbesserte seine Erfindung und erhielt 1921 für den „Kinematograph mit optischem Ausgleich der Bildwanderung“ sein zweites Patent. (Cosmas II: Salzburger Nachrichten, 02.02.19) Substantive auf -graph kommen vor allem in Aufzählungen artikellos vor und werden dann stark dekliniert (28). Die starken Formen stehen im reinen bzw. Prä- positionalkasus sowohl mit (29) als auch ohne Artikel (30), z. B.: (28) Die elf neuen Behandlungsräume sind modern ausgestattet mit Röntgengerät, EKG, Computertomograph, kleinem Labor und Sonograph. (Cosmas II: Nürnberger Nachrichten, 27.04.2006) (29) Die Diebe entwendeten den Heliograph in der Nacht von Samstag auf Sonntag. (Cosmas II: Kleine Zeitung, 15.09.1999) (30) Das Gerät, mit dem er dies bewerkstelligte, nannte er „Phonograph“. (Cosmas II: Mannheimer Morgen, 26.02.1998) Ein interessanter Satz mit Graph: Im Genitiv wird die schwache Deklination beibehalten, im Akkusativ dagegen nicht: (31) In diesem Fall liegt bereits eine Skizze eines Graphen vor. Daraus wird dann ein Bild für den Graph erzeugt. (Cosmas II: Graphzeichnen, http://de.wikipedia.org: Wikipedia, 2005). Noch ein Substantiv auf -graph soll hier getrennt behandelt werden. Es handelt sich um das Substantiv Paragraph. Der Gebrauch von Paragraph in den schriftsprachlichen Korpora ist alles andere als konsequent. Beide Flexionsformen – stark und schwach − werden parallel verwendet. Man vergleiche folgende Belege mit sogar drei unterschiedlichen Varianten des Genitivs: (32) Der Gesetzgeber ist laut Scholz „dringend gefordert“, den Untreuetatbestand des Paragraph 266 zu schärfen. (WUL: welt.de, 22.12.2005) (33) Die Beendigung von Verträgen mit Zweckbefristung ist in Absatz 2 des Para- grafs 15 TzBfG geregelt. (WUL: fr-aktuell.de, 25.03.2006) (34) Würde die CDU heute noch wegen des Paragrafen 218 (…) wie seinerzeit vor das Bundesverfassungsgericht ziehen? (WUL: berlinonline.de, 06.07.2005). Die Wörterbücher fixieren dagegen die flexionslose Form nur in einem Fall,. u z. mit der Präposition nach/laut und einem Zahlwort, z. B.: nach Paragraph 8, sonst

11 Es wurden sowohl Substantive auf -graph als auch auf -graf untersucht, die Rechtschreibung der Beispielsätze wurde übernommen.

43 sollte das Wort schwach flektiert werden: einen Paragraphen streichen; gegen einen Paragraphen verstoßen; sich nach dem Paragraphen richten u. ä. (Duden Universal- wörterbuch, 2007; DWDS Wörterbuch). Im Weiteren werden manche Wortgruppen angeführt, die allen untersuchten Korpora entnommen sind: in Paragraph 81g; im obigen Paragraph;; unter Para- graph 107 B; Verstoß gegen Paragraph 95; von Paragraph zu Paragraph; in Verbin- dung mit Paragraph 309; von Paragraph 23 EStG geregelt werden; den Paragraph 41a ergänzen. Man könnte die Liste noch um viele weitere Gebrauchsvarianten von Paragraph ergänzen, die angeführten Belege illustrieren aber deutlich, dass das Sub- stantiv Paragraph jetzt eine „Doppelexistenz“ führt (siehe auch Tabelle 2). Die starken Formen kommen besonders häufig vor, wenn Paragraph mit einer Zahl kombiniert wird sowie ohne Artikel und ohne Attribut steht. Es lässt sich aber keine eindeutige Regel bestimmen.

2. ZUR GEBRAUCHSFREQUENZ DER STARK UND SCHWACH FLEKTIERTEN In diesem Abschnitt wird die Gebrauchsfrequenz von schwach und stark flektierten Formen der untersuchten Substantive verglichen. Die statistische Auswertung der Formen in allen drei Korpora und nicht in einem kann die Entwicklungstendenz der untersuchten Formen exakter aufzeigen. Es ergaben sich insgesamt 9564 Belege (3363 in Cosmas II N, 1538 in DWDS, 4663 in WUL). Die Zahlen dürfen aber nicht als unanfechtbar angesehen werden, denn die Zahl der Belege für einzelne Substantive sind in den Korpora recht unterschiedlich, vgl. Belege für Paragraph: 661 in Cosmas II N, 573 im DWDS-Korpus und 960 im WUL, gesamt 2194; Belege für Konsonant: 2 in Cosmas II N, 26 im DWDS-Korpus und 4 im WUL, gesamt 32. Es ist offensichtlich, dass die Schlussfolgerung in Bezug auf die Entwicklung von Paragraph viel sprechender ist als im Fall von Konsonant. Dasselbe gilt für Quadrant, Koeffizient und Quotient. Die Korpora liefern natürlich mehr Beispiele mit betreffenden Substantiven, aber die Belege im Nominativ und in allen Pluralkasus kommen für die vorliegende Untersuchung nicht in Frage. Beim Vergleich der Korpora fällt auf, dass der DWDS-Kerncorpus die wenig- sten Belege liefert, die von der Regel abweichen. Dies hängt wohl mit Quellen und Umfang des Korpus zusammen. Die Belege in Cosmas II N und WUL entstammen grundsätzlich der Presse und Internetpresse und zeugen somit vom aktuelleren Entwicklungsstand. Auffallend ist, dass die Prozentanteile der Belege mit manchen Substantiven in Cosmas II N und WUL überraschend ähnlich sind, vgl. Prozentanteil von stark flektierten Formen: Satellit 54% in Cosmas II N und 60% in WUL, Gerä- tebezeichnungen auf -graph 15% in Cosmas II N und 17% in WUL, genauso verhält es sich mit Paragraph, Hydrant, Automat, Planet, Komet. Die Analyse der Belege lässt behaupten, dass die Umgebung der betreffenden Sub- stantive (z. B. die Wahl des Artikels oder eines Artikelwortes, Verwendung eines voran-

44 gestellten oder nachgestellten Attributes) die Wahl der Flexionsklasse nicht beeinflusst. In folgenden Fällen überwiegt aber eindeutig die Wahl der starken Deklination: 1. Bei der Verwendung der betreffenden Substantive alsN amen aller Art, z. B. Trabant als Automarke, Komet, Planet als Kinotheater, 2 �ach Präpositionen pro, via, per, über, nach, laut, von… zu und für, 3. Bei der Verwendung eines Zahlwortes nach dem Substantiv (besonders bei Koeffizient, Paragraph), 4. Paragraph wird überwiegend stark dekliniert, wenn das Substantiv ohne Artikel und ohne Attribut steht, 5. In Aufzählungen. Alle untersuchten Substantive werden als Vertreter der starken Deklinationsklasse belegt, aber in unterschiedlichem Ausmaß: Die stärkste Tendenz zum Flexionsklas- senwechsel zeigen Bankomat, Paragraph, Satellit, Brillant. In der Mitte liegen die Substantive Diamant, Gerätebezeichnungen auf -graph, Automat, Hydrant. Nur gering betroffen sind Trabant, Komet, Planet. Tabelle 2 zeigt den Durchschnittswert von stark flektierten Substantiven in allen drei Korpora:

1. Bankomat 75,5% 2. Paragraph 52,3% 3. Satellit 42% 4. Brillant 25% 5. Diamant 16% 6. Geräte auf -graph 15% 7. Automat 7,6% 8. Hydrant 4,3% 9. Komet 3% 10. Planet 2,3% 11. Trabant 1,6% Tabelle 2: Durchschnittswert von stark flektierten Substantiven in untersuchten Korpora

Konsonant, Quadrant, Koeffizient und Quotient werden zu gering belegt, um Konsequenzen ziehen zu können, für die vorliegende Untersuchung ergeben sich folgende Zahlen für starke Deklinationsvariante: Konsonant - 30%; Quadrant − 5,5%, Koeffizient − 1,6%; Quotient − 1,3%

SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN Die korpusgestützte Untersuchung hat die Hypothese bestätigt, dass substanti- vische Nichtlebewesen, die schwach flektiert werden sollen, in der geschriebenen

45 Sprache die Tendenz zum Flexionsklassenwechsel aufzeigen. Nicht alle Substantive sind in gleichem Maße von dieser Tendenz betroffen, die Frequenz der starken Formen schwankt in unterschiedlichen Korpora. Die Durchschnittswerte der stark flektierten Formen liegen in Cosmas IIN bei 19,2%, im DWDS-Kerncorpus bei 8,8%, im WUL bei 23,2%.

LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 1. Duden. Deutsches Universalwörterbuch. 2007. Hrsg. von der Dudenred. 6., überarb. und erw. Aufl. Mannheim, Leipzig, Wien, Zürich: Dudenverlag. 2. Duden. Die Grammatik. 2005. Hrsg. von der Dudenred. 7., völlig neu erarb. und erw. Aufl. Mannheim, Leipzig, Wien, Zürich: Dudenverlag. 3. DWDS: Das digitale Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache des 20. Jh. Abrufbar unter: http://www.dwds.de/ 4. Engel, U. 1991. Deutsche Grammatik. 2., verarb. Aufl. Heidelberg: Groos. 5. Helbig, G., Buscha, J. 2001. Deutsche Grammatik: ein Handbuch für den Ausländerunterricht. Berlin; München; Wien; Zürich; New York: Langenscheidt. 6. Sommerfeldt, K., Starke, G. 1998. Einführung in die Grammatik der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. 3., neu bearb. Aufl. Tübingen: Niemeyer. 7. Weinrich, H. 2007. Textgrammatik der deutschen Sprache. 4., rev. Aufl. Hildesheim; Zürich; New York: Georg Olms Verlag.

SANTRAUKA Apie vokiečių kalbos silpnosios linksniuotės daiktavardžių, žyminčių daiktus, linksniavimo tendencijas Skaidra Girdenienė

Tyrimo objektas − vokiečių kalbos daiktavardžiai, žymintys daiktus, tačiau dėl savo formos linksniuojami silpnąja linksniuote. Skaitant spaudą internete vokiečių kalba buvo pastebėta, kad autoriai ne visuomet laikosi silpnosios linksniuotės taisyklės, pvz. vartojami tokie variantai: am Automat ir am Automaten, mit einem Brillant ir mit einem Brillanten, des Komet ir des Kometen ir t.t. Tyrimas buvo atliktas remiantis trimis vokiečių kalbos tekstynais: Cosmas II, DWDS-Kerncorpus, Projekt Deutscher Wortschatz. Tyrimas parodė, kad ryškėja tam tikra tendencija vokiečių kalbos daiktavardžius, priklausančius silpnajai linksniuotei, linksniuoti kaip stipriosios linksniuotės atstovus. Straipsnyje nagrinėjama, kokie daiktavardžiai ir kiek paveikti šios tendencijos rašy- tinėje kalboje, apskaičiuojamas formų dažnumas, tuo pačiu palyginami ir tekstynai. Straipsnyje daroma išvada, kad dažniausiai keisti linksniuotę linkę Bankomat, Para- graph, Satellit, Brillant. Tarpinę padėtį užima daiktavardžiai su priesaga -graph, taip pat Automat, Hydrant, o daiktavardžiai Trabant, Komet ir Planet linksniuotės kitimo tendencijos paveikti mažiausiai.

46 Juxtaposition of Linguistic Characteristics of Entries in English and Lithuanian Dictionaries

Agnė Nakutienė, Linas Selmistraitis Šeškinė Secondary School, 1 Čiobiškio St., Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected] Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The present research aims at the comparative study of linguistic characteristics of the entries in English and Lithuanian dictionaries. The objectives of the research are as follows: to analyze phonetic, orthographic, semantic and etymological information of the headwords in English and Lithuanin dictionaries, to find similarities and differencies of linguistic characteristics of the entries. The online Merriam-Webster Dictionary (MWD) and the Dictionary of Modern Lithuanian (DML) have been chosen as the sources for the analysis. The corpus of 446 noun entries selected randomly has been created. Descriptive and comparative methods of research have been applied for the investigation. Theoretical bases of the research rests on the model of structuring linguistic and semiotic features of dictionaries provided by Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė (2004) as well as lexicographical propositions of the acclaimed lexicographer Landau (2004). The results obtained show that the MWD heavily relies on encyclopaedic definitions, whereas the DML has the tendency to avoid this pattern and short descriptive definitions are chosen instead. The DML indicates only stress, whereas the MWD provides both stress and pronunciation of the word. The sources of illustrative material differs in both dictionaries as the DML takes the examples from folklore or collocations of everyday language, whereas the MWD mostly refers to the quotations of famous people and always indicates their names. The MWD has the advantage in providing the etymology of the words. No such information is given in DML. Key words: lexicography, headword, entry, juxtaposition, orthography, spelling, definition, etymology, illustrative materials.

INTRODUCTION Lexicography is the skill, practice, or profession of writing dictionaries. However, lexicography is not confined merely to the process of compiling dictionaries. It also includes the analysis of dictionaries and finding the answers to the questions how

47 the dictionaries are compiled, what information is included, in what way dictionaries differ from each other, and many other issues. Answers to these questions are given in a separate branch of linguistics, namely, lexicographic theory (Lyberis, 2009). Differences in nations’ history, science and culture lead to the differences in lexicographic tradition. These differences result in different format, character and the way of word description, types of entries, selection of illustrative material, etc. The present research deals with cross-linguistic analysis based on a parallel corpus and its practical applications in such area as lexicography. The study is intended to contribute to the Lithuanian works on lexicographic theory and to further comparative Lithuanian and English lexicographic studies. The aim of the study is juxtaposition of linguistic characteristics of the entries in English and Lithuanian dictionaries. The objectives of the research are as follows: to analyze peculiarities of phonetic, orthographic, semantic and etymological information of the headwords provided in English and Lithuanin dictionaries, to find similarities and differencies of linguistic characteristics of the entries.

1. MATERIALS AND METHODS The online Merriam-Webster Dictionary (MWD) and the Dictionary of Modern Lithuanian (DML) have been chosen as the source for the analysis. The corpus of the study consisting of 446 randomly chosen parallel headwords and their definitions in English and Lithuania has been created. The corpus was purposefully limited only to non derived appellative words and only those words first meanings of which coincided in both languages were selected. Moreover, words from each letter of the Lithuanian alphabet were taken proportionally to the total number of the words beginning with that letter. Thus, the number of words from each letter is different. Due to such restrictions, the scope of the research is rather limited. Descriptive and comparative methods of research have been applied for the investigation. Theoretical framework of the research rests on the model of the description of dictionary features provided by Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė (2004) as well as lexicographical assumptions of the acclaimed lexicographer Sidney Landau (2004).

2. THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS Different types of dictionaries have their own internal characteristics which help to classify them into certain categories (Prasad, 2008). In general, these characteristics are divided according to their nature into three types: 1) linguistic, 2) semiotic and 3) sociological ones. The latter is the smallest group as it includes the traits of the prospective user of a dictionary, such as the age, nationality or the degree of awareness of the language in the dictionary. The first two groups of characteristics are much wider.

48 As Tekorienė & Maskaliūnienė (2004) put it, linguistic characteristics include the following features: 1) The scope of material which depends on the type of dictionary: special or general, abriged or unabriged, etc.; 2) The type of information provided about the headword which includes: • phonetic information, i.e. the transcription of the pronunciation of the word; • orthographic information, which gives variants of its spelling; • semantic information, i.e. listing the meanings of the word. 3) Etymological information shows the origin of the word and approximate date of coinage; 4) The arrangement of items, for example, in the alphabetical order. Semiotic characteristics of dictionaries are typographic techniques of presentation of information on entry-words and comprise: 1) marking of pronunciation; 3) special symbols and abbreviations; 4) typographic style; 5) graphical illustrations. Landau (2004) distinguishes the following principles of defining the word in the dictionary: • to void circularity. No word can be defined by a word the own definition of which depends upon the word it is defining. It is a bad practise to define, for example, ‘beauty’ as the state of being beautiful and ‘beautiful’ as full of beauty. • to define every word used in the definition. The word which is used in definition should be defined itself. This rule is relevant only to scientific and technical dictionaries. • to give priority of essence. The most relevant information comes first, the less relevant – later. Lexicographers must put themselves into the reader’s place and imagine the possible assumptions the reader might make about the definition. • to reflect grammatical functions. The definition should reflect the part-of- speech of the word defined. • to strive for simplicity. The rule is that difficult words should be excluded in definitions of simpler words. However, sometimes it is difficult to follow this as the word may be very simple but the thing it designates may be very complex. In such cases more sophisticatecd words are used because they have more exact meanings than simpler ones. • to avoid ambiguity. If a polysemous word is used in a definition, the rest of the definition must make its particular sense clear. If the word has only one meaning, it does not cause any problems defining it. However, there are plenty of words that have more than one meaning. The question

49 arises how these meanings should be arranged, which are more important and which are less (Jakaitienė, 2005, 2009). Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė (2004) suggest three ways to arrange the meanings of a polysemous word: • the historical order. The meanings are listed according to their historical development. • the frequency of use. The more frequent meanings come first and less frequent go after. • the logical order. Some meanings of the word are closer to each other than other meanings. This system of relations of meanings is usually indicated by numerals or letters in the entries. In lexicography, the common practice is to provide examples of the usage of the word. This illustrative material is basically given for the purpose to clarify the meaning ant to demonstrate typical patterns and collocations. The examples may be taken from various sources. Firstly, they may be drawn from literary sources belonging to the best authors. They may be given in the original length or shortened. Sometimes the author and the title of the very work or some other information of the provided quotation are indicated. Secondly, examples are taken from any written or tape recorded matter, the main reason being the typical usage of the meaning. Finally, the examples may be created by the authors of the dictionary. However, this practice has been criticized a lot. Nowadays, there is no need to make up the examples to illustrate the meaning because corpora have been created and are widely used for this purpose. The examples can only be shortened in order to save space.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1. Phonetic characteristics of entries. The MWD provides pronunciation of the words. There are cases when two variants of pronunciation – British and American English – are given depending on whether the word is differently pronounced. The stress mark is also indicated showing which part should be stressed when pronouncing:

(1) Main Entry: circumstance (2) Main Entry: path /ˈsər-kəm-ˌstan(t)s, -stən(t)s/ /ˈpath, ˈpäth/

In the Lithuanian language letters in a word are pronounced as they are written, so no pronunciation is needed to be given. However, the stressed syllable is always indicated and there are cases when the same word can be stressed differently:

(3) Vérg|as (3), veřg|as (4) (4) Áidas (3), aĩdas (4) (5) Kibìr|as (2), kìbir|as (3b)

50 The declensions of the Lithuanian words are also provided after each word and it might help to stress other cases of the words correctly if the reader is familiar with the rules of declensions.

3.2. Orthographic characteristics of entries. Orthography deals with spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks and punctuation. However, only spelling will be discussed, as the variables chosen for the research are one-word appellative nouns and no other orthographic peculiarities of the languages can be inferred. In the DML no peculiar cases of spelling have been found as in the Lithuanian language words do not have spelling variants. In English, on the contrary, there are cases when two or even more variants of spelling are possible. First of all it is related to two language varieties, i.e. British English and American English:

(6) Main Entry: ax (Am. En.) (7) Main Entry: czar (Am. En.) Variant(s): or axe (Br. En.) Variant(s): also tsar or tzar (Br. En.)

As the MWD is published in the United States, firstly, the American spelling is provided. The spelling of plural of the word is often given if it is formed by irregular patterns:

(8) Main Entry: goose Inflected Form(s): pluralgeese \ˈgēs\

As the examples below demonstrate, the plural forms of some of the words can have two variants of the inflexions.

(9) Main Entry: echo Inflected Form(s): pluralechoes also echos (10) Main Entry: mosquito Inflected Form(s): pluralmosquitoes also mosquitos

3.3. Semantic characteristics of entry words. Semantic information is reflected in the definitions of the entry words and developed by the examples of word usage in the context. In most cases English definitions are broader and explain the word in greater detail. Consider one of the typical examples:

(11a) clay 1 a: an earthy material that is plastic when moist but hard when fired, that is composed mainly of fine particles of hydrous aluminium silicates and other minerals, and that

51 is used for brick, tile, and pottery; specifically : soil composed chiefly of this material having particles less than a specified sizeb: earth, mud 2 a: a substance that resembles clay in plasticity and is used for modelling b: the human body as distinguished from the spirit c: fundamental nature or character 3: clay court – clayey adjective – clayish adjective – claylike adjective (11b) mól|is (1) Gabalinė žemė iš smulkiausių sukibusių dalelių: Žemė prie ~io. Asla plūkta ~iu. ~io puodas. Baltasis, raudonasis, margasis m. M. tyžta, limpa, įdžiūvo. Sviesto kaip ~io (daug). Jis tik ~iui minkyti tetinka (niekam vertas). ~io Motiejus (ištižėlis, liurbis). Ne iš ~io drėbtas (nežioplas). To paties ~io (toks pat).

The first definition in the English dictionary resembles an encyclopaedic definition which explains what the word means by describing the texture, composition and usage of clay. The Lithuanian variant is defined in simpler words, no scientific terms are used and less information is provided as only the composition is described. However, the usage of the word molis is shown in various phraseological units whereas the MWD gives only one collocation (2c). The English dictionary also gives two synonyms (earth, mud) which may be referred to in order to clarify the meaning. Apart from first meaning, some additional meanings are given; firstly, any substance that resembles clay in its texture may be called clay. Secondly, a metaphorical meaning is given which denotes a human body distinguished from the spirit, whereas in the Lithuanian language there is no such parallel between clay and the human body. Also, the derivatives of the word are given in the MWD. As it was mentioned, molis in the Lithuanian language does not possess any metaphorical meanings as a word itself, however, when used in some sayings, it gains different meanings; for example, the English equivalents for molio Motiejus could be goof, muff, golem that in fact do not have anything in common with clay. It should be mentioned that such sayings with molis in the Lithuanian language are usually used in spoken form or in fiction as a stylistic means. Consider the following example:

(12a) floor 1: the level base of a room 2 a: the lower inside surface of a hollow structure (as a cave or bodily part) b: a ground surface 3 a: a structure dividing a building into stories; also: story b: the occupants of such a floor 4: the surface of a structure on which one travels

52 5 a: a main level space (as in a stock exchange or legislative chamber) distinguished from a platform or gallery b: the specially prepared or marked area on which indoor sports events take place c : the members of an assembly d: the right to address an assembly 6: a lower limit : base – floored adjective – from the floor : in field goals as opposed to free throws

(12b) grind|ys, dgs. (4) Lentų ar kitoks klojinys patalpoje: lentų, parketo, linoleumo, marmuro g. Dažytos g. Įdėtos naujos g. Svirno ~užės bildėjo (d.)

As it may be seen, this word in Lithuanian has only one – direct – meaning, whereas in English even six meanings can be found. The DML gives a description of grindys which says that it is a form of planks or other material in a room. Also other collocations are given, naming various building materials, such as parquet, linoleum, marble, etc. To illustrate the usage, an example is taken from the Lithuanian folk song. The English equivalent floor, apart from its primary meaning, which is a base level of a room, has five secondary metaphorical, or indirect, meanings. We see that in English floor may denote any outside or inside surface level while in Lithuanian it denotes only the inside level. The fifth meaning is divided into smaller definitions and it shows other different notions this word may denote. The synonymbase and story is also given as floor may be replaced by them. Consider one more example:

(13a) fashion 1 a: the make or form of something b archaic : kind, sort 2 a: a distinctive or peculiar and often habitual manner or way b : mode of action or operation 3 a: a prevailing custom, usage, or style b (1) : the prevailing style (as in dress) during a particular time (2) : a garment in such a style c : social standing or prominence especially as signalized by dress or conduct – after a fashion : in an approximate or rough way synonyms fashion, style, mode, vogue, fad, rage, craze mean the usage accepted by those who want to be up-to-date. fashion is the most general term and applies to any way of dressing, behaving, writing, or performing that is favored at any one time or place . style often implies a distinctive fashion adopted by people of taste . mode suggests the fashion

53 of the moment among those anxious to appear elegant and sophisticated . vogue stresses the wide acceptance of a fashion . fad suggests caprice in taking up or in dropping a fashion . rage and craze stress intense enthusiasm in adopting a fad . synonyms see in addition method

(13b) Mad|ā (4) 1. buities reikmenų, ypač aprangos, šukuosenos formų vyravimas tam tikru laiku: Reng- iasi pagal paskutinę madą. Senos ~õs drabužiai. Vaikosi ~ õs. Žiūri ~õs. ~ õs žurnalas. Išeiti iš ~õs. | prk.: Meno, kalbos mados. 2. šnek. įpratimas, palinkimas: Turi madą pavalgęs prigulti. … Nė ~õs (visai ne)

Only the most general definition of mada is given in the DML, while the MWD provides not only more meanings of the entry word, but also concentrates on the meanings of the synonyms of the entry showing the difference between these synonyms. The first Lithuanian meaning coincides with the third English meaning which is a prevailing style in a particular time. Comparing these two meanings it may be seen that the DML provides a more detailed definition describing thatmada is a prevailing style of domestic materials, especially that of dress or hairstyles. However, what the DML puts into one sentence, the MWD explains in several sentences. The second meaning in the DML coincides with the second meaning in the MWD. In the MDL it is marked that the word mada denoting a habit is used only in spoken language, whereas there is no such indication in the MWD. Thus, fashion denoting a habit might be used in both, spoken and written English, and the example taken from Shakespeare is given to illustrate that. The following example also shows the tendency of the DML to provide brief definitions and the tendency of the MWD is to provide as much detailed meanings of the word as possible:

(14a) Main Entry: wave 1 a: a moving ridge or swell on the surface of a liquid (as of the sea) b: open water 2 a: a shape or outline having successive curves b: a waviness of the hair c : an undulat- ing line or streak or a pattern formed by such lines 3: something that swells and dies away: as a : a surge of sensation or emotion b: a movement sweeping large numbers in a common direction c: a peak or climax of activity 4: a sweep of hand or arm or of some object held in the hand used as a signal or greet- ing

54 5: a rolling or undulatory movement or one of a series of such movements passing along a surface or through the air 6: a movement like that of an ocean wave: as a: a surging movement of a group b: one of a succession of influxes of people migrating into a region c (1): a moving group of animals of one kind (2) : a sudden rapid increase in a population d: a line of attacking or advancing troops or airplanes e : a display of people in a large crowd (as at a sports event) successively rising, lifting their arms over- head, and quickly sitting so as to form a swell moving through the crowd 7 a: a disturbance or variation that transfers energy progressively from point to point in a medium and that may take the form of an elastic deformation or of a variation of pressure, electric or magnetic intensity, electric potential, or temperature b: one complete cycle of such a disturbance 8: a marked change in temperature : a period of hot or cold weather

(14 b) bang|ā (4) 1. vandens paviršiaus iškyla, volas, vilnis: Jūros, ežero bangos. Aukštos bangos mušė į krantą. Plaukia per ~ās. Bangos ritasi, ūžia, putoja. 2. fiz. virpesys, sklindantis ore, žemėje ar kitokioje aplinkoje: Garso, šviesos b. Elektromagnetinės bangos. Radijo bangos. 3. iškilimas daikto paviršiuje: ~omis sušukuoti plaukai. 4. prk. kurio nors reiškinio pasmarkėjimas: Streikų b. Emigracijos b.

The MWD provides more metaphorical meanings of wave and explains them through the descriptive definitions as well as collocations (3, 6). As it can be noticed, the MDL provides much more examples of the usage of the words either in collocations, phrasehological units or whole sentences, whereas the MWD concentrates more on the developed definitions of meanings. Very often the DML provides a vast number of examples while the MWD only a few ones.

3.4. Etymological characteristics of entries. The etymology of the words lets us find out more about the origin of the word – the approximate date when it was mentioned for the first time and the language it was coined in. Only the MWD gives the etymology of the entry-words. In most cases the century is indicated but there are cases when the approximate or the exact year of the coinage is shown. The major part of the words was marked as coinages till the 12th century. It is no surprise, as the core of the vocabulary was formed till the beginning of the 12th century. The words originated before or in the 12th century mostly defined notions of nature, everyday items, parts of the body, some tools, animals, etc.:

55 (15) lake Etymology: Middle English, from Old English, Anglo-French, & Latin; Old English lacu stream, pool, from Latin lacus lake, pool, pit & Anglo-French lac pit, from Latin lacus; akin to Old English lagu sea, Greek lakkos pond. Date: 12th century

(16) mirror Etymology: Middle English mirour, from Anglo-French mirur, from mirer to look at, from Latin mirari to wonder at Date: 13th century

Some words have only the date of the origin, but the etymology is not provided. The most frequent languages mentioned are Germanic languages – Old English and Old High/Low German if it is a native word. In those cases, when the word is borrowed, there is usually more than one language that word comes from, and the etymology shows the sequence how the word came from one language into another. The first source languages, from which a great number of words came, were the -Ro mance branch – Latin and French, as well as Greek which comes from the Hellenic branch of languages:

(17) Main Entry: oxygen Etymology: French oxygène, from Greek oxys, adjective, acidic, literally, sharp + French -gène -gen; akin to Latin acer sharp – more at edge

(18) Main Entry: sausage Etymology: Middle English sausige, from Anglo-French sauseche, saucis, from Late Latin salsicia, from Latin salsus salted – more at sauce

3.5. Illustrative material in the entries. Considering examples of word usage in context in the MWD two types of illustrative materials are found: 1) collocations (example 19); 2) quotations of scholars or some authoritative or well-known people from various spheres (example 20, 21):

(19) tree <…> 3: something in the form of or resembling a tree: as a: a diagram or graph that branches usually from a simple stem or vertex without forming loops or polygons b: a much-branched system of channels especially in an animal body

56 (20) cement <…> 2: a binding element or agency: as a: a substance to make objects adhere to each other b: something serving to unite firmly (U.S. educator and college president)

(21) jungle <…> 3 <…> b: a place of ruthless struggle for survival (an American economist and engineer)

As seen from the examples, the sayings by famous people are used to illustrate the additional, metaphorical meanings of the words. There was no case when the main meaning was illustrated in such a way. The quotations are partially documented as only the author is indicated, no date or work, or the context where it was used, is given. The sources of examples in the DML are also of two types. These are: 1) short simple collocations used in everyday language; 2) proverbs and sayings taken from the Lithuanian folklore. There were also found some cases when examples were taken from folklore songs. Consider:

(22) grind|ys, ~‹ dgs. (4) lentų ar kitoks klojinys patalpoje: Lentų, parketo, linoleumo, marmuro g. Dažytos g. Įdėtos naujos g. Svirno ~užės bildėjo (d.)

(23) gabal|as (3b) 1. atskira daikto dalis: Mėsos g. Cukraus ~iukas, ~ėlis. Lėkštė sudužo į daug ~ų. Supjaustė sūrį dideliais ~ais. 2. plotas, sklypas; skiautė: Žemės g. Į ~us draskyti. Drobės g.

(24) medis (2) 1. daugiametis augalas su kamienu ir šakų vainiku: Aukštas, išsikerojęs m. Nukirsti, nupjauti, nuleisti, nugenėti ~dį. Voverė tupi ~dyje. Lipk į ~dį. Jaunas m. linksta, senas – lūžta (flk.).Aukštą ~dį visi vėjai lenkia (flk.).

Thus, as far as illustrative material is concerned, both dictionaries provide collocations. Collocations of the typical usage of the word in both dictionaries are not documented, i.e. the source is not indicated. Quotations (sayings) are found only in the MWD, and proverbs are used only in the MLD. The quotations and proverbs (sayings) are documented. However, the difference is that the MWD highly relies on the sayings by famous people both from the past and present, while the DML does not have such practice and refers to the sayings taken from Lithuanian folklore. The tendency was noticed that the DML uses collocations to illustrate the main – direct – meaning of the word, while the MWD does not provide the examples of

57 the usage with the main meaning. Only additional, metaphorical, meanings are illustrated by the examples, i.e. either collocations or quotations. One of the possible explanations could be that the compilers of the MWD considered the direct meaning to be clear enough and concentrated more on the metaphorical meanings which are often difficult to understand without an example illustrating how the meaning of the word changes in a different context.

CONCLUSIONS The analysis of the characteristics of the entries in English and Lithuanian dictionaries demonstrated that: 1. The DML indicates only stress of the word, whereas the MWD provides both stress and pronunciation of the word. 2. The DML does not give spelling variants as this feature is not relevant to Lithuanian orthography. In MWD, on the contrary, there are cases when two or even more variants of spelling are possible. It is related to two language varieties, i.e. British English and American English. 3. The MWD heavily relies on encyclopaedic definitions, whereas in the DML the tendency is seen to avoid this pattern and short descriptive definitions are chosen instead. 4. The DML takes the examples of the usage mainly from folklore or collocations from everyday language, whereas the MWD mostly refers to the quotations of famous people. 5. The DML uses collocations to illustrate the primary meaning of the word, while the MWD does not provide the examples of the usage with the main meaning. 6. Etymology of the words is found only in the MWD.

REFERENCES 1. Jakaitienė, E. 2005. Leksikografija. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. 2. Jakaitienė E. 2009. Leksikologija. ��Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. 3. Landau, S. 2004. Dictionaries: the Art and Craft of Lexicography. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP 4. Lyberis, A. 2009. Leksikografijos teorija ir prakitka. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. 5. Prasad, T. 2008. A Course in Linguistics. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India. 6. Tekorienė, D. & Maskaliūnienė, N. 2004. Lexicography: British and American Dictionaries. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla.

SOURCES 1. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Available at: http://www.merriam-webster.com/

58 2. The Dictionary of Modern Lithuanian. Available at: http://www.lki.lt/dlkz/

Santrauka Žodyno straipsnių lingvistinių charakteristikų gretinimas angliškuose ir lietuviškuose žodynuose Agnė Nakutienė, Linas Selmistraitis

Straipsnio tikslas – sugretinti žodyno straipsnių lingvistines charakteristikas anglų ir lietuvių kalbų žodynuose. Tikslui pasiekti iškelti šie uždaviniai: išanalizuoti žodžio fonetinę, ortografinę, semantinę ir etimologinę informaciją anglų ir lietuvių kalbų žodynuose bei rasti jų panašumus ir skirtumus. Skaitmeninio formato angliškas Merriam-Webster žodynas (MWŽ) ir Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (DLKŽ) pasirinkti analizei. Tyrimui atlikti sukurtas 446 daiktavardinių žodžių straipsnių tekstynas. Darbe remiamasi aprašomuoju ir gretinamuoju tyrimo metodais. Teorinis tyrimo pagrindimas – S. Landau, D. Tekorienės ir N. Maskaliūnienės leksikografiniai tyrimai, aprašantys lingvistinius ir semantinius žodyno straipsnių analizės būdus. Gauti rezultatai rodo, kad DLKŽ nurodomas tik žodžio kirtis, tuo tarpu MWD pateikia kirtį ir tarimą. Žodžių vartosenos pavyzdžiai DLKŽ pateikiami daugiausiai iš folkloro arba šnekamosios kalbos, o MWŽ remiasi įžymių žmonių citatomis. Tik MWŽ randama informacija apie žodžių etimologiją. MWŽ daugiausiai pateikiami enciklopediniai apibrėžimai, tuo tarpu DLKŽ dominuoja trumpi žodžių reikšmių apibrėžimai.

59 Metaphorical and Metonymic Diagnosis

Rūta Sirvydė Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT This research presents findings from a corpus linguistic study analysing the elaboration and relative frequency of anger, fear and sadness metaphors and metonymies encoding health disorders. The aim of the research is to see how languages reflect the real world and to what extent clinical findings support cultural folk medical knowledge. The linguistic data show that various health disorders are encoded in the languages. The expressions with the heart are the most frequent both in English and in Lithuanian. However, Lithuanian uses several times more HEART expressions than English does. The results correlate with the results of the research from different disciplines. The statistics shows that tendency in languages is consistent with the general health situation in cultures. In a way our linguistic expressions may give a hint of what disease a certain emotion may cause. Key words: emotions, anger, fear, sadness, metaphors, metonymies, illness, disease, corpus based

Metaphorical expressions reveal cultural thought about the effects of a particular emotion. Hence, it might be expected that an unpleasant feeling of being angry, afraid or sad is associated with physical suffering in English and Lithuanian. From the corpus perspectives anger, fear and sadness metaphors may shed the light on: 1) what particular illnesses are mapped onto cultural thought of such different linguistic communities – the Lithuanian and the English and 2) whether or how the linguistic data correlate with the clinical findings. The study actually focuses on six basic human emotions: anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness and surprise. The classification of the basic human emotions is based on Darwin’s (1872) discoveries from the biological point of view and supported by Ek- man (2003 and the following works) from the psychological point of view. Not all emotions are associated with illnesses. The data show that only anger, fear and sadness are related to more or less serious health disorders. This research presents findings from a corpus linguistic study (the BNC and Donelaitis) analysing the elaboration and relative frequency of anger, fear and sadness metaphors and metonymies encoding

60 health disorders. All samples name the emotion itself in order to avoid any emotional misinterpretation. Both metaphors and metonymies may encapsulate health disorders. Metaphors usually name the disease and symptoms whereas metonymies include the part of the body which stands for the whole body. The aim of the research is to analyze all linguistic expressions which indicate health disorders and certain parts of the human body related to particular emotions in order to see how languages reflect the real world and to what extent clinical findings support cultural folk medical knowledge. Lakoff (1987), Kövecses (1998, 2007), Yu (2009) describe conceptual metaphors ANGER IS INSANITY. Lithuanian shares this metaphor, too: 1) He was mad with anger and jealousy, so he locked her in the tower, with only a spinning-wheel for company. 2) Įsižeidžiau, beveik paklaikau iš piktumo. ‘I was offended, nearly went mad from/out of [=with] anger.’ The expressions above are highly conventional in the languages. We often see strange irrational behaviour of others and feel that we lose our reason while being angry as well. However, other health disorders are also encoded in the languages both metaphorically and metonymically: English 3) At last, in a fit of anger, he gave John permission to invade the duchy and try to take it by force. 4) It made me sick with anger. 5) She was almost speechless with anger now. 6) Picking up the glass, she began to polish it slowly and carefully, breathing deeply until her anger was gone. Lithuanian 7) Statistikai pastebėjo, kad 45 proc. pykčio priepuolių yra sukelti pavydo, 16 – nepasitenkinimo žmonos atliekamu darbu namuose, 17 – dėl ekonominės situacijos namuose. ‘Statisticians have noticed that 45 percent of anger fits are caused by jealousy, 16 – by dissatisfaction of the wife’s housework, 17 – by the economical situation at home.’ 8) Berta net atsisėdo ir kone dusdama iš pykčio drėbtelėjo riebų keiksmą. ‘Berta even sat down and nearly choking from/out of [=with] anger [she] spattered [=blurted out] a greasy [=strong] swear word.’ 9) Užsičiaupk, niekše! ‑ vos nealpdamas iš pykčio, suspiegė Anojas. ‘ “Shut up, bastard!” nearly fainting from/out of [=with] anger Anojas squealed.’ 10) Įsižeidžiau, beveik paklaikau iš piktumo. ‘I was offended, nearlywent mad from/out of [=with] anger.’ 11) Kitiems – iš pykčio – spazmos. ‘Others ‑ have throes ‑ of anger.’

61 12) Apsėsta aklo pykčio Vika jau išliejo tulžį ant Nanio. ‘Oversat [=obsessed with] by blind anger Vika has poured out her bile on Nanis.’ The corpus examples above show that language users associate anger withinsanity, fits, blindness, sickness, chokes. Other health disorders vary: English uses bitter taste (in Lithuanian it is used to describe disappointment), being speechless (in Lithuanian this state is used to express surprise). In contrast, Lithuanian uses pouring one’s bile, sometimes faints or even blains. Metonymies supplement the list by including a particular part of the body which might be affected by anger. Both external and internal body parts are included in the expressions with the lexeme anger. The inner parts of the body usually cause some health disorder. Some of them might be grouped as they belong to the same system, e.g., heart and blood. The Lithuanian wordužantis is used for the place between the chest and under one’s arm, when people carry things pressed under their arm close to the chest. The closest English words are bosom and armpit though none of them can be seen as the equivalent for the Lithuanian word. The bosom or armpit also indicates the location of anger close to the heart and therefore, these expressions might be grouped together with the heart and blood in Lithuanian. The data (in Fig.1) show that though languages vary in frequency of different body parts, both languages tend to relate anger mainly to the heart:

English Lithuanian

80 60 40 20 0 Heart Brain Lungs Stomach Soul

Figure 1: Frequency of occurrence of inner body parts in anger metonymies in English Figure 1: Frequency of occurrenceand ofLithuanian inner body parts in anger metonymies in English and Lithuanian

Does the linguistic data correlate with the psychological findings? DifferentDoes the linguistic authors dataand correlate psychological with the repsychologicalferences relate findings? anger to the cardiovascular system: Different authors and psychological references relate anger to the cardiovascular system:“It has been observed with considerable consistency that the suppression of anger is related to high blood pressure,“It has both been systolic observed and with diastolic, considerable in consistency men and women that the suppres of diverse- ethnic origin. […] persons who frequentlysion of anger harbor is related contempt, to high without blood pressure, ever expressing both systolic th andeir diastolic, feelings of anger, develop excessive blood pressure,in men thereby and women placing of diverse themselves ethnic origin at risk. […] of persons cardiovascular who frequently complications.” (Encyclopedia of Mental Health,harbor1998, contempt, 110) without ever expressing their feelings of anger, develop

Izard also detected a pulse rate increase of 40-60 movements a minute while being angry. He insists that a high increase of blood pressure is the main indicator of anger even if it is suppressed (ɂɡɚɪɞ62 , 2000). Encyclopedia of Mental Health (1998, 110) describes the type of people who tend to get angry more often because of hypertension:

“Hypertensives, who have been characterized as hot-headed, rash, daring, impatient, tense, emotional, and often angry, respond to provocations more readily, more frequently, and more intensely than do normotensives. Therefore, hypertensives have occasion to experience, remember, and ultimately report a greater number of anger experiences.”

In psychological literature such type of people is often called Type A persons. Navaco supplements the description above: “Hostile Type A persons, who vigilantly monitor their social environment because of their distrust of others, excrete larger amounts of the hormone testosterone than do Type B persons. Excessive testosterone levels facilitate atherosclerosis. A proneness for coronary disease has thus also been proclaimed for hostile, cynical persons, especially men” (Navaco, 2000, 170- 174).

There have been also reports on anger effects on stomach, immune system which is responsible for many illnesses from such common as colds up to cancer. Nevertheless, it seems that the cardiovascular systems and anger affect each other: hypertensives experience anger more often and vice versa: those who express or suppress anger have blood pressure increase. In other words linguistic data is both consistent with psychological and physiological findings.

49 excessive blood pressure, thereby placing themselves at risk of cardiovascular complications.” (Encyclopedia of Mental Health, 1998, 110) Izard also detected a pulse rate increase of 40-60 movements a minute while being angry. He insists that a high increase of blood pressure is the main indicator of anger even if it is suppressed (Изард, 2000). Encyclopedia of Mental Health (1998, 110) describes the type of people who tend to get angry more often because of hypertension: “Hypertensives, who have been characterized as hot-headed, rash, daring, impatient, tense, emotional, and often angry, respond to provocations more readily, more frequently, and more intensely than do normotensives. Therefore, hypertensives have occasion to experience, remember, and ultimately report a greater number of anger experiences.” In psychological literature such type of people is often called Type A persons. Navaco supplements the description above: “Hostile Type A persons, who vigilantly monitor their social environment because of their distrust of others, excrete larger amounts of the hormone testosterone than do Type B persons. Excessive testosterone levels facilitate atherosclerosis. A proneness for coronary disease has thus also been proclaimed for hostile, cynical persons, especially men” (Navaco, 2000, 170- 174). There have been also reports on anger effects on stomach, immune system which is responsible for many illnesses from such common as colds up to cancer. Nevertheless, it seems that the cardiovascular systems and anger affect each other: hypertensives experience anger more often and vice versa: those who express or suppress anger have blood pressure increase. In other words linguistic data is both consistent with psychological and physiological findings.

Fear Expressions of other emotions include various parts of the body with the heart being the most frequent. The corpus data present a great number of lexical items which attribute fear, and which are of medical origin, for example, neurotic, chronic, infected, epidemic, recover etc. In English fear causes people to experience a shock, faint, shortage of air that is expressed by breathless, also throes, and nightmare. Some psychologists confirm that “autonomic arousal of fear results freezing” (McNally, 2000, 342), which is verbally reported by being paralysed as in (14; 18). However, the frequency in usage does not single any definite physical experience out of others and does not indicate a prototypical disease for the English. English 13) Cathy could not refuse the boy, who seemed almost mad with fear. 14) He was paralysed by fear of the progress. 15) Fear infected Americans with a mass hysteria which had not been seen since the Great Crash.

63 2000, 342), which is verbally reported by being paralysed as in (14; 18). However, the frequency in usage does not single any definite physical experience out of others and does not indicate a prototypical disease for the English. English 16) Another epidemic of fear which McCarthy triggered off was book-burn- 13) Cathy coulding not. refuse the boy, who seemed almost mad with fear. 14) He was17) paralysed When Iby arrived, fear of she the urged progress. me inside and closed the door, and I could see 15) Fear infectedthat Americans she was breathless with a mass with hysteriafear. which had not been seen since the Great Crash. 16) Another epidemic of fear which McCarthy triggered off was book-burning. 17) When I arrived, she urged me inside and closed the door, and I could see that she was breathless with Lithuanian shares the same metaphor FEAR IS ILLNESS with English. However, fear. in contrast to English, Lithuanian tends to comprehend this emotion mainly as INSANITY, DEATH and EMPTYING ONE’S BOWELS (diarrhoea). INSANITY is Lithuanian shares the same metaphor FEAR IS ILLNESS with English. However, in contrast to one of the most frequent patterns in the corpus data: aptemdyti protą ‘to darken one’s English, Lithuanianmind’, apkvaisti tends ‘get tocrazy’, comprehend išeiti iš proto this ‘to go emotion out of one’s mainly mind’, as pakvaišti INSANITY, ‘become DEATH and EMPTYING ONE’S BOWELSstupid’, ( diarrhoea).and paklaikti INSANITY ‘to get mad’ .is one of the most frequent patterns in the corpus data: aptemdyti protą ‘to darkenLithuanian one’s mind’, apkvaisti ‘get crazy’, išeiti iš proto ‘to go out of one’s mind’, pakvaišti ‘become stupid’,18) andKrepšininkai paklaikti jau ‘to nebėra get mad’. vaikėzai, kuriuos gali paralyžiuoti svetimos aikštės Lithuanian baimė ar joje “numirti” pasirengę varžovai. 18) Krepšininkai ‘The jau basketball nebơra vaik playersơzai, are kuriuos no longer gali cubsparalyžiuoti whocan be paralized svetimos by aikšt fearơ ofs baima ơ ar joje "numirti" pasirengĊ varžovai.strange court or the opponents ready “to die” in it.’ ‘The basketball19) Bene visai players protą are pametėt no longer iš baimės cubs? who can be paralized by fear of a strange court or the opponents ready‘Have “to you die” absolutely in it.’ lost your mind from/out of [=with] fear?’ 19) Bene visai20) protVos ąnenumiriau pametơt iš išbaim baimėsơs?. ‘Have you absolutely lost your mind from/out of [=with] fear?’ ‘I nearly died out of fear’ 20) Vos nenumiriau iš baimơs. 21) Šis negali vienas pats nulipt, tai iš baimės pritriedė kelnes. ‘I nearly died out of fear’ ‘This one cannot get off on his own, so he shit [in a watery way] his pants 21) Šis negali vienas pats nulipt, tai iš baimơs pritriedơ kelnes. from/out of [=with] fear.’ ‘This one cannot get off on his own, so he shit [in a watery way] his pants from/out of [=with] fear.’ 22) Nuo toki22)ǐ kalb �uoǐ tokiųIgnui kalbų ơjo šiurpas Ignui ėjo per šiurpas nugar perą - nugarąnorơjo ‑pritarti, norėjo pritarti,bet... bijojo. bet... bijojo. ‘A shudder passed‘A shudder through passed Ignas’ through back Ignas’ at suchback attalks such – talks he wanted – he wanted to agree, to agree, but ...but he was afraid.’ ... he was afraid.’

English Lithuanian

25 20 15 10 5 0 Soul Back Head Heart Stomach . Abdomen Figure 2: FrequencyFigure 2: Frequency of occurrence of occurrence of inner of inner body body parts parts in in fearfear metonymies metonymies in Englishin English and Lithuanian. and Lithuanian. Figure 2 shows that in spite of irrational behaviour in fear, the heart problems seem to play the most important role in both languages. Lithuanian puts also emphasis on the intestine which is expressed 64in a folk way as in (21) and on the back (22), which is a folk way to express such parts as the kidneys.

Sadness 50 Figure 2 shows that in spite of irrational behaviour in fear, the heart problems seem to play the most important role in both languages. Lithuanian puts also emphasis on the intestine which is expressed in a folk way as in (21) and on the back (22), which is a folk way to express such parts as the kidneys.

Sadness Many psychological and physiological researchers have focused their search for emotion-specific patterning on the autonomic nervous system. Unfortunately, research was characterized by a lack of consistency. However, from the linguistic point of view, there is no doubt about the emotion-specific patterning, at least in the case of sadness. When a person appraises a negative situation as being beyond his or her capacity to change and views the self as helpless, the situation is associated with an ill state. Hence, people describe their reaction in physical terms. In English the emotion is presented as physical suffering of different kind, depending on the intensity of the emotion. The English associate sadness with either generalsuffering or a sudden pain: twinge, fits, and hurting. When the response to the emotional arousal is less intensive and long lasting, the English may associate sadness with aching. In Lithuanian the SADNESS IS ILLNESS metaphor is expressed in two ways: SAD- NESS IS A PHYSICAL ANNOYANCE and SADNESS IS A MORTAL DISEASE. The emotion of sadness is described as nepagydomas ‘incurable’ and beviltiškas ‘hopeless’. It seems that in the Lithuanian medical folk knowledge sadness represents a serious medical condition, which might be cured when it is still at a minor stage. However a more severe case is dangerous for our life and may cause a person to die. English 23) Yet, for all the sadness she was suffering now, Shannon couldn’t find it within herself to wish it had all never happened. 24) Again she felt that twinge of sadness. 25) Suddenly he looked remote, and there was an aching sadness about him. 26) It was the crying of a person who was hurt by some deep sadness.

Lithuanian 27) Jo liūdesys buvo nepagydomas ir beviltiškas. ‘His sadness was incurable and hopless.’ 28) Kaip manai, ar nenumirs ji ir jos dukrelė iš liūdesio - numirs ar nenumirs? ‘What do you think, won’t she and her daughter die of sadness – won’t they die, won’t they die?’ 29) Tačiau dabar liūdesys drasko širdį. ‘But now sadness is clawing the heart.’ 30) Angelės širdį suspaudžia toks liūdesys, [...] kad mergina manė tuoj tuoj pravirksianti.

65 ‘Angel’s heart is squeezed by such sadness [...] that the girl thought she would soon cry.’

In Lithuanian the SADNESS IS illness metaphor in many cases has also metonymic relations and a relationship between other metaphorical expressions. For example, figurative expressions as in (29-30) refer to physical suffering and contain a part of the body – the heart. Hence, the linguistic labelling may be regarded both as metaphorical where the underlying meaning of suffering and pain (the SADNESS IS illness metaphor) and metonymic where the part of the body, namely the heart, is involved (the PAIN IN THE HEART FOR SADNESS metonymy). Moreover, they overlap other metaphors as well. For example, in (30) the origin of the pain is caused by a burden (sadness). A heavy burden presses the heart and causes pain. In Lithua- nian it is expressed by širdį spaudžia liūdesys ‘the heart is being pressed by sadness’ (30). In a more severe case sadness can draskyti širdį ‘claw the heart’ as in (29). This metaphorical expression may underlie the SADNESS IS A LIVING BEING conceptual metaphor because of having a part of the body – the claws. Fuzzy boundaries between different conceptual metaphors and metonymies suggest that our conceptual system is a complex structure that involves different aspects from different human experiences. These experiences are expressed by figurative expressions that also cover various aspects of different physical things in the world. Hence, in order to draw the whole picture we need to take into account different parts of it and see the links or ways in which these parts are joined.

English Lithuanian

10 0 Heart Soul

Figure 3: Frequency of occurrence of inner body parts in sadness metonymies in English Figure 3: Frequencyand Lithuanian. of occurrence of inner body parts in sadness metonymies in English and Lithuanian. Friedman and Booth-Kewley (1987) found strong associations between coronary heart disease (CHD)Friedman and depression and Booth-Kewleyand between CHD (1987) and anxiety, found anger, strong hostility, associations between coronary heart disease and aggression(CHD). Brian and Esterling depression and his and colleagues between (1994) CHD found and thatanxiety, when anger,people hostility, and aggression. Brian Esterling share their emotionsand his colleagueswith others, their(1994) immune found and that cardiovascular when people systems share func their- emotions with others, their immune and tion more effectively,cardiovascular they have systems fewer visits function to the doctor, more and effectively, they perform th eybetter have at fewer visits to the doctor, and they school and workperform. better at school and work. Do clinical findings support the linguistic data and cultural folk medical knowledge? Both languages and clinical findings show a weak evidence of relationship between sadness and 66 various illnesses. However, there are strong associations and evidence of relation between sadness and the heart disease. It is especially obvious in Lithuanian where unpleasant and painful feeling caused by sadness is metonymically related to the heart in numerous conventional expressions (Fig.3). In English those links between the heart disease and sadness are less obvious and are more distant. In contrast to Lithuanian, English implies the heart by expressions: fits, twinge, hurting, a piercing feeling, without naming the heart itself. In Lithuanian the relationship between the heart and sadness is direct - the heart is present and forms a conventional pattern in the language. Hence, it might be suggested that at least in the case of sadness languages could make a diagnosis.

Table 1: Frequency of occurrence of the heart in anger, fear and sadness expressions.

Anger Fear Sadness English 11 10 11 Lithuanian 80 18 32

Table 1 summarizes frequency of the heart expressions of all three emotions and shows that Lithuanian uses from two up to eight times more expressions with the heart than English does. If the linguistic data are consistent with the physiological ones why the frequency of occurrences of some organs, mainly the heart, is so different? If languages reflect the real world the linguistic data must be supported by the health situation. According to Eurostat statistics of 2007 and 2008, the death rate due to ischaemic heart diseases (standardised death rate by 100 000 inhabitants calculated on the basis of a standard European population defined by the World Health Organization) in the UK is 93.0 (2007), whereas in Lithuania it is 321.3 (2008). That means that more than 65% of females and a similar number of males die of circulatory reasons in Lithuania and it is the highest rate in Europe (Lithuanian Health Information Centre, 2009, 11). It might be the answer why linguistic expressions with the heart are so frequent in Lithuanian. It suggests that languages reflect both cultural worldviews and some aspects of the real world as well. 52 Do clinical findings support the linguistic data and cultural folk medical knowledge? Both languages and clinical findings show a weak evidence of relationship between sadness and various illnesses. However, there are strong associations and evidence of relation between sadness and the heart disease. It is especially obvious in Lithuanian where unpleasant and painful feeling caused by sadness is metonymically related to the heart in numerous conventional expressions (Fig.3). In English those links between the heart disease and sadness are less obvious and are more distant. In contrast to Lithuanian, English implies the heart by expressions: fits, twinge, hurting, a piercing feeling, without naming the heart itself. In Lithuanian the relationship between the heart and sadness is direct ‑ the heart is present and forms a conventional pattern in the language. Hence, it might be suggested that at least in the case of sadness languages could make a diagnosis.

Table 1: Frequency of occurrence of the heart in anger, fear and sadness expressions. Anger Fear Sadness English 11 10 11 Lithuanian 80 18 32

CONCLUSIONS On closer analysis and on the basis of numerous clinical findings, it can be claimed that the linguistic data correlate with the results of the clinical research from different disciplines. The tendency in languages in most cases is consistent with the general health situation in cultures. However, we should have in mind that only folk knowledge is encoded in languages. Nevertheless, our linguistic expressions may give a hint of what disease a certain emotion may cause.

67 References 1. Darwin, Ch. R. [1872] 1965. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2. Ekman, P. 2003; 2004. Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to Improve Communication and Emotional Life. New York: An Owl Book, Henry Holt and Company. 3. Encyclopedia of Mental Health. 1998. (Ed.) Friedman, H. San Diego/London/ Boston/ New York/Sydney/Tokyo/Toronto: Academic Press, Vol.1, P. 108–110. 4. Eurostat. Available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/. 5. Friedman, H. S., and Booth-Kewley, S. 1987. The ‘Disease-prone Personality’: A Meta-Analytic View of the Construct. American Psychologist 42: P. 598‑555. 6. Kövecses, Z. 1998. Are there any emotion-specific metaphors. In Angeliki Athanasiadou, Elzbieta Tabakowska (eds.), Speaking of Emotions: Conceptualisation and Expression. Cognitive Linguistic Research 10. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 7. Kövecses, Z. 2007. Metaphor in Culture. Universality and Variation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8. Lakoff, G. 1987. Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 9. Lithuanian Health Information Centre 2010. Health Statistics of Lithuania in 2009, P. 11. Available at: http://www.lsic.lt/ 10 �ovaco, R. W. 2000. Anger. In Alan E. Kazdin (ed.), Encyclopaedija of Psychyology: Vol. 1, P. 171–174. American Psychological Association. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11. McNally, R. J. 2000. Fear and Terror. In: (Editor in Chief) Alan E. Kazdin. Encyclopedia of Psychology, Vol. 3: P. 341–343. American Psychological Association, Oxford University Press. 12. Yu, N. 2009. From Body to Meaning in Cultute. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 13. Изард, К. E. 2000. Психологии эмоций [The Рsychology of Emotion]. Санкт- Петербург: Питер

Sources 1. Donelaitis [the Lithuanian online corpus]. Available at: http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/ 2. BNCweb (CQP-Edition). Aavailable at: http://bncweb.lancs.ac.uk

68 SANTRAUKA Metaforinė ir metoniminė diagnozė Rūta Sirvydė

Siekiant atskleisti pasaulio verbalizacijos aspektus, tyrimas remiasi konceptualiųjų metaforų ir metonimijų analize lietuvių ir anglų kalbose. Metaforose ir metonimijose užfiksuotas pasaulis leidžia atskleisti fizines negalias, kurios lietuvių ir anglų kalbose siejamos su pykčiu, baime ir liūdesiu. Tyrimo tikslas nustatyti: 1) kokios konkrečios sveikatos problemos ir kūno dalys siejamos su pagrindinėmis emocijomis anglų ir lietuvių kalbose; 2) kiek patikimi yra lingvistiniai posakiai medicininiu požiūriu. Tekstynais pagrįsta analizė rodo, kad pyktis, baimė ir liūdesys kalbose siejami su įvairiomis fizinėmis negaliomis ir įvairiomis kūno dalimis. Posakiai su širdimi yra daž- niausiai vartojami abiejose kalbose, tačiau lietuvių kalboje jie net kelis kartus dažnesni nei anglų kalboje. Psichologiniai, medicininiai ir statistiniai duomenys patvirtina, kad lingvistinės tendencijos atspindi realią situaciją ir sveikatos tendencijas tautose.

69 On Some Common Problems of English Article Usage

Andrew Tollet, Jurgita Trapnauskienė University of West Bohemia, 3 Jungmannova St., 306 19 Pilsen, Czech Republic, [email protected] Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., LT-08106 Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected];

ABSTRACT This paper presents the interim results of a comparative study into errors made by Czech and Lithuanian undergraduate students in their use of English articles. Our aim is to identify situations in which choosing the most appropriate article appears to cause significant problems to students of both nationalities. Initial findings indicate common patterns emerging, with the highest number of errors occurring in fixed phrases where the article use is not recoverable from the context. Other high percentage errors may be attributed to an over-generalisation of the “first mention rule”, misinterpretation of the inner cohesion of a text or influence of the mother tongue in the treatment of uncountable nouns. Key-words: English article, usage, errors, Czech and Lithuania undergraduate students.

INTRODUCTION It is generally acknowledged in the literature that the English article system is a common source of error amongst EFL students, the problems tending to be greater for those whose native language does not have articles: for some general comments on this see, for example, Odlin (1994), Johnson (2001), Swan (2003) and Han et al (2006). More specific treatments covering individual target groups of particular L1 speakers include Chinese (Robertson, 2000), Finnish and Swedish (Jarvis, 2002), Estonian (Torn & Kährik, 2004), Japanese and Spanish (Snape, 2005) and Serbian (Trenkic, 2007). This paper offers the preliminary results of a comparative analysis into the difficulties Czech and Lithuanian students experience in their use of English articles. Both Czech and Lithuanian are Indo-European languages, Czech belonging to the Western Slavic and Lithuanian to the Baltic group. As neither language uses grammatical articles, the status of a noun as definite or indefinite is either inferred or expressed by other means, which we shall describe in brief below. In Czech the category of [in]definiteness “usually follows from the context or situation – and it can also be expressed by word order” (Tahal, 2010). The follow-

70 ing examples from Dušková (1994, 62) will illustrate the point about word order: A lighthouse was flashing in the distance. V dálce blikal maják and The lighthouse was flashing at a distance. Májak blikal v dálce. Indefiniteness may also be expressed by the numeral jeden (= one) or nějaký (some). There are some subtle differences between Ø, jeden and nějaký but space limitation precludes us from discussing these here. A comprehensive analysis of indefiniteness in Czech is offered by Perissutti (2003). As regards definiteness in Czech, the demonstrative pronounten , whose primary meaning is that, is particularly common in the spoken language as a discourse marker and often translates as the definite article in English (Mathesius 1926). Peprník (1984, 321) does in fact state that the English the is “a weak form of the demonstrative pronoun ‘ten’” (oslabené ukazovací zájmeno „ten“). Havránek and Jedlíček (1960) note that ten sometimes merely refers to something which has already been or is about to be mentioned; at the same time, in colloquial language, it may express some element of feeling on the part of the speaker. As Adamec (1980) notes, ten can also be used with proper names as in Do toho Brno jsme nakonec nejeli where toho (an inflected form of ten) refers not so much to Brno itself but rather the fact there was an original intention to go there, which may even relate back to a previous conversation. Tahal (1977) refers to this as “a kind of anaphoric reference to a whole statement” (jakési anaforické určení celé výpovědi). In Standard English the Czech determiner in this case would remain untranslated – In the end we didn’t go to [Ø] Brno. In Lithuanian pronominal adjectives (įvardžiuotiniai) and demonstrative pronouns are usually related to the idea of definiteness. In the contemporary grammar of the Lithuanian language the notion of definiteness is mentioned in the chapter on the adjective, where they are said to possess “the category of degree and definiteness” as in Didysis karas, Didžioji gatvė (Ambrazas et al, 2005, 174). Phrases with demonstrative pronouns are also considered to be definite. Demonstrative pronouns (šis, anas, šitas, šitai, tas) and possessive pronouns (savas, manas, tavas) have the capacity to identify. Tekorienė notes that the meaning of Lithuanian tas, ta is close to the meaning of the definite article in English:This is the house where I was born. Štai (tas) namas, kuriame aš gimiau (Tekorienė, 2008, 18). According to Rosinas (1996, 114 and 118), the function of the indefinite article in Lithuanian is rendered with the help of pronouns with existential meaning (vienas, kažkoks, kažin koks) and the demonstrative pronoun (toks). The category of [in]definiteness in Lithuanian is also closely connected with the word order in the sentence and the choice of grammatical case (Išgėriau arbatos/ arbatą). The noun in the theme of the sentence is usually definite while the noun of the rheme is mostly interpreted as indefinite (Mikulskas, 2006, 25-27) as in Į kambarį įėjo (kažkokia) mergaitė. A girl came into the room and Mergaitė įėjo į kambarį. The girl came into the room. The general impression of the authors of this paper, based on several years of correcting students’ written work, is that both Czech and Lithuanian students have problems with the English grammatical articles, often omitting them in situations where the context requires their inclusion. This phenomenon is noted by Dušková

71 (1969) who offers nine categories of error made by 50 Czech postgraduate students in a series of short writing tasks; use of articles tops the list with a total of 260 inaccuracies, 152 of which are the error of omission. Following Ko et al (2006), citing Ionin (2003) and Ionin et al (2004) that “[i]t is important to note that L2-learners’ errors in article choice are not random”, we shall be looking for common patterns of article errors in the written production of English by Czech and Lithuanian students and seeking to identify possible reasons for these errors. During the course of the research we aim to test our intuitions by gathering data from gap-filling, translation tasks, plus various types of written work such as summa- ries, essays and language projects. This paper presents the results from the preliminary stage of this research, involving a gap-filling exercise, which is described below.

1. METHOD As the first stage of the research, a gap-filling exercise was conducted amongst first- and second-year students majoring in English at the University of West Bohemia, Czech Republic and Vilnius Pedagogical University, Lithuania. The data-gathering was conducted anonymously. In all 90 responses were obtained from native Czech speakers (37 first-year and 53 second-year students) and 80 from Lithuanians (37 first-year and 43 second-year students). Students were given 20 minutes during a practical language lesson to complete article-gaps in a message to fans posted on the official website of pop-singer and fashion model Victoria Beckham (VB). The text was chosen as an example of a contemporary text written in informal English and containing what we considered a reasonable spread of article usage: the original contained four indefinite articles, seven definite and nine instances of zero article. Given VB’s high media profile with regular reports concerning her activities and lifestyle in both the Czech and Lithuanian media, it was assumed students would be familiar with some of the basic details of her family life – which would be necessary for correct completion of, for example, item (6) in the gap-filling test. The text, showing the items to be filled in and the answers as they appeared in the original, is given below. Students were specifically requested in a written preamble preceding the VB text to use the Ø symbol to indicate “zero article” and not leave any of the gaps blank.

Monday, 13 August 2007 It’s all go! Hi everybody, Hope you are all well! Well, we have finally unpacked our boxes and I am loving our new house – it is totally major! Just adding some of (1) the finishing touches to it actually, and then it really will feel like (2) Ø home. On (3) Ø top of that (4) the weather here has been amazing too so we are all (5) a happy bunch. (6) The boys are really looking forward to starting

72 their new school so we’ve got to make sure they are all kitted out with (7) Ø new schoolbags and pencil cases – you remember what it’s like going back to (8) Ø school, you’ve got to have (9) a new EVERYTHING! David and myself were on (10) Ø view in Bel Air (very swish) (11) Ø last week for (12) the launch of our latest fragrance Intimately Beckham. We met lots of (13) Ø people there and I thought it went really well. I have also been busy having (14) a good look around (15) Ø LA, checking out (16) the restaurants and (17) the beauty parlours – well, you never know when you might need (18) a facial! I’m also just starting (19) Ø work on my new dVb denim collection – I’m really excited about starting (20) the next project: it’s going to be totally major, so keep your eyes open for that. Catch up with you all again very soon. Love Victoria x

Initially, alternative answers to the items in VB’s original were accepted in three instances, namely {2), and the (16)–(17) pairing “... checking out the restaurants and the beauty parlours.” In item number 2, feel like home (i.e. Ø) seems the most natural response; however, bearing in mind such examples as “A house that’s not a home” (title of a 1960s Dionne Warwick song) or “How to make your house feel like a home” (2010 internet advertisement), “a home” can hardly be considered wrong, especially given the mention of “house” in the preceding sentence: VB is clearly making a similar ‘house-home’ contrast here. As regards (16) and (17) we consider (16) Ø – (17) Ø correct here; likewise (16) the – (17) Ø is quite feasible and although (16) Ø – (17) the (chosen by one Czech and one Lithuanian respondent) appears somewhat eccentric on paper, it is still grammatically acceptable. Later, following consultation with eight native English speakers involved in ELT (three Brits and five Americans), we also decided to accept Ø as a correct response to (9). Our original intuitions in refusing this option were based on various examples taken from the internet: (a) Gosh, I still can’t believe that it’s a New Year, a new decade, a new everything. (b) As an international student from India, his flight to Pittsburgh marked his first trip to the United States. He was somewhat intimidated, “It was a new country, a new university, a new life, a new everything.” (c) Everyone wants a little something in their life whether it be a new car, a new home or simply a new everything! In fact, there was disagreement amongst the native-speakers we consulted; ultimately, though, we were persuaded that, in the internet examples above, all the items preceding everything in the list go with an indefinite article, so “a new everything”

73 is a natural continuation for a balanced sentence; in Victoria Beckham’s list, however, the two preceding items are plural so no such balance is necessary. In any case, classing “Ø new everything” as an error would be too prescriptive, the more so since counter-examples can easily be found, such as the following two taken from the internet in 2010: “After last nights (sic) game they [the Miami Dolphins] need new everything!” or “[A]ll I can think about is shopping. Clearly, I need new everything” (italics in original). The effect of accepting alternative answers was to move (9) from third position on both lists (61 Czech and 51 Lithuanian respondents) to the lower end of the scale with a less than 10% error-rate.

2. RESULTS When analysing the results, it was discovered that there were no major differences in patterning between the first- and second-year students, so the results below show the combined totals. Three categories were drawn up: the highest range of error being over 50%, medium range 50%–25% and low range below 25%. For easier reading percentages are expressed to the nearest whole number.

Table 1: Errors expressed as a percentage and in actual numbers 90 Czech Ss 80 Lithuanian Ss # incorrect # incorrect over 50% wrong* 10. 96% 86 10. 86% 69 3. 81% 73 3. 85% 68 12. 60% 54 4. 57% 46 19. 54% 49 50% – 25% wrong 7. 43% 39 12. 46% 37 4. 38% 35 11. 42% 34 5. 38% 34 19. 34% 31 20. 33% 30 15. 31% 25 6. 31% 28 6. 27% 24 1. 27% 24 18. 26% 22 1. 25% 21 5. 25% 21 less than 25% wrong 

74  90 Czech Ss 80 Lithuanian Ss # incorrect # incorrect 11. 23% 21 7. 22% 18 8. 21% 19 20. 17% 14 15. 19% 17 8. 16% 13 18. 17% 15 14. 9% 9 17. 10% 9 9. 8% 8 14. 9% 8 16. 2% 2 2. 7% 6 17. 2% 2 9. 7% 6 2. 0% 0 16. 7% 6 13. 0% 0 13. 1% 1 * No response counted as incorrect.

Table 2: Breakdown of errors Czech respondents Lithuanian respondents total: 90 students total: 80 students 1. 3 x a; 19 x Ø; 2 NR 1 x a; 19 x Ø; 1 NR 2. 6 x the; 1 x ‘at’ [1a] [1b] 3. 2 x a; 70 x the; 1 NR 2 x a; 65 x the; 1 NR 4. 2 x a; 32 x Ø; 1 NR 45 x Ø, 1 NR 5. 5 x the; 29 x Ø [2] 5 x the; 16 x Ø 6. 27 x Ø; 1 NR 23 x Ø; 1 NR 7. 19 x a; 20 x the 6 x a; 11 x the; 1 NR 8. 2 x a; 17 x the 3 x a; 9 x the; 1 NR 9. 5 x the; 1 NR [3a] 8 x the [3b] 10. 60 x a ; 25 x the; 1 NR 43 x a; 25 x the; 1 NR 11. 1 x a; 19 x the; 1 NR 34 x the 12. 43 x a; 8 x Ø; 3 NR 19 x a; 17 x Ø; 1 NR 13. 1 x the – 14. 2 x the; 6 x Ø 9 x Ø 15. 16 x the; 1 NR 23 x the; 2 NR 16. 6 x a 2 x a 17. 9 x a 2 x a 18. 9 x the; 4 x Ø; 2 NR 5 x the; 16 x Ø; 1 NR 19. 24 x a; 22 x the; 1 x ‘to’; 2 x NR 18 x a; 12 x the; 1 NR 20. 14 x a; 16 x Ø 8 x a; 6 x Ø NOTES NR – No response [1a] 18 x a accepted; [1b] 12 x a accepted [2] 1 x an accepted [3a] 61 x Ø accepted; [3b] 51 x Ø accepted

75 It will be observed that the top two errors, (10) and (3), are identical on both lists and, to reiterate a point made above, had we followed our original judgment and not accepted Ø as a correct response to (9), this would have been third on both lists. Out of the subsequent four items at the top of the table, three appear on both lists, namely (in numerical order) (4), (12) and (19). At the opposite end of the table there appear the same six items with errors made by 10% or fewer students: listed in numerical order from the text, these are (2), (9), (13), (14), (16) and (17).

3. DISCUSSION For reasons of space, the discussion here will be restricted to those items co-occurring in the top two categories of error. Given our hypothesis that the most common errors would be those of omission, it may seem paradoxical that the identical top two items in both groups – and by a sizeable margin – are instances of students adding articles where the correct option is zero. One thing both items have in common is that they fall into the “fixed expressions or frames” category identified by Payne & Huddleston (2006: 409) (hereinafter CGEL). These set adverbial phrases would appear to be a potential source of error since the expression needs to be known in advance and is not recoverable from the context. In (10) on view is an “indication of status” (CGEL), analogous to the at school, at work construction; other examples, likewise lacking an article, with a similar meaning to on view would be on display, on exhibition, on parade, on sale; on duty. In the case of (3) confusion may arise between on top of and on the top of since both combinations are possible when followed by a common noun to indicate an elevated, higher or dominant position, whether literal (on [the] top of the hill) or figurative I’m( on [the] top of the world). But the article is not optional in “on top of that”, a set adverbial phrase, which is a less formal alternative to in addition to. The reason for the high percentage of incorrect answers to (4) – particularly in the case of the Lithuanian respondents, for whom this item was third on the list – is not immediately obvious, since in Standard English, weather, when not pre-modified, occurs with the definite article and is presented as such in textbooks; moreover, it is one of those stereotypical images that most foreign students of English are likely to hear about early in their studies: “The English like to talk about the weather.” One possible explanation advanced by an American participant in a seminar in Pilsen, November 2010, at which the results of the VB exercise were being discussed, was that the errors in (4) might be due to a misreading of the sentence as a whole with *on top of that weather being regarded by respondents as one lexical unit. This, however, would render the sentence incoherent. That said, we can only speculate on how different the response might have been if the text had included a comma afterthat and, generally speaking, it seems reasonable to suggest that any single misreading in a section of a gap-filling task may produce a detrimental knock-on effect in the subsequent selection of an appropriate grammatical article in the given context.

76 Three results in the middle-range error category, namely (1), (5) and (6), show the problems of article omission. In (1) the some (of) error is a recurrent one in students’ writing and may stem from an over-generalisation based on a lot of or lots of, both of which can be used with or without an ensuing definite article plus noun, albeit with a slightly different meaning. (5) is maybe due to a tendency, again not uncommon in students’ essays, to omit the indefinite article before a predicate nominative. Another possible cause might have been uncertainty over the exact meaning of the word bunch – which, in turn, could conceivably have led to the error in (6). (6) showed a similar level of error in both groups and, bearing in mind the comments of the previous paragraph, is perhaps the result of the over-generalisation of a rule: L2 learners of English studying the article system are often presented the rule of ‘first/second’ mention (see, for example, Alexander (1988)). As a general guideline this works well when there is repetition of the same item as in: Once upon a time there was a king. The king had three daughters – which translates into Czech as Byl jednou jeden král. Ten král měl tři dcery; and into Lithuanian as Kartą gyveno (vienas) karalius. (Tas) karalius turėjo tris dukteris. However, the use of the article is not always so straightforward in situations which require a certain element of shared knowledge which is taken for granted by the speaker/writer, but may not always be clear to the recipient of the message. In (6) the indefinite article is ruled out by the plural form of the noun but those students who used Ø here may have failed to co-relate bunch in the preceding sentence – which, in context, must include the Beckhams’ children – with the boys as a constituent part of the “bunch”. In contrast, responses to (12) and (19) showed a tendency to use articles where they should have been omitted. In (12) there was a significant preference amongst the Czech respondents for the indefinite article; the Lithuanian students showed only a slightly greater preference for the indefinite article above .Ø The indefinite article is probably based on the logic of a first-time mention, although pragmatically any official launch of a new product onto the market is bound to be a single, one-off event, so the definite article is the only logical choice. As regards (19), Czech students made considerably more errors than their Lithua- nian counterparts; in both groups insertion of the indefinite article accounted for the largest number of incorrect responses. Czech learners’ incorrect use of the indefinite article before certain nouns which are uncountable in English is noted by Sparling (1989); work, in the sense of the Czech práce, is one of the characteristic examples he cites. Sparling states such errors are a result of mother tongue influence. True, in such cases as Jedna práce nestačí or Víc peněz? Pomůže druhá práce (web headlines), práce would need to be translated by job, to wit One job is not enough and More money? A second job will help. A contrast can then be made with the plural forms in the spheres of artistic creation (Haydn’s works – Haydnova díla) and industrial production (Plzeň-Škodovy závody – Pilsen Škoda Works). However, the issue is not so clear-cut: for example, in the Czech Republic, final-year magister students are required to write what is known as a diplomová práce and teachers of English – including na-

77 tive speakers – will often refer to this by the calque “diploma work” rather than the functional equivalent “master’s thesis”. “Diploma works” are, of course, countable and commentaries on them will often contain such phrases as ...“ a work of high quality”, “... a work on an issue of great importance” and so forth. Intuitively, and based on anecdotal evidence from colleagues in ELT, “This is a good work” seems entirely acceptable in the context of a master’s thesis; however, it would sound odd if applied to, say, an essay or translation assignment: in these latter instances either Ø article or the “a good piece of work” construction are preferable. Such distinctions, however, are frequently of a subtle nature and not always easy to explain to EFL students.

CONCLUDING REMARKS In the gap-filling exercise the highest percentage of errors occurred in set phrases which need to be learned as chunks of language since a semantic approach is not helpful when dealing with an article use which is either fixed or idiomatic. Otherwise the results partially confirm our hypothesis that article omission would account for a large percentage of errors, though counter-examples are also evident. Overall, the results indicate a certain common patterning in the erroneous use of articles by Czech and Lithuanian students. Further research is required to ascertain the extent to which some apparent anomalies as discussed above are only a quirk of the data collection or represent a deeper problem in these students’ acquisition of the English articles.

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78 specificity. In: Language Acquisition 12: P. 3-69. 11. Jarvis, S. 2002. Topic Continuity in L2 English Article Use. In: Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, P. 387-418. 12. Johnson, K. 2001. An Introduction to Foreign Language Teaching and Learning. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. 13. Ko, H, Ionin T. & Wexler, K. 2006. Adult L2-learners lack the maximality presupposition, too. In: Deen, K.U., Nomura, J., Schulz, B. &. Schwartz B.D (eds) The Proceedings of the Inaugural Conference on Generative Approaches to Language Acquisition–North America, Honolulu, HI. University of Connecticut Occasional Papers in Linguistics, 4, P. 171-182. 14. Mathesius, V. 1926. Přívlastkové ten, ta, to v hovorové češtině. In: Naše řeč 2, 10/1926, P.289-294. 15. Mikulskas R. 2006. Pastabos dėl sintaksinio dviprasmiškumo sąvokos ir kiti susiję dalykai. In: Acta Linguistica Lithuanica, 5��5, P. 1-��53. 16. Murray, N. & Thorne .T (eds) 2004.. Multicultural Perspectives on English Language and Literature. Tallinn, London: Tallinna Pedagoogikaülikooli Kirjastus. 17. Odlin, T. 1989. Language Transfer. Cambridge: CUP. 18. Payne, J. & Huddleston, R. 2002. Nouns and noun phrases. Chapter 5. In: Huddleston, R. & Pullum G.K. (eds) 2002. P. 323–523. 19 Peprník, J. ��1984 Anglický jazyk pro filology. Praha: SPN. 20. Perissutti, A. M. 2003. Determinátory neurčitosti v češtině. Naples: University of Naples. 21. Roberston, D. 2000. Variability of the use of the English article system by Chinese learners of English. In: Second Language Research 16 (2), P.135-172. 22. Rosinas A. 1996. Lietuvių bendrinės kalbos įvardžiai. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. 23. Snape, N. 2005. The use of articles in L2 English by Japanese and Spanish learners. In: Essex Graduate Student Papers in Language & Linguistics 7, P.1-23. 24. Sparling, D. 1989. English or Czenglish? Praha: SPN. 25. Swan, M. 2003 Practical English Usage. Oxford: OUP. 2 Tahal, K . 1977��. ��O kategorii určenosti. In:�� JA 14, 1977, P. 17-19. 27 Tahal, K . 2010��. A Grammar of Czech as a Foreign Language. Available at http:// www. factumcz.cz/K.Tahal-Grammar.pdf 28. Tekorienė, D. 2008. Anglų kalbos gramatika vidurinėms mokykloms. Vilnius: Vaga. 29. Torn, R.& Kährik K. 2004. Lost in world of the articles. A study of the use of articles by Estonian learners of English. In Murray, N. & Thorne .T (eds.), P. 179- 185. 30. Trenkic, D. 2007. Variability in L2 article production: beyond the representational deficit vs. processing constraints debate. In Second Language Research, 23(3), p. 289-327.

79 SANTRAUKA Dažniausi anglų kalbos artikelio vartojimo sunkumai Andrew Tollet, Jurgita Trapnauskienė

Šis straipsnis yra skirtas preliminarių lyginamojo tyrimo rezultatų apžvalgai, siekiant atkreipti dėmesį į lietuvių ir čekų studentų klaidas vartojant anglų kalbos artikelį. Mokslinio darbo tikslas – identifikuoti kontekstus, kuriuose artikelio pasirinkimas kelia problemas abiejų tautybių studentams. Straipsnyje nagrinėjami pirminiai duomenys leidžia apibrėžti artikelio vartojimo klaidas įtakojančias situacijas, kurios dažniausiai pasitaiko pastoviuose žodžių junginiuose. Kita moksliniame darbe nagri- nėjamų klaidų grupė yra ‚pirmą kartą paminėtas‘ taisyklės, klaidingo teksto suvokimo ar gimtosios kalbos įtakos pasekmė.

80 II. Tekstas ir pragmatika / Text and Pragmatics

81 82 Mokslo populiarinimo diskursas: laikraščio „Mokslo Lietuva“ analizė teksto funkcijų aspektu

Teresė Aleknavičiūtė Anglų filologijos katedra, Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Donelaičio g. 52, Kaunas, Lietuva, [email protected]

SANTRAUKA Šiame straipsnyje bandoma išskirti mokslo populiarinimo diskursui būdingus bruožus, remiantis tekstynu, sudarytu iš laikraščio „Mokslo Lietuva“ straipsnių. Naudojantis teksto funkcijų nustatymo programa, kuri remiasi teksto prototipišku- mo 6 funkcijoms analize, buvo nustatinėjamas teksto panašumas į vieną iš penkių superžanrų: akademinės prozos, grožinės literatūros, dalykinių diskusijų, pokalbių ar oficialiųjų dokumentų. Pagal išskirtų požymių analizę, galima daryti išvadą, kad mokslo populiarinimo diskursas – įvairių žanrų mišinys: jį sudaro ne tik akademinė proza, tačiau yra ir nemaža dalis tekstų, turinčių grožinei literatūrai, dalykinei diskusijai ar net šnekamajai kalbai būdingų bruožų. Raktiniai žodžiai: mokslo populiarinimo diskursas, teksto funkcijos, žanrai.

Pastaraisiais metais akademinis diskursas sulaukia vis daugiau mokslininkų dėmesio: pasirodė Zitos Alaunienės (2005), Audronės Bitinienės (2000, 2005, 2007), Nijolės Linkevičienės, Loretos Vilkienės (2005), Onos Petrėnienės (2005), Birutės Ryvitytės (2008) ir kt. tyrimai. Tačiau šalia akademinių žanrų (pvz., knyga, straipsnis, monografija, disertacija ir kt.) egzistuoja ir mokslo populiarinimo diskursas, kuris lietuvių tyrėjų iš esmės nėra nagrinėtas. Taigi šio straipsnio tikslas – nustatyti bruožus, būdingus mokslo populiarinimo diskursui, analizuojant laikraštį „Mokslo Lietuva“. Šis laikraštis tiek spausdinamas, tiek prieinamas internete (http://mokslasplius.lt/ mokslo-lietuva). Tai Lietuvos mokslininkų laikraštis, leidžiamas du kartus per mėnesį, jame spausdinami straipsniai apie mokslo istoriją, asmenybes, mokslo institucijas, paveldą, sukaktis, renginius, probleminius švietimo aspektus ir t.t. Iš šiame laikraštyje spausdinamų straipsnių buvo sudarytas tekstynas, į kurį surinkti straipsniai, spausdinti 2009 metais. Nebuvo įtraukiami informaciniai pranešimai apie naujienas bei renginius, nes tai – informacinio stiliaus tekstai. Jų atsisakyta, kad nebūtų iškreipiami duomenys, kadangi norėta tirti populiariojo mokslinio stiliaus tekstus. Iš viso surinkti 77 straipsniai, 157 243 žodžiai.

83 Teksto funkcijoms nustatyti naudojama Andriaus Utkos sukurta teksto funkcijų nustatymo programa, kuri parodo teksto panašumą į vieną iš penkių superžanrų: akademinės prozos, grožinės literatūros, dalykinių diskusijų, pokalbių ar oficialiųjų do- kumentų. Šis teksto superžanro spėjimas remiasi teksto prototipiškumo 6 funkcijoms analize, sukurta Douglas Biberio. Taip pat pateikiama lentelė, kurioje procentiškai ir grafiškai įvertinamas analizuojamo teksto prototipiškumas 6 funkcijoms. Spalva ir jos intensyvumas rodo teksto prototipiškumo lygį: raudona spalva rodo, kiek tekstas yralentel neprototipiškas,ơ, kurioje procentiškai mėlyna – ir kiek grafiškai prototipiškas Ƴvertinamas. analizuojamo teksto prototipiškumas 6 funkcijoms. SpalvaTekstų irfunkcijos jos intensyvumas yra šios: spontaniško rodo teksto ekspresyvumo, prototipiškumo naratyvumo, lygƳ: raudona direktyvumo, spalva rodo, kiek tekstas yra nespontaniškoneprototipiškas, ekspresyvumo, mơlyna – kiek apeliatyvumo, prototipiškas. deskriptyvumo, temporatyvumo. Anot Douglas BiberioTekstǐ (199funkcijos5,13), yra kiekviena šios: spontaniško iš funkcijų ekspresyvu turi tam tikrųmo, naratyvumo, lingvistinių direktyvumo, požymių nespontaniško kombinacijąekspresyvumo, arba paradigmą, apeliatyvumo, kiekvieno deskriptyvumo, požymio (žodžio, temporatyvumo. iteracijos Anot indekso Douglas ar saki Biberio- (1995,13), niokiekviena ilgio) pasikartojimas iš funkcijǐ turi1000 tam žodžių tikrǐ programos lingvistini ǐapskaičiuojamas požymiǐ kombinacij statistiškaią arba. Kaip paradigm ą, kiekvieno požymio (žodžio, iteracijos indekso ar sakinio ilgio) pasikartojimas 1000 žodžiǐ programos pastebiapskai Andriusþiuojamas Utka, statistiškai. kiekvienos Kaip funkcijos pastebi svoris Andrius skiriasi, Utka ir, taip kiekvienos pasireiškia funkcijos jos svarba svoris skiriasi, ir taip faktoriuipasireiškia (Utka, jos 2004,svarba 11) faktoriui. (Utka, 2004, 11). Į programąƲ program įvestią „MoksloƳvesti „Mokslo Lietuvos“ Lietuvos“ tekstai parodė, tekstai kad parod šiameơ, kadlaikraštyje šiame spaus laikraštyje- spausdinami dinamistraipsniai straipsniai iš tiesǐ iš priklauso tiesų priklauso keliems superžanrams,keliems superžanrams, kuriǐ pasiskirstymas kurių pasiskirstymas pateikiamas Diagramoje 1. pateikiamas Diagramoje 1.

Mokslo populiarinimo stiliǐ sudarantys superžanrai 399 3231 26514 Akademinơ proza 15648 Dalykinơ diskusija Grožinơ literatǌra Šnekamoji kalba Oficialusis dokumentas 115600

DiagramaDiagrama 1 1. .Mokslo Mokslo populiarinimo populiarinimo diskursądiskursą sudarantyssudarantys superžanrai.superžanrai.

Kaip matomeKaip matome iš diagramos, iš diagramos, didžiausią didžiausi dalįą (11dalƳ56 (11560000 žodžių) žodži sudaroǐ) sudaro akademinė akademin ơ proza, gerokai proza,mažesn gerokaiĊ, taþ iaumažesnę, irgi ženkli tačiauą dal irgiƳ užima ženklią grožin dalįơ literat užimaǌra grožinė(26514 žodžiai),literatūra taip (2 65pat14 išryšk ơjo dalykinơs žodžiai),diskusijos taip superžanraspat išryškėjo ( 15648dalykinės žodžiai) diskusijos ir, labai superžanras neƳprasta, (1 šnekamosios5648 žodžiai) ka ir,lbos labai superžanras (3231 žodžiai). Labai nedaug tekstyno sudaro oficialiǐjǐ dokumentǐ superžanras, tad šie duomenys nơra labai neįprasta,patikimi. šnekamosios Vis dơlto galima kalbos daryti superžanras išvadą, kad (3231 mokslo žodžiai) populiarinimo. Labai nedaug diskursas tekstyno tarsi mozaika sudơliotas sudaroiš vis oficialiųjųǐ pagrindini dokumentųǐ superžanr ǐsuperžanras,, skiriasi tik proporcijos.tad šie duomenys Toliau nėrabus aptariamalabai patikimi kiekviena. Vis teksto funkcija, dėltoatsiskleidžianti galima daryti mokslo išvadą, populiarinimo kad mokslo populiarinimodiskurse. diskursas tarsi mozaika sudė- liotas iš visų pagrindinių superžanrų, skiriasi tik proporcijos. Toliau bus aptariama kiekviena teksto funkcija, atsiskleidžianti mokslo populiarinimo diskurse. Spontaniškas ekspresyvumas

20 84 10 0 -10 Akademinơ Dalykinơ Grožinơ Šnekamoji Oficialusis proza diskusija literatǌra kalba dokumentas -20 Series1 -30 -40 -50 65 -60 lentelơ, kurioje procentiškai ir grafiškai Ƴvertinamas analizuojamo teksto prototipiškumas 6 funkcijoms. Spalva ir jos intensyvumas rodo teksto prototipiškumo lygƳ: raudona spalva rodo, kiek tekstas yra neprototipiškas, mơlyna – kiek prototipiškas. Tekstǐ funkcijos yra šios: spontaniško ekspresyvumo, naratyvumo, direktyvumo, nespontaniško ekspresyvumo, apeliatyvumo, deskriptyvumo, temporatyvumo. Anot Douglas Biberio (1995,13), kiekviena iš funkcijǐ turi tam tikrǐ lingvistiniǐ požymiǐ kombinaciją arba paradigmą, kiekvieno požymio (žodžio, iteracijos indekso ar sakinio ilgio) pasikartojimas 1000 žodžiǐ programos apskaiþiuojamas statistiškai. Kaip pastebi Andrius Utka, kiekvienos funkcijos svoris skiriasi, ir taip pasireiškia jos svarba faktoriui (Utka, 2004, 11). Ʋ programą Ƴvesti „Mokslo Lietuvos“ tekstai parodơ, kad šiame laikraštyje spausdinami straipsniai iš tiesǐ priklauso keliems superžanrams, kuriǐ pasiskirstymas pateikiamas Diagramoje 1.

Mokslo populiarinimo stiliǐ sudarantys superžanrai 399 3231 26514 Akademinơ proza 15648 Dalykinơ diskusija Grožinơ literatǌra Šnekamoji kalba Oficialusis dokumentas 115600

Diagrama 1. Mokslo populiarinimo diskursą sudarantys superžanrai.

Kaip matome iš diagramos, didžiausią dalƳ (115600 žodžiǐ) sudaro akademinơ proza, gerokai mažesnĊ, taþiau irgi ženklią dalƳ užima grožinơ literatǌra (26514 žodžiai), taip pat išryškơjo dalykinơs diskusijos superžanras (15648 žodžiai) ir, labai neƳprasta, šnekamosios kalbos superžanras (3231 žodžiai). Labai nedaug tekstyno sudaro oficialiǐjǐ dokumentǐ superžanras, tad šie duomenys nơra labai patikimi. Vis dơlto galima daryti išvadą, kad mokslo populiarinimo diskursas tarsi mozaika sudơliotas iš visǐ pagrindiniǐ superžanrǐ, skiriasi tik proporcijos. Toliau bus aptariama kiekviena teksto funkcija, atsiskleidžianti mokslo populiarinimo diskurse.

Spontaniškas ekspresyvumas

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Diagrama 2. Spontaniško ekspresyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse

PagrindiniaiDiagrama spontaniško 2. Spontaniško ekspresyvumo ekspresyvumo paradigmos funkcija požymiai mokslo mokslo populiarinimo populiari diskurse- nimo diskurse, kaipPagrindiniai nustatyta programa, spontaniško yra ekspresyvumo šie: tai (9,82), buvo paradigmos (8,72), kaip požymiai (6,39), moksloo populiarinimo (6,39), labaidiskurse, (6,26), kaip bet (nustatyta6,26), taip programa, (5,1), jeigu yra (3,23), šie: tai jau(9,82), (3,04),buvo dar (8,72), (2,58), kaip gal (6,39),(2,39) . o (6,39), labai (6,26), Neigiami betpožymiai(6,26), –taip vidutinis (5,1), jeigužodžio (3,23), ilgis (jau6,29), (3,04), iteracijos dar (2,58), indeksas gal ((2,39).63,71) Neigiami. Tekstai, požymiai – vidutinis kuriuose dominuojažodžio ilgis spontaniško (6,29), iteracijos ekspresyvumo indeksas paradigma, (63,71). yra Tekstai, iš anksto kuriuose nepareng dominuoja- spontaniško ti, spontaniški,ekspresyvumo turintys paradigma,sakytinės kalbos yra iš bruožų,anksto neparengti, susiję su pasakojimospontaniški, arturintys pokalbio sakytin ơs kalbos bruožǐ, situacija irsusij pabrėžtinaiĊ su pasakojimo ekspresyvūs ar pokalb. Kaipio situacijamatome iriš pabrdiagramos,ơžtinai ekspresyv prototipiškiausiasǌs. Kaip matome iš diagramos, prototipiškiausias superžanras šios paradigmos atžvilgiu yra dalykinơ diskusija, neprototipiškiausias superžanras šios paradigmos atžvilgiu yra dalykinė diskusija, neprototipiškiau- – akademinơ proza ir oficialieji dokumentai. sias – akademinė proza ir oficialieji dokumentai.

Naratyvumas

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DiagramaDiagrama 3. 3. Naratyvumo Naratyvumo funkcija funkcija mokslomokslo populiarinimo diskursediskurse

Pagrindiniai teigiamiPagrindiniai naratyvumo teigiami naratyvumo paradigmą paradigm žymintysą žymintysžodžiai yra žodžiai šie: į yra(8,89), šie: Ƴ (8,89), savo (4,56), jo (3,26), jis (3,14), jos (2,53), ji (1, 42), ją (1), jƳ (0,77), ant (0,38), prie (1,72), tu (0,27), vơl (0,34). savo (4,56), jo (3,26), jis (3,14), jos (2,53), ji (1, 42), ją (1), jį (0,77), ant (0,38), prie Kaip teigia Biberis (1995: 108-109), tekstams, kuriuose dominuoja naratyvumo paradigma, yra (1,72), tu b(0,27),ǌdingas vėl 3-ojo (0,34) asmens. Kaip Ƴvardži teigiaǐ Biberis bei erdv (199ơs santykius5: 108-109), reiškian tekstams,þiǐ prielinksni kuriuoseǐ dominavimas. Su šiais dominuojapožymiais naratyvumo paprastai paradigma, yra susij yraĊ būdingass pasakojimas. 3-ojo asmens Prototipiškiausias įvardžių bei superžanras erdvės šios paradigmos santykius atžvilgiureiškiančių yra prielinksniųgrožinơ literat dominavimasǌra. Šiuo atveju,. Su matome, šiais požymiais kad naratyvumas paprastai nơ rayra b ǌdingas nơ vienam iš aptariamǐ superžanrǐ, sudaranþiǐ mokslo populiarinimo diskursą. Pats neprototipiškiausias oficialusis dokumentas ir dalykinơ diskusija, o grožinơ literatǌra jau artơja link pliuso ašies, vadinasi, prototipiškumas didơja. 85

Direktyvumas

20 0 -20 Akademinơ Dalykinơ Grožinơ Šnekamoji Oficialusis -40 proza diskusija literatǌra kalba dokumentas Series1 -60 66 -80 -100 Diagrama 2. Spontaniško ekspresyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse

Pagrindiniai spontaniško ekspresyvumo paradigmos požymiai mokslo populiarinimo diskurse, kaip nustatyta programa, yra šie: tai (9,82), buvo (8,72), kaip (6,39), o (6,39), labai (6,26), bet (6,26), taip (5,1), jeigu (3,23), jau (3,04), dar (2,58), gal (2,39). Neigiami požymiai – vidutinis žodžio ilgis (6,29), iteracijos indeksas (63,71). Tekstai, kuriuose dominuoja spontaniško ekspresyvumo paradigma, yra iš anksto neparengti, spontaniški, turintys sakytinơs kalbos bruožǐ, susijĊ su pasakojimo ar pokalbio situacija ir pabrơžtinai ekspresyvǌs. Kaip matome iš diagramos, prototipiškiausias superžanras šios paradigmos atžvilgiu yra dalykinơ diskusija, neprototipiškiausias – akademinơ proza ir oficialieji dokumentai.

Naratyvumas

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Diagrama 3. Naratyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse

Pagrindiniai teigiami naratyvumo paradigmą žymintys žodžiai yra šie: Ƴ (8,89), savo (4,56), jo (3,26), jis (3,14), jos (2,53), ji (1, 42), ją (1), jƳ (0,77), ant (0,38), prie (1,72), tu (0,27), vơl (0,34). Kaip teigia Biberis (1995: 108-109), tekstams, kuriuose dominuoja naratyvumo paradigma, yra bǌdingas 3-ojo asmens Ƴvardžiǐ bei erdvơs santykius reiškianþiǐ prielinksniǐ dominavimas. Su šiais susijęs pasakojimaspožymiais paprastai. Prototipiškiausias yra susijĊ ssuperžanras pasakojimas. šios Prototipiškiausias paradigmos atžvilgiu superžanras yra šios paradigmos grožinė atžvilgiuliteratūra yra. Šiuo grožin atveju,ơ literat matome,ǌra. Šiuo kad atveju, naratyvumas matome, nėra kad būdingasnaratyvumas nė vienamnơra bǌ dingas nơ vienam iš aptariamǐ superžanrǐ, sudaranþiǐ mokslo populiarinimo diskursą. Pats neprototipiškiausias iš aptariamų superžanrų, sudarančių mokslo populiarinimo diskursą. Pats neprototi- oficialusis dokumentas ir dalykinơ diskusija, o grožinơ literatǌra jau artơja link pliuso ašies, piškiausiasvadinasi, oficialusis prototipiškumas dokumentas did irơ ja.dalykinė diskusija, o grožinė literatūra jau artėja link pliuso ašies, vadinasi, prototipiškumas didėja.

Direktyvumas

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Diagrama 4. Direktyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse Diagrama 4. Direktyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse

DirektyvumoDirektyvumo paradigmą paradigmsudaro šieą sudaroteigiami šie požymiai: teigiami požymiai: būti (2, 5 7),bǌ tipagal(2, 57), (5, 14),pagal (5, 14), reikia (2, reikia (2,57), 57),yra yra (5, (5 14),, 14), arba arba (1, (1, 03), 03), gali gali (1, (1, 94), 94), turi turi(1, (1, 81), 81), ar ar(4, (4, 84), 84), tam tam (0,97), (0,97), jei (0,45), jeigu (3,23), jei (0,45galima), jeigu (1,68),(3,23), neigiami galima (1,požymiai68), neigiami – buvo požymiai(8,72), iter –acijos buvo indeksas (8,72), iteracijos(69,71). Kaip matome, šiems indeksastekstams (69,71). bKaipǌdinga matome, modalumo šiems raiška, tekstams esamasis būdinga laikas, modalumo alternatyv raiška,ǐ ir są lygesamasisǐ vardijimas. Labiausiai ši laikas, alternatyvųparadigma išryškir sąlygųơjo oficialiajamevardijimas. Labiausiai dokumente ši irparadigma dalykinơje išryškėjo diskusijoje, oficia neb-ǌdingiausias žanras liajame dokumentedirektyvumo irpoži dalykinėjeǌriu – šnekamoji diskusijoje, kalba. nebūdingiausias žanras direktyvumo požiūriu – šnekamoji kalba.

Nespontaniškas ekspresyvumas

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Diagrama 5. Nespontaniško ekspresyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse Diagrama 5. Nespontaniško ekspresyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse Nespontaniško ekspresyvumo paradigmą sudaro šie reikšminiai požymiai: tik (4,06), o (7, 16),Nespontaniško iteracijos indeksas ekspresyvumo (70, 36), neparadigm (6,4), netą sudaro (2,57), šie jei reikšminiai(0,96), kas (2,87),požymiai: tik (4,06), o (7, 16), iteracijos indeksas (70, 36), ne (6,4), net (2,57), jei (0,96), kas (2,87), gal (3,03), dar (3,03), gal (3,03),kiek dar (1,69), (3,03), ir kiek (34, (1, 75),69), bet ir (6,82),(34, 7 5 neigiami), bet (6 ,82), – dơ neigiamil (0,88), mes– dėl (0,69), (0,88), buvo mes (13, 79). Tekstams, (0,69), buvokuriuose (13, 79) dominuoja. Tekstams, nespontaniško kuriuose dominuoja ekspresyvumo nespontaniško paradigma, ekspresyvumo bǌdingas ekspresyvus turtingas žodynas. Prototipiškiausias šios paradigmos superžanras, kaip matome iš diagramos, yra grožinơ 86 literatǌra, neprototipiškiausias – oficialieji dokumentai.

Apeliatyvumas

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-50 Akademinơ Dalykinơ Grožinơ Šnekamoji Oficialusis Series1 proza diskusija literatǌra kalba dokumentas -100 67 -150 Diagrama 4. Direktyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse

Direktyvumo paradigmą sudaro šie teigiami požymiai: bǌti (2, 57), pagal (5, 14), reikia (2, 57), yra (5, 14), arba (1, 03), gali (1, 94), turi (1, 81), ar (4, 84), tam (0,97), jei (0,45), jeigu (3,23), galima (1,68), neigiami požymiai – buvo (8,72), iteracijos indeksas (69,71). Kaip matome, šiems tekstams bǌdinga modalumo raiška, esamasis laikas, alternatyvǐ ir sąlygǐ vardijimas. Labiausiai ši paradigma išryškơjo oficialiajame dokumente ir dalykinơje diskusijoje, nebǌdingiausias žanras direktyvumo požiǌriu – šnekamoji kalba.

Nespontaniškas ekspresyvumas

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Diagrama 5. Nespontaniško ekspresyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse

Nespontaniško ekspresyvumo paradigmą sudaro šie reikšminiai požymiai: tik (4,06), o (7, 16), iteracijos indeksas (70, 36), ne (6,4), net (2,57), jei (0,96), kas (2,87), gal (3,03), dar (3,03), kiek (1,69), ir (34, 75), bet (6,82), neigiami – dơl (0,88), mes (0,69), buvo (13, 79). Tekstams, kuriuose dominuoja nespontaniško ekspresyvumo paradigma, bǌdingas ekspresyvus turtingas žodynas. Prototipiškiausias šios paradigmos superžanras, kaip matome iš diagramos, yra grožinơ paradigma,literat būdingasǌra, neprototipiškiausias ekspresyvus turtingas – oficialieji žodynas dokumentai.. Prototipiškiausias šios paradigmos superžanras, kaip matome iš diagramos, yra grožinė literatūra, neprototipiš- kiausias – oficialieji dokumentai.

Apeliatyvumas

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Diagrama 6. Apeliatyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse Diagrama 6. Apeliatyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse

Apeliatyvumo Apeliatyvumo paradigmą, paradigmkuria reiškiamaą, kuria apeliatyvumo reiškiama apeliatyvumo funkcija, sudarofunkcija, šie sudaro šie teigiami teigiami požymiai: kadkad (12,33),(12,33), nnėraơra (1,87),(1,87), būtųbǌtǐ (2,45),(2,45), dėldơl (2,4 (2,45),5), kuriekurie (2,39),(2,39), yrayra (6,59), mes (1,61), (6,59), mesm ǌ(1,sǐ6 1), (4,91), mūsų nes(4,91), (1,81). nes (1,81) Tekstams,. Tekstams, kuriuose kuriuose dominuoja dominuoja apeliatyvumo apeliatyvumo paradigma, bǌdingas paradigma,argumentuotos būdingas argumentuotos kalbos vartojimas, kalbos stengiantis vartojimas, daryti stengiantis poveikƳ klausytojui daryti poveikį ar skaitytojui, ką ir parodo klausytojuipasikartojantys ar skaitytojui, prijungiamieji ką ir parodo jungtukai. pasikartojantys Prototip prijungiamiejiiškiausias šios jungtukai paradigmos. superžanras yra Prototipiškiausiasdalykinơs diskusijos,šios paradigmos neprototipiškiausias superžanras yra– oficiali dalykinėsǐjǐ dokument diskusijos,ǐ superžanras. neprototi- piškiausias – oficialiųjų dokumentų superžanras.

Deskriptyvumas

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Diagrama 7. Deskriptyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse Diagrama 7. Deskriptyvumo funkcija mokslo populiarinimo diskurse Deskriptyvumo paradigmą sudaro tiek teigiami, tiek neigiami požymiai, kurie Deskriptyvumo paradigmą sudaro tiek teigiami, tiek neigiami požymiai, kurie analizuojamuose analizuojamuosetekstuose pasiskirst tekstuoseơ taip: pasiskirstė tarp (1,04), taip: sakinio tarp (1,04), ilgis (12,73),sakinio ilgisgalima (12,73),(1,6), galimataþiau (1,8), tuo (1,39), jǐ (1,6),(2,89), tačiau iteracijos(1,8), tuo indeksas(1,39), jų (70,79), (2,89), iteracijosbuvo (10,25), indeksas savo (3,25)(70,79), – teigiamibuvo (10,2 požymiai.5), savo Neigiami požymiai: nr (0,56), už (1,19), dơl (1,31), mano (0,33), man (0,27), aš (0,1), gal (1,51). Tekstams, kuriuose dominuoja deskriptyvumo paradigma, bǌdingi ilgi sakiniai, beasmenơs konstrukcijos ir turtingesnis žodynas. Prototipiškiausias šios paradigmos superžanras yra akademinơ proza,87 neprototipiškiausias šiuo atveju – oficialusis dokumentas. Ʋdomu tai, jog dalykinơ diskusija ir šnekamoji kalba šiuo atveju yra pakankamai deskriptyvios. Tą greiþiausiai galima paaiškinti laikraštyje analizuojamomis temomis, kurios, pavyzdžiui, kasdienei šnekamajai kalbai bǌtǐ nebǌdingos. Analizuojant mokslo populiarinimo diskursą, buvo naudojamas teksto funkcijǐ nustatymo Ƴrankis, kuriuo nustatytas teksto prototipiškumas pagal šešis požymius. Pastebơta, jog daugiau pasireiškia neprototipiniai požymiai (pvz., naratyvumas – neprototipinis požymis visuose žanruose). Iš teigiamǐ požymiǐ labiausiai pasireiškia deskriptyvumas, bǌdingas akademinei prozai, apeliatyvumas – dalykinei diskusijai, nespontaniškas ekspresyvumas – grožinei literatǌrai, direktyvumas – dalykinei diskusijai ir oficialiajam dokumentui, spontaniškas ekspresyvumas – dalykinei diskusijai, grožinei 68 (3,25) – teigiami požymiai. Neigiami požymiai: nr (0,56), už (1,19), dėl (1,31), mano (0,33), man (0,27), aš (0,1), gal (1,51). Tekstams, kuriuose dominuoja deskriptyvumo paradigma, būdingi ilgi sakiniai, beasmenės konstrukcijos ir turtingesnis žodynas. Prototipiškiausias šios paradigmos superžanras yra akademinė proza, neprototipiš- kiausias šiuo atveju – oficialusis dokumentas. Įdomu tai, jog dalykinė diskusija ir šnekamoji kalba šiuo atveju yra pakankamai deskriptyvios. Tą greičiausiai galima paaiškinti laikraštyje analizuojamomis temomis, kurios, pavyzdžiui, kasdienei šne- kamajai kalbai būtų nebūdingos. Analizuojant mokslo populiarinimo diskursą, buvo naudojamas teksto funkcijų nustatymo įrankis, kuriuo nustatytas teksto prototipiškumas pagal šešis požymius. Pastebėta, jog daugiau pasireiškia neprototipiniai požymiai (pvz., naratyvumas – neprototipinis požymis visuose žanruose). Iš teigiamų požymių labiausiai pasireiškia deskriptyvumas, būdingas akademinei prozai, apeliatyvumas – dalykinei diskusijai, nespontaniškas ekspresyvumas – grožinei literatūrai, direktyvumas – dalykinei diskusijai ir oficialiajam dokumentui, spontaniškas ekspresyvumas – dalykinei diskusijai, grožinei literatūrai ir šnekamajai kalbai. Teksto funkcijų analizė parodė, jog mokslo populiarinimo diskursas – įvairių žanrų mišinys, kuriame dominuoja akademinė proza, tačiau būdingi ir grožinės literatūros, dalykinės diskusijos, netgi šnekamosios kalbos požymiai.

LITERATŪROS SĄRAŠAS 1. Automatinis teksto funkcijų nustatymas. 2004��. Kompiuterinės lingvistikos centras. Prieiga: http:// donelaitis.vdu.lt/main.php?id=4&nr=8> 2. Biber, D. 1995. Variation across speech and writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3. Marcinkevičienė R. 2000. Tekstynų lingvistika TEORIJA IR PRAKTIKA. // Darbai ir Dienos, Nr. 24, P. 7–64. 4. Marcinkevičienė R. 2004. Spaudos žanrų tipologija. Vakarietiškoji patirtis. // Darbai ir dienos, Nr. 38. P. 191–234. 5. Scott, M. 1996. WordSmith Tools. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6. Utka A. 2000. Kalbinė įranga ir jos galimybės. // Darbai ir Dienos, Nr. 24, P. 275–285. 7. Utka, A. 2004. Statistical identification of text functions. Doctoral dissertation. Kaunas.

88 SUMMARY Popular Scientific Discourse: the Analysis of Text Functions in the Articles of the Newspaper “Mokslo Lietuva” Teresė Aleknavičiūtė

The aim of the article is to distinguish the features common to popular scientific discourse. The analysis is based on the corpus compiled from the articles of the newspaper “Mokslo Lietuva”. The programme, which automatically identifies text functions based on the analysis of prototypical features, was used in the analysis. The similarity of the text to the following supergenres was revealed: academic prose, fiction, professional discussions, conversations and official documents. The analysis leads to the conclusion that popular scientific discourse is a mixture of various genres: it is comprised not only of academic prose texts, but also a significant part is constituted from the texts which have the features common to fiction, professional discussion or even spoken language.

89 Handlungsträger in Kundenzeitschriften. Eine medienlinguistische Untersuchung am Beispiel der Apothekenbranche

Margit Breckle Pädagogische Universität Vilnius, Studentų Str. 39, LT-08106 Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT From a linguistic point of view, customer magazines are a hardly studied medium. In this paper, a corpus-based pilot study is presented, in which a branch customer magazine of the pharmacy sector is investigated. The main focus lies on the actors in the editorial articles. In this, particular attention is paid to the categories healthcare professionals (person/s) and affected persons as well as to the multiple naming of actors. Selected examples illustrate that the staging of the actors serves as a basis for credibility and respectability. The article argues that this strategy helps to build up trust not only in the medium itself but that it – at a superior level – aims at creating a positive image of persons, who work in the healthcare sector. Key words: customer magazine, pharmacy magazine, actor

EINLEITUNG�� Kundenzeitschriften sind aus sprachwissenschaftlicher Sicht ein kaum unter- suchtes Medium. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird eine korpusbasierte Pilotstudie prä- sentiert, für die eine deutsche Kundenzeitschrift der Apothekenbranche (Apotheken Umschau) untersucht wurde. Da Personen „innermedial auf bestimmte Weise in Szene gesetzt“ werden (Burger, 2005, 339f.), z.B. als Experte, liegt das Hauptaugenmerk der vorliegenden Untersuchung auf den in der Apothekenzeitschrift inszenierten Handlungsträgern. Der Beitrag ist folgendermaßen aufgebaut: Im Anschluss an Abschnitt 2, in dem Kundenzeitschriften und Handlungsträger als zentrale Konzepte für die vorliegende Untersuchung skizziert werden, wird in Abschnitt 3 das Korpus der Untersuchung beschrieben, bevor in Abschnitt 4 die Analyse der Handlungsträger dargestellt wird. Die Ergebnisse der Pilotstudie werden in Abschnitt 5 präsentiert, und im abschlie- ßenden Abschnitt 6 werden Schlussfolgerungen aus der Pilotstudie gezogen.

90 1. ZENTRALE KONZEPTE 1.1. Kundenzeitschrift Zur Benennung des untersuchten Mediums wird hier der Begriff Kundenzeit- schrift gewählt, da es sich bei Kunden- um einen neutralen Begriff zur Beschreibung der Zielgruppe handelt und -zeitschrift den Erscheinungsmodus des Mediums am treffendsten beschreibt. In Anlehnung an die IVW-Richtlinien [online] und Weichler & Endrös (2005, 221) werden Kundenzeitschriften als periodisch erscheinende Druckerzeugnisse belehrenden und unterhaltenden Inhalts definiert, die von Unternehmen oder Branchen für (potentielle) Kunden in der Regel kostenlos herausgegeben werden. Als Medium, das sich an (potenzielle) Kunden eines Unternehmens oder einer Branche richtet, ist die Kundenzeitschrift abzugrenzen einerseits von Mitarbeiter-, Haus- und Ak- tionärszeitschriften (vgl. Kerlikowsky, 1969), mit denen andere Zielgruppen, z. B. Mitarbeiter oder Aktionäre, angesprochen werden, und andererseits von Special- Interest-Zeitschriften, die als Einzelexemplare käuflich erworben bzw. abonniert werden können. In Deutschland gibt es mehr als 3500 Kundenzeitschriften-Titel mit einer Ge- samtauflage von 456 Millionen Exemplaren (vgl. Kleinert, 2008, 2). Über Kunden- zeitschriften finden sich zwar recht viel Ratgeberliteratur . (u a. Deutsche Post AG, 1995) und diverse Publikationen im Bereich der Publizistik (u. a. Kleinert, 2008 und Weichler & Endrös, 2005), sprachwissenschaftlich sind sie aber – abgesehen von der Monographie von Hardenbicker (1999) – bisher kaum erforscht. Im HSK-Band Medienwissenschaft (Leonhard & Burkhardt & Ungeheuer, 1999–2002) findet sich kein entsprechender Artikel, und auch im Stichwortregister ist Kundenzeitschrift o. ä. nicht aufgelistet. Da sich die Pilotstudie mit einer Kundenzeitschrift der Apothekenbranche befasst, sollen im Folgenden die situativen und medialen Bedingungen dieses spezifischen Mediums charakterisiert werden (vgl. Hardenbicker, 1999, 64–78, bes. 78): • Kundentyp: freiwillig (auch: potenzielle Kunden) • Verhandlungsgegenstand: Dienstleistung • Unternehmenstyp: Dienstleistungsunternehmen • Beziehungsart: einmalige Kundenbeziehung • Bezugsart: unangefordert • Bezugsweise: Mitnahme

1.2. Handlungsträger In Anlehnung an Kleinert (2008, Codebuch XIV), Hackl-Rößler (2006, 92 Fußnote 248) und Büteführ (1995, 525) werden für die vorliegende Pilotstudie unter Hand- lungsträger meist mit Eigennamen und ggf. weiteren Charakteristika genannte Per- sonen bzw. Personengruppen (auch: Institutionen, Organisationen etc.) verstanden, die in einem oder mehreren Textabschnitt/en des Beitrags – meist in Form direkter

91 Redewiedergabe – zu Wort kommen und / oder handeln. Dabei müssen sie eine tragende Rolle spielen (‚Hauptperson‘) und am Thema bzw. Ereignis zentral beteiligt sein, vgl. Bsp. 1 (AU 15.6.2008 T1312):

(1) (...) Professor Jimmy Bell, Experte für molekulare Bildgebung am Impe- rial College in London, hat zusammen mit seinem Team die versteckten Fettdepots im Körperinneren aufgespürt. In einer Untersuchung mit 600 Freiwilligen zeigte er anhand von Aufnahmen mit dem Kernspintomografen (MRT), dass zwei Menschen mit einer ähnlichen Statur sehr unterschiedliche innere Fettmengen aufweisen können (Beispiel siehe Kasten oben). (...)

In Beispiel 1 fungiert Jimmy Bell als Handlungsträger, d. h. als Hauptperson, der mit Eigennamen genannt wird und durch weitere Merkmale (Professor, Experte für molekulare Bildgebung am Imperial College in London) charakterisiert wird. In diesem Ausschnitt handelt er dadurch, dass er „versteckte Fettdepots im Körperinneren aufge- spürt“ hat; er kommt jedoch nicht, z. B. in Form direkter Redewiedergabe, zu Wort.

2. KORPUS In der korpusbasierten Pilotstudie wird die Apothekenzeitschrift Apotheken Umschau untersucht, deren Grunddaten im Folgenden überblicksartig zusammengestellt sind:

• Apotheken Umschau (AU) Herausgeber: Wort & Bild Verlag Konradshöhe Gründung: 1956 Auflage: 9,97 Mio. Exemplare / Monat (3. Quartal 2010) (vgl. Mediadaten – AU [online]) Reichweite: rund 20 Millionen Leser / Monat (vgl. Wilkens 2010) Erscheinungsweise: 2 Mal pro Monat (zum 1. und zum 15. eines Monats) Anderes: Es gibt nicht ‚die‘ Apotheken Umschau, sondern ca. 100 verschiedene Varianten (ibid.).

Das Korpus umfasst zwei Hefte der Apotheken Umschau mit 84 bzw. 88 Seiten Seiten. Für die Pilotstudie wurden die Ausgaben vom 15. Juni 2008 (Heft B) und vom 1. Juli 2008 (Heft A) gewählt.

3. ANALYSE In der Pilotstudie wurden die Handlungsträger als „Repräsentanten einer bestimmten innermedial definierten Gruppe“ (Burger, 2005, 339f.) in ausgewählten

12 AU – Apotheken Umschau vom 15.6.2008; T13 – Text 13

92 Textsorten analysiert. Bei den Textsorten handelt es sich um Meldung, Bericht / Feature und Interview. Dabei ist festzustellen, dass die Zuordnung zu Bericht und Feature nicht immer eindeutig war, so dass diese zusammengefasst wurden. Die Textsorte Reportage kam in den untersuchten AU-Ausgaben nicht vor. Für die Analyse der Handlungsträger wurde eine Kategorisierung vorgenommen, bei der folgende Kategorien bzw. Gruppen gebildet wurden:

• Gesundheitsexperten (Person/en) Dazu gehören alle explizit als Gesundheitsexperten ausgewiesene Personen, z. B. ÄrztInnen, ApothekerInnen, ForscherInnen. • Gesundheitsexperten (Institution / Organisation) Hierzu zählen alle explizit als Gesundheitsexperten ausgewiesene Institu- tionen und Organisationen, z. B. Apotheker- und Ärzteverbände. • Andere Experten (Person/en) Dazu gehören alle anderen (außer Gesundheitsexperten) explizit als Exper- ten ausgewiesene Personen, z. B. RechtsanwältInnen. • Betroffene Als Betroffene gelten all diejenigen, die durch die im Text besprochene Thematik betroffen sind bzw. waren, z. B. PatientInnen. • Prominente Hierzu zählen bekannte Persönlichkeiten, z. B. SchauspielerInnen, Sportler- Innen, KünstlerInnen, PolitikerInnen. • Andere Als Andere gelten all diejenigen, die keiner der bisher genannten Gruppen zuzuordnen sind.

Zudem wurde untersucht, ob bei den Handlungsträgern eine ein- oder eine mehrmalige Nennung in Form einer vollständigen Nominalphrase erfolgt, wobei Letzteres als Referenzkette bezeichnet wird. Exemplarisch wird die Vorgehensweise bei der Analyse an Bsp. 2 (AU 15.6.2008 T13) erläutert:

(2) (...) Professor Jimmy Bell, Experte für molekulare Bildgebung am Impe- rial College in London, hat zusammen mit seinem Team die versteckten Fettdepots im Körperinneren aufgespürt. In einer Untersuchung mit 600 Freiwilligen zeigte er anhand von Aufnahmen mit dem Kernspintomografen (MRT), dass zwei Menschen mit einer ähnlichen Statur sehr unterschiedliche innere Fettmengen aufweisen können (Beispiel siehe Kasten oben). (...) MRT-Aufnahmen, mit denen Bell in seiner Studie die Fettverteilung im Körper dokumentierte, sind sehr teuer; sie werden aus diesem Grund nur zu Forschungszwecken gemacht.

93 Der in Beispiel 2 genannte Handlungsträger – Professor Jimmy Bell, Experte für molekulare Bildgebung am Imperial College in London – lässt sich der Kategorie Ge- sundheitsexperten (Person/en) zuordnen, d. h. er fungiert innermedial als Repräsentant dieser Gruppe. Bei der Textsorte handelt es sich um ein Feature, und es findet eine Mehrfachnennung des Handlungsträgers statt: Die zweigliedrige Referenzkette besteht aus Professor Jimmy Bell, Experte für molekulare Bildgebung am Imperial College in London und Bell.

4. ERGEBNISSE: ALLGEMEINE TENDENZEN SOWIE AUSGEWÄHLTE BEISPIELE ZUR ILLUSTRATION In diesem Abschnitt werden die Ergebnisse der Pilotstudie präsentiert, wobei allgemeine Tendenzen dargestellt werden, die anhand ausgewählter Beispiele illustriert werden.

4.1. Allgemeine Tendenzen Was die Kategorisierung der Handlungsträger in den untersuchten AU-Ausgaben betrifft, zeigt die Analyse Folgendes: Handlungsträger der KategorienGesundheitsex - perten (Person/en) und Gesundheitsexperten (Institution / Organisation) treten sehr häufig auf, und zwar vor allem in den Textsorten Meldung und Bericht bzw. Feature; seltener hingegen finden sich die Kategorien Betroffene, die nur in der Textsorte Feature vorkommen, und Andere Experten (Person/en). Festzustellen ist außerdem, dass weder Handlungsträger der Kategorie Prominente noch der Kategorie Andere in den analysierten Textsorten der AU-Ausgaben anzutreffen sind.

4.2. Gesundheitsexperten (Person/en) als Handlungsträger Bei der Analyse der Kategorie Gesundheitsexperten (Person/en) als Handlungs- träger lässt sich feststellen, dass in der Textsorte Meldung für diese Kategorie tendenziell keine namentliche Nennung erfolgt, vgl. Bsp. 3 (AU 15.6.2008 T10) und 4 (AU 15.6.2008 T46):

(3) Forscher der Duke- und Miami-Universität (USA) (4) Biochemiker der McNeese-State-Universität in Lake Charles (USA)

Wie Beispiel 3 und 4 zeigen, wird in den Meldungen allgemein von Forschern als Handlungsträgern gesprochen bzw. die Fachrichtung der Wissenschaftler (z. B. Bioche- miker) genannt; zudem werden Institution sowie ggf. Ort und Land angegeben. Dies legt den Schluss nahe, dass der Inhalt der Meldung im Vordergrund steht, während die konkrete Angabe des Handlungsträgers von untergeordneter Bedeutung ist. In den Textsorten Bericht bzw. Feature hingegen ist für die Kategorie Gesundheits- experten (Person/en) überwiegend eine namentliche Nennung der Handlungsträger

94 anzutreffen, wobei im Fließtext neben demN amen in der Regel auch Titel, ggf. Funk- tion, Institution und Ort genannt werden, vgl. Bsp. 5 (AU 15.6.2008 T30):

(5) Dr. Anja Bosy-Westphal vom Institut für Humanernährung und Lebens- mittelkunde der Universität Kiel

In Beispiel 5, das die Erstnennung einer Handlungsträgerin in einem Feature darstellt, werden neben dem Namen (Anja Bosy-Westphal) auch Titel (Dr.) und Insti- tution mit Ort (Institut für Humanernährung und Lebensmittelkunde der Universität Kiel) genannt. Die Handlungsträgerin Anja Bosy-Westphal wird somit in ihrer professionellen Rolle dargestellt und als Expertin inszeniert. Wie Beispiel 5 zeigt, erfolgt die Inszenierung der Expertenschaft und der wissenschaftlichen Autorität in den untersuchten AU-Ausgaben häufig über Titel, ggf. Funktion und Institution. Dies geht mit einer Inszenierung von Wissenschaftlichkeit einher: „Ein Wissenschaftler im Medium forscht nicht, sondern er gibt Auskunftüber seine Forschungen“ (Burger, 2005, 339). Die beabsichtigte Wirkung besteht darin, Glaubwürdigkeit und Seriosität zu vermitteln und dadurch Vertrauen und ein positives Image zu erzeugen. In den Textsorten Bericht bzw. Feature finden sich zudem ggf. auch ein Bild mit Bildunterschrift und Zitat der Handlungsträger, was die angestrebte Wirkung zusätzlich verstärkt. In der Textsorte Interview, in der vor allem Handlungsträger der Kategorie Ge- sundheitsexperten (Person/en) zu Wort kommen, finden sich in den untersuchten AU-Ausgaben jeweils der Name des Handlungsträgers, sein Bild mit Bildunterschrift, in der Titel, Name, Funktion / Aufgabe, Institution und Ort genannt werden (vgl. Bsp. 6, AU 1.7.2008 T15), sowie ggf. ein Zitat des Handlungsträgers.

(6) Bildunterschrift: Professor Peter Oster ist Facharzt für Innere Medizin mit dem Schwerpunkt Altersmedizin und Ärztlicher Direktor des Geriatrischen Zentrums im Bethanien-Krankenhaus in Heidelberg

Ebenso wie in den Textsorten Bericht bzw. Feature dienen auch in der Textsorte Interview Bild mit Bildunterschrift sowie Zitat der Handlungsträger dazu, Exper- tenschaft und wissenschaftliche Autorität zu inszenieren mit der Absicht, Glaub- würdigkeit und Seriosität zu vermitteln und dadurch Vertrauen und ein positives Bild zu erzeugen.

4.3. Betroffene als Handlungsträger Handlungsträger der Kategorie Betroffenekommen nur in der Textsorte Feature vor und werden in den untersuchten AU-Ausgaben oft für einen szenischen Einstieg verwendet. Bei den Handlungsträgern dieser Kategorie ist tendenziell eine namentliche Nennung anzutreffen; zudem werden Alter, Beruf (ggf. auch ehemaliger Beruf), Hobby, Wohnort und ggf. Herkunft angegeben, vgl. Bsp. 7 (AU 15.6.2008 T26):

95 (7) Paul Boos (+Bild) – der damals 71-Jährige – der ehemalige Berufsoffizier – der 75-Jährige – der im Allgäu wohnende Pfälzer – der langjährige Hobby- Reiseleiter

Der Handlungsträger in Beispiel 7 (Paul Boos), der der Kategorie Betroffene zuzuordnen ist, wird namentlich genannt; sein Alter wird sowohl zum Zeitpunkt der Erkrankung (der damals 71-Jährige) als auch heute (der 75-Jährige) angegeben. Darüber hinaus werden sowohl sein ehemaliger Beruf (der ehemalige Berufsoffizier) und seine jetzige Beschäftigung (der langjährige Hobby-Reiseleiter) als auch sein Wohnort und seine Herkunft (der im Allgäu wohnende Pfälzer) genannt. Diese Darstellung von Handlungsträgern der Kategorie Betroffene dient der Inszenierung der Personen als ‚Menschen wie du und ich‘, was als Identifikationsangebot für die Leserschaft verstanden werden kann.

4.4. Mehrfachnennung von Handlungsträgern Sowohl in der Kategorie Gesundheitsexperten (Person/en) als auch in der Kate- gorie Betroffene tritt innerhalb des Textes tendenziell eine Mehrfachnennung der Handlungsträger – d. h. Referenzketten – auf, vgl. Bsp. 7 (AU 15.6.2008 T26) für die Kategorie Betroffene und Bsp. 8 (AU 15.6.2008 T13) für die Kategorie Gesundheits- experten (Person/en):

(8) Dr. Anja Bosy-Westphal vom Institut für Humanernährung und Lebensmit- telkunde der Universität Kiel – die Ernährungswissenschaftlerin Bosy-West- phal – Bosy-Westphal – die Ernährungswissenschaftlerin – die Expertin – Bildunterschrift: Dr. Anja Bosy-Westphal, Ernährungswissenschaftlerin, Universität Kiel

In der fünfgliedrigen Referenzkette in Beispiel 8, die zudem durch eine Bildun- terschrift ergänzt wird, wird neben der Angabe von Titel,N ame, Institution und Ort bei der Erstnennung zweimal auf ihre Fachrichtung referiert (die Ernährungswis- senschaftlerin Bosy-Westphal; die Ernährungswissenschaftlerin), einmal ihre Exper- tenschaft thematisiert (die Expertin) und einmal lediglich ihr Nachname genannt (Bosy-Westphal). In der Bildunterschrift sind – ähnlich wie bei der Erstnennung im Text – Titel, Name, Institution und Ort angegeben.

SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN Aus der Pilotstudie lassen sich folgende Schlussfolgerungen ziehen: In den untersuchten Ausgaben der Apotheken Umschau werden die Handlungsträ- ger auf bestimmte Art und Weise, z.B. als Experten oder als Betroffene, inszeniert (vgl. Burger, 2005, 339f.). Dabei dient die Personalisierung – sowohl der Experten als auch

96 der Betroffenen – der Konkretisierung abstrakter (in der AU i. d. R. gesundheitlicher) Themen (vgl. Burger, 2005, 346f.). Handlungsträger, die als Experten anzusehen sind und den Kategorien Gesund- heitsexperten (Person/en) und Gesundheitsexperten (Institution / Organisation) zugeordnet wurden, werden in den untersuchten AU-Ausgaben in ihrer professionellen Rolle dargestellt. Diese Inszenierung der Expertenschaft und der wissenschaftlichen Autorität dient dazu, Glaubwürdigkeit und Seriosität in Bezug auf die vermittelten Inhalte zu vermitteln und dadurch Vertrauen in das Medium und ein positives Image des Mediums aufzubauen. Handlungsträger der Kategorie Betroffene hingegen werden in den untersuchten AU-Ausgaben als ‚Leute wie du und ich‘ inszeniert, so dass dem Thema bzw. der Krankheit durch die Personalisierung ‚ein Gesicht gegeben‘ wird; möglicherweise kann die Darstellung der Betroffenen auch als Identifikationsangebot verstanden werden. In den untersuchten AU-Ausgaben sind es deutlich häufiger Handlungsträger der Kategorien Gesundheitsexperten (Personen) und Gesundheitsexperten (Institu- tion / Organisation) als der Kategorie Betroffene, die in den analysierten Textsorten handeln und zu Wort kommen. Zugleich kommen keine Handlungsträger der Kategorien Prominente und Andere vor, von denen anzunehmen wäre, dass sie eher der Unterhaltung dienten. Dies bewirkt, dass die untersuchte Apothekenzeitschrift eher informierenden, belehrenden und ratgebenden als unterhaltenden Charakter aufweist (vgl. Burger, 2005, 338). Insbesondere in den Textsorten Bericht und Feature erfolgt häufig eine Mehr- fachnennung der Handlungsträger, so dass beispielsweise Handlungsträger innerhalb eines Textes mehrfach zu Wort kommen und / oder handeln. Zudem treten mehrere Gesundheitsexperten unterschiedlicher Institutionen und / oder Gesundheitsexperten und Betroffene innerhalb eines Textes auf. Diese Perspektivenvielfalt ebenso wie die Mehrfachnennung einzelner Handlungsträger dient dazu, Glaubwürdigkeit und Seriosität zu vermitteln. Dadurch soll nicht nur Vertrauen in das Medium, sondern auch in die im Medium inszenierten Handlungsträger – vor allem die Gesundheits- experten – aufgebaut werden. Dies legt den Schluss nahe, dass übergeordnet auf die Schaffung eines positiven Images der in der Gesundheitsbranche tätigen Handlungs- träger abgezielt wird.

LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 1. Büteführ, N. 1995. Zwischen Anspruch und Kommerz: Lokale Alternativpresse 1970–1993. Systematische Herleitung und empirische Überprüfung. Münster, New York: Waxmann. (= Internationale Hochschulschriften, Bd. 183) 2. Burger, H. 2005. Mediensprache: eine Einführung in Sprache und Kommunikationsformen der Massenmedien. 3. Aufl. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter. 3. Deutsche Post AG (Hrsg.). 1995. Handbuch Kundenzeitschriften. Konzeption,

97 Herstellung und Vertrieb von Kundenzeitschriften. München: Europa-Fachpresse- Verlag. 4. Hackl-Rößler, S. 2006. Textstruktur und Textdesign. Textlinguistische Untersuchungen zur sprachlichen und optischen Gestaltung weicher Zeitungsnachrichten. Tübingen: Narr. 5. Hardenbicker, M. 1999. Kundenzeitschriften. Ein linguistischer Beschreibungsansatz auf kommunikationsanalytischer Grundlage. Frankfurt / Oder: Viademica. 6. IVW-Richtlinien [online]. Richtlinien für die IVW-Auflagenkontrolle von Kundenzeitschriften. 2001. Abrufbar unter:http://daten .ivw.eu/download/pdf/ Presse_Richtlinien_Kundenzeitschriften.pdf (abgerufen am 17.11.2010) 7. Kerlikowsky, H. 1969. Public Relations-Zeitschriften: Kunden-, Werk-, Haus- und Aktionärszeitschriften. In: Dovifat, E. (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Publizistik. Bd. 3. Berlin: de Gruyter. S. 552–561. 8. Kleinert, N. 2008. Trojanisches Pferd Kundenzeitschrift: Journalismus versus Public Relations. Die Magazine von Audi, BMW, Mercedes-Benz und Porsche in der Analyse. Stuttgart: ibidem. 9. Leonhard, J.-F. & Burkhardt, A. & Ungeheuer, G. (Hrsg.). 1999–2002. Medienwissenschaft: ein Handbuch zur Entwicklung der Medien und Kommunikationsformen. 3 Bde. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter. (= Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft; 15) 10. Mediadaten – AU [online]. Abrufbar unter:https://www .mediadaten-online.com/ mediadaten/tarife/kundenmagazin/apotheken/a/apotheken_umschau_kombi_a_ b/titel_13914.html (abgerufen am 17.11.2010) 11. Weichler, K. & Endrös, S. 2005. Die Kundenzeitschrift. Konstanz: UVK. 12. Wilkens, K. 2010. Stützstrumpf der Nation. In: Die Zeit 1/2010 (30.12.2009). Abrufbar unter:http://www .zeit.de/2010/01/Apotheken-Umschau?page=all (abgerufen am 17.11.2010)

SANTRAUKA Veikėjai klientų žurnaluose. Žiniasklaidos kalbos tyrimas vaistinės verslo pavyzdžiu Margit Breckle

Klientų žurnalai lingvistiniu požiūriu mažai tirti. Straipsnyje pristatomas tekstynu pagrįstas bandomasis tyrimas, kuriame nagrinėjamas vaistinių verslo klientų žurnalas. Daugiausia dėmesio skiriama veikėjų inscenizavimui vaistinės žurnalo redakcinėse dalyse, tokioms kategorijoms kaip sveikatos ekspertai (asmuo arba asmenys) ir susiję asmenys bei daugkartiniam veikėjų paminėjimui. Straipsnyje pavyzdžiais iliustruojama ir argumentuotai teigiama, kad veikėjų inscenizavimas padeda sukurti patikimumo ir rimtumo, pasitikėjimo žurnalu ir jame inscenizuotais veikėjais įvaizdį. Tuo taip pat siekiama sukurti teigiamą sveikatos verslo atstovų įvaizdį.

98 Discourse Markers in English and Lithuanian Texts

Janina Buitkienė Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., LT-08106, Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The paper is devoted to a contrastive analysis of the use of discourse markers in English and Lithuanian on the basis of four scenes from T. Williams’ play “A Streetcar Named Desire”. The study addressed the following research questions: 1) what are the most frequently used discourse markers in the analysed texts? and 2) what are similarities / differences in the usage of concrete markers in the two languages? The research was conducted in the framework of Conversation Analysis; descriptive and contrastive analyses were used to achieve the above mentioned aims. The analysis showed that English and Lithuanian almost identically differentiate between textual and interactional functions of discourse markers; however, the usage of concrete items differs. The most noticeable difference is that Lithuanian tends to omit quite a considerable number of markers used in English (zero correspondence); in addition, there is no one-to-one correspondence between concrete items. In most cases, English markers tend to have a more versatile character. Key words: discourse markers, textual function, interactional function, frequency, text.

INTRODUCTION Discourse markers (DMs), also known as pragmatic markers (Andersen, 2001), discourse particles (Aijmer, 2002) etc attracted linguists’ attention because of, to some extent, the emergence of some new branches of linguistics such as pragmatics and discourse analysis. Certain particles, which could not be attributed to a clearly defined grammatical category, appeared to play a very important role in human communication which became the focus of attention of linguistic researches. As a result, linguists’ interest concentrated on the essence of discourse markers, their functions, (non) propositional meaning, their grammaticalization, and taxonomy. Different researchers and linguistic schools they represent approach discourse markers from a number of different perspectives, .i e. from the point of view of discourse analysis, ethnomethodological conversation analysis, speech act theory, relevance theory etc (Aijmer, 2002, 7). They have also been analysed in the context of a variety of different

99 registers / genres as well as contrastively: English and Spanish counterparts (Down- ing, 2006), English and Norwegian / German counterparts (Johansson, 2006) etc. Not much research has been done in the Lithuanian language: thus there is not much evidence about their classification or description of their functions. Masaitienė (2003) investigated discourse markers in English and Lithuanian everyday conversation and came to a conclusion that “the analysis <…> revealed both parallels and differences in the use of discourse markers in the two languages” (ibid, 69). However, the material investigated was a certain number of English and Lithuanian recorded conversations, i.e. there was no adequacy on the content plane. Therefore, on the other hand, it might be interesting and contributing to the development of discourse markers’ theory in Lithuanian to compare their usage, frequency, some of their functions on the material of the same ‘content plane’, i.e. the original and its translation. The aim of this study, thus, is to define the most frequently occurring discourse markers in English and Lithuanian texts and to compare their distributional patterns.

1. MATERIALS AND METHODS It is important to mention a serious shortcoming of the material. Discourse markers are characteristic of conversational interaction where the speaker and the addressee are in direct contact and where prosody is crucial for the interpretation. However, our material is written. Literary genre, closest to lively conversation, is drama dialogue. According to Short (1996), discourse structure of drama possesses features both similar to and different from casual conversation. The scholar claims that drama dialogue differs from conversation mainly in 1) it is written to be spoken while conversation is unprepared and unrehearsed and 2) normal non-fluency does not occur in drama dialogue. On the other hand, both drama dialogue and casual conversation share certain similarities such as turn-taking patterns; characters or persons perform certain speech acts; their utterances are situation dependent; they may say one thing but mean something else etc (Short, 1996, 174 – 181). The drama dialogue being closest to natural conversation, we chose, as a material for the investigation of discourse particles, T. Williams’ play A Streetcar Named Desire and its translation into Lithuanian (four scenes). Therefore, the research was partly conducted in the framework of Conversation Analysis. Descriptive analysis aimed to establish the frequency of discourse markers (in textual and interactual functions) in the two languages while contrastive analysis focused on the similarities / differences in the usage of these markers. The working hypothesis behind this study was that if English and Lithuanian texts (and not only of these two languages) employ varied patterns for text / discourse cohesion (Buitkienė, 2008, 2010), they might use different discourse markers to express a similar function in the same contextualized situation. The study, thus, addressed the following research questions: 1) what are the most frequently used discourse

100 markers in the analysed texts of the two languages? and 2) what are the adequacies / inadequacies in discourse markers’ usage in English and Lithuanian?

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Recent studies, dealing with discourse analysis and pragmatics, tend to focus on certain linguistic items (e.g. well, so, after all, yeah etc) which were given numerous labels: discourse markers (Schiffrin, 2003), pragmatic markers (Andersen, 2001), discourse particles (Aijmer, 2002), pragmatic connectors (Stubbs, 1995) etc. The variety of labels scholars adhere to could be explained by the approach they adopt to these particles. Schiffrin takes into consideration four aspects of communicative knowledge while analyzing them, namely expressive, social (which are closely interrelated) as well as cognitive and textual abilities (ibid, 54). Such being the case, the label discourse particle or marker seems to be the most appropriate as it covers both pragmatic and discoursal (including cohesion and coherence) features of our interaction. Stubbs (ibid) also has in mind text connectivity when he uses the term pragmatic connectors. Andersen, on the other hand, argues that these items, possessing “a relatively low degree of lexical specificity and a high degree of context sensitivity” (ibid, 40), tend to be more pragmatically oriented and involve the speaker’s relationship to the hearer, to the utterance or to the whole text. Therefore, the scholar prefers the term pragmatic markers. However, his understanding of pragmatic markers is wider than that of discourse markers. In addition, he claims that the diversity of terms could be traced to geographical factors or certain linguistic schools. To quote the scholar,

Although there seems to be little consensus as to how this category ought to be defined and delimited and as to which items constitute the inventory of pragmatic markers in English <…>, this class is generally (and in the current study) taken to include items studied within the European ‘Parti- kelforschung’ tradition, i.e. so-called ‘pragmatic particles’ <…> and within the Anglo-American ‘discourse marker’ tradition <…>. It also includes the commonly discussed class of ‘connectives’ like so, therefore and but <…> and so-called ‘pragmatic expressions’ such as I mean and you know (ibid, 39).

This understanding of the items under discussion, however, includes both their pragmatic and textual importance as well as their functions in human communication. The so-called ‘connectives’, which are more oriented towards text cohesion, help the addresser to correctly convey logical-semantic relationships between propositions, and the addressee – to appropriately interpret them. Other definitions of the particles are more oriented towards different aspects of social interaction: speakers’ attitudes towards each other and the message being conveyed, power relations, politeness principles etc. The scholar at the same time admits that it is problematic to classify these items and place them in a certain category (to develop a taxonomy of

101 markers) mainly due to their multi-functionality and the degree of propositional meaning some of them still retain. Therefore, in this study the preference is given to the term discourse markers. Yet another issue, important in the discussion of discourse markers, is their poly- functionality. As, according to Andersen (2001, 65), it is useless to develop a taxonomy of markers, it is more worthwhile to focus on their functions in a concrete linguistic (or interactive) situation; moreover, markers’ taxonomy and their functions are, in a way, interconnected. In this study we will follow, to some extent, the scholar’s view on the main functions of discourse markers, i.e. subjective, interactional and textual. The subjective function is defined as the attitudinal relation that exists between the addresser and the proposition contained in the utterance, and the markers which fulfil this function can express a different degree of commitment towards the proposition presented. Discourse markers, which next to expressing the speaker’s attitude towards proposition, also convey his/her attitude to or relationship with the addressee, are claimed to fulfil interactional function. In this case, interactional function of certain particles is approximate to that of hedges and other mitigating devices, aimed to express power relations, solidarity, and politeness (to preserve the speaker’s and listener’s positive / negative face). Because the two above mentioned functions deal with attitudinal approaches towards the message being conveyed and the addressee, consequently, sometimes the difference is very slippery and difficult to pin down as the scholar himself noted: “The two aspects of marker meaning discussed so far, the subjective and interactional aspects, are necessarily interwoven”; “Interactional and subjective functions, as defined here, commonly intersect” (Andersen, 2001, 74 – 57 ). The textual function of discourse markers is viewed as a means to ensure text cohesion, thus enhancing coherence, and such markers as and, but, moreover etc are claimed to contribute to the structure and coherence of the discourse. It should be mentioned, however, that many linguists dealing with text / discourse analysis, attribute these items to cohesive devices (Ellis, 1992; Hasan & Halliday, 1976; Toolan, 1998 etc). Taking into consideration the above mentioned, in this study subjective and interactional functions come under the heading interactional, and the distinction is made between two functions of discourse markers: the textual function and the interactional one.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Textual and interactional discourse markers are different in their nature. As it was mentioned, some items such as and, but etc primarily were treated as cohesive devices, clarifying the semantic or logical relationship between the previous and the following information, and only later they were “promoted” to the rank of discourse markers. Interactional markers, on the other hand, were treated as “signposts” in conversation, as the words we constantly use in conversation when we need to pause to think of what to say, to shift to a new topic, to clarify something, to make a repair in com-

102 relationship between the previous and the following information, and only later they were “promoted” to the rank of discourse markers. Interactional markers, on the other hand, were treated as “signposts” in conversation, as the words we constantly use in conversation when we need to pause to think of what relationship between the previous and the following information, and only later they were “promoted” to theto rank say, of to discourse shift to markers.a new topic, Interactional to clarify markers, somethi on theng, otheto maker hand, a wererepair treated in co asmmunication, “signposts” and so on, i.e. in conversation,munication,when we express as the and words ourso on,weattitude constantly i.e. when towards use we in the expressconversation message our whenitself attitude we and need communitowards to pause cation theto think message partners. of what itself This difference in their nature, therefore, determined almost identical incidence of markers in their textual and to say,and to communicationshift to a new topic, partnersto clarify somethi. Thisng, difference to make a repairin their in co mmunication,nature, therefore, and so on,determined i.e. wheninteractual we express functions our attitude in to thwardse analysed the message texts itself(Fig. and1). communication partners. This difference in theiralmost nature, identical therefore, incidence determined of almostmarkers identical in their incidence textual of markersand interactual in their textual functions and in interactualthe analysed functions textsin the (Figanalysed. 1) .texts (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: General distribution of DMs in English and Lithuanian

FigureFigure 1:As General it1: can General distribution be seen distribution fromof DMs Figure in of English DMs 1, in textsand English Lithuanian in English and Lithuanian and Lithuanian demonstrate a similar picture concerning the usage of discourse markers in textual (22% and 23%) As it can As beit canseen befrom seen Figure from 1, Figuretexts in 1,English texts andin EnglishLithuanian and demonstrate Lithuanian a similar demonstrate a similar pictureand concerning interactional the usage (78% of discourse and 79%) markers functions in textual. This (22% leads and 23%)to a andconclusion interactional that (78% the two and functionspicture79%) functions. concerning of discourseThis leadsthe usage to markers a conclusion of discourse are that rather themarkers two distinct functions in textual (i .ofe. discourseattitudinal (22% andmarkers approaches23%) are and rather interactional and (78% and 79%) functions. This leads to a conclusion that the two functions of discourse markers are rather distincttext (i.e.cohesion attitudinal as claimed approaches earlier), and text and cohesion both aslanguages claimed earlier), differentiate and both between languages them differentiatedistinct between (i.e. attitudinal them almost approachesadequately. and text cohesion as claimed earlier), and both languages almostdifferentiate adequatelyHowever, between as the. them research almost showed, adequately. there is no one-to-one correspondence of DMs (textual function) However, in both languagesHowever, as the (Fig. research as 2). the researchshowed, showed, there is thereno one-to-one is no one-to-one correspondence correspondence of DMs of DMs (textual (textualfunction) function) in both languages in both (Fig. languages 2). (Fig. 2).

Figure 2: Frequency of DMs (textual function) in English and Lithuanian9 13 As FigureFigure 2 shows,2: Frequency the most oftenof DMs used (textual discours efunction) marker (textual in English function) and in bothLithuanian languages is and Figure(English) 2:and Frequency its Lithuanian of DMs equivalent (textual ir. However,function) the in dataEnglish also indicateand Lithuanian that the English9 and (32 instances)As is Figuremore frequent 2 shows, than thethe Lithuanian most often ir (14 usedinstances). discourseIt seems thatmarker as a (textualtextual marker function) and in both languagesAs Figure is 2 andshows, (English) the most and often its used Lithuanian discours eequivalent marker (textual ir. However, function) the in both data languages is 9 Thealsoand number (English)indicate of occurrences thatand of theits DMs Lithuanian English (textual function) and equivalent (32 in Figure instances) 2ir does. However, not coinciis morede the in bothfrequent data languages also than indicate because the we thatLithuanian skipped the English and (32 the leastinstances) occurring items:is more in English frequent only (1), than but of the course Lithuanian (1), and, oh (1);ir (14in Lithuanian instances). gal (2),It ta seemsþiau (2), betthat kaip as (1), a textual marker and taigi ir(1), (14 žinoma instances) (1). . It seems that as a textual marker and is more applicable than its counterpart ir. What happens in the 91Lithuanian language? It employs other means, 9 and The thenumber most of occurrences frequent of substitutions DMs (textual function) for and in Figure are 2zero does correspondence,not coincide in both languages or cases because of we skipped the least occurring items: in English only (1), but of course (1), and, oh (1); in Lithuanian gal (2), taþiau (2), bet kaip (1), taigi (1), žinoma (1). 91

13 The number of occurrences of DMs (textual function) in Figure 2 does not coincide in both languages because we skipped the least occurring items: in English only (1), but of course (1), and, oh (1); in Lithuanian gal (2), tačiau (2), bet kaip (1), taigi (1), žinoma (1).

103 omission of this marker in the Lithuanian language14, or its replacement by o (see Fig. 3). Consider some examples:

1(a) BLANCHE: <…> I would like to leave a number if I may. Magnolia 9047. And say it’s important to call. (p. 125) 1 (b) BLANŠA. Jei galima, paliksiu savo numerį. Magnolija devyniasdešimt – keturiasdešimt septyni. ( ) Pasakykit jam, kad svarbus reikalas. (p. 547) 2 (a) STANLEY: What’s this here? A solid-gold dress, I believe! And this one! (p. is more applicable than its counterpart ir. What happens in the Lithuanian language? It employs other means, and5 the7) most frequent substitutions for and are zero correspondence, or cases of omission of this 2marker (b) STENLIS. in the Lithuanian Čia kas?language Ne10 suknelė, or its replacement o grynas by lobis. o (see O Fig. šitas? 3). Consider (p. 498) some examples: 1(a) BLANCHE: <…> I would like to leave a number if I may. Magnolia 9047. And say it’s important to call.Gal, (p. bet, 125) taigi were other Lithuanian markers which replaced and. 1 (b)The BLANŠA. next Jei most galima, frequently paliksiu savo used numer textualƳ. Magnolija discourse devyniasdešimt marker in – keturiasdešimtEnglish isbut septyni. (10 oc ( - ) Pasakykit jam, kad svarbus reikalas. (p. 547) currences);2 (a) STANLEY: however, What’s this its here? counterpart A solid-gold in dress, Lithuanian I believe! Andbet comprisedthis one! (p. 57) only 5 cases of all textual2 (b) STENLIS. markersýia. kas?The Ne ways suknel toơ rendero grynasbut lobis. into O šitas?the Lithuanian(p. 498) language were as follows: o, tačiau, Gal, bet bet, kaiptaigi orwere the other omission Lithuanian of markers the particle which replaced (Fig. 3) and.. E.g.: The next most frequently used textual discourse marker in English is but (10 occurrences); however,3 (a) its BLANCHE: counterpart in Now, Lithuanian then, bet let comprisedme look atonly you. 5 cases But ofdon’t all textual you look markers. at me, The Stella, ways tono, render but into the Lithuanian language were as follows: o, taþiau, bet kaip or the omission of the particle (Fig.no, 3). no, E.g.: not till later….(41) 3 (b) BLANŠA. Na,pasirodyk, pasirodyk. O į mane nežiūrėk, Stela, ne, ne, 3 (a) BLANCHE:ne....(487) Now, then, let me look at you. But don’t you look at me, Stella, no, no, no, not till later….(41) 3 (b)4 BLANŠA.(a) BLANCHE: Na,pasirodyk, Margaret, pasirodyk. that O Ƴ manedreadful nežiǌ rway!ơk, Stela, So ne,big ne, with ne.... it,(487) it couldn’t be put in 4 (a) BLANCHE:a coffin! Margaret,But had that to dreadful burned way! like So rubbish!big with it, (p it. couldn’t48) be put in a coffin! But had to burned like rubbish! (p. 48) 4 (b)4 BLANŠA:(b) BLANŠA: Siaubinga Siaubinga Margaritos Margaritos mirtis. Ji taip mirtis. išpurto, Jikad taip nebetilpo išpurto, Ƴ karst kadą. nebetilpo( ) Teko sudeginti į karstą. – kaip kokƳ šiukšlynan( ) Teko išmetamsudegintią daikt – kaipą. (p. 493)kokį šiukšlynan išmetamą daiktą. (p. 493)

Figure 3: 3:Correspondence Correspondence between between English English and Lithuanian and Lithuanian DMs (textual DMs function) (textual and function)and but and and but Similarly to textual discourse markers, interactional markers also tend to show differences in theirSimilarly frequency to and textual distribution discourse (Fig.4). markers, interactional markers also tend to show differences in their frequency and distribution (Fig.4).

14 Zero correspondence, or cases of omission, are marked by x in Figures. 10 Zero correspondence, or cases of omission, are marked by x in Figures. 92 104 Figure 4: Frequency of most commonly used DMs (interactional function) in English FigureFigure 4: Frequency4: Frequency of most commonlyof most usedcommonlyand DMs Lithuanian (interactional used DMs function) (int ineractional English and Lithuanianfunction) in English and Lithuanian

The The mostmost frequently used used interactional interactional marker inmarker English in isEnglish oh (30 is instances);oh (30 instances); however, its how - ever,translation its translationThe into Lithuanian most into frequently acquired Lithuanian multivariate used acquired interactional forms (see multivariate Fig. 5 marker below). forms In in most English(see cases Fig this . 5 is below)marker oh (30 . In instances); however, its mostwastranslation omitted, cases i.e. this into we markerwitness Lithuanian zero was correspondence omitted, acquired i. e(10 . multivariatewe cases): witness zero forms correspondence (see Fig. 5 below).(10 cases): In most cases this marker 5(a)wasSTELLA omitted,: Oh, youi.e. can’t we describewitness someone zero correspondenceyou are in love with! Here(10 iscases): a picture of him! (p. 46) 5(b)5STELA(a) STELLA: ( )Nelengva: Oh, apib youǌdinti can’t žmog describeǐ, kurƳ myli! someone Štai jo nuotrauka. you are (p.in love491) with! Here is a picture of him! (p. 46) 5(a) ThereSTELLA were: Oh, cases you (8) whencan’t the describe English markersomeone oh was you rendered are in intolove Lithuanian with! Here by itsis a picture of him! (p. 46) equivalents5(b)5(b)STELA STELAo (o!):: ( ):Nelengva ( )Nelengva apib apibūdintiǌdinti žmog žmogų,ǐ, kur kurįƳ myli! myli! Štai Štai jo nuotrauka. jo nuotrauka. (p. 491)(p. 491) 6(a) BLANCHE: Oh. She’s – out? (p. 38) 6(b) BLANŠA: There O! Ir were ji... iš ơjus? cases (p. 486) (8) when the English marker oh was rendered into Lithuanian by its equivalentsThere wereo ( o!cases): (8) when the English marker oh was rendered into Lithuanian by its equivalents Other Lithuanian o ( o!variants): for oh were a?, a...a, na, taip, ką jǌs. The other most frequently used interactional marker was well, which also in many cases was omitted6(a) BLANCHE: in the Lithuanian Oh text:. She’s – out? (p. 38) 6(b)6(a) BLANŠA: BLANCHE: O! Ir Oh ji.... She’s išơjus? – out? (p. (p 486). 38) 7(a)6STELLA(b) BLA: WellN, ŠA:I thought O! Iryou’d ji... volunteer išėjus? (pthat. 48info6rmation) – if you wanted to tell me. (p. 43) 7(b) STELA: ( ) Maniau... pati pasisakysi... jei panorơsi. (p. 489) Other Lithuanian variants for oh were a?, a...a, na, taip, ką jǌs. Other LithuanianThe other mostvariants frequently for oh were used a?, interactional a...a, na, taip, marker ką jūs. was well, which also in many cases was omittedThe otherin the mostLithuanian frequently text: used interactional marker waswell, which also in many cases was omitted in the Lithuanian text: 7(a) STELLA: Well, I thought you’d volunteer that information – if you wanted to tell me. (p. 43) 7(b)7(a)STELA STELLA: ( ) Maniau...: Well, I thought pati pasisakysi... you’d volunteer jei thatpanor informationơsi. (p. 489) – if you wanted to tell me. (p. 43) 7(b) STELA: ( ) Maniau... pati pasisakysi... jei panorėsi. (p. 489)

Figure 5: Correspondence between English and Lithuanian DMs (interactional function) oh and well 93 105 According to Masaitienė’s (2003) findings, well also turned out to be the most frequent in the analysed conversations, second afteryou know. Biber et al. (1999) char- acterize this marker as a versatile one fulfilling many functions such as unexpected response, pause / delay, topic shift, turn-taking etc. We can presume, then, that its most direct Lithuanian equivalent na (together with na, gerai, na, ką jūs, na štai) has a narrower range of functions; therefore, other markers are used instead, e.g. gerai, man regis, o, zero correspondence etc. The study is a modest attempt to roughly compare the functioning of discourse markers in English and Lithuanian in drama genre. However, the study is far from exhaustive. As noted by some scholars (e.g. Johansson, 2006), the use of discourse markers is a choice of style, and markers might also demonstrate some sort of stylistic sensitivity. The research on discourse markers in writing is a research on style in writing; therefore, the data presented in this study might differ from that obtained in spoken or other written genres. Then, indeterminacy of translation should also be taken into consideration. There do not exit clear-cut boundaries as to what extent discourse markers can be precisely dealt in translation. Finally, each discourse marker is versatile in its use, as it was the case with, for example, oh and well (directionality of translation being from a foreign language into mother tongue). Every marker might have different meanings in different situations and a wide range of correspondences in Lithuanian. Therefore, a further study is necessary to establish these correspondences.

CONCLUSIONS The results of the analysis showed that the English and Lithuanian languages bear a strong similarity in the usage of discourse markers, as far as their frequency is concerned, in textual and interactional (interactional and subjective functions came under one heading) functions. Concrete textual markers, however, did not demonstrate one-to-one correspondence. The most distinctive difference was a considerable number of omissions of textual markers in Lithuanian. Recurring textual markers in English were and and but while in Lithuanian – ir, zero correspondence, and o. Similarly to textual discourse markers, interactional markers also varied in their incidence and distribution, oh and well ranking highest in English and the omission of a marker and o – in Lithuanian. As the data showed, there were numerous counterparts in Lithuanian corresponding to English oh and well, which could be accounted for by more outstanding versatility of the mentioned English DMs. However, genre peculiarities, translations problems etc should also be taken into consideration while drawing the final conclusions.

106 REFERENCES 1. Aijmer, K. 2002. English Discourse Particles. Evidence from a Corpus. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 2. Andersen, G. 2001. Pragmatic Markers and Sociolinguistic Variation Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 3. Biber et al., 1999. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. London: Longman. 4. Buitkienė, J. 2008. Translating Poetic Discourse. In: Rusistika i komparativistika, 3, P. 15-23. 5. Buitkienė, J. 2010. Are the Same Cohesive Patterns Used in English and Lithuanian Texts? 6. In: Studies About Languages, 16, P. 28-32. 7. Downing, A. 2006. The English Pragmatic MarkerSurely and its Functional Counterparts in Spanish. In: Pragmatic Markers in Contrast ed. by Aijmer, K. & Vandenbergen, A. Amsterdam: Elsevier Ltd. 8. Ellis, D. G. 1992. From Language to Communication. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 9. Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. 1992. Cohesion in English. London: Longman. 10. Johansson, S. 2006. How Well Can Well Be translated? On the English Discourse Particle Well and its Correspondences in Norwegian and German. In: Pragmatic Markers in Contrast ed. by Aijmer, K. & Vandenbergen, A. Amsterdam: Elsevier Ltd. 11. Masaitienė, D. 2003. Discourse Markers in English and Lithuanian. In: Kalbotyra, 53, P. 64-70. 12. Schiffrin, .D 2003. Discourse Markers: Language, Meaning, and Context. In: The Handbook of Discourse ed. by Schiffrin, .D et al. Blackwell Publishing. 13. Short, M. 1996. Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose. Longman / Pearson. 14. Stubbs, M. 1995. Discourse Analysis. The Sociolinguistic Analysis of Natural Language. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 15. Toolan, M. 1998. Language in Literature. An Introduction to Stylistics. London: Arnold.

SANTRAUKA Diskurso žymikliai anglų ir lietuvių kalbų tekstuose Janina Buitkienė

Straipsnyje aptariami diskurso žymiklių funkcijos ir atitikmenys anglų ir lietuvių kalbų tekstuose. Gauti rezultatai rodo, kad žymiklių, atliekančių tekstinę ir interakcinę funkcijas, dažnis yra beveik vienodas abiejose kalbose. Konkrečių diskurso žymiklių analizė rodo tendenciją lietuviškame tekste šiuos vienetus išleisti (nulinis atitikimas), t. y. jie rečiau vartojami nei angliškame tekste. Kita vertus, anglų kalbos diskurso žymikliai yra labiau universalūs.

107 Questions in Linguistics Master’s Theses

Nida Burneikaitė Vilnius University, 3 Universiteto St, Vilnius, Lithuania LT–01513, [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper aims at exploring questions as a rhetorical strategy in the MA thesis genre. 80 theses (ca. 1.1 million words) in English linguistics by native (British) and non-native (Lithuanian) speaker students were examined to establish the functions, frequencies and distribution of questions in the theses. It was found that in the NS corpus questions are used in all the structural parts of the theses, whereas in the NNS corpus questions are confined to the introductory, research review/theoretical background and results/discussion sections. The frequency of questions is much higher in NS (329) than in NNS theses (70). The ‘broad’ discourse functions of questions in MA theses are: reader engagement, discourse organization and authorial evaluation. The ‘narrow’ functions include creating interest, providing a framework for research and conveying the purpose(s) as well as making new knowledge claims, raising further issues and suggesting ways of improving methodology. The most common functions in the NS corpus are evaluating other authors’ views and foregrounding important information in the following text; whereas in the NNS corpus – defining and explaining terms and concepts. The differences in the distribution, frequencies and functions of questions in NS and NNS theses reflect different perceptions of British and Lithuanian students of the MA thesis genre and the rhetorical context of the writing situation. Key-words: MA thesis, questions, native and non-native speakers.

INTRODUCTION Asking questions in educational settings is traditionally associated with the name of Socrates and referred to as ‘the Socratic technique’. Nowadays, teaching by asking questions is a common method at all levels of education. Questioning techniques range from eliciting answers from the interlocutors to soliciting their agreement and solidarity. Research of academic discourse shows that questions are used extensively in spoken genres, such as lectures or seminars (Piazza, 2002), and that academic speech has a much higher incidence of questions than academic writing (Swales, 2004). While it is true that questions are much more common in conversation than in academic prose, this does not imply that they are more appropriate for spoken

108 genres. In textbooks, questions are a didactic strategy of explaining by posing a question and providing an answer (Biber et al, 2000). In research writing, they are overt interactional resources allowing the author to involve the reader into an implicit dialogue (Thompson, 2001). The whole academic writing is “governed by questioning” and academic texts are written “with questions in mind” (Hyland, 2002, 529). This work draws on the assumption that questions in academic writing perform three ‘broad’ discourse functions – reader engagement, discourse organization and authorial evaluation. The specific ‘narrow’ rhetorical functions of questions will be established by our analysis of MA theses.

1. RESEARCH ON QUESTIONS IN ACADEMIC WRITING Most research into the use of interrogatives in academic writing has been comparative and revealed considerable differences with regard to discipline, genre or the writer’s cultural-linguistic background. Research results have important implications for academic writing instruction.

1.1. Disciplinary, generic and cultural differences A study by Chang and Swales (1999) of questions in research articles across the disciplines of statistics, linguistics and philosophy found that philosophy articles contained the highest number of questions. This is not surprising considering that philosophy is a purely argumentative field. Hyland’s (2002, 537) study of research articles in 8 disciplines found that questions were largely confined to the soft disciplines (e.g. philosophy, social sciences, applied linguistics) and were hardly present in some of the hard disciplines (e.g. electronic engineering). This can be explained by the overall epistemological differences between disciplines: in the soft fields, research material is more “explicitly interpretative” than in the hard sciences, therefore, writers have to engage their readers into the discussion rather than treat them as “implied observers”. In a study of medical journals covering a wide range of genres, such as editorials, review articles, research papers, clinical cases, letters, book reviews, news and meeting reports, Webber (1994) found that the more overtly personal genres (e.g. editorials, letters, news) contain more interrogatives, whereas the more objective genres (e.g. meeting reports, clinical cases) contain just one instance each. Webber (1994) identifies a variety of techniques for which interrogatives are used throughout the texts, including “kicking off”, closing and pointing forward, distancing and hedging, provocation and criticism. In a study of textbooks, research articles and undergraduate project reports Hyland (2002, 534) found that textbooks had the highest frequency of questions (13.3), whereas articles and reports showed similar and much lover frequencies (5.5 and 4.3 respectively). Since questions are a means of conveying authority, this difference can be explained by the different power relations between the writer and the reader in the genres compared: the textbook allows an “overt display of authority”, whereas

109 the research paper requires “egalitarian stance”, and the student report “encourages a recognition of the readers’ greater experience and power”. Virtanen (1998) compared questions in native (Am & Br) and non-native (Dutch, Finnish, Finland-Swedish, French, German, Spanish and Swedish) speaker student essays and found a significant overuse of questions inNN S texts. Ädel’s (2003) study of NS and Swedish learners showed similar results. Virtanen explains this overuse by the students’ lack of confidence which may result in a tendency to ask questions rather than make statements. However, Ädel’s study shows that the functions of questions in student texts range from highly tentative and showing doubt (which indicates lack of confidence) to highly interactive and persuasive (which indicates high confidence). My assumption would be that asking questions is just another feature of the prevailing informal style of NNS undergraduate writing in European contexts as reported by Gilquin and Paquot (2008). This lack of register awareness can be explained by the influence of speech, L1 transfer, teaching-induced factors and developmental factors.

1.2. Recommendations for students What do academic writing guidebooks say about the use of questions? As sum- marised by Hyland (2002, 531), the pedagogic literature is “largely silent” on the use of questions. A survey of 40 manuals and guidebooks by Chang and Swales (1999, 148) reported only 2 instances of advice on direct questions. It may look surprising, but only quite recently academic prose was considered to be “consistently monologic” (Biber et al, 2000, 212) and therefore the use of questions (as well as other dialogic features) was “frowned on in style guides for academic and research writing” (Swales and Feak, 2000, 17). In more recent guidebooks representing the Scandinavian tradition, the use of questions is considered to be a natural characteristics of research writing and is discussed alongside with other rhetorical strategies. Rienecker and Jorgensen (2003) explain why open-ended questions are better than closed questions in the formulation of the research problem. They also suggest that if students ask a few research questions, they should distinguish between one key question and related working questions. Academic writing guidebooks by Lithuanian scholars of English do not touch upon the use of questions (cf. Katkuvienė and Šeškauskienė, 2006, Verikaitė, 2006).

2. THIS STUDY 2.1. Aims, materials and methods We can see from the review above that the issue of using questions in academic writing – both in research and pedagogy – is a rather neglected area. It is certainly under-researched and also, possibly, under-estimated as a rhetorical strategy of per- suasion. My aim in this paper is to contribute to the study of questions in academic discourse, namely, MA student writing, by trying to answer the following questions:

110 1. What are the discourse functions of questions in the MA thesis genre? 2. What is the overall frequency and distribution of questions in MA theses? 3. How do NS and NNS texts compare in terms of question use? The material used for the study is a corpus (ca. 1.1 million words) of Master’s theses in Linguistics consisting of two parts: native (British) and non-native (Lithuanian) speaker student texts (ca. 0.5 and 0.5 million words respectively). The corpora include 40 theses each from 4 universities in each country. Questions were retrieved by using the Find function of the MS Word software. The manual retrieval was necessary and sufficient as it was part of the functional analysis of questions. The functions were established in the context of the text and in relation to their location in the thesis. Then, the questions were counted within each structural part of the thesis and compared between the corpora. This was accompanied by a comparative count of a few selected functional categories. All numbers given in the paper are absolute frequencies, as they are sufficiently informative for my purposes. Comparability across the two corpora is possible, as both corpora contain the same number or papers and are of similar size.

2.2. What is a question in this study? The items for the study were selected primarily on the basis of two formal criteria: the question mark and the interrogative form (example 1). There were a few instances though of direct questions without the question mark (example 2) or indirect questions with the question mark (example 3) or some other ‘inaccuracies’ (example 4). I decided to include these ‘inaccurate’ instances into the data as I think they perform the same rhetorical functions as the ‘accurate’ instances do. (1) How should proficiency be measured?(ns) (2) What are the correspondences […] between the languages; (nns) (3) How learners acquire languages?(ns) (4) Such circumstances beg the question why did it occur?(ns) One may wish to ask – are we talking about rhetorical questions? This is not an easy question to answer. In the studies reported above questions are classified as rhetorical and real (Hyland, 2002), topical, rhetorical and tag (Ädel, 2003) etc. However, there seems to be little agreement as to what rhetorical questions are. Scholars admit that questions in academic writing are not quite rhetorical in the traditional understanding of the word. Traditionally, rhetorical questions are associated with public speaking and defined as questions that “expect no answer” as the answer is either “self-evident” or “immediately provided by the questioner”; they can often be asked “for dramatic effect” (McArthur, 1995, 867). In modern academic writing rhetorical questions are defined as “figures of thought” that enhance ethos by “manipulating the flow of discourse” and by decreasing distance between the rhetor and the audience”. Some authors maintain that they function informatively as “an oblique way of communicating information” (Halmari and Virtanen, 2005). As the concept of rhetorical

111 rhetorical questions are. Scholars admit that questions in academic writing are not quite rhetorical in the traditional understanding of the word. Traditionally, rhetorical questions are associated with public speaking and defined as questions that “expect no answer” as the answer is either “self-evident” or “immediately provided by the questioner”; they can often be asked “for dramatic effect” (McArthur, 1995, 867). In modern academic writing rhetorical questions are defined as “figures of thought” that enhance ethos by “manipulating the flow of discourse” and by decreasing distance between the rhetor and the audience”. Some authors maintain that they function informatively as “an oblique way of communicating information” (Halmari and Virtanen, 2005). As the concept of rhetorical questions has becomequestions rather has fuzzy,become we rather are not fuzzy, going we are to usenot thisgoing term to use here. this Rather, term here we . shall Rather, treat we questions as a rhetoricalshall treat strategy questions with as nume a rhetoricalrous discourse strategy functions. with numerous discourse functions.

3. RESULTS3. RESULTS AND AND DISCUSSION DISCUSSION This Thissection section presents presents a brief aquantitative brief quantitative analysis analysisof the use of ofthe questions use of questions in NS and in NNSNS MA theses, followedand NN byS MA a qualitative theses, followed analysis byof athe qualitative discourse analysis functions of thatthe questionsdiscourse mayfunctions perform in the MA thesis genre. that questions may perform in the MA thesis genre.

Title 8

Subheadings 47

Introduction 46 22 NS Researchreview,theoreticalbackground 120 26 NNS Methodology 18

Results,discussion 55 22

Conclusions 35

0 50 100 150 200

Figure 1: The distribution of questions in MA theses (absolute frequencies). Figure 1: The distribution of questions in MA theses (absolute frequencies).

3.1. Distribution of questions in MA theses 3.1. FigureDistribution 1 shows of the questions number inof MAquestio thesesns in the different structural parts of the theses – title (8), Figure chapter 1 andshows section the number subheadings of questions (47), intrin theoduction different (68), structural research parts review of the and theoretical backgroundtheses – title (146), (8), methodologychapter and section(18), results subheadings and discussi (47),on introduction(77), and conclusions (68), research (35). I have decided toreview distinguish and theoreticalthese particular background structural (14 parts6), methodologyas they can be (18),easily results identified and in discussion every thesis, regardless of(77), whether and orconclusions not they are (3 visu5). Ially have presented decided as to a distinguishseparate chapter these with particular a specific structural heading. We can see that questions are used in all the structural parts of the thesis, but this is characteristic of NSparts texts as they only. can In be NNS easily texts,identified questions in every are thesis, confined regardless to three of chapters:whether or introducnot theytion, research review/theoreticalare visually presented background as a separate and results/discussion. chapter with a specific Questions heading were. found in 33 NS and 20 NNS theses.We The can total see numberthat questions of questions are usedfound in in all the the tw ostructural corpora differs parts significantly:of the thesis, NS but corpus has 329 questions,this is characteristic whereas NNS of N corpusS texts hasonly only. In NN 70 S questions.texts, questions This undeare confinedruse can beto three explained by the Lithuanianchapters: introduction,students’ perceptions research ofreview/theoretical themselves and theirbackground audience: and they results/discussion may not have the. courage to constructQuestions their were discourse found asin a33 dialogu NS ande of 20 equal NN Spartners theses . withThe their total readers number who of arequestions superior to them. In contrast, undergraduate essays by West European NNS students are characterized by the overuse of found in the two corpora differs significantly:N S corpus has 329 questions, whereas NNS corpus has only 70 questions. This underuse80 can be explained by the Lithuanian students’ perceptions of themselves and their audience: they may not have the courage to construct their discourse as a dialogue of equal partners with their readers who are superior to them. In contrast, undergraduate essays by West European NNS students are characterized by the overuse of questions (see 1.1). Paradoxically, this overuse is also explained by the students’ lack of confidence (Virtanen, 1998).

112 We can get the impression that the number of questions in the different structural parts of the thesis is in direct proportion to the length of these parts – the longer the chapter, the more questions it has. But is this the case? The research review/theoretical background chapter has the most questions, but its length is approximately the same as that of the results/discussion chapter. Why is it so? Is this a specific rhetorical feature of the MA thesis genre? We could infer that writing literature surveys is that area of academic writing in which MA students are most experienced and therefore feel authoritative enough to invite the expert readers to join them in their explora- tions. Student writers can present themselves as knowledgeable scholars who have a thorough understanding of the theories on which their research draws and are capable of doing independent analysis. Interestingly, in the case of medical research articles (Webber, 1944), the biggest number of questions occurs in the discussion. It would certainly be more relevant to compare our findings with the linguistics (rather than medical) research articles, however, to my knowledge, no comparable data is available.

3.2. Discourse functions of questions in different structural parts of MA theses What are the specific purposes for which questions are used in the various structural parts of the thesis? As stated in the introduction, my basic assumption is that all questions in academic texts perform three ‘broad’ discourse functions: reader engagement, discourse organization and authorial evaluation. But we can also distinguish various ‘narrow’ discourse functions or specific rhetorical purposes which are realized by questions in student texts. In what follows I will discuss these specific purposes in relation to their location in the different structural parts of the theses.

3.2.1. Questions in titles Students use questions in the titles of their theses in order to announce their research problem and create interest simultaneously. 8 British students from 3 universities have used questions in titles. 2 titles consist of a single question (5, 6); 6 cases are compound titles consisting of a question and a nominal phrase either preceding (7) or following (8) the question. In compound titles questions can help to narrow down the topic (as in 7) or to indicate the particular aspect of the issue studied in the thesis (as in 8). (5) How is a ‘good teacher’ defined in a communicative, learner-centered EFL classroom? (ns) (6) What’s in a Word?(ns) (7) Word learning in preschoolers: Are bilingual 3-year-olds less guided by mutual exclusivity than their monolingual counterparts?(ns) (8) Diversity or Convergence? A Study of Speech Features in a Sussex Village. (ns)

113 How does the use of question-titles in MA theses compare to question-titles in other genres? Hyland (2002, 539-540) found that, unlike research articles, undergraduate reports and textbooks contained no questions in titles. He explained this by two reasons: firstly, the content of these genres is broad and therefore “not easily reducible to a single overarching question”; and secondly, both textbooks and undergraduate reports are “principally pedagogic” genres which means that they are “assigned to readers and their intrinsic merits play little part in any decision to read them”. In other words, textbooks and student reports will be read anyway, regardless of whether or not their titles are attractive. Research articles, in contrast, exist in a highly competitive environment and titles are extremely important in promoting the article. As noted by Haggan (2003, 298), research article writers try to “intrigue the reader by presenting a clever, arresting title which catches the attention and acts as a lure into the article itself”. The first argument applies to the MA thesis genre as well – the scope and range of issues covered in an MA thesis makes it difficult to word the thesis title as the interrogative; but the second argument applies only partially – MA thesis writers do have an assigned audience, but this does not imply that they may not wish to intrigue the reader. MA thesis is both a pedagogic genre and a research genre. It is a compulsory assignment and will be read by research advisors and reviewers. But its main purpose is to present the newly created knowledge and persuade the reader to accept it. It is just for this reason that students do want their papers to be attractive and enjoyable, therefore, just like research paper writers, they do wish to promote their papers and arouse the reader’s interest. Example 6 is a nice illustration of the use of a striking expression (a paraphrased Shakespeare quote of “What’s in a name”) to get the reader’s attention.

3.2.2. Questions in chapter/section subheadings Overall, questions used in chapter/section subheadings have the same discourse functions as the titles – they pinpoint the topic or focus the reader’s attention on a particular aspect of the phenomenon under investigation. The structure of question- subheadings is also the same as that of question-titles (compare examples 5–8 and 9–12). Questions as subheadings are found only in the British corpus. (9) How can vocabulary knowledge be assessed? (ns) (10) What is a chunk? (ns) (11) Traditional Grammars Informing EFL Textbooks: Intuition or Evidence? (ns) (12) Why use Politically Correct terms? The link between language and reality. (ns) Interrogative subheadings are not just visual signals enhancing readability of text, but also interpersonal signals inviting the reader to look for an own answer to the question posed and compare it with the answer given. Particularly involving, according to Hyland (2002, 543), is a series of interrogative subheadings which not

114 only generate interest in what follows but also “create some sense of progression as writer and reader work together towards a greater understanding of the topic”. This is illustrated in 13–15. (13) 3.2 What makes a good vocabulary learner? (14) 3.3 How many words do learners need to know? (15) 3.4 What information is necessary to ‘know’ a word?(ns)

3.2.3. Questions in introductions By introductions I mean not only the first introductory chapters of the theses, but also the mini-introductions to various other chapters singled out by subheadings ‘introduction’. The introductory sections are mainly intended to provide a framework for discourse. Questions help the writer to realize this purpose in a number of ways: they are used to focus the text and give a sense of direction for the reader either globally within the thesis (16) or locally within a section (17); to indicate a problem, a gap in research (18); and to convey the purpose(s) of research (19). (16) People use language to form and maintain their social relationships. In what way does language influence social behaviour? What means of language are employed to achieve a certain goal? Many linguists are interested…(nns) (17) History and Relativity: why do we Employ Politically Correct Terms? (this is a subheading – N.B.). What is behind Politically Correct terminology? Its main aim is to protect minorities, but who decides when a new term is needed to protect them? What should the new term be and why is this superior to the previous one?(ns) (18) The Japanese Ministry of Education includes a prescribed list of high-frequency word forms which must be included in EFL textbooks approved for use in lower-secondary; however, to what extent does the implementation of the Ministry’s prescribed list in Ministry-approved textbooks, in fact, reflect a principled approach to lexis and a systematic treatment of word-forms which exposes learners to the most common words of English and their meanings and uses? This review determines the lexical content of the …(ns) (19) In the present study I am going to readdress the following questions: How do words refer or what is the mechanism of reference? Do all words refer? Can we differentiate between referential and non-referential use of referring expressions or is there only referential one? (nns) As shown in Figure 1, questions in introductions were used both in British (46) and Lithuanian (22) student texts. Clusters of questions (as in 17 and 19) were also found in both corpora. Such clusters in the initial sections provide a detailed outline of the discussion to follow and therefore enhance comprehensibility of text. Research questions (as in 19) are also a highly reader-friendly strategy. They were used in both corpora. We shall see later how research questions presented in the introduction are recycled in further chapters to remind the reader of the global purpose of the research and contextualize the ongoing discourse into the global framework of the thesis.

115 3.2.4. Questions in the research review and theoretical background section Every thesis contains portions of text with a survey of relevant literature. Here, questions are used for two main purposes: to define and explain key terms and concepts (20, 21); and to discuss and evaluate different views and theories in the field (22–24). (20) What is a wiki? Wikis are websites that allow you to... (ns) (21) Content validity is concerned with the appropriateness of the tasks to test the desired criteria. In other words, do the tasks represent the target language use (TLU) and target language domain (TLD)? (ns) (22) ... What is to be made of these seemingly conflicting arguments? It is difficult say which is the general tendency and which is the exception. (ns) (23) An analysis of this polar situation left Widdowson (1989:131) asking two important questions: Is it possible, in principle, to have grammatical ability without pragmatic ability? Can we have pragmatic ability... without grammatical knowledge or the ability to compose or decompose a sentence with reference to it? While both questions can be answered affirmatively, Widdowson notes that... (ns) (24) Developing the discussion further, Harris (2002) emphasizes that the meanings of modals are not always clear. For grammarians, she says, this offers a solid ground for understanding, but what does it mean to our ESL students? The question raised by Harris is very important to ESL researchers and teachers. (nns) Lithuanian students do use questions to define terms and clarify concepts, in fact, this was the most common function of questions in Lithuanian student theses (28 occurrences out of 70), but they do not use questions to discuss other authors’ views. Interestingly, a couple of Lithuanian students integrated other authors’ questions as quotes into their own text (as in 24), but never asked their own questions in literature surveys, the way British students did (as in 22, 23). This may imply that they perceive questioning as an effective rhetorical strategy, but do not have the confidence or ability to use questions to criticize other researchers’ views or involve the reader in a deeper analysis of established theories.

3.2.5. Questions in the methodology chapter Questions in the methodology chapter are used for the following purposes: to explain the specific procedural issues which were considered by the author-researcher in the process of investigation, either in collecting evidence (25) or analyzing the data (26). Sometimes clusters of questions in the methodology chapter look like a detailed extension of the research questions set out in the introductory chapter, but their function is slightly different – they do not just remind the reader of the initial goals, but also justify the choice of methodology by showing how the research design and procedure will help the student reach those goals (27, 28). In the theses which report experimental studies, testing a new methodology may be as important as (or

116 even more important than) the outcome of the research, in fact, creating and trying out a new methodology is one of the goals of the research. In such cases, questions can be used to explicate the essence of the different foci of the experiment. (25) I was also interested to see if students incorporated other students’ linguistic chunks—phrases, collocations—in their work and comments. When they noticed a gap in their knowledge did they borrow from their peers? (as reported by Warschauer , 1999) and did their writing become more fluent, accurate or complex as a result of comments?(ns) (26) The criteria for making this decision were: Does the word/phrase draw upon particular human attributes in addition to asking, reporting, stating, etc.? Does the surrounding context refer to particular human attributes? (ns) (27) Does the TOEIC test an examinee’s ability to use the English language? Are TOEIC test score gains valid indicators of increased NNS’ English communicative abilities? …Should low TOEIC scores be equated with low communicative abilities? For this investigation, I created a Test of Interactive Communication (TIC) (Appendix 2) with the purpose of…(ns) (28) The experimental research questions specific to this study are: Are there significant differences in pre and post-reading vocabulary measures between the exposure to text only, exposure to text and printed dictionaries, exposure to text and electronic dictionaries, and no exposure to text or dictionary groups? (ns)

3.2.6. Questions in the results and discussion chapter The discourse functions of interrogatives in the results and discussion chapter are diverse, but they can be grouped into two broad categories – analysing, interpreting and evaluating research findings; and contextualizing specific findings within the study and within the area of research. Students use questions as an invitation for the reader to have a closer look at the research findings and interpret them together (29). Analysis of linguistic data (examples) is the most common purpose of using questions in the results and discussion sections of the Lithuanian students’ theses (30). Critical examination and evaluation of findings often results in making new knowledge claims (31), raising doubts (32) or asking further questions (33) about the issues under investigation. (29) But what happens when two small systems are paired together? Figure 5.6 shows that on average…(ns) (30) In (5), is the “cause-effect” relation an entailment or an implicature? (nns) (31) So even such terms as those used above are not always considered to be based on racial hatred, and so we could ask ourselves: why suggest new terms at all?(ns) (32) It is often possible to re-invent slogans or puns in another language, but is this translation? (nns)

117 (33) But if the model can be used to successfully illustrate the emergence of vowel systems in populations of agents, why can it not model the emergence of contact vowel systems? Perhaps contact languages are too complex to model at all. (ns) Recycled research questions (34) are used to remind the reader of the global purposes presented in the introduction and to show how the findings help to achieve those purposes (34). The same can be said about definitions/explanations of terms (35). Students ask the reader to think about how the findings of the current study relate to a larger body of research in the discipline (36) or just show how the findings discussed in one section relate to the following section (37). This last example is a good illustration of how questions help to foreground what is important in the text to follow. (34) In CALL literature one of the main motivations for getting students to write online … is that it provides them with a real audience. What were the students attitudes to writing for a real audience? It was interesting that the two students interviewed…(ns) (35) What is a project? … Can an assignment that continues on sporadically over several years be termed a project? When exactly does a project begin and, for that matter, technically end? … Must a project have a defined life? And so on. (nns) (36) Do the results of the questionnaires I carried out myself correspond to what others have said or to what we might expect? (ns) (37) In the light of this finding then, would it be possible to maintain a compositional system if one managed to emerge? And secondly, could a compositional system emerge if similar steps were used as in the models to curb ambiguity? These questions will both be addressed in the next two experiments. (ns)

3.2.7. Questions in conclusions It may seem that in the concluding chapter student writers should be giving answers rather than asking questions. Students do give answers to the research questions posed in the introductions by providing their findings, interpretations and conclusions, but they also recapitulate those questions (37) so that the reader – without having to refer back to the introductory chapter – would see the direct link between the purpose and the result of the study. In the final sections of the thesis students use questions to close the paper (Webber, 1994), which may include raising issues for further research (39), suggesting ways for improving methodology (40) or indicating unresolved problems (41). (38) Let us summarise the findings of the analysis by returning to the three questions posed in the introduction to this dissertation: ~ How are opinions presented by English and German speakers in argumentative discussions? Evidence suggests that … ~ How are compatibility and incompatibility of opinions dealt with in discussions? In English, compatibility of opinions is…(ns)

118 (39) Both of the ethnographic samples of this study were of the monologic aisatsu genre. What about different speech acts and genres, at different events around campus? Observations and recordings of dialogues and conversations would provide fodder for a whole new range of inquiry. (ns) (40) But other ways of measuring success could be further explored e.g. do courses such as ‘Supporting Children’s Early Learning’ encourage parents, longer term, to feel more confident about coming into schools and communicating with schools (e.g. do any parents become school governors)? (ns) (41) Euphemism shows how people encode their ideals and beliefs within societal boundaries, but the question of just whom we are concealing our true thoughts from, and why, remains. Are we controlling our euphemisms, or are they controlling us?(ns) Such closing questions (39–41) are different from all the other questions found in the theses as they remain unanswered within the discourse of the thesis. On the one hand, they are “real” (Hyland, 2002, 552) and genuinely seek information (and can be seen as propositional or ideational use of language); on the other hand, they can still perform the rhetorical functions of involving the reader and showing the author’s stance (and can be seen as metadiscoursal or interpersonal use of language). By pointing to the future, such seemingly ideational questions invite the reader to think, together with the writer, about the research directions suggested. A particularly effective strategy is the use of a question in the very final sentence of the thesis (41), which looks like a kind of “punch line” (Webber, 1994) and leaves no one indifferent.

CONCLUSIONS Research of the use of questions in academic discourse has shown that the frequency, distribution and functions of questions in texts are determined by both disciplinary and generic factors. This study has looked into the genre of MA thesis in the discipline of Linguistics and analysed questions in native (British) and non- native (Lithuanian) speaker student texts. The main results and conclusions are offered below. Questions are used in all the structural parts of the MA thesis – introduction, research review/theoretical background, methodology, results/discussion and conclusions as well as the title of the thesis and chapter/section subheadings. This distribution is particularly characteristic of the British corpus; whereas in the Lithuanian corpus questions are confined to the introductory, research review/theoretical background and results/discussion sections. The overall ‘broad’ discourse functions performed by questions in MA theses are: reader engagement, discourse organization and authorial evaluation. As a dialogic feature of written texts, questions help to create writer-reader interaction by engaging the reader cognitively or emotionally. They invite the reader to think together with the writer and seek the reader’s consent or approval. Questions can show the writer’s

119 stance or opinion and serve as a means of conveying authority or discrete criticism. They may help writers to structure their texts by foregrounding important information in the following text and thus facilitate text comprehension. The specific ‘narrow’ rhetorical functions of questions established in Linguistics MA theses include: announcing a research problem, presenting research focus, creating interest, narrowing down the topic (in titles); indicating aspects of the issue studied, creating a sense of progression (in subheadings); providing a framework for discourse, indicating a gap in research, conveying the purpose(s) (in introductions); defining and explaining key terms and concepts, comparing, evaluating and discussing views and theories (in the research review and theoretical background sections); focusing on procedural issues in collecting evidence or analyzing data, justifying the choice of method, explicating experiments (in the methodology chapter); analysing examples, interpreting research findings, making new knowledge claims, raising doubts, asking further questions, contextualizing findings within the study and the area of research (in the results and discussion chapter); showing the link between research purpose and result, closing the paper, suggesting ways of improving methodology, indicating unresolved problems, raising issues for further research (in conclusions). In the Lithuanian student theses, the range of functions is limited to: defining and explaining key terms and concepts, conveying the research purpose(s), providing a framework for research, analyzing examples and discussing theories. Questions are much more numerous in NS (329) than in NNS texts (70), and the difference is highly significant. The enormous underuse of questions in the Lithuanian student writing can be explained by the Lithuanian students’ perceptions of themselves and their audience – they may not have the confidence to construct their discourse as a dialogue of equal partners with the readers who are superior to them in terms of experience and expertise. The highest frequency of questions is found in the research review/theoretical background sections of the thesis. The most common functions in theN S corpus are evaluating theories and foregrounding the important information in the following text, whereas in the NNS corpus – defining and explaining key terms and concepts. This shows that MA student writers feel most authoritative and comfortable when they write this section of their MA thesis. Students present themselves as knowledgeable scholars who have a thorough understanding of the concepts and theories on which their research draws and can engage their readers in academic discussion. The implications of this study for research and teaching are as follows: it would be interesting to find out whether the underuse of questions in Lithuanian student writing is an outcome of L1 transfer or instruction-induced factors; as far as the teaching of writing is concerned, both NS and NNS students should be sensitised to the various rhetorical choices available to them through the use of questions so that they can make informed decisions in constructing their own discourses.

120 REFERENCES 1. Ädel, A. 2003. The Use of Metadiscourse in Argumentative Texts by Advanced Learners and Native Speakers of English. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Goteborg University. 2. Biber, D. et al 2000. The Longman Grammar of Written and Spoken English. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education. 3. Chang, Y. and J. M. Swales. 1999 Informal elements in English academic writing: threats or opportunities for advanced non-native speakers. In: C. N. Candlin and K. Hyland (eds.) Writing: Texts, Processes and Practices. London and New York: Longman. P. 145-167. 4. Gilquin, G. and M. Paquot. 2008. Too chatty. Learner academic writing and register variation. In: English Text Construction 1(1): P. 41-46. 5. Haggan, M. 2004. Research paper titles in literature, linguistics and science: dimensions of attraction. In: Journal of Pragmatics 36: P. 293-317. 6. Halmari, H. and T. Virtanen (eds.) 2005. Persuasions Across Genres – A Linguistic Approach. John Benjamins. 7. Hyland, K. 2002. What do they mean? Questions in academic writing. In: Text 22(4): P. 529-557. 8. Katkuvienė, L. E., Šeškauskienė, I. 2006. Research Matters. Second edition. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. 9. Piazza, R. 2002. The pragmatics of conducive questions in academic discourse. In: Journal of Pragmatics 34: P. 529-527. 10. Rienecker, L., Jorgensen, P. S. 2003. Kaip rašyti mokslinį darbą. (Vertė L. Vaicekauskienė). Aidai. 11. Swales, J. M. 2004. Research Genres. Cambridge: CUP. 12. Swales, J. and C. Feak. 2000. English in Today’s Research World: A Writing Guide. University of Michigan Press. 13. Thompson, G. 2001. Interaction in academic writing: Learning to argue with the reader. In: Applied Linguistics 22(1): P. 58-78. 14. Verikaitė, D. 2006. Writing an MA Paper. Gudelines for students of English Philology. Vilnius: VPU leidykla. 15. Virtanen, T. 1998. Direct questions in argumentative student writing. In: Granger S. (ed.) Learner English on Computer. London: Longman. P. 96-106. 16. Webber, P. 2004. The function of questions in different medical journal genres. In: English for Special Purposes 13(3): P. 257-268.

121 SANTRAUKA Klausimų vartojimas kalbotyros magistro darbuose Nida Burneikaitė

Moksliniuose tekstuose klausimai gali būti vartojami įvairiais tikslais – įtraukti skaitytoją į dialogą ir kartu diskutuoti; išreikšti nuomonę, kritiką, siekiant pritarimo; išryškinti tai, kas svarbiausia būsimoje teksto dalyje ir pan. Klausimai – paveiki reto- rinė strategija, sukurianti tarpasmeninį santykį tarp autoriaus ir skaitytojo. Straipsnyje tyrinėjami klausimai kalbotyros magistro darbuose, parašytuose anglų gimtąja ir negimtąja kalba. Išanalizuota 80 darbų (ca. 1,1 mln. žodžių) iš Britanijos ir Lietuvos universitetų siekiant nustatyti klausimų kiekį, pasiskirstymą ir funkcijas. Visais šiais aspektais pastebėti ryškūs skirtumai tarp gimtakalbių ir negimtakalbių tekstų. Lietuvių darbuose randama daug mažiau klausimų nei britų (atitinkamai 70: 329); klausimai naudojami ne visose struktūrinėse darbo dalyse; funkcijų spektras daug siauresnis. Tai leidžia manyti, kad dėl skirtingų kultūrinių ir edukacinių tradicijų studentai skirtingai suvokia magistro darbo rašymo retorinę situaciją, tikslus, savo ir adresato santykį ir pan. ir todėl skirtingai vartoja tarpasmenines priemones. Tyrimu nustatytos klausimų funkcijos magistro darbuose aprašomos pagal jų vietą darbo struktūroje ir iliustruojamos pavyzdžiais.

122 Formulare im Unterricht Niderländisch als Fremdsprache

Jacek Karpiński Universität Wrocław, 50-138 Wrocław, Polen, ul. Kuźnicza 21-22, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Forms are used nowadays in virtually every institution. Their number, length and diversity are still increasing. Forms are an essential tool of organizing work because they enable, for instance, to garner the necessary data, to divide the data according to their subject matters, to connect them etc. It emerges from the public opinion poll conducted in 2008 by Trendbox BV that forms are indeed understandable but they have a very negative image. They are viewed as impersonal, matter-of-fact and complicated. Moreover, in forms one may often find errors which adversely affect their intelligibility. The paper presents a short description of a form as a type of text and then attention is paid to the analysis of the course in the Dutch language for foreigners Help! Een cursus Nederlands voor anderstaligen. However, particular attention is paid to the problems of forms (not) touched upon in this course. The third part of the article deals with the issues of applying forms in foreign language teaching (on the basis of teaching Dutch as a foreign language). Key words: Formulare, Verständlichkeit, Fehler, Unterricht Niederländisch als Fremdsprache

EINLEITUNG Formulare werden gegenwärtig in fast allen Institutionen benötigt. Ihre Anzahl, Länge und Vielfalt nehmen laufend zu. Sie sind als Arbeits- und Organisationsmittel wichtig, weil sie die Möglichkeit bieten verschiedene Angaben zu sammeln, sie nach Themen zu sortieren, gleichzeitig miteinander zu verbinden und zu speichern. Aus der Öffentlichkeitsumfrage 2008 von Trendbox BV geht hervor, dass Formulare welche von der Mehrheit zwar ziemlich verstanden wurden, ein schlechtes öffentliches Bild abgeben. Sie werden als unpersönlich, sachlich, kompliziert und steif angesehen. Au- ßerdem tauchen regelmäßig unterschiedliche Fehler auf, die einen negativen Einfluss auf die Verständlichkeit von Formularen haben. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird erst das Formular als Textsorte präsentiert, dann stelle ich kurz eine Analyse des Niederländisch als Fremdsprache-Methode Help! Een cursus Nederlands voor anderstaligen vor, die sich auf die darin (nicht) behandelte

123 Problematik der Formulare bezieht. Den dritten Teil meines Beitrags bildet ein Plä- doyer für den Gebrauch von Formularen im Fremdsprachenunterricht (am Beispiel des Unterrichts Niederländisch als Fremdsprache).

1. FORMULARE Jeder Bürger wird, mal seltener, mal häufiger mit der Aufforderung konfrontiert, ein Formular auszufüllen. Dies darf eigentlich nicht weiter verwunderlich sein, denn Formulare sind das wichtigste Arbeits- und Organisationsmittel in verschiedenen Einrichtungen. Die Vielzahl und die Vielfältigkeit der Kontakte zwischen den Bür- gern und den verschiedenen Ämtern oder Behörden erfordert es, dass dem Bürger geholfen wird, „seine Rechte trotz der großen Zahl und oft schweren Verständlichkeit der sie bestimmenden Rechtsvorschriften zu wahren“ (Fotheringham, 1979, 25) und dass die erworbenen Informationen zum Bürger auf eine geordnete Weise gesammelt werden. Ein Mittel dafür ist das Formular. Grosse (1979, 13) definiert das Formular als „eine asymmetrische Dialogsituation, in der eine Behörde ein streng formalisiertes Interview mit einem Bürger auf ein genau fixiertes Ziel hin führt“. Er fügt noch hinzu, dass die Frage- und Antwortpartner sich nicht einander kennen und dass sie sich auf verschiedenen Ebenen befinden. Der Fragende (ein Amt, eine Behörde etc.) ist nach Grosse (1979, 13) „keine Einzelperson, sondern ein anonym bleibendes Fachkollegium, das in wechselseitigen Beratungen den Fragetext konzipiert hat“. Genau dies unterscheidet ihn von dem Antwortpartner, der eher eine Einzelperson ist. Fotheringham (1979, 25) bezieht sich dagegen bei der Definition des BegriffsFormular auf die Brockhaus-Enzyklopädie und definiert das Formular als „einen Vordruck (…) in dem die wiederkehrenden Teile schriftlicher Mitteilungen in zweckmäßiger und einheitlicher Anordnung festgelegt sind“. Die wichtigste Funktion der Formulare ist das Sammeln und das Ordnen der In- formationen zu einem bestimmten Thema. Am häufigsten werden sie bei Institutionen, Behörden und Ämtern verwendet. Wenn es also keine Formulare gäbe, wären die insti- tutionelle Kommunikation und die Bearbeitung erforderlichen Angaben unvollständig, ungeordnet und für eine schnelle Bearbeitung nicht geeignet (vgl. Helbig, 1979, 44). Dank der Formulare wird also die Möglichkeit geschafft, die Angaben zum Bürger, der die Vordrucke ausfüllt, zu ordnen. Sie dienen aber nicht nur dem Aufnehmen und dem Ordnen sondern auch dem Verknüpfen, dem Ausgeben und dem Speichern der Informationen. Grosse (1979, 11) fügt noch hinzu, dass „Rationalisierungsmaßnahmen mithilfe der Datenverarbeitung und schließlich die Erstellung von Statistiken, um den Stand der Erfahrungen für die Fortschreibung zu erwartender künftiger Entwicklungen operationabel zu machen (…) [den] Vordruck zu einem unentbehrlichen Instrumen- tarium der Verwaltung [gemacht haben]“. Aus diesem Grund sollten Formulare für den Bürger leicht verständlich und benutzerfreundlich sein. Die Realität sieht aber anders aus. Aus der Öffentlichkeitsumfrage 2008 von Trendbox BV geht hervor, dass Formulare, die von der Mehrheit zwar ziemlich verstanden wurden, ein schlechtes

124 öffentliches Bild abgeben. Sie werden als unpersönlich, sachlich, kompliziert und steif angesehen. Außerdem tauchen regelmäßig unterschiedliche Fehler auf, die einen negativen Einfluss auf die Verständlichkeit von Formularen haben. Helbig (1979, 50 ff.) weist darauf hin, dass die Anordnung des gedruckten Textes für die Übersichtlichkeit der Formulare von besonderer Bedeutung ist. Er unterscheidet fünf Systeme des Ausdrucks, die der Übersichtlichkeit dienen, nämlich: eine Textlücke, einen Fragebogen, Leitwörter, eine Tabelle und einen Auswahltext. Man muss sich jedoch dessen bewusst sein, dass in den Formularen immer öfter Mischformen aller dieser Systemen gebraucht werden. Bei dem Textlücken – Sy- stem muss man Angaben einfügen, Wort- bzw. Satzteile oder Zahlen ergänzen. Das Fragebogen – System beruht auf dem Beantworten verschiedener Fragen. „Das Ne- beneinanderstellen von Frage und Antwort lässt diese durch die unterschiedliche Schriftbild leicht unterscheiden“ (Helbig, 1979,5 1). Leitwörter eigenen sich besonders gut für kurze, allgemein verständliche Ausfüllanweisungen. Tabellen werden v.a. dann benutzt, wenn man mehrere gleichartige Angaben mit verschiedenen Daten machen muss. Auswahltexte kommen am häufigsten dann vor, wenn es nur eine beschränkte Anzahl der möglichen Antworten gibt. Auch die Sprache der Formulare unterscheidet sich deutlich unter verschiedenen Aspekten von der Alltagssprache. Albrecht (1979, 76) weist darauf hin, dass „Formu- lare als hochstandardisiertes Kommunikationsmittel im Verkehr Bürger – Öffentliche Verwaltung (Behörde) ihre eigene Sprache [haben]. Dieses besondere, von der Um- gangssprache abgehobene, vor allem von rechtlichen und administrativen Belangen bestimmte Sprach- und Zeichensystem scheint – als künstliche Sprache – von der gleichsam ‚natürlichen‘ Alltagssprache wesentlich unterscheiden…“ Der ausfüllende Bürger wird u.a. mit folgenden sprachlichen Strukturen konfrontiert: • asyndetische Verbindungen (Verbindungen ohne Bindewörter); die Zu- sammenhänge müssen aus dem Kontext geleitet werden; asyndetische Verbindungen kommen im Niederländischen öfter als im Deutschen vor, weil das Kasussystem im Niederländischen weitestgehend verschwunden ist. Im Deutschen sind die Zusammenhänge zwischen Wörtern deutlich an den Artikeln zu erkennen; • zahlreiche Zusammenstellungen; • �ominalisierungen; • Fachterminologie; • Abkürzungen; • Komplexe Sätze (vor allem in den Anmerkungen zum Ausfüllen des For- mulars oder in den zusätzlichen Angaben, die mit dem ausgefüllten For- mular verbunden sind; in den meisten Fällen befinden sie sich ganz unten oder auf der Rückseite des Formulars und sind kleiner geschrieben als der Haupttext); • Infinitiv-Konstruktionen; • Ungenaue Informationen.

125 2. FORMULARE IN DER LEHRMETHODE NIEDERLÄNDISCH ALS FREMDSPRACHE „HELP! EEN CURSUS NEDERLANDS VOOR ANDERSTALIGEN“ Help! ist ein Niederländischkurs für Anderssprachige, die in den Niederlanden oder in Flandern eine wissenschaftliche Ausbildung absolvieren möchten. Das Ziel ist es, dass die Lernenden nach ihrem erfolgreichen Kursabschluss die niederländische Sprache auf dem C1-Niveau beherrscht haben. Sie sollten also ein breites Spektrum anspruchsvoller Texte verstehen, sich spontan und fließend ausdrücken können, die Sprache im gesellschaftlichen Umgang und ihrem Berufsleben oder während ihrer Ausbildung bzw. im Studium erfolgreich und flexibel nutzen können. Das Erstellen von klaren, gut strukturierten und ausführlichen Texten sollte für sie auch kein Pro- blem sein. Help! ist eine kommunikative Methode; die Alltagskommunikation steht also im Mittelpunkt. Der Kurs, der in der Zusammenarbeit des NCB [Nederlands Centrum Buitenlanders; Niederländisches Zentrum für Ausländer], des Universitäts- sprachezentrums an der Universität in Nimwegen und des James Boswell Instituts (Universität Utrecht) entstanden ist, besteht aus 3 Teilen: • Help! 1 Kunt u mij helpen? (16 Einheiten) • Help! 2 Helpt u mij even? (10 Einheiten) • Help! 3 Zal ik u even helpen? (13 Einheiten) Zu jedem Lehrbuch gehört auch ein Lehrerhandbuch, Kassetten oder CD’s und Wörterlisten. Da dieser Kurs sich Kommunikation auf Niederländisch zum Ziel setzt, wollte ich untersuchen, wie die Problematik der Formulare dargestellt wird. Gibt es überhaupt Formulare in den analysierten Lehrbüchern? Was lernen Studenten darüber? Zu welchem Zweck werden Formulare verwendet? Was wird mit Hilfe von Formularen geübt? Die Resultate lassen viele Wünsche offen. Im ersten Teil kommen Formulare nur drei Mal vor. Alle werden als Leseverste- henstexte gebraucht, wo man Fragen zum Text beantworten, etwas ankreuzen oder ausfüllen muss: • Lektion 2: Kennismaken [Bekanntschaft machen] – Text zum Leseverstehen (Fragen zum Text) • Lektion 11: Op reis [Auf der Reise] – Text zum Leseverstehen (Zutreffendes ankreuzen) • Lektion 16: Vacature! [Die freie Stelle!] – Text zum Leseverstehen (Formular mit den Informationen aus dem Text ausfüllen) Der zweite Teil der Lehrmethode Help! bietet überhaupt nichts, was mit den Formularen verbunden ist. Im dritten Teil sieht es schon besser aus, nichtsdestotrotz wird dort immer noch zu wenig auf die Problematik der Formulare aufmerksam gemacht. Formulare kommen hier nur zweimal vor und werden als Texte zum Üben der Schreibfertigkeit gebraucht:

126 • Lektion 3: Transport [Der Transport] – Text zum Schreiben (eine Frage aus dem Formular schriftlich beantworten) • Lektion 6: Werk [Die Arbeit] – Text zum Schreiben (Zutreffendes ankreuzen und offene Fragen beantworten)

3. EINSATZ DER FORMULARE IM UNTERRICHT NIEDERLÄNDISCH ALS FREMDSPRACHE Im Fremdsprachenunterricht sollte man einen großen Wert auf die typischen Merkmale der Formulare legen und dies aus verschieden Gründen. „Eine wichtige Aufgabe des Lehrenden ist, die Lernenden bewusst zu machen, dass alle Texte ty- pisierbar sind, und sie zu befähigen, die spezifischen Merkmale der Textsorten, die besonders populär im institutionellen Bereich sind (z.B. Formulare), zu erfassen“ (Karpiński 2007, 336). Formulare sind authentische Texte, mit denen jeder früher oder später konfrontiert wird. Seit den späten 70er Jahren wird die Forderung nach Authentizität der Texte von Didaktikern nachdrücklich erhoben. Die Lerner sollen auf konkrete Kommu- nikationssituationen vorbereitet werden und deswegen sollten auch die Texte im Unterricht authentisch sein. Morrow (1991, 16) ist der Meinung, die auch ich vertrete, dass „Sprache, von ganz wenigen Ausnahmen abgesehen, nicht im Hinblick auf den Sprachstand des Angesprochenen vereinfacht werden sollte.” Auch Solmecke (1996, 81f.) ist der Meinung, dass man den Schülern die Gelegenheit bieten sollte, sich an die authentischen Texte und ihre Eigenheiten zu gewöhnen, Strategien zu entwickeln, mit deren Hilfe die Lernenden fremdsprachliche Texte selbstständig in Realsituationen erschließen könnten und mit ihnen trotz aller Schwierigkeiten fertig zu werden. Wegen ihrer Authentizität sind Formulare ein interessantes und leicht anwendba- res didaktisches Mittel in der Fremdsprachendidaktik. Mithilfe der Formulare lassen sich aber verschiedene andere Fähigkeiten und Fertigkeiten üben: • Die allgemeine Struktur der Formulare (sehr oft ist das Formular nach dem folgenden Muster gebaut: Bezeichnung des Formulars, eventuell der Name des „Anfragenden“ (der Behörde, des Amtes), der Einführungstext, die Angeben zur Person, die das Formular ausfüllt und zusätzliche Informa- tionen am Ende); Formulare dienen auch verschieden Zwecken. Sie müssen ausgefüllt werden wenn man sich für etwas einschreibt, wenn man etwas bekommen möchte, wenn man eine Frage an eine Institution hat etc. Es gibt also viele verschiedene Formulare, die sich ganz voneinander unterscheiden. Das Erkennen der Funktion eines Formulars ist manchmal interkulturell bedingt, deswegen sollte man nicht vergessen, auch diese Problematik im Fremdsprachenunterricht zu besprechen. • typischer Wortschatz für Formulare (eine ausführliche Analyse polnischer, deutscher und niederländischer Formulare ergab, dass in fast allen Beispielen solche Wörter wie Vor- und Achtername, Geburtsdatum, Nationalität, Beruf

127 usw. vorkommen). Der typische Wortschatz sollte einen wichtigen Platz im Fremdsprachenunterricht finden. • Abkürzungen sind auch ein Bestandteil der Formulare. Sehr oft bereiten sie den Lernenden viele Probleme. Die Semantisierung der Abkürzungen scheint mir besonders wichtig. • Methoden für das Ausfüllen von Formularen sind manchmal unterschiedlich. Es gibt verschiedene Systeme des Ausdrucks (siehe oben). Man muss manchmal etwas schreiben, ankreuzen, Nichtzutreffendes streichen, Informationen aus dem einleitenden Text verstehen und das Formular dem nach entsprechend ergänzen. • Leseverstehen – Formulare (v.a. zusätzliche Informationen) können sehr gut als Lesetexte gebraucht werden. • Sprachliche Elemente, die in der Muttersprache nicht vorkommen aber typisch für die Zielsprache sind. So kommen z.B. asyndetische Verbindungen sehr oft in den niederländischen Formularen vor, während im Polnischen alle Zusammenhänge zwischen den Wörtern mithilfe der Flexion ausgedrückt werden. Sehr oft fällt es den Lernenden wirklich schwer, die Relationen zwischen verschiedenen Elementen zu erkennen. • Die Sprachfertigkeit und interkulturelle Aspekte – der Tatsache, dass Ler- nende interkulturell arbeiten und dabei authentisches Material verwenden können, kommt hier die größte Bedeutung zu. Mithilfe der Formulare können verschiedene Themen besprochen werden, die die eigene Kultur von der Kultur des Zielsprachenlandes wesentlich unterscheiden, z.B. Gemeente Hilversum. Formulier Terrasontheffing [Gemeinde Hilversum. Formular Steuerbefreiung des Straßencafés] kann als Ausgangspunkt zum Gespräch über die Ausgehensmöglichkeiten in den Niederlanden, in Flan- dern und im eigenen Land, über das Phänomen terrasjes [Straßencafés], über niederländische/flämische Essgewohnheiten etc. Stad Antwerpen. Meldingskaart [Stadt Antwerpen. Meldungsblatt] als Ausgangspunkt zur Diskussion über die ersten Schritte in den Niederlanden oder in Flandern, über Unterschiede und Ähnlichkeiten zwischen Wohnmöglichkeiten in den niederländischsprachigen Ländern und im eigenen Land, etc. Sportvereniging “De Hollandsche Leeuw”. Aanmelding [Sportvereinigung “Der Holländische Löwe”. Anmeldung] als Ausgangspunkt zum Gespräch über die Rolle des Sports in verschiedenen Kulturen, über Senioren und Sport, über Sport in der Schule vs. Sport in der Freizeit, etc. dienen.

LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 1 Albrecht, R . 1979��. ��Über Differenzen zwischen Alltagswelt, der Medienrealität, der verrechtlichen Realität und der Verwaltungswelt. Versuch einer sozial- und kommunikationswissenschaftlichen Annäherung an das Verhältnis Bürger

128 – Behörde. In: Grosse, S., Mentrup, W. (Hrsg.) Bürger – Formulare – Behörde. Wissenschaftliche Arbeitstagung zum Kommunikationsmittel ´Formular´ Mannheim, Oktober 1979. Mit einer ausführlichen Bibliographie, Tübingen: Narr (= Forschungsberichte / Institut für Deutsche Sprache Mannheim, Bd. 51), S. 76- 95. 2 Dumon Tak, MA,M.A, van Palenstein, LHML.H.M. 2002��. Help! 3. Zal�� ik u even helpen? Boek voor de cursist. Utrecht: NCB. 3 Fortheringham, H. ��1979. ��Allgemeine Gesichtspunkte des Formulars. Gesetzliche�� Begriffe im Formular – Erwartungen des Benutzers an das Formular – Ansatz einer Typologie des Formulars. In: Grosse, S., Mentrup, W. (Hrsg.) Bürger – Formulare – Behörde. Wissenschaftliche Arbeitstagung zum Kommunikationsmittel ´Formular´ Mannheim, Oktober 1979. Mit einer ausführlichen Bibliographie. Tübingen: Narr (= Forschungsberichte / Institut für Deutsche Sprache Mannheim, Bd. 51), S. 25-43. 4 Grosse, S . 1979��. Allgemeine�� Überlegungen zur sprachlichen Fassung von Vordrucken und Formularen. In: Grosse, S., Mentrup, W. (Hrsg.) Bürger – Formulare – Behörde. Wissenschaftliche Arbeitstagung zum Kommunikationsmittel ´Formular´ Mannheim, Oktober 1979. Mit einer ausführlichen Bibliographie. Tübingen: Narr (= Forschungsberichte / Institut für Deutsche Sprache Mannheim, Bd. 51), S. 11-24. 5. ��Ham, E., Tersteeg, W.H.T.M., Zijlmans, L. ��2003. Help! 2. Helpt u mij even? Boek voor de cursist. Utrecht: NCB. 6. ��Ham, E., Tersteeg, W.H.T.M., Zijlmans, L. ��2004. Help! 1. Kunt u mij helpen? Boek voor de cursist. Utrecht: NCB. 7 Helbig, M. ��1979. Der Aufbau und die Gestaltung der Vordrucke. ��In: Grosse, S., Mentrup, W. (Hrsg.) Bürger�� – Formulare – Behörde. Wissenschaftliche Arbeitstagung zum Kommunikationsmittel ´Formular´ Mannheim, Oktober 1979. Mit einer ausführlichen Bibliographie. Tübingen: Narr (= Forschungsberichte / Institut für Deutsche Sprache Mannheim, Bd. 51), S. 44-75. 8 Karpiński, J . ��2007. ��Dschungel der Formulare oder zur Vermittlung der institutionellen Kommunikation im universitären Bereich im interkulturell orientierten DaF-Unterricht. In: Račienė, E., Selmistraitis, L. (Hrsg.) Kalba ir kontekstai. Mokslo darbai. II�� tomas. Vilnius: Vilniaus Pedagoginio Universiteto Leidykla, S. 329-341 9 Morrow, K . 1991��. ��Communicative Language Testing: revolution or evolution? In: Alderson C., Hughes, A. ELT documents 111 – Issues in Language Testing. The British Council, London, S. 9-25. 10. N�ederlandse�� Taalunie 2008: Taalpeil 2008. Burger�� – taal – overheid (abrufbar unter: http://taalunieversum.org/taalpeil/2008/taalpeil_2008.pdf), Stand 31.12.2010. 11 Solmecke, G. 199��6. Authentische Texte – authentisches Hören? In: Kühn, P. (Hrsg.) Hörverstehen im Unterricht Deutsch als Fremdsprache: theoretische Fundierung und unterrichtliche Praxis. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag (= Werkstattreihe Deutsch als Fremdsprache, Bd. 53), S. 79-92.

129 SANTRAUKA Formuliarai nyderlandų kaip svetimos kalbos mokyme Jacek Karpiński

Formuliarai naudojami visose institucijose. Formuliarai padeda surinkti infor- maciją, grupuoti ją pagal atskirus kriterijus, susieti atskiras dalis ir t. t. 2008 metais atlikta visuomenės apklausa (Trendbox BV) parodė, kad formuliarai yra suprantami, bet jie turi neigiamą įvaizdį, būdami nuasmeninti, sudėtingi ir dalykiški. Straipsnio pirmoje dalyje trumpai aprašomas formuliaras kaip teksto tipas. Antro- je dalyje pereinama prie nyderlandų kalbos kurso užsieniečiams analizės. Didžiausias dėmesys kreipiamas į formuliarų, kurie naudojami kursų metu, problemas. Straipsnio trečioje dalyje aptariamas formuliarų pritaikymas mokant užsienio kalbos – mokant nyderlandų kaip užsienio kalbos.

130 L’expression du futur en vieux-perse: Étude de grammaire comparée

Jean-Pierre Levet Université de Limoges, 39E, rue Camille-Guerin, 87036, Limoges, France, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The verb in the Indo-European protolanguage did not possess future tense forms. However, in the languages, that originated form the Indo-European protolanguage, future forms were started to be built from different modal structures. We have carried out the analysis of formation of future tense forms in Old Persian on the base of Darius’s and Xerxes’s texts. Having analyzed Achaemenid texts, we notice how under the influence of subjunctive mood, which had a pure tense function, disappeared *sye/o type forms inherited from the Indo-European protolanguage. However, in the Baltic and Indo-Iranian languages these forms were preserved. We can draw a conclusion, that in the course of time the category under discussion obtained a new form which could have expressed the meaning of request, possibility. The research in Old Persian illustrates conflict of moods in the pre-history of Indo-Eu- ropean languages when there was a need to express non-perfective process in future. Key-words: étude comparative, vieux perse, futur.

L’indo-européen ne possédait pas de futur à proprement parler, le présent de l’indicatif étant de nature à exprimer ce qui, ne relevant ni du passé ni de l’ordre de l’actuel strict, apparaît comme étant l’inaccompli15, qu’il s’agisse du futur immédiat inclus dans le prolongement direct du présent ou encore de l’expression de faits attendus, dont la réalisation, espérée ou possible, correspond à la catégorie de l’éventuel16. Par la suite, chaque langue de la famille s’est dotée des moyens d’expression d’un futur distinct du présent, sans que pour autant tous les liens entre futur et présent aient été complètement abandonnés17.

15 A. Sihler (1995), p. 451 : « PIE did not have future tense as nuch, but, of course, a variety of utterances in all languages refer to events that are neither past nor hic et nunc. These include com- mands, expectations, wishes, possibilities and conditions… In PIE the present probably filled that function ». 16 J. Kellens (1984), p. 260 : « l’inaccompli se divise en « éventuel du présent » et « potentiel du présent ». 17 Ainsi en français contemporain emploie-t-on fréquemment et communément la construction aller + infinitif, ou le présent accompagné d’une notation temporelle (de type « demain »).

131 Cette évolution se caractérise par la diversité des moyens morphologiques18 auxquels il a été recouru, comme suffit à le montrer une comparaison simple établie, par exemple, entre les diverses formations du balte, du slave, du germanique, du sanskrit, du latin et du grec etc. On relève même des divergences notables à l’intérieur d’un même rameau. Ainsi les deux langues iraniennes attestées dans l’Antiquité, l’avestique19 et le vieux-perse20, ont-elles utilisé, dans la construction du futur de leurs verbes, des procédés de carac- térisation qui ne coïncident pas entièrement les uns avec les autres. A l’innovation relative21 que représente l’héritage de l’indo-iranien (un suffixe - hiia /šiia22, à rapprocher de sanskrit -sya <*-sye/o, du futur lituanien en -siu, lette -šu 23 <*sye/o , voir, par exemple, sur la racine *deh3- « donner », sanskrit dāsyāmi et lituanien duosiu,1ère personne du singulier etc.), le morphème complexe *-sye/o indiquant à l’origine un sens désidératif24, l’avestique associe celui de l’indo-européen tardif25, à savoir le recours à un subjonctif exprimant l’éventuel ou la volonté : le subjonctif, comme l’enseigne A. Meillet26, « indique un procès qu’on compte voir se réaliser, soit qu’on le veuille, soit qu’on l’attende simplement ».. Dans ces conditions, le subjonctif, en avestique, « rend un état ou une action qui ne pourra s’accomplir qu’après celle de la principale »27 et ne peut exprimer « le futur de constatation que s’il est accompagné d’un complément ou d’un adverbe de temps »28, mais il se révèle d’un emploi plus fréquent que la formation en -hiia29. Le vieux-perse, en revanche, tout au moins dans le corpus d’inscriptions parve- nues jusqu’à nous, n’atteste, pour ce qui est de l’expression du futur, que l’emploi du

18 Voir, par exemple, O. Szemerényi (1990), p. 285-288. 19 Sur le verbe avestique, on se reportera à J. Kellens (1964) et à K. Hoffmann et .B Forsman (1996). 20 Voir R. Kent (1953) et W. Brandenstein et M. Mayrhofer (1964) ; on citera les textes en vieux- perse d’après la lecture et l’édition de R. Kent ; on en trouvera une excellente traduction en français dans P. Lecocq (1997). 21 Cette réserve est justifiée par le relevé des faits baltes, que tous les comparatistes n’associent cependant pas sans hésitation au futur du sanskrit (voir discussion chez O. Szemerényi (1990), p. 286). 22 K. Hoffmann et .B Forssman (1996), p. 189. 23 Voir A. Vaillant (1966), p. 104-105. 24 Voir B. W. Fortson IV (2005), p. 91 : « Several suffixes containing an *-s- have been reconstructed that were used to form desideratives, that is verbs expressing desire or intent. Some of their descend- ants function as futures, but it is not certain whether any of these were true futures in PIE. How and whether the future/desiderative formations are related to each other is still an open question ». 25 Le subjonctif est inconnu de l’anatolien ; il convient de rappeler que sa présence en sanskrit se limite à la période védique et qu’il disparaît à l’âge classique. 26 A. Meillet (1964), p. 224. 27 J. Kellens (1984), p. 277. 28 J. Kellens (1984), p. 267. 29 Nicholas Sims-Williams, in A. Ramat et P. Ramat (1997), p. 145.

132 subjonctif : « the subjunctive », note R. Schmitt30, « expresses the eventual or potential realization of actions in the present or future ». Cependant certaines des formes lues correspondent par leur structure phoné- tique et morphologique à des futurs d’autres langues, notamment ahatiy, troisième personne du singulier du subjonctif de la racine as- < IE *h1es- « être », celle de latin sum/est/esse, sanskrit asti, vieux-perse astiy, grec ™στί « il est » (indicatif présent).

Ahatiy s’explique par h1es-e-ti, étymon qui est aussi celui du subjonctif védique asati et de l’indicatif futur erit du latin. On peut donc légitimement se demander si le subjonctif du vieux-perse ne pos- sède pas déjà, à l’époque des inscriptions (principalement les règnes de Darius et de Xerxès), après l’avoir acquise dans la préhistoire de la langue, la valeur temporelle d’un véritable futur de l’indicatif, tout en conservant celles, purement modales, d’un authentique subjonctif (éventualité et volonté). Une autre interrogation, tout aussi justifiée, est encore de nature à surgir : les particularités de la syntaxe des textes achéménides ne permettrait-elle pas de comprendre le processus grammatical qui a abouti à la création d’un indicatif futur à partir d’un subjonctif ? Afin de tenter de répondre à ces deux questions, on examinera les principales formes pourvues d’une indéniable fonction d’expression du futur pur et simple telles qu’on les saisit dans leurs diverses occurrences pour les analyser. Morphologiquement, elles se caractérisent, par rapport à celles des indicatifs correspondants, dans des structures rigoureusement conformes à l’héritage indo- européen, par la présence d’une voyelle a (<*e/o selon les personnes) finale du thème dans la série athématique et ā dans la même position prédésinentielle (<*ē /ō) pour les thématiques. Dans ces conditions, il n’est pas difficile de les identifier. On étudiera donc les contextes dans lesquels on les relève avec l’ambition de comprendre et de décrire l’évolution d’un système modal, dont les prémices, si l’on se fie aux ressemblances et aux divergences qui existent entre l’avestique et le vieux-perse, ont des chances sérieuses de remonter à l’iranien commun, voire, au moins partiellement, à l’indo-iranien. On s’appuiera essentiellement sur le contenu de la grande inscription de Darius à Bisotun (Béhistan, codée DB avec indication de la colonne), sans négliger les textes de Suse (DS), de Naqš-e Rostam (DN) et de Persépolis (rédigés ou Darius, DP, ou Xerxès, XP). Le roi Darius attribue à ses déclarations solennelles une fonction de perpétuation de la mémoire de ses exploits et d’enseignement de ses convictions morales et religieu- ses, le tout étant proclamé à la face du monde pour l’édification des générations à venir. Il n’y a donc rien de surprenant dans ses références à un temps futur. Les racines des

30 R. Schmitt in R. D. Woodard (2008), p. 91.

133 verbes qu’il utilise au subjonctif31 avec valeur de futur ont, pour la plupart d’entre elles, une étymologie indo-européenne claire, facile à redécouvrir derrière la phonétique 32 33 iranienne :*h1es- , comme on le sait, pour as- « être », *he/or- pour ar- « atteindre », *ken-s-34 pour θah- « déclarer », *kwer- pour kar- « faire »35, *gne/oh-/gnō-36 pour xšnā- « connaître », *perk-37, pour pars- « interroger », « examiner », *bher-38 pour bar- « porter », *bhewh-/bhū-39 pour bav- « être », *men-40 pour man- « penser », *yag-41 pour yad- « vénérer », *weid-/woid-/wid-42 pour vaina- « voir ». Une lecture attentive des inscriptions permet de découvrir un beaucoup plus grand nombre de futurs que ne l’enseigne R. Kent43. Celui-ci, en effet, ne retient quenirasātiy 44 et ahatiy45 dans une formule apparais- sant deux fois, parce que ces formes (subjonctifs de ar- et de as- à la 3ème personne du singulier) figurent dans une proposition principale, les subordonnées pouvant conserver derrière les subjonctifs au moins un reste de valeur éventuelle : « hya Auramazdām yadātaiy, yānam avahyā ahatiy : « celui qui (hya) vénérera (yadātaiy, subjonctif 3ème pers. moyenne de yad), Ahuramazdā aura une faveur pour lui, littéra- lement pour lui (avahyā) sera (ahatiy) une faveur (yānam). L’attribution de la faveur étant clairement située dans le futur, il n’y a aucune raison d’attribuer au subjonctif yadātaiy une valeur éventuelle, même si l’on peut valablement supposer que ce texte illustre le processus de passage d’un éventuel modal à un vrai futur temporel (« qui- conque honore/honorera …, pour lui est une faveur »), mais, dans la principale, le futur s’est réellement et entièrement substitué au présent (ahatiy diffère de l’indicatif présent astiy) et, à partir de là, le futur s’est introduit à la place de l’éventuel, derrière lequel il était déjà présent au moins en germe.

31 Sur l’ensemble des formes de subjonctif attestées en vieux-perse, voir R. Kent (1953), p. 89 ; R. Kent adopte le classement suivant : expression pure du futur, expression de la volonté, expression du souhait, emplois dans les propositions relatives et dans les autres subordonnées (notamment conditionnelles et temporelles introduites par yadiy « si » et par yāvā « aussi longtemps que »), expression négative de la finalité (propositions introduites par mātya « de peur que », « afin que…ne pas »). 32 IEW, p. 340-342. 33 IEW, p. 326-327. 34 IEW, p. 566-567. 35 IEW, p. 641. 36 IEW, p. 376-378. 37 IEW, p. 821-822. 38 IEW, p. 128-132. 39 IEW, p. 146-150. 40 IEW, p. 726-728. 41 IEW, p. 501. 42 IEW, p. 1125-1127. 43 Page 91. 44 DPe 24. 45 DB V, 19 et 35.

134 Citons et analysons d’autres textes, en commençant par un passage qui contient trois verbes au subjonctif, dont l’un, nirasātiy (composé de ar-), est reconnu comme étant un futur authentique par R. Kent : yadiy avaθā maniyāhay hacā aniyanā mā tarsam imam kāram pādiy yadiy kāra pārsa pāta ahatiy hyā duvaištam šiyātiš axšatā hauvciy Aurā nirasātiy abiy imām viθam46 : « si tu penses ainsi (yadiy avaθā mainyāhaiy, 2ème personne sg. du subj. moyen de man-) « que je ne tremble à cause d’aucun autre » (mā tarsam hacā aniyanā), « protège (pādiy) cette armée - ce peuple -47 perse (imam kāram), si l’armée - le peuple - perse sera ayant été protégé(e)48 yadiy kāra pārsa ahatiy pāta, à partir de là (hyā), pour longtemps, (duvaištam), un bonheur non troublé (šiyātiš axšatā) sera (ahatiy, il faut reprendre ahatiy qui n’a été écrit qu’une fois, il faudrait lire ahatiy ahatiy) et grâce à Ahuramazdā (Aurā) cela (hauvci) par- viendra (nirasātiy) à cette maison royale (abiy imām viθam) ». Au subjonctif valant futur dans la principale (nirasātiy) est associé maniyāhay qui, derrière la conjonction yadiy « si », évoque une réalité future, relevant à l’origine de l’éventuel, mais le contexte dans son ensemble est bien ancré dans le futur, comme le prouvent les adverbes hyā et duvaištam. Le subjonctif ahatiy, quant à lui, contribue à l’expression d’un futur antérieur par son association avec l’adjectif verbal pāta (ayant été protégé(e)) et l’on tire également de lui la mention d’un futur simple (« sera ») explicitement présenté comme tel par hyā, qui renvoie à un point de départ situé dans l’avenir. Un autre adverbe, aparam (« après », « par la suite ») accompagne des subjonctifs rendant des futurs simples, comme le montrent les citations qui suivent : - tuvam kā xšayaθiya hya aparam āhy49 (« toi, qui que tu sois - tuvam kā -, qui seras roi par la suite - hya xsayaθiya āhy -), āhy est la 2ème pers. du subj.

de as- < *h1es-e-si ; - tuvam kā hya aparam imām dipim patiparsāhy50 « toi qui dans l’avenir exa- mineras cette inscription, imām dipim patiparsāhy », patiparsāhy est la 2ème pers. sg. du subj. du verbe composé pati-parsa-« examiner »51. Un texte complexe52 contient deux futurs, l’un étroitement lié à aparam, l’autre figurant dans une subordonnée introduite paryāvā (aussi longtemps que) : tuvam kā hya aparam imām vaināhy tyām adam niyapaišam imaivā patikarā mātya vikanāhy yāvā utava āhy « toi qui dans l’avenir verras cette inscription - tuvam kā aparam imām dipim vaināhy - (vaināhy est la 2ème pers. du subj. de vaina-voir-), que moi j’ai fait graver ou ces sculptures - tyām adam niyapaišam imaivā patikarā -, ne les détruis pas - mātya vikanāhy – (vikanāhy est la 2ème pers. sg. du subj. du composé vi-kan-, c’est un véritable subjonctif modal traduisant avec la négation mātya la défense, c’est-

46 DPe 19-24. 47 En vieux-perse, le même mot désigne l’armée et le peuple. 48 Telle est, exprimée en très mauvais français, la signification littérale du texte. 49 Expression formulaire : DB IV 37, 68, 87, DSt, 9-10. 50 DB IV, 42. 51 DB IV, 42. 52 DB iV, 70.

135 à-dire la volonté négative) tant que tu seras en bonne santé - yāvā utava āhy -, āhy est un subjonctif à valeur de futur (tant que tu seras..et non pas « tant que tu es en bonne santé », puisque la protection commencera à partir du moment où l’on aura décidé de ne pas détruire les inscriptions). L’adverbe avadā « alors » peut fournir en ce qui concerne le temps la même indication que aparam. Cela se trouve en DNa 42. Le contexte est le suivant : « si tu te demandes combien de peuples sont soumis à Darius, regarde les sculptures », « alors », proclame le texte, « tu sauras » (avadā xšnāsāhy, xšnāsāhy est la 2ème pers. du subj. de xšnā- « savoir ») « et cela sera pour toi » (adataiy bavāty, bavāty est la 3ème pers sg. du subjonctif de bav- « être ») « un objet de connaissance » (azdā). L’accomplissement des actions permet de percevoir clairement deux niveaux successifs du futur. Passons maintenant à l’examen des subjonctifs contenus dans des propositions subordonnées introduites par la conjonction yadiy « si ». La première occurrence rappellera de si près la formule contenant aparam ren- contrée en DB IV 70 que l’on s’estimera en droit de dire que les subjonctifs attestés derrière yadiy ne sont plus des éventuels, mais des futurs bien véritables : yadiy imām dipim vaināhy imaivā patikarā naiydiš vikanāhy utā taiy yāvā taumā ahatiy paribarāhdiš, qu’Ahuramazdā soit (biyā, optatif de bav- « être ») ton ami : « si tu vois dans l’avenir (vaināhy, 2ème pers. du sg.du subj. de vaina-voir) cette inscription ou ces sculptures et si tu ne les détruis pas (vikanāhy est la 2ème pers du sg. du subj. de vi-kan-) dans l’avenir et cela (utā) tant que la force sera à toi (yāvā taumā ahatiy, autre subj. à valeur de futur), mais les protèges (paribarāhdiš, l’action décrite par cette 2ème pers. sg du subj. du composé para-bar- appartient elle aussi d’évidence au futur), qu’Ahuramazdā soit (biyā, optatif) pour toi un ami ». L’optatif de la principale confirme que toutes les actions exprimées au subjonctif vaināhy( , naydiš53 vikanāhy, ahatiy, paribarāhdiš) sont effectivement situées dans le futur. On l’avait établi pour la première, comme les trois autres lui succèdent, elle ne peuvent que relever de l’avenir. D’autre part, on constatera que la langue enregistre bien le passage d’un subjonctif morphologique à un lndicatif syntaxique en substituant la négation naiy (<*ne-id) à la négation mā, propre au subjonctif (sanskrit mā, grec μή etc.) comme nous l’a appris la citation précédente. Quelques lignes plus bas54, Darius évoque l’hypothèse contraire et souhaite qu’Ahuramazdā frappe celui qui verra cette inscription, la détruira et ne la protégera pas tant qu’il aura la force en lui (vaināhy, vikanāhdiš, ahatiy, naidiš paribarāhy sont les formes verbales employées). Yadiy apparaît encore dans une autre alternative de bénédiction ou de malédic- tion55. Fier de son bilan, Darius s’adresse ainsi au lecteur de l’inscription : « si tu ne caches pas ce bilan au peuple - à l’armée - et si tu le proclames (yadiy imām hadugām

� Après naiy, diš représente un pronom anaphorique enclitique (« les »). 54 DB IV, 77-79. 55 DB IV, 55-57.

136 naiy apagaudayāhy karayā θāhy les subjonctifs naiy apagaudayāhy - de apagaud- et θāhy de θāh- renvoient bien évidemment à des actions postérieures à la lecture du texte, qui, elle, permet de découvrir ce bilan), qu’Ahuramazdā soit (biyā, optatif) ton ami ; si tu caches ce bilan et ne le proclames pas à l’armée - au peuple -, qu’Ahuramazdā te frappe » (yadiy imām hadugām apagaudayāhy naiy θāhy karayā…). Le commen- taire appelé par ces deux subjonctifs est le même : ce sont, pour le sens, de vrais futurs, qu’accompagne éventuellement la négation naiy. La conjonction temporelle yaθā « lorsque » caractérise elle aussi, comme yadiy, à laquelle elle est d’ailleurs associée56 dans le texte qui nous intéresse, une action future conçue d’un point de vue temporel et non pas modal et éventuel : yaθā maiy tya kartam vaināhy yadivā axšnavāhy (« lorsque tu verras ce qui a été fait par moi - yaθā maiy tya kartam vaināhy- ou si tu en entends parler dans l’avenir- yadivā axšnavāhy-, axšnav- signifie « entendre », les deux subjonctifs vaināhy et axšnavāhy sont bien sur le même plan temporel (vā signifie « ou ») et on peut les expliquer comme on l’a fait précédemment pour tous les verbes qui dépendaient de yadiy. Les conseils de politique éthique57 donnés par le monarque concernent l’avenir puisqu’ils sont destinés à ses successeurs (tuvam kā xšayaθiya hya aparam āhy) : martiya hya draujana ahatiy avam ufraštam parsā « l’homme qui sera menteur, celui-là, punis-le sévèrement » ; martiya hya draujana ahatiy hyavā martiya hya draujana zūrakara ahatiy, avaiy mā dauštā biyā « l’homme qui sera menteur ou qui accomplira de mauvaises actions, ne sois pas un ami pour lui ». Dans ces conditions, ahatiy exprime bien le futur. Darius appelle les faveurs d’Ahuramazdā sur la personne qui protégera son inscription et une malédiction sur qui l’abîmera58 : utā tya kunavāhy avataiy Auramazdā ucāram kunatuv utā tya kunavāhy avataiy Auramazdā nikatuv « ce que tu feras -kunavāhy-, qu’Ahuramazda le couronne de succès (ucāram kunatuv) et ce que tu feras qu’Auramazda te le détruise » ! La 2ème personne du sg. du subjonctif kunavāhy, de kar- « faire » a probablement perdu ici sa valeur modale pour n’exprimer qu’un renvoi temporel au simple futur, avec peut-être toutefois une connotation de généralité relevant de l’éventuel. Si cette interprétation est correcte, elle montre que, comme on pouvait l’imaginer, le passage de la valeur modale à l’expression temporelle ne s’est pas faite brutalement, sans transition. À partir d’un subjonctif éventuel, qui morphologiquement conserve sa structure de subjonctif, le vieux-perse s’est donc doté d’un futur syntaxiquement rattaché à un indicatif, comme le montre la présence à ses côtés de la négation naiy, et non pas mā. D’autre part, ce qui était une particule liée à l’expression de l’éventuel, kā, semble s’être détachée du verbe pour ne plus porter que sur le pronom sujet de la 2ème per-

56 DN b 29. 57 DB IV 38 et 68. 58 DB IV, 75.

137 sonne du singulier. Kā exprimait une notion de généralité associée à l’éventuel dans le présent-futur. De ce point de vue, seul le pronom tvam semble justifier, le cas échéant, la présence d’une précision, « toi en particulier » (tvam) ou « toi qui que tu sois » (tvam kā). L’absence de kā dans les propositions relatives introduites par tya prouve que, même si l’on perçoit des traces de l’éventuel derrière le futur, le basculement s’est largement effectué, à l’époque des inscriptions, de celui-là vers celui-ci. L’explication de la genèse de ce futur authentique paraît s’imposer à propos des constats effectués sur les textes analysés : dans les constructions complexes, la su- bordonnée au subjonctif exprimait l’éventuel dans le présent-futur (c’est le cas, par exemple, de la protase derrière yadiy), mais la principale, elle, renvoyait au futur (c’est ce qui se produit effectivement dans l’apodose d’un système impliquantyadiy , sinon le verbe de cette apodose serait au présent de l’indicatif au lieu du subjonctif dans une traduction de la généralité pure). Dans ces conditions, le présent-futur de la subordon- née (un subjonctif), subissant l’attraction du futur de la principale (rendu également morphologiquement par le subjonctif) est lui-même devenu un vrai futur (« si dans le futur… »). Cette évolution est antérieure à la date de rédaction des inscriptions. On peut donc estimer qu’elle remonte à la préhistoire de la langue. En revanche, distincte chronologiquement, une autre évolution semble s’être produite au cours de l’histoire interne observable du vieux-perse. Quand, en effet, on lit en DB IV, 39yadiy avaθā maniyāhaiy dahyāušmaiy duruvā ahati, formule justifiant la punition infligée aux gens mauvais, « si tu penses ainsi (avaθā) dans l’avenir (maniyāhai, 2ème pers. du sg. du subjonctif moyen de man-) mon pays sera (ahati) en sécurité », à la simple notion temporelle s’associe une nuance dé- sidérative « et c’est bien ce que je veux ». Cela étant, on assiste à une sorte de nouvelle modalisation, une remodalisation de ce qui, tout en demeurant morphologiquement un subjonctif, était devenu syntaxiquement et sémantiquement un indicatif futur. Une telle remodalisation secondaire en désidératif s’explique par un croisement psychologique du futur et des valeurs modales conservées du subjonctif (expression du souhait, dérivée de celle de la volonté). Cette valeur nouvelle doit être d’apparition suffisamment ancienne pour rendre compte de la disparition des formes en *-sye/o que l’avestique a gardées. Voici des exemples clairs59 de son attestation dans nos textes : - tya amaniyai kunavāny avamaiy visam ucāram āha « ce à propos de quoi je pensais (tya amaniyai) « je le ferai, je veux le faire (kunavāny ; 1ère pers. du subj. de kar-), tout cela a été intégralement accompli par moi (avamaiy visam ucāram āha) ». - tuva(m) kā hya apara(m) yadimaniyaiy šiyāta ahaniy jīva utā marta artāvā ahaniy (« toi, qui que tu sois, dans l’avenir, si tu penses (maniyaiy, 1ère pers. sg. du subj. moyen de man-) « je serai et je veux être heureux (šiyāta ahaniy, 1ère pers. sg. du subjonctif de as-) vivant (jīva) et je serai et je veux

59 DSl 4 ; XPh 46.

138 être bienheureux (artāvā ahaniy) une fois mort (marta) », « respecte la loi qu’Ahuramazdā a établie ». On retrouve dans ce passage relativement tardif (règne de Xerxès) une sorte de synthèse de ce qui a été précédemment analysé : l’évolution de la fonction de kā, l’ancrage dans le futur par apara(m), la construction faisant intervenir derrière la conjonction yadiy un subjonctif à valeur de futur et la création d’un futur secondai- rement remodalisé en désidératif. Cette évolution explique probablement un fait curieux, qui a attiré l’attention d’E. Benveniste60. Dans plusieurs passages de l’inscription DB61, Darius évoque la punition que mérite une armée rebelle qui ne le reconnaît pas pour son chef ou qui feint de ne pas le reconnaître comme tel en recourant à un indicatif : hya manā naiy gaubataiy62. Or, dans deux formules identiques63, c’est le subjonctif qui apparaît à la place de l’indicatif présent : hya manā naiy gaubātaiy. En proposant de traduire par « ne veut pas me reconnaître », on donnera à ce subjonctif une valeur pleinement désidérative et l’on constatera que la négation demeure naiy au terme de l’opération de remodalisation que l’on a décrite. Ce que l’on a saisi à travers le vieux-perse correspond vraisemblablement à ce que d’autres langues indo-européennes ont connu au cours de leur histoire ou de leur préhistoire, à savoir un conflit de modes, qui a abouti à la disparition ou à la transformation de certains d’entre eux, ainsi qu’à l’apparition d’un futur proprement dit. Les faits iraniens se résument de la manière suivante : héritage commun d’un subjonctif modal (exprimant l’éventualité et la volonté sous leurs diverses formes) et d’un futur en *sye/o probablement lié à une formation désidérative plus ancienne, conservation de cet état linguistique en avestique, évolution, au cours de la préhistoire du vieux-perse, du subjonctif, qui, tout en gardant ses valeurs primitives, donne nais- sance à un futur, qui élimine la formation en *sye/o, après l’avoir condamnée à faire double emploi ou à disparaître. Se produit ensuite une modalisation secondaire de ce futur en désidératif nouveau, qui cohabite avec les valeurs anciennes du subjonctif et avec sa valeur proprement temporelle. Le subjonctif fonctionne alors comme modes (au pluriel) et comme temps. Des étapes intermédiaires paraissent perceptibles. Cette évolution contribuera au développement d’une conception désidérative du futur, qui s’imposera en persan moderne64, où le futur est exprimé par un auxiliaire, khâstan « vouloir », suivi d’une forme infinitive.

60 Benveniste (1931), p. 141. 61 II, 21, 31, 51 ; 3, 35, 59. 62 Au passé hya agaubatā (c’était une feinte). 63 DB II, 84 et 86. 64 Voir Thackston (1993), .p 43.

139 Bibliographie 1. Benveniste, Emile. 1931. Grammaire du vieux-perse, Paris (reprise de la Grammaire du vieux-perse publiée en 1915 par Antoine Meillet). 2. ��Brandenstein, Wilhelm und Mayrhofer Manfred. ��1964. Handbuch des Altpersischen, Wiesbaden. 3. Fortson IV Benjamin W. 2005. Indo-European Language and Culture, Oxford. 4 Hoffmann, Karl und Forsman, Bernard. ��1996. Avestiche Laut-und Flexionslehre, Innsbruck.  Pokorny, Julius. ��1959. Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch, Berne. 6. Kellens, Jean. 1984. Le verbe Avestique, Wiesbaden. 7. Kent, Roland. 1953. Old Persian Grammar, New haven. 8. Lecocq, Pierre.1997. Les Inscriptions de la Perse Achéménide, Paris. 9. Meillet, Antoine. 1964. Introduction à l’étude comparative des langues indo- européennes, préface de George C. Buck, University of Alabama Press (réédition de l’édition de 1922). 10. Schmitt, Rüdiger. 2008. Old Persian, in The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas, edited by D. Woodard, Cambridge. 11. Sihler, Andrew L. 1995. New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Oxford. 12 �icholas, Sims-Williams. 2006. The Iranian Languages. In: Anna Giacalone Ramat et Paolo Ramat. 2006. The Indo-Europan Languages, Oxford. 13. Szemerényi , Oswald J. L. 1990. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics, translated from Einführung in die Vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft, 4th edition Oxford. 14. Thackston, Wheeler, M. 1993. An Introduction to Persian, Bethesda. 15. Vaillant, André. 1966. Grammaire comparée des langues slaves, III, Le Verbe, Paris.

Santrauka Būsimojo laiko raiška senojoje persų kalboje: lyginamosios gramatikos studija Jean-Pierre Levet

Indoeuropiečių prokalbės veiksmažodis neturėjo būsimojo laiko formos, tuo tarpu iš šios prokalbės vėliau kilusiose kalbose jis pradėjo formuotis iš įvairių modalinių struktūrų. Remdamiesi Dariaus ir Xerxeso raštais, mes atlikome būsimojo laiko atsira- dimo (ko pasekoje vėliau atsirado tariamoji nuosaka) analizę senojoje persų kalboje. Analizuodami achemenidų tekstus stebime kaip tariamosios nuosakos, turinčios grynai laiko funkciją, įtakoje išnyko *sye/o tipo formos paveldėtos iš indoeuropiečių prokalbės. Tuo tarpu baltų ir indoiraniečių kalbose bei sanskrite jos išliko. Padarėme išvadą, kad aptariamoji tariamoji nuosaka istorijos bėgyje įgavo naują formą suteikusią jai pageidavimo, galimybės reikšmę. Aprašyti senosios persų kalbos tyrimai iliustruoja nuosakų konfliktą indoeu- ropiečių kalbų priešistorėje, kai atsirado būtinybė išreikšti dar neatliktą veiksmą būsimojo laiko forma.

140 Различия в понимании концепции термина «психолингвистика» в русской и англоязычной литературе и положение лингвистической этнографии в области британских исследований

Irina Moore University of Wolverhampton, School of Law, Social Sciences and Communications, Stafford Street, Wolverhampton WV1 1SB, United Kingdom, [email protected]

РЕЗЮМЕ В первой части статьи определяются расхождения в интерпретации значения термина «психолингвистика» в российской и британской традиции. Начиная со второй половины 60-ых годов, данный термин широко исполь- зуется в советской исследовательской литературе, однако, его значение не является абсолютно идентичным по значению с его английским эквивалентом «psycholinguistics». В западной исследовательской литературе он используется для определения науки о языковом поведении, занимающейся изучением связей между системой языка и лингвистической компетенцией. Данная концепция психолингвистики является довольно узкой и не охватывает паралингвисти- ческие или социо- и национально-культурные аспекты языкового поведения. Именно они и расширяют понимание концепции термина «психолингвистика» в работах советских и российских исследователей и являются фокусом иссле- дований этнопсихолингвистики. Вторая часть статьи посвящена положению лингвистической этнографии в области британских исследований. Растущий интерес к исследованиям куль- турной составляющей в языке говорит о её перспективности, но с другой сто- роны, её теоретико-методологическая база находится на стадии становления, что привело к созданию в 2000-ом году Британского форума лингвистической этнографии, который ставит своей целью охарактеризовать специфику бри- танских исследований. Несмотря на довольно большое количество различных исследовательских традиций, которые могут считаться основой работ многих британских учёных, Дискуссионный доклад ФЛЭ заостряет особое внимание

141 на двух наиболее влиятельных традициях/школах, а именно - 1. новый ракурс изучения грамотности; 2. интеракциональная социолингвистика. Сущность и особенности этих двух направлений рассматриваются в тре- тьей части статьи. ключевые слова: психолингвистика, языковое поведение, лингвистическая этнография.

1. Различия в понимании концепции термина «психолингвистика» в русской и англоязычной литературе В 1957 году О. Ахмановой было опубликовано сокращённое издание американского сборника «Psycholinguistics», вышедшее на русском языке под названием «О психолингвистике». Данная работа явилась первой возможнос- тью ознакомления советских лингвистов с зарубежной психолингвистической теорией. Однако более глубокий интерес к проблемам психолингвистики был вызван несколько позже работами Н. Хомского, многие из которых были также опубликованы на русском языке. Начиная со второй половины 60-ых годов, термин «психолингвистика» широко используется в советской исследовательской литературе, однако, следует отметить, что его значение не является абсолютно идентичным по значению с его английским эквивален- том «psycholinguistics». Как пишет Я. Пруча в работе «Советская психолин- гвистика», «термин «психолингвистика» в узком значении используется для определения науки о языковом поведении, занимающейся изучением связей между системой языка и лингвистической компетенцией (именно так он за- частую понимается в западной исследовательской литературе)» (Průcha, 1972, 6). Далее автор отмечает, что такая концепция психолингвистики является слишком узкой и не охватывает паралингвистические или социо- и нацио- нально-культурные аспекты языкового поведения. Именно они и расширяют понимание концепции термина «психолингвистика» в работах советских и российских исследователей. Целью данного доклада является определение различий, связанных с де- финицией понятия «психолингвистика» русскими и британскими учёными, а также определение положения лингвистической этнографии в области бри- танских исследований. В качестве теоретической основы доклада выступают статьи и монографии ведущих британских ученых, а также учёных различных стран, работающих параллельно в русле психолингвистики, психологии, теоретической и ког- нитивной лингвистики, межкультурной коммуникации, лингвистической этнографии и социолингвистики.

142 Многоаспектное изучение проблемы обусловило выбор разнообразных методов исследования, таких как описательный, сравнительный, индуктивно- дедуктивный, метод словарных дефиниций, концептуальный анализ.

2. Этнопсихолингвистика как часть психолингвистики – русское явление Одним из подтверждений вышеприведённой точки зрения является тот факт, что в советской исследовательской и дидактической литературе с 70-ых годов начинает широко применяться термин «этнопсихолингвистика». Даже краткий обзор современных учебных пособий по психолингвистике показы- вает, что этнопсихолингвистика является установившейся областью исследо- ваний в российской психолингвистике. Приведём в подтверждение несколько определений из последних изданий для студентов: 1. «Что такое этнопсихолингвистика? Это область психолингвистики, изучающая национально-культурную вариативность в: а) речевых операциях, речевых действиях и целостных актах речевой деятель- ности; б) языковом сознании, т.е. когнитивном использовании языка и функционально эквивалентных ему знаковых систем; в) организации (внешней и внутренней) процессов речевого общения» (Леонтьев, 2005, 192). 2. «Ядром предметной области, которое надлежит исследовать в рамках этнопсихолингвистики, является идеологическая семантика (семанти- ка генеза и взаимосвязей значений), надстраивающаяся над техничес- кой семантикой» (Сорокин, 1998, 123). 3. «Этнопсихолингвистика – область психолингвистики, изучающая наци- онально-культурную вариативность речевых операций, действий, целос- тных речевых актов; особенности языкового сознания коммуникантов; организацию процессов речевого общения» [Ушакова, 2006, с. 96]. 4. «Специальная область психолингвистических исследований, сосре- доточенных на выявлении конкретно-языковой и национально-куль- турной вариативности языковой способности и речевой деятельности человека, носит название этнопсихолингвистика» (Глухов, 2005, 42). Обратимся теперь к западной литературе. Является ли этнопсихолингвис- тика областью исследований в западной психолингвистике? Общий обзор основных американских и британских учебных пособий, монографий и сбор- ников по предмету приводит нас к отрицательному выводу: 1. Так, например, просматривая оглавление монументального сборника «Handbook of psycholinguistics», вышедшего в Америке в 1994 году и переизданного дополненного издания 2006 года, мы не встретим ни одного упоминания об этнопсихолингвистике. В ревью сборника, данном на сайте академического издательства Elsevier, пишется, что

143 «сборник является незаменимым источником информации для учё- ных, преподавателей и студентов в области последних достижений психолингвистики, таких как восприятие языка, чтение, нейропси- хология языка, развитие языковых способностей и компьютерное моделирование языка» (http://www.elsevier.com). 2. Видный американский исследователь Д. Кэррол даёт следующее оп- ределение: «Психолингвистика – это наука, занимающаяся изучением того, как человек воспринимает, производит и приобретает язык. Психолингвистика является частью обширной области когнитивных наук, отражающих достижения психологии, лингвистики и, в меньшей степени, нейроисследований и философии» (Carroll, 2004, 3). 3. Ведущий британский психолингвист Дж. Алтманн пишет: «Целью психолингвистики является определение ментальных процессов, за- действованных в приобретении, производстве и понимании языка» (Altmann, 2001, 1). 4. В широко использующемся в вузах Великобритании пособии для сту- дентов даётся следующее определение: «Психолингвистика занимается исследованием связи между сознанием человека и языком. Она изучает пользователя языком как индивидуальность, а не как представителя общества, но как индивидуальность, лингвистическая компетентность которой обусловлена сильными и слабыми сторонами ментального аппарата, свойства которой являются общими для всех людей. Психо- лингвистические исследования можно разделить на шесть основных областей: переработка языковой информации, её сохранение и доступ к ней, теория понимания языка, язык и мозг, нарушения языковой деятельности, приобретение родного языка» (Field, 2006, 2). 5. И наконец обратимся к международному сборнику «Twenty-first Century Psycholinguistics», изданному в 2005 году и созданному на основе четырёх семинаров, проведённых в 2003 году в Нидерландах, Институтом психолингвистики имени Макса Планка – единственным в мире исследовательским институтом, занимающимся исследовани- ями исключительно в области психолингвистики. Тематика основных разделов сборника такова: 1) психология и лингвистика, 2) биология и поведение, 3) порождение и понимание речи, 4) модель и эксперимент (Cutler, 2005). Наш краткий обзор основных работ последних лет позволяет сделать вывод, что этнопсихолингвистика, как часть психолингвистики – явление исключи- тельно русское и не включается в основные области исследований западной психолингвистики. Однако это не означает, что исследовательские работы в области изучения языка в его отношении к культуре, взаимодействию языковых, этнопсихоло- гических и этнокультурных факторов на Западе не ведутся.

144 3. Лингвистическая этнография – новая область исследований в Великобритании С конца 80-ых годов прошлого века в Великобритании всё чаще стали появляться работы, авторы которых классифицируют свои исследования как принадлежащие к «лингвистической этнографии». То, что они не являются областью психолингвистики, видимо, объясняется тем, что исследования данного характера в основном велись американскими учёными, традиционно работающими в таких областях, как социолингвистика и антрополингвистика, начало которой положил ещё в 19 веке В. фон Гумбольдт. Именно он впервые и сформулировал положение о взаимосвязи характера языка и характера народа. Его идеи были продолжены такими лингвистами конца 19 - начала 20 века, как Д. Пауэлл, Ф. Боас, а также Э.Сепир и Б. Уорф. Следует отметить, что терминологические расхождения и разнообразие тематики исследований в этой области отчасти объясняется тем, что совер- шенно чёткой классификации изучаемых проблем нет как в западной, так и в русской лингвистической исследовательской литературе. Р.М. Фрумкина пишет: «... Если мы сравним те две-три книги на русском языке, которые некогда были задуманы как учебные пособия по психолингвистике, то увидим, что их авторы выбирают как центральные совершенно разные проблемы» (Фрумкина, 2006, 3). Также существует множество смежных самостоятельных направлений, в каждом из которых разрабатывается своё понимание связей между языком и культурой: социолингвистика, антрополингвистика, этнолингвистика, пси- холингвистика, этнопсихолингвистика и, в последние десятилетия в России, - лингвокультурология. Таким образом, можно сделать некоторые выводы относительно совре- менного состояния данной дисциплины в Великобритании. С одной стороны, интерес к исследованиям культурной составляющей в языке растёт, что говорит о её перспективности. С другой стороны, её теоретико-методологическая база находится в данный момент на стадии становления. Свидетельством тому слу- жит создание в 2000 году Британского форума лингвистической этнографии (ФЛЭ) (LEF – UK Linguistic Ethnography Forum). В декабре 2004 года координа- ционный комитет Британского ФЛЭ опубликовал дискуссионный доклад. В нём была сделана попытка ответить на следующие вопросы: 1. что означает термин «лингвистическая этнография»; 2. что представляет собой ФЛЭ и каковы его задачи; 3. как можно охарактеризовать работы британских исследователей в данной области; 4. каковы направления исследований на будущее. Несмотря на довольно большое количество различных исследовательских традиций, которые могут считаться основой работ многих учёных, по мнению авторов доклада, можно выделить около пяти основных исторически важных: 1. новый ракурс изучения грамотности; 2. интеракциональная социолингвис- тика; 3. интерпретивная прикладная лингвистика в преподавании языков; 4.

145 критический анализ дискурса; 5. исследования языка и когнитивного развития в традициях Л. Выготского. Однако Дискуссионный доклад ФЛЭ заостряет особое внимание на двух наиболее влиятельных традициях/школах, считая, что связи лингвистической этнографии с первыми двумя направлениями являются более тесными, тогда как в случае трёх последних они довольно опосредованы.

4. Новый ракурс изучения грамотности (New Literacy Studies или NLS) Данная область исследований играет значительную роль в развитии основ- ных направлений современной британской лингвистической этнографии. В Великобритании это направление связано с именем профессора Б. Стрита. В настоящее время его центр находится в Ланкастерском университете. Начиная с 50-ых годов, термин «грамотность» употребляется в новом значе- нии, отличном от традиционного значения: «чтение», «письмо», «грамматика», «риторика» и т.д. Он используется для обозначения фокуса ряда теоретических и исследовательских работ в области различных дисциплин. Большинство ранних исследований в области грамотности было проведено историками. Так, например, Г. Графф утверждает, что к началу 90-ых годов в области изучения грамотности работало уже третье поколение историков (Graff, 1991). В числе исследователей первого поколения он называет имена таких учёных, работавших в конце 60-ых и в начале 70-ых годов, как Л. Стоун (Stone L.), К. Чиполла (Cipolla C.) и Р. Шофилд (Schofield R.). Однако первые исследования, лёгшие в основу их работ, были проведены ещё в 50-ые годы Р. Веббом и Р. Гоггартом, которые занимались изучением тенденций в области чтения среди представителей британского рабочего класса. Можно сказать, что заслугой ис- ториков первого поколения является то, что они впервые занялись изучением грамотности как важного исторического фактора. По мнению Дж. Ги, авторы многих работ этого периода приводят веские аргументы в пользу того, что «грамотность является разделительной чертой» между различными уровнями культуры (Gee, 1996, 49-50). Она рассматривается как ключевой фактор, созда- ющий возможность перехода от примитивной к развитой культуре. Ко второму поколению Г. Графф относит работы следующих учёных, рабо- тавших в 70-ые и 80-ые годы: Р. Шофилда (Schofield R.) (1973), И. Йоганссона (Johansson E.) (1977), К. Локриджа (Lockridge K.) (1974), Д. Кресси (Cressi D.) (1980), Р. Хьюстона (Huston R.) (1983, 1985), Г. Граффа (Graff H.) (1979) и ряда других. Одним из результатов исследований вышеназванных авторов явилось со- здание более детальной, чем существовавшая ранее, базы данных о распростра- нении и количественном уровне грамотности в различных слоях населения, а

146 также исторически обоснованное объяснение данных изменений. Тенденции в изменениях уровня и распространения грамотности были связаны с экономи- ческими и социальными факторами, например, такими, как создание системы всеобщего образования и формирование социальных классов. Таким образом, работы исследователей первого и второго поколения рас- сматривали грамотность как важную независимую переменную величину в рамках гуманитарных и социальных наук, являющуюся движущим рычагом при переходе от примитивного к более высокому уровню в развитии обще- ства. К началу 90-ых годов исторические исследования в области грамотности приобрели несколько иной фокус, что позволяет выделить третье поколение исследователей. Если более ранние работы основывались на количественно- описательной базе, то работы данного периода уже включали вопросы кри- тического анализа, особенно в области разработки таких аспектов, как связь грамотности с социальным классом, гендерной принадлежностью, возрастом населения и культурой общества. Центральными темами исследований ста- новятся вопросы концептуализации и контекстуализации грамотности в историческом процессе. Такой подход в литературе часто называется «социо- культурным подходом» [Scribner, Cole, 1981; Heath, 1983; Lankshear, 1998].

5. Б. Стрит «Грамотность в теории и практике» (1984) Вышеназванные исследования подготовили почву для создания первого детального исследования, рассматривающего изучение грамотности с социо- культурной точки зрения. В 1984 году в свет вышла книга британского учёно- го Б. Стрита «Literacy in Theory and Practice» (Street, 1984). Она стала первой работой, ясно определяющей социо-культурный характер грамотности. Кон- цептуальным ядром работы является противопоставление двух моделей гра- мотности: «автономной модели» (основанной на традиционной точке зрения) и «идеологической модели» (основанной на социо-культурной точке зрения). В основе утверждения и поддержки автором «идеологической модели» лежит глубокая критика теоретических и практических работ в области грамотности, основанных на её репрезентации как «нейтральной технической» величины, которая может быть отделена от социального контекста. В целях уточнения различий в подходе к анализу грамотности Б. Стрит и вводит термины «авто- номная модель» и «идеологическая модель» грамотности. Б. Стрит развивает свою «идеологическую модель» в работах 90-ых годов, в которых он утверждает важность этнографии в понимании того, как исполь- зование грамотности людьми приобретает особое значение и силу в зависи- мости от её значения и положения в устоявшихся общественных традициях. Он также подвергает критике доминирующую западную модель грамотности как нейтрального набора умений и навыков, обнажая способы, которыми

147 данная общепринятая «автономная» модель продвигала определённые идео- логические установки в области образования внутри страны, и разрабатывая образовательные проекты за рубежом. Целью своего труда автор видит создание такой модели, которую он на- зывает «идеологической». Он даёт анализ критических работ в этой области и закладывает фундамент для создания новой модели, определяя следующие характерные черты «идеологической» модели: 1. «Она предполагает, что значение грамотности зависит от обществен- ных организаций, частью которых она является; 2. грамотность существует в тех формах, которые уже имеют политичес- кую и идеологическую значимость и, таким образом, не может быть отделена от этой значимости и рассматриваться, как если бы она была «автономной» формой; 3. определённые формы чтения и письма, преподаваемые в любом контексте, зависят от таких аспектов социальной структуры, как стратификация (например, как те общества, в которых определённые социальные группы обучаются только чтению) и роль, выполняемая учебными заведениями (как в примере Г. Граффа (1979), где учебные заведения Канады 19-го века выполняли функцию орудия социального контроля); 4. значение грамотности для тех, кто её внедряет, должно заключаться в процессах обучения чтению и письму; 5. мы должны использовать термин «грамотность» в значении множес- твенного числа, т.е. разные формы грамотности, а не универсальная «грамотность»; 6. исследователи, поддерживающие эту модель и отошедшие от «автоном- ной» модели, видят проблемность связи между анализом «автоном- ных», изолированных качеств грамотности и анализом идеологической и политической природы методов её внедрения» (Street, 1984, 8). Данные характерные черты были выделены автором на основе анализа ши- рокого ряда работ исследователей, работающих в областях социолингвистики, социальной психологии, истории, антропологии и других. Итоги исследований, проведённых в течение 10-ти лет с начала 80-ых годов, можно найти в статье Б. Стрита «What’s “new” in New Literacy Studies? Critical approaches to literacy in theory and practice» (Street, 2003).

148 6. Интеракциональная социолингвистика. Краткое определение понимания основных концепций интеракциональной социолингвистики Коротко обратимся ко второй традиции, оказавшей решающее влияние на развитие методов исследований в области лингвистической этнографии в Великобритании - интеракциональной социолингвистике. Данный термин был введён в 1982 году американским лингвистом и антро- пологом Дж. Гамперцем для описания работы, проделанной им и его коллегами за предшествующее десятилетие в области межкультурной коммуникации, находящейся на стыке социолингвистики и антрополингвистики (Gumperz, 1982a, 1982b). Как отмечает британский исследователь С. Саранги, интеракционально-лин- гвистическая перспектива в работах Дж. Гамперца (1978, 1982), Дж. Гамперца и Д. Таннена (1979), Р. Сколлона и С. Сколлон (1980, 1983) может рассматриваться как реакция на культурно-антропологическую традицию, которая практичес- ки не уделяла внимания лингвистике и данным об интерактивных процессах (Sarangi, 1994b). Объектом их исследований становятся не структурные ка- тегории, а то, как социально-культурные знания влияют на формы речевой коммуникации и их интерпретацию. Социальные действия находят выражение во встречах и событиях, которые всегда происходят в определённом времени и пространстве. Из этого следует, что базовой единицей данного типа социолин- гвистических исследований являются события, анализируемые с точки зрения дискурсивной практики, а не высказывания или предложения. Итак, можно сказать, что обе традиции (культурно-антропологическая и интеракционально-социолингвистическая) связывают коммуникативные проблемы с культурными различиями, но анализируют их с различных точек зрения. Культурно-антропологическая традиция видит основу потенциальных проблем в межкультурных различиях, в то время, как интеракционально-со- циолингвистическая традиция определяет их на основе анализа собранного лингвистического материала. С. Саранги пишет, что в основе интеракциональ- но-социолингвистических исследований лежат два следующих положения: a) «этническая и культурная принадлежность определяют дискурсную стратегию говорящего; б) различная дискурсная стратегия и коммуникативный стиль могут лежать в основе межэтнических недоразумений в процессе коммуни- кации» (Sarangi, 1994b, 411). Вышеприведённые положения ясно прослеживаются в определениях ин- теракциональной социолингвистики, данных в недавних британских изданиях энциклопедии «Language and Linguistics» (2006) и социолингвистического сло-

149 варя «A Dictionary of Sociolinguistics» (2004), а также в работах ряда британских исследователей. Так например, в энциклопедии «Language and Linguistics» Дж. Гумперц даёт следующее определение: «Интеракциональная социолингвистика использует интерпретационные методы анализа дискурса для достижения детального понимания многочисленных коммуникативных проблем, возникающих в современной социальной среде, путём систематических исследований того, что и как говорится и воспринимается участниками дискурса в различных социальных ситуациях» (Brown, 2006, 724). «Социолингвистический словарь» даёт следующее определение данной науки: «Интеракциональная социолингвистика является одной из главных отраслей социолингвистики, изучающей язык в процессе социального взаи- модействия людей. Она анализирует контекстуализированное использование языка: традиционно в процессе непосредственного устного общения между говорящими, однако, методы и принципы устного анализа также могут исполь- зоваться для изучения других форм коммуникации, таких, как письменная и электронная. Фокусом её исследований являются нормы использования языка в специфических социальных и культурных контекстах. Особое внимание уделяется следующим вопросам: создание отношений между говорящими/пи- шущими, язык и личность, межкультурная коммуникация, язык и власть, язык и гендер» (Swann, Deumert, Lillis, Mesthrie, 2004, 148). Из вышеприведённых определений следует, что цель интеракциональной социолингвистики - исследование дискурсной практики в социальном контек- сте и того, как происходит взаимодействие общественных и интерактивных планов. Как пишет британский исследователь А. Крис, «...целью интеракцио- нальной социолингвистики является анализ того, как происходит понимание и создание значений в процессе интеракции её участниками» (Creese, 2008, 231). Она также замечает, что поскольку язык индексирует социальную жизнь, её структуры и ритуалы, постольку его использование может анализироваться для понимания того, как пресуппозиции оперируют в процессах интеракции. Кроме того, интеракциональная социолингвистика также рассматривает, как участники интеракционного процесса используют язык для создания различ- ных контекстов. В этом плане важна теория контекстуализации, разработанная Дж. Гам- перцем, главной концепцией которой является концепция «контекстуального ключа». Автор даёт следующее её определение: «Говоря обобщённо, контексту- альный ключ – это любая черта или лингвистическая форма, которая помогает сигнализировать контекстуальные пресуппозиции» (Gumperz, 1982a, 131). Контекстуальные пресуппозиции представляют собой тип предполагающихся знаний, позволяющих делать определённые инференции в процессе интерак- ции. Дж. Гамперц пишет, что методы для определения контекстуальных ключей отчасти основаны «на сравнительном анализе широкого разнообразия ин-

150 теракций в однородных (внутри социально-культурных) и этнически смешан- ных группах» (Gumperz, 1982a, 174). Исследования Дж. Гамперца показывают, что контекстуальные ключи могут в значительной мере влиять на основное значение сообщений в процессе обмена информацией. Анализ недоразумений, возникающих во время общения между людьми из различных социально- культурных и этнических групп, показывает, что их причиной в большинстве случаев является тот факт, что они используют различные контекстуальные ключи. Даже малейшие различия в интонации и просодической системе могут привести к проблемам коммуникации. В заключение можно сказать, что исследования учёных в области интерак- циональной социолингвистики базируются на материалах естественно про- исходящих процессов коммуникации, которые записываются и впоследствии тщательно анализируются в транскрибированной или видео форме в целях выявления контекстуальных ключей. Итак, в заключение данной части можно сделать следующие выводы: 1. Исследования в современной британской лингвистической этнографии основываются на пяти различных направлениях, однако, её связи с двумя из них, а именно, с новым ракурсом изучения грамотности и с интеракционной социолингвистикой, являются более тесными, тогда как в случае трёх остальных, они довольно опосредованы. 2. Лингвистическая этнография является новой отраслью исследований. Её новизна выражается в активно ведущихся дискуссиях о её задачах, предметах и целях на будущее. Однако, что именно является или не является её определительными чертами и каково её будущее, пока остаётся нерешённым вопросом.

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152 SANTRAUKA Skirtinga termino „psicholingvistika“ samprata rusiškoje ir angliškoje literatūroje ir lingvistinės etnografijos situacija britų tyrimuose Irina Moore

Pirmoje straipsnio dalyje pateikiami skirtumai interpretuojant terminą ,,psicholingvistika“ rusiškoje ir angliškoje literatūroje. Nuo XX a. 60-ųjų metų antros pusės šis terminas plačiai buvo vartojamas tarybinėje mokslinėje literatūroje, tačiau jo reikšmė nėra identiška šio termino angliškam ekvivalentui „psycholinguistics“. Vakarų litera- tūroje psicholingvistikos terminas reiškia mokslą apie kalbinę galią, tyrinėjantis sąryšį tarp kalbos kaip sistemos ir kalbinių kompetencijų. Ši psicholingvistikos koncepcija yra gana siaura ir neapima paralingvistinių arba socialinių, nacionalinių, kultūrinių kalbinės galios aspektų. Pastarieji aspektai praplečia psicholingvistikos terminą ta- rybinių ir Rusijos mokslininkų darbuose ir tuo pačiu sudaro etnopsicholigvistikos tyrimų pagrindą. Antrojoje straipsnio dalyje atskleidžiama lingvistinės etnografijos situacija britų tyrimuose. Nors kultūros dėmens tyrinėjimas kalboje yra perspektyvi sritis, bet jo teorinė metodinė bazė yra dar tik kuriama. 2000 metais sukurtas Britanijos lingvistinės etnografijos forumas (BLEF). Jo tikslas – nusakyti britų tyrimų specifiką. Labiausiai BLEF akcentuoja dvi svarbiausias tyrimų kryptis: 1) naujas požiūris į raštingumo tyrimą; 2) interaktyvioji sociolingvistika. Trečioje straipsnio dalyje pateikiami šių dviejų tyrimo krypčių ypatumai.

153 Process as Theme in Lithuanian and English Sentences

Eglė Petronienė Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St, Vilnius, Lt-08106, Lithuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT From the functional point of view, elements of a text-sentence perform semantic, syntactic and communicative functions, the clusters of functions having no one-to-one correspondence. Processes tend to initiate the Rheme of the sentence, but they can also function as thematic. Thematization of any semantic component depends on the structural properties of the language. As for the thematic character of Processes, it remains the issue of debate. The article presents an analysis of Lithuanian and English existential sentences taken from Lithuanian literary texts and their English translations and supports the assumption that Existential Processes render the thematic function. Key words: Theme, Existential Process, context, word order principles.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS The functional approach to syntactic studies offers to analyse a text-sentence as a threefold unit consisting of the semantic, syntactic and communicative structure. From the semantic point of view, sentences represent patterns of human experience. On the assumption that human experience consists of different processes, a sentence can be viewed as a representation of a Process that involves Participants and is accompanied by Circumstances. Syntactically, a Process is expressed by a verbal group and functions as the Predicate or by a nominal group in which case it can serve all other syntactic functions. The realization of semantic units depends on the syntactic behavior of the language and on the communicative goals of the language user. The communicative level can be said to be responsible for the direction of the syntactic and semantic relationships. With reference to the concept of Communicative Dyna- mism (CD) introduced by Firbas (1974, 1983, 1984, 1995), “the sentence serves as a field within which the degrees of CD are distributed, the distribution inducing the sentence to function in a particular perspective” (Firbas, 1995, 7). This goes to say that at the moment the sentence is produced the semantic components responsible for the generation of meaning in the sentence occupy certain positions in the sentence in accordance with the requirements of Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)65, or

65 The concept introduced by Mathesius (1975).

154 in other words, a situation undergoes contextualization. Languages contextualize differently, as it is determined by their structural properties. This article focuses on the Process of the sentence expressed by a verb, .i e. the Process which participates in the formation of a predication (of a main clause). Although the Process in the Predicate position tends to initiate the Rheme of the sentence (Halliday, 1990, Huddlestone & Pullum 2002, Downing & Locke 2006, and many others), it can also function as thematic (Petronienė, 2007). One such case of the Process Theme can be observed in existential sentences.

EXISTENTIAL PROCESSES TheExistential Process is a one-participant Process. With an existential sentence we state the existence (or coming into existence) of an entity called the Existent in a Given location (Valeika & Buitkienė, 2006). More often than not, existential sentences are used to introduce an entity for further characterization as the communication develops, to present an entity which serves as the background for the description of other entities, or to inform the reader, or listener, about the state of affairs (Kalėdaitė, 1995, 2002(b)). So, the most important information of such sentences is conveyed by the Existent, the entity to be introduced. TheLocative Circumstance serves as the background to the rhematic information. It may be actualized in the sentence or it may not, i.e. it may be presupposed. In either case, it is context-dependent and thematic. As for the Process, communicatively it could be viewed as transition, i.e. as a link between the thematic Circumstance and rhematic Existent. However, its communicative status is different from that of other Processes. For example, the function of the Relational Process is to ascribe a quality to an entity and thus initiate the Rheme. By the Existential Process, an entity is merely presented in the text. In fact, the Locative Circumstance and the Process serve as the background to introduce the Existent. Thus, from the functional point of view, the location, or the Locative Circumstance, and the Process constitute the Theme of the existential sentence, while its Rheme is the Existent. Syntactically, an existential sentence consists of the Subject, the Predicate and the Adjunct. However, the actual realization may vary depending on the systemic peculiarities of the languages. The further description of the existential sentences largely refers to the analysis of the Lithuanian and English sentences selected from the Lithua- nian literary texts and their translations (Petronienė 2007). The aim of the analysis was to investigate the means used to realize the Themein the two languages. The Lithuanian existential sentences in the analysed texts were structured in accordance with the communicative principle of word order: Circumstance + Existential Process + Existent, or Existential Process + Circumstance + Existent when greater prominence was given to the Process. At the surface structure level, the Locative Adjunct preceded the Predicate which in its turn preceded the Subject, i.e. Adjunct +

155 Predicate + Subject, or Predicate + Adjunct + Subject, respectively. The patterns are in accordance with the findings of Valeika (2000), Ambrazas (2005(a)), Valeckienė (1998), Kalėdaitė (2002(b)). English, as an analytic language, requires the Subject to precede the Predicate in a declarative sentence. To give the Existent Rheme sentence-final position, the English translators resorted to the use of the “dummy” there. There is an “empty” Subject, “however, while it is “empty” in terms of ‘experiential’ strand of meaning, it is not completely empty semantically, since it has a ‘thematic’ meaning” (Fawcett, 2010). The combination of there with the Existential Process enhances ‘thematic build-up’, and it is this that warns the addressee that the existence of some entity is about to be announced (ibid.) The main marker of existence is the verb be. However, Existential Processes can also be expressed by verbs other than be. The fact is that existential sentences can present an entity in the text through a static, as in (1), or through a dynamic situation, as in (2). Consider: (1) (a) [Iš lauko Uršulėlės troba atrodė visai nedidelė... Dešinėje pusėje – durys į nemažą virtuvę...] O visoj kairiojoj namo pusėj tebuvo vienas, bet gana didelis ir tuščias kambarys. (Gran. 128) (b) [On the outside Ursula’s hut seemed to be quite small… On the right-hand side the door led to a big kitchen…] On the left-hand side there was just one sufficiently big and empty room.(transl . 83) (2) (a) Atvažiavo čia ir Čepulis iš Rudnios. (Kr. 173) (b) There came to the Christening among others, Čepulis of Rudnia. (trans. 99) In (2), the material verb atvažiavo / came is dedynamized. It, in fact, expresses the result of the Process. To put it another way, it has two semes: the Process and the resultant state of the Existent: atvažiavo / came → buvo / was. In fact, it is difficult to draw up an exhaustive list of verbs of being and occurrence as it can include verbs which typically express other types of Process. In the analyzed texts, Existential Proc- esses in Lithuanian were expressed by the following verbs of position: gulėti, kyboti, likti, pūpsoti, sėdėti, stovėti, etc.; other state verbs: atsispindėti, girdėtis, matytis, merdėti, raibuliuoti, snūduriuoti, šviesti, etc.; verbs expressing occurring: atsidurti, atsirasti, iškilti, išnirti, pasigirsti, šmėstelti, etc. Their English versions were the following verbs of position: bulge, hang, lay, protrude, sit, stand, etc. other state verbs: creek, dwell, rumble, shine, slumber, etc.; verbs expressing occurring: emanate, immerge, spread, surge, appear, occur, etc. When used in existential sentences, verbs of occurrence lose their dynamic quality and function as presentational. The so-called presentational English verbs also appeared in an inverted word order pattern without a “dummy” there. Some linguists see it as an infrequent phenomenon, “licensed” by the there-construction (Fawcett, 2010). Others note the functional difference between the presence and the absence of there (Bolinger, 1977, Breivik, 1981, Birner and Ward, 1998). Sentences without there are said to convey the so-called ‘visual

156 impact’, as if the scene is before one’s eyes and no preparation is required to present an entity (Breivik, 1981, 12). Consider: (3) (a) [Ši vietelė prisiglaudė Šiaurės jūros pakrantėje, keturios dešimtys penki kilometrai į rytus nuo Gdansko miesto. Iki 1939 metų tai buvo mažai kam žinomas užkemsys.] Šalia jos merdėjo mažas miestukas, beveik kaimas, Štuthofas, kokių Vokietijoje buvo tūkstančiai. (Sr. 17) (b) [This little place nestles on the shores of the Baltic Sea, forty-five kilometers east of the city of Gdansk. Until 1939, few knew of this isolated corner.] Next to it slumbered Stutthof, a small moribund town, almost a village. (transl. 9) The function of the Process in (3) is non-agentive. Its function is to introduce an entity into a text, or so to speak, to present an entity onto the scene. The Given location seems to presuppose the occurrence of a new entity. To preserve the original communicative structure of the Lithuanian existential sentences, English resorted not only to syntactic, but also to semantic transforma- tions. One such transformation was the metaphorization of the Circumstance. This semantic transformation involves three changes at the syntactic level. (i) As the Lithuanian thematic Circumstance is converted into a Participant, it is turned into the Subject of the English sentence. (ii) The Lithuanian intransitive verb is replaced by the English pseudo-transitive verb. (iii) The Lithuanian Rhematic Existent at Subject is placed in sentence-final position in the English sentence. Note some typical examples: (4) (a) [Tuomet Dachau ėjo jau pirmojoj kategorijoj – buvo jau pats geriausias, pats lengviausias lageris...] Jame sėdėjo daugelis Anglijos, Amerikos, Prancūzijos piliečių... (Sr. 23) (b) [At that time Dachau was in the first category – it was the most present- able, the “easiest” camp…] The camp contained many English, American and French citizens… (transl.13) (5) (a) [Tarp dviejų lango rėmų blaškėsi paprasčiausia peteliškė. Tik Vaitkus negalėjo suprasti, kaip ji čia atsirado.] Lange nebuvo nei kokių didelių plyšių, nei orlaidės. (Gran. 134) (b) [In between two frames of the window a simple butterfly was tossing about. Vaitkus could not understand how it could have got in there.] The window had neither fractures nor a ventilator. (90) In (4b) and (5b), the thematic Circumstance is converted into a Participant and in the surface it turns into the Subject. The Lithuanian intransitive verb is replaced by the English pseudo-transitive possessive verb. The rhematic Existent takes sentence-final position. The metaphorization of the Locative Circumstance employed by the translators suggests a semantic relationship between existential and possessive constructions. The Possessor can be conceived as location. The entity possessed in the English sentence corresponds to the Existent of the Lithuanian sentence. The analysis showed that English possessive constructions can be treated as English ver-

157 sions of Lithuanian existential sentences66. As for the Process expressed by an English possessive verb, however, its communicative status seems to acquire some degree of rhematicity. In the grammatical sentence pattern, possessive verbs function like relational verbs which tend to initiate the Rheme of the sentence. In this relation, the analysis revealed more discrepancies concerning the realization of the Lithuanian Existential Processes in English. The conversion of a Lithuanian Circumstance into a Participant in English made possible the use of the grammatical sentence pattern and thus the realization of the thematic information by sentence- initial constituents. However, the resulting English sentences formally corresponded to other Process type sentences. Consider: (6) (a) [Iš tolumoje baltuojančio miestelio į tamsias ganyklas sruvena ramybė. Kažkur girgsi armonika...] Apmirusiame miežių kvadrate aidi garsus žiogų čirpimas. (Šer.2, 28) (b) [From the distant white village, peace flowed into the dark pastures. Somewhere a concertina creaked…] The dying fields of barley echoed with chirping crickets. (202) (7) (a) [„Protingai pastatyta“, - pasakė tėvas, stovėdamas to tuščio kambario viduryje. „Toks kambarys – laidotuvėms...“ „Kodėl laidotuvėms?“ nustebo Vaitkus. „Ir krikštynoms ir vestuvėms, ir šiaip, kai giminės suvažiuoja...“] „Nėr čia buvę nė kokių vestuvių, nė kokių krikštynų...“, [tėvas prisėdo ant suolo galo.] (Gran. 128) (b) [‘It’s very cleverly built,’ his father said standing in the midst of the empty room. ‘Such a room is very good for funerals…’ ‘Why – the room… for funerals?’ Vaitkus was surprised. ‘It can house a Christening party, or a wedding, or a number of relatives when they come to visit you…’] ‘This room has never seen any weddings or christening parties,’ [his father sat down at the end of the bench.] (transl. 83) The perspective of the Lithuanian sentences on the whole is preserved in the English translation; the nominalized Circumstances retain the function of a link to the preceding text, and the Existents, though transformed semantically, present the Rhemes of the sentences. However, the communicative status of the Existential Processes in the given sentences seems unstable across the two languages: in the Lithuanian sentences, the thematic properties of the Processes prevail, while in the English versions, the dynamic quality is not completely lost. Cf. In the dying fields of barley echoed the chirping of the crickets, in which case, the existential construction neutralizes the meaning of activity. The LithuanianExistential Processes required inverted word order in the sentence quite consistently, while in English, inversion was employed in less than half of the

66 The semantic relation between existential and possessive constructions was first noted by Lyons (1967). Also about the semantic relations connecting existential, possessive and locative constructions in Holvoet (2005).

158 cases. This goes to say that more than half of the Lithuanian existential sentences were translated in accordance with the grammatical principle, i.e. in the pattern Subject + Predicate + Adjunct (Petronienė, 2007, 116-117). Without a context, the given pattern would have been ambiguous, as sentences structured in this pattern can be viewed as Relational (where the Subject expresses the Carrier) or as Material (where the Subject is the Agent). The interpretation of such English sentences required a due consideration of the context and the character of the semantic relations of the sentence constituents. Consider the following example: (8) (a) [Dabar ji guli ant kušetės visiškai nuoga, kaire ranka parėmusi galvą, surietusi ilgas švelniaodes kojas.] Joje liepsnoja slapta ugnis – [dar nežinau, ar ji gali uždegti ir mane.] (Gav. 2, 56) (b) [Now she is lying on my couch naked with her left hand under her head and her long silky legs crossed.] A hidden flame burns in her. [I don’t know yet if that flame can burn me.](transl . 128) In sentence (8b), the Participant involved in the Process is not recoverable from the context and bears an indefinite expression. The verb displays a semantic affinity with the Participant and implies the meaning of occurrence on the scene. To follow Firbas, “through this affinity the verb prepares the way for the phenomenon to be presented” (Firbas, 1995, 61). The English sentence reflects a reverse growth of informativity; however, inversion is not pragmatically or structurally constrained here: (8) (c) [Now she is lying on my couch naked with her left hand under her head and her long silky legs crossed.] In her burns a hidden flame. [I don’t know yet if that flame can burn me.] In this sense, sentences 8b and 8c function as variants of realizing an Existential Process. As noted above, the Lithuanian existential sentences were also produced with a thematic Process preceding the thematic Circumstance. Compare the following sentences: (9) (a) [Grįždamas namo iš miestelio, ėjau basas ir vienmarškinis. Kelias buvo netolimas, vos keturi verstai, ir ėjo giria.] Augo čia pakelėje anksčiau miškas ištekinis. (Kr. 51) (b) [I was returning from the town, jacketless and barefoot. The trip was not long, only about two miles, and the road led through the woods.] Some years ago a deep forest stood on both sides of the road. (transl. 89) (10) (a) [O artimųjų juk nebuvo, Vaitkus vienas pats buvo tas artimasis. Tėvas mirė paskutinis iš dviejų brolių, o kitas dar jaunas žuvo.] Atsistojo šalia Vaitkaus tiktai du tolimi pusbroliai ir vaikai, kokios antros ar trečios eilės, Vaitkus jau nebežinojo; (Gran. 118) (b) [There were no very close relatives there, the closest relative was Vaitkus himself. From two remaining brothers his father was the last to die, the third brother had died when he was still very young. ] Only two distant cousins, the

159 second or third in a row, Vaitkus could not remember which, were standing next to Vaitkus accompanied by their wives and children; (transl. 71) The choice of the grammatical principle in (9b) and (10b) seem to be determined by the systemic properties of English. The semantic relations and the communicative values of the semantic components of the two sentences are determined by the context. The inversion transformation, though, is not pragmatically constrained; the sentences with inverted word order given below might read awkwardly, but they are not unacceptable: (9) (c) [I was returning from the town, jacketless and barefoot. The trip was not long, only about two miles, and the road led through the woods.] Some years ago there grew on both sides of the road a deep forest. (10) (c) [There were no very close relatives there, the closest relative was Vaitkus himself. From two remaining brothers his father was the last to die, the third brother had died when he was still very young. ] Accompanied by their wives and children there stood next to Vaitkus two distant cousins, the second or third in a row (Vaitkus could not remember which). The LithuanianExistential Process placed at the beginning of the sentence receives greater prominence in comparison with the order when it follows the Circumstance. Thus the impact made by the given English sentences seems to correspond to the impact the Lithuanian sentences have on the reader. It should be admitted, though, that the number of such sentences was small and the probabilities of their interpretation should be given weight accordingly.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The analysis of Lithuanian and English existential sentences showed that in the realization of existence Lithuanian employed the syntactic patterns Adjunct + Predicate + Subject, or Predicate + Adjunct + Subject which reflected a linear growth of informativity. The subject-verb inversion seems to be instigated not only by the rhematic Existent but also by the thematic character of the Process. To give the thematic information its legitimate position in the sentence, i.e. to resolve the conflict between the grammatical and communicative principles, English resorted to inversion with the ‘dummy’ there or without it. The metaphorization of the Locative Circumstance was also employed though moderately. The resultant constructions successfully preserved the functional perspective of the source language sentences and could be interpreted as versions of Lithuanian existential sentences. More than half of the Lithuanian existential sentences had English versions structured in accordance with the grammatical principle. The high percentage of the use of the grammatical word order principle shows that in comparison to Lithuanian the thematic character of the Processes in English is less often marked positionally. Its low degree of CD is more often determined by the context.

160 REFERENCES 1. Ambrazas, V. (ed.) 2005. Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. 2. Birner, B.J. & G. Ward. 1998. Information Status and Noncanonical Word Order in English. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 3. Bolinger, D.L. 1977. Meaning and Form. London: Longman. 4. Breivik, L.E. 1981. On the interpretation of existential there, in Language 57. P. 1-25. 5. Fawcett R. P. forthcoming 2010. The Many Types of ‘Theme’ in English: their Syntax, Semantics and Discourse Functions. London:Continuum. 6. Firbas, J.1974. Some Aspects of the Czechoslovak Approach to Problems Of Functional Sentence Perspective, in Daneš, F.(ed.) Papers of Functional Sentence Perspective. Prague. P. 11-37. 7. Firbas, J. 1983. On bipartition, tripatition and pluripartition in the theory of functional sentence perspective, in Dobrzynska, T. & J. Janus (eds.) Text and Sentence. Wroclaw. P. 67-79. 8. Firbas, J. 1984. Carriers of communicative dynamism, in Prague Studies in English 18. P. 63-73. 9. Firbas, J.1995. Functional Sentence Perspective in Written and Spoken Communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10. Holvoet, A. & R. Mikulskas. 2005. Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos darbai 3. Gramatinių funkcijų tyrimai. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. 11. Kalėdaitė, V. 1995. Existential sentences in English and Lithuanian, Darbai ir dienos 1(10). P. 103-110. 12. Kalėdaitė, V. 2002. Presentative constructions in English and Lithuanian, Kalbotyra 52. P. 15-23. 13. Lyons, J. 1967. A note on possessive, existential and locative sentences, in Foundations of Language 3. P. 390-396. 14. Mathesius, V. 1975. A Functional Analysis of Present Day English. On a General Linguistic Basis. Ed. by J.Vachek. Prague: Academia. 15. Petronienė, E. 2007. Thematic Structure of the Lithuanian Sentence and its Realization in English. PhD thesis. Vilnius University. 1 Valeckienė, A. 1998��. Funkcinė lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. 17. Valeika, L. 2000. An Introductory Course in Communicative Syntax. Vilnius: Publishing House of Vilnius Pedagogical University. 18. Valeika, L. and J. Buitkienė. 2006. Functional English Syntax. Vilnius: VPU leidykla.

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SANTRAUKA Procesas kaip tema lietuvių ir anglų kalbos sakiniuose Eglė Petronienė

Remiantis lietuvių autorių grožinių kūrinių ir jų vertimų į anglų kalbą analize, nagrinėjami Proceso teminimo būdai, didžiausią dėmesį skiriant Egzistenciniams Procesams. Egzistencinių sakinių raiška aiškiai parodo Proceso teminį pobūdį ir atskleidžia dviejų kalbų Proceso teminimo ypatybes. Proceso pasirinkimas Tema lietuvių kalbos sakinyje sintaksiškai yra susijęs su gramatinės žodžių tvarkos inver- sija. Anglų kalboje Procesas yra mažiau poziciškai žymėtas, tačiau analizė rodo, kad lietuvių kalbos egzistenciniai sakiniai anglų kalboje turi ne vieną semantinį sintaksinį atitikmenį.

162 Land of Make Believe: Social Relationship versus Communication Style on the Internet

Goda Rumšienė Vilnius University, Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, 8 Muitinės St., Kaunas, Lithuania, [email protected]

SUMMARY Internet English prominently reflects the impact of technologies on the strategies of communication. The development of the third medium of language, i.e. written speech is also manifested with its more morphologically complex lexis and sentences containing simpler structures frequently featuring omission of traditionally required structural elements. This manner of communication develops creative environments and helps the participants to experience involvement into the community; besides, it is optimally suitable to the employed communicative interface. Key-words: Internet, social relationship, communication style, written speech.

Introduction It is widely admitted that the style of communication is widely related with the objectives, lifestyle, status and social ties of the participants. The advent of computer link technologies has led to the development of novel strategies of communication. The present research offers insights into the structure of Internet English sentences in order to reveal the dominant patterns in the context of the communication interface. The aim of this research is to reveal the main differences between Internet English and Standard English in terms of syntax and the general style of communication in order to show the general trends of evolution manifested by Internet English. The objectives of the research are as follows to present the data of the relevant categories of Standard English and Internet English; to establish the differences between Standard English and Internet English; to provide generalisations on the established qualitative and quantitative differences of Standard English and Internet English. The object of the research is Internet English and its syntax; the communicative style is considered in particular. The exploration is based on the method of Technology-Conditioned Language Change and Use (TeLCU) by Bodomo and Lee (Bodomo & Lee, 2002), on the methodology of Internet culture exploration by Hale and Scanlon (Hale and Scanlon 1999)

163 and on attitude to morphological analysis as expressed in the works by Haspelmath (Haspelmath 2003). Bodomo and Lee treat the phenomenon of the Internet language as the modern manifestation of the communication culture, and, by taking the impact of technologies into account, claim that the new mode of communication also requires novel strategies of research. A similar attitude is taken by the author of the most famous monograph on the Internet language, Crystal (Crystal, 2001), i.e. that language evolves following the needs and achievements of its society. The paper takes Ordinary Language Philosophy by Halliday (Halliday, 1985) as its philosophical concept; the ideas of this concept essentially overlap with the findings of Crystal and other leading explorers of the Internet language. Croft (Croft, 2005) among many others expresses the belief that the English language is rapidly evolving in terms of complying with the needs of the new type(s) of society, and this change is extremely prominent in the medium of Internet English. In short, the predominant idea is that the lifestyle and technology of a civilization heavily impact upon its language and style of communication which in turn affects the civilization by impacting its lifestyle and development of communication-related technologies.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The users of the World Wide Web can be specified as advocates of a particular culture with any ethnic, social, religious, etc. background and without any reference to their sex or age. Thus they are not united by specific cultural features. An Internet community is not necessarily a community of native speakers of English; many participants have learnt it as a foreign language. This fact explains the tendency of standardization. Although non-native speakers usually master the language through regular practice, they still want to see it as a set of rules or as a standardized unit. Consequently, certain patterns are taken and exceptions are modified to fit into pigeon-holes. As the process is parallel to the trends of contemporary word building, native speakers willingly accept it and the Internet style evolves towards the development of universal rules (cf. Rumšienė, 2007, 168-9). Individual freedom is likely to be the main reason of multidirectional creativity in Internet English and in Internet communication in general. It is intensified by the absence of any elements imposing the use of a universal system of signs on representatives of various cultures. Thus, anthropological differences lead to slight variations even in case of interpretation of fundamental laws. This explains not only the abundance of neologisms in Internet English but also the variety of their nature. In fact, practice shows that no essential problems of (mis)understanding arise between native and non-native speakers or between representatives of different cultural backgrounds. Consequently, it is possible to claim that there exists some universal code, the adherence to which ensures mutual understanding throughout the communication process. On the other hand, any violation of the code demonstrates one’s non-adherence to the (sub)culture. As separate cases represent the philosophy and

164 the unwritten rules of Internet English, it is possible to explore the general trends of word formation and validate the results of the analysis. It is possible to generalize that Internet language brings (1) novel vocabulary (lexis); (2) altered sentence and text structure (syntax) and, in the context of the communicational environment, (3) new strategies of communication. By this the new concept of the addresser and the addressee is meant also considering the interface of communication. The sentence is commonly defined as a syntactically independent grammatical unit; some definitions are extended to mention that a sentence is supposed to bear minimal syntactic relation with the preceding and following sentences. Unfortunately, Internet English communication does not always tend to follow the rules. A Standard English dialogue might look like this:

LARRY KING: Let’s get to some current issues. A few days ago, you released the American hiker, but there is still two captives in Iran. How long will they be detained? PRESIDENT AHMADINEJAD: Well, they crossed our borders, violated the borders, and a judge will take care of their case. LARRY KING: But you did release one. Is there any chance in the name of goodwill that you’ll release the others? There were two hikers who made a mistake. PRESIDENT AHMADINEJAD: That one person was released on bail because of mercy, compassion and as a humanitarian gesture. As for the others, yes, there is a chance, but the judge has to take care of the case. LARRY KING: Do you know when? PRESIDENT AHMADINEJAD: It depends on the judge who will need to handle the case, issue a verdict. There’s a process that must go through. (http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0809/23/lkl.01.html)

Phrases clearly follow each other here, interlocutors strive to complete their ideas “in one go” while occasional cases of overlapping usually stem from the impatience and/ or bad manners of the participants. However, neither traditional writing nor any variation of oral communication produces artificial splitting of sentences the way it is done on the Internet e.g.

> You > should go > for a walk > before headache sets in

Superficially, this is simply one sentence split into four parts. However, this splitting may have specific functions, such as getting the information onto the

165 screen(s) of the interlocutor(s) as soon as possible. It is necessary to remember that chatrooms may involve more than two users and consequently more than one dialogue (polylogue) at a time. This is visually acceptable, and it allows the initial/ intermediate parts of the message to get through faster. As a result, different polylogues overlap, and if a reaction is too slow, the response is spatially too distant from the phrase it targets. Consider the following example taken from a live discussion of a chess game at www.chessbomb.com:

(1) siamesedream: yeah, he should analyse in English (2) KeithHallRoad: me, too, but it is still interesting (3) KeithHallRoad: thanks again for the live feed link (4) bakalao: Aronian speaks more then ten languages (5) Levon: if Rfd2 had been played, then there would be Rg2

It is evident that phrases 2-3, 4 and 5 are reactions to some earlier statements; (4) is actually a reaction to (1) while (2) and (5) are directed to phrases which were approximately ten or twenty lines above. The interaction contained approximately thirty participants; the majority were passive whenever a couple or more minutes elapsed between moves while five or six members were leading and dominating the interaction. As a result, the communication developed at very uneven speeds. When the tempo of play was at its peak, new phrases appeared, reached the edge of the live chat window and disappeared within ten seconds. On the other hand, when the players took longer to consider their moves, slowly posted chat phrases were visible for up to five minutes. Actually, at the moment phrase (5) appeared, the utterance it was aimed at had already left the chat window. This example clearly shows that communication on the Internet tends to be multi- layered, with overlapping threads of interactions. This type of communication would be essentially impossible in spoken language as the high level of sound overlapping would hinder the reception of messages. Another issue with internet communication is the absence of prosodic and paralinguistic elements. It is resolved by the application of various visual markers such as smilies, text layout and so on. The issue of parallel interactions is also related with the optimization of the text and sentence structure. A calculation was performed in order to compare the amount of functional words, sentence length and some structural elements. Standard English conversations were represented by transcripts of Larry King Live as posted on the official transcript page on the website of CNN (conversations with Betancourt, Ah- madinejad and Elton John) (http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/lkl.html). Internet English conversations were randomly selected from tsse, dalnet and wow chat rooms, texts of October 2005 were used, approximately the amount 450,000 symbols was researched for both Standard and Internet speech.

166 The amount of functional words (by this articles and some other determiners are meant, e.g. any, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, etc.) as well as personal pronouns when the subject or object is evident from the context. The highest amount in the researched texts was 19% while in the researched Internet English conversations it never exceeded 12% and in occasional conversations was as low as roughly 5%. In terms of sentence length calculation, all the words were considered. Standard English sentences contained 11.62 words on average (59,144 words in 5,090 sentences) while Internet English sentences contained about 8.27 words each (56,827 words in 6,871 sentences). The data clearly shows that Internet English sentences are substantially shorter, actually, the rate of difference is 11.62/8.27=1.405, i.e. Standard English sentences are roughly 41% longer. Of course, this is not the absolute rate as registers in general and attitudes of interlocutors in particular may substantially differ; however, Standard English sentences tend to have more ‘secondary’ parts and/ or more complicated structures than Internet English sentences. Generally, Internet English sentences do not present any systematic syntactic deviations; they tend to adhere to the same word order while differences mostly lie in the omission of inherently (contextually) clear subjects and objects. In terms of ‘primary’ (subject plus object) versus ‘secondary’ (other parts of the sentence) elements in the sentence, Internet English exhibits a larger concentration of the ‘primary’ parts:

Table 1: Ratio of subjects plus objects per total words in a sentence in Standard English and Internet English Subject+object/ total words Percentage Internet English 17,717/ 52,449 33.78%� Standard English 14,060/ 56,196 25.02%

The language clearly shows an inclination towards the decrease of sentence length. In chat conversations, users usually press the “enter” button in order to make a phrase appear on the screen. As conversations frequently hold more than 3 participants (this number may easily reach a few dozen), any sentence which is made longer than 8 words will be spatially too distant to the phrase it is intended to reply to. As a result, the message shows an inclination to be maximally short. Further researches could prove that 2-interlocutor conversations on the Internet tend to contain longer sentences than multi-participant interactions It is thus sensible to compare sentences not only in terms of length but also regarding the presence or absence of the subject and the predicate. Consequently, 4 types of sentences were singled out: sentences containing both the subject and the predicate; sentences containing the subject but omitting the predicate; subject-less sentences featuring the predicate and sentences employing neither the subject nor

167 the predicate. In order to obtain valid comparative data, comparisons with popular Hollywood films of the same period (i.e. 2007-2010) were performed. Five film transcripts were randomly selected: 1408; 2012; The Book of Eli; Revolutionary Road and Ghosts of Girlfriends Past. The results are as follows:

Table 2: Content of sentences with or without predicates in “Film” and Internet English Subject+ Subject+ Subject- Subject- Predicate+ Predicate- Predicate+ Predicate- Film English 52.04 0.77 11.03 38.16 Internet English 41.22 2.45 18.16 38.17

The table clearly shows that although Film English features 11% more full sentences, the share of “bits” of speech containing neither a subject nor a predicate is very similar. Comparative analysis with various registers of Standard English is a subject of further researches. The relatively high frequency of sentences with the omitted subject demonstrates that the participants of communication rely on mutual understanding and consider that the subject is clear from the context of the relevant sentence. This is the same reason why people omit subjects in informal oral communication and, by extension, in “Film language” as well. This shows that participants of Internet interaction are used to the manner of speech relying on the “traditional” oral informal communication practices, but actually transgress the limits of the norms established in oral speech represented in films. Consequently, a statistical comparison of the content of oral speech in terms of parts of sentence with the strategies of sentence structure of Internet English is necessary for further research of the relationship and differences of communication strategies of Standard and Internet English. Even though the scope of the research is relatively limited, it is generally evident that in terms of syntax, Internet English is very close to “Film English”, which essentially means that it is very close to informal spoken English. This validates the opinion of the majority of scholars that the Internet language is a relatively close reflection of oral speech, which is not surprising as it contributes to the trend of the contemporary society to shift personal communication from the direct face-to-face environment to the virtual world. There actually may be a number of reasons for that: (1) modern technologies help to overcome distances; (2) modern technologies permit creation of artificial personalities and allow individuals to present themselves better or worse (as desired) rather than be who one actually is. This happens because of the avoidance of a real physical contact. As a result, modern technologies feature different types of violence; (3) modern technologies allow communication with a larger number of interlocutors at the same time; (4) modern technologies allow greater innovativeness, more efficient spread of novelties and rapid development of communication elements in

168 general. This leads to an alternative type of communication and the development of a specific subculture. Not surprisingly, “competent” members are easily able to assess the “competence” of other participants of an interaction from their communication style. On the whole, the major developments in Internet English concentrate upon regularization of inflexion forms and regularization of word building patterns by using relatively limited resources, simplification of syntactic sentence-level structures and simplification of some grammatical structures. However, the idea that Internet English is merely a simplified version of spoken English is challenged by the following facts: many innovations frequently requiring deep understanding of language logic, extensive active vocabulary is employed; it features a large amount of roots; the complex tense structure is preserved while modal structures are also frequently used.

Conclusions (1) English is the dominant language of the World Wide Web. However, the share of Internet users employing English decreases in the context of the increase of the universal spread of the world wide web and the development of sites and other communicational environments used within the limits of a single nation or culture. (2) Internet English is a variety which is well-adapted to intercultural communication. It is simplified in comparison to Standard English in terms of grammar. In terms of lexis, very few new roots enter the Internet variety of English. (3) Due to the contribution of those Internet English users who are not native speakers of English, the Internet language mode develops towards simplification and regularity. More and more patterns of word forms and word formation evolve. Internet English introduces roughly four times more novel vocabulary than Standard English. (4) International contribution to the Internet language mode leads to multiple lexical innovations. However, lexical and flectional innovations rarely deviate from forms previously existing in the English language.

REFERENCES 1. Bodomo, A. & Lee, C.K.M. 2002. Changing Forms of Language and Literacy: Technobabble and Mobile Phone Communication. In: Literacy and Numeracy Studies 12(1). 2002. Available at: www.readingmatrix.com/ articles/bodomo_lam_ lee/article.pdf. 2. Croft, .W, 2005. Toward a New Theory of Language. Available at: http://lings. ln.man.ac.uk/Info/staff/WAC/Papers/SanMarino.pdf. 3. Crystal, D. 2001. Language and the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4. Hale, C. & Scanlon, J. 1999. Wired Style. New York: Broadway Books. 5. Halliday, M.A.K. et.al. 1985. Language, Context and Text: a Social Semiotic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

169 6. Haspelmath, M. 2002. Understanding Morphology. London: Arnold. 7. King, L. Larry King Live. Available at: http://transcripts. cnn.com/ TRANSCRIPTS/lkl.html 8. Neologism Statistical Database (Rice University). Available at: http://esa4.rice. edu/~ling215/. 9. Rumšienė, G. 2007. Word Formation Processes in Internet English. Doctoral Dissertation. Kaunas.

SANTRAUKA Svajų šalis: socialiniai santykiai ir bendravimo stilius internete Goda Rumšienė

Internetinėje anglų kalboje ryškiai atsispindi technologijų poveikis bendravimo būdui: dėl naujo tipo komunikacinės aplinkos susiformavo trečiasis kalbos pobūdis – rašytinė kalba, pasižyminti sudėtingesnės morfologinės struktūros žodžiais bei paprastesniais sakiniais, kuriuose dažnas pagrindinių struktūrinių elementų pra- leidimas. ��Ši kalbos maniera internetinių pokalbių svetainių klientams leidžia kurti bei pasijausti bendruomenės dalimi, o taip pat yra optimaliai pritaikyta naudojamai komunikacinei aplinkai.

170 Strategies and Tactics of Self Presentation in Modern English Conversational Discourse

Tatjana Rusko Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, 11 Saulėtekio St., LT-10223 Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The present article is a survey of theoretical basis of human intercourse, namely the role of self presentation tactics together with the impression management motives; it deals with modern effective strategies and tactics of influencing the listener and creating a positive impression. An indispensable role of non verbal communication skills is also being stressed. Analysis of fiction excerpts demonstrates the use of the most popular and effective communication strategies. It is shown that the successful communication and interaction depends largely on the appropriate communicative and self presentation tactics chosen by the speaker. Key-words: human interaction, self presentation, non-verbal communication, conversational discourse.

Introduction Nowadays the concept of language being the form of individual’s activity, the way of human experience and conscience verbalization, the way of self expression and interpersonal communication organization is becoming more and more widespread. The concept of self being introduced into linguistic use, enables to conclude that language belongs primarily and mainly to the self. Both social and individual, general and specific, inborn and acquired, reiterated and newly created, objective and subjective are closely interrelated in the self. Discourse is conducted by selves. They adapt certain communicative roles, exchange speech patterns and, consequently, communicative roles. They report, describe, state, prove, convince, beg, order, ask and answer, make and accept offers, promise and break promises, ridicule, offend or flatter, evaluate facts and behavior. They choose definite speech methods, strategies and tactics of cooperative or non- cooperative character.

171 The aim of the research is to reveal particular importance and social value of appropriate self presentation and management. The object of the research is strategies and motives of self presentation in discourse in the light of fiction literature; the method used is discourse analysis. The topicality of the research lies in the importance of self presentation skills improvement and managing impression of an individual in the context of social intercourse, the subject of the research being self presentation and management in interpersonal communication on both theoretical and practical bases.

Discussion and the results Self presentation is understood as part of individual’s performance which regularly functions in general and fixed fashion to define the situation for those who observe the performance uniting interactive strategies with the personal front (Goffman, 1959). Self-presentation can be of two types: conscious and subconscious, both strategies presuming the so-called ‘catch-up effect’, when the addressee receives a certain impression of the speaker. Thus, we approach direct and indirect self presentation strategies. It is in our best interests to try to control how other people respond to us. One possibility involves optimizing the impression we give others of ourselves (Schlenker, Pontari, 2000). Our capacity to create an impression rests on two different activities: messages we give and messages we give off. Messages we give refer to direct verbal symbols or their substitutes whose content is designed to convey information. Messages we give off involve actions perceived as being performed for reasons other than the information conveyed: the so-called off-record strategy (Levinson, 1983), and non-verbal aspects of communication, i.e. body language, facial expression. Thus, by posture, mimics and gestures the speaker indirectly gives off a message about the kind of person he/she is. Direct strategies of self presentation include the concept of ‘region’(Goffman, 1959, 214), bald on record theory (Levinson, 1983, 203) with key concepts of ‘rationality’ and ‚’face’, five direct self-presentation tactics to influence others( ingratiation, intimida- tion, self-promotion, exemplification and supplication (Jones and Pittman, 1982). In sociology and social psychology impression management is often used as a synonym of self-presentation and is viewed as the process through which people try to control the impression other people form of them. Politeness theory is a sociolinguistic theory in the pragmatic tradition that was developed by P. Brown and S. Levinson, who extended E. Goffman’s approach. Considerable research in interpersonal communication has used politeness theory and facework to examine the communicative strategies people use to enact, support or challenge face, consequently the strategies of self-presentation. Politeness in face-to-face communication or online interaction is one of the key factors of a positive outcome of the conversation. That’s why the speaker who is consciously longing to influence his/her listener should be aware of two types of

172 politeness, namely: positive politeness and negative politeness. Positive politeness strategies seek to minimize threat to the listener’s positive face. They are used to make the latter feel good about himself/herself, his interests or needs, and are most usually used in situations where the audience knows each other fairly well. This move helps the speaker to gain a pint to his/her own personality image. In addition to hedging and attempts to avoid conflicts, some strategies of positive politeness include statements of friendship, solidarity, compliments. Examples may include: attending to the listener’s interests, needs; using solidarity in- group identity markers; being optimistic; including both speaker and listener in activity; offering or promising; exaggerating interest in listener and his/her interests; avoiding disagreement; joking. Using positive politeness strategies the speaker focuses on the listener’s personality, showing him/her the importance of this dialogue. In the partner’s eyes you seem utterly polite, tactful and delicate, which certainly creates a winning impression. Negative politeness strategies are oriented towards the listener’s negative face and emphasize avoidance of imposition on the latter. These strategies presume that the speaker will be imposing on the listener and there is a higher potential for awkwardness or embarrassment than in positive politeness strategies. Negative face is the desire to remain autonomous so the speaker is more apt to include an out for the listener, through distancing styles like apologies. The examples are: being indirect; using hedges or questions; being pessimistic; minimizing the imposition; using nominalizations, passives, or statements of general rules; apologizing; using plural pronouns. Favor seeking, or a speaker asking the interlocutor for a favor, is a common example of negative politeness strategies in use. Three main stages are observed in favor-seeking: the preparatory phase, the focal phase, and the final phase (Jones and Pittman, 1982). Further detailed study of the politeness theory can be found in the works of J. Mills, B. Davies and R. Lakoff. When we interact with others, we continuously give and receive countless wordless signals. All our nonverbal behavior – the gestures we make, the way we sit, how fast or loud we talk, how close we stand, how much eye contact we make – send strong messages. The nonverbal signals one sends create either a sense of interest, trust and desire to maintain relations or they generate disinterest distrust, confusion or even repulsion. In impression management body language cues perform five roles (Richmond and Mc Croskey, 1995): repetition, contradiction, substitution, comple- menting, accenting. Alongside with direct/indirect strategies and the principles of negative/positive politeness the following strategies are distinguished (depending upon the type of discourse): cognitive, contextual, communicative, semantic, syntactic, textual, etc. These were introduced by Taylor who worked out the theory of ‘style’ which is believed to be based on communicative strategies. Thus, the speaker may apply the politeness strategy that will condition the essence of the utterance, i.e. its content, stylistic peculiarities and the use of speech acts. Communicative strategies proper and semantic strategies are worth mentioning. The former are presented as the bundle

173 of rules the speaker is about to stick to, the latter include semantic planning of the intention, mostly addressing the linguistic means within a particular communicative action. Linguists distinguish between cooperative and non-cooperative principles by the way the communicative strategies are established. Cooperative principles are used in informative and interpretive dialogues, e.g. in telling stories, giving advice and exchanging opinions. Non-cooperative ones are found in arguments, disagree- ments and claims. Undoubtedly these are the politeness strategies that perform the function of positive self-presentation of the speaker and his/her target reaching. Communica- tive strategies considerably contribute to the effective realization of communicative intention and are supposed to reach a wider social goal. Communication tactics are defined as a certain way the speakers conduct themselves on a definite stage of the conversational interaction, focused on reaching a desirable effect or preventing it. Communicative tactics form the structure of the dialogue/monologue, expressing happiness, joy, sorrow, disappointment, etc. The right combination of the appropriate strategy and tactics will largely define the self-realization and impression management that leads to a final impact upon the listener. The existence of communicative strategies brought about the appearance of impression management approaches. To analyze the nature of behavior and the speaker’s style of influence, he/she is bound to apply consciously or subconsciously in real interaction or in fiction discourse linguists suggest the following 4 approaches: 1. the autocratic approach, 2. the emotional approach, 3. the assertive approach, 4. the passive approach. These allow to study and explain the overall conduct of the speaker depending on his/her communicative strategies and tactics chosen. Together with different kinds of politeness principles they constitute the background for the practical analysis of personality self-presentation and interaction. The above 4 approaches are studied according to their functions in the fiction text fragments by English writers, namely: 1. Jeffery Farnol “The Money Moon”, 2. Stephen King “Quitters, Inc”, 3. Jack London “The Game”. While analysing the personality self managing and behaviour in the text fragments special emphasis is put on such categories of self presentation as direct and indirect strategies, politeness principle theory and the theory of conversational implicature. The following examples offer an opportunity to study the most successful and less effective self presentation strategies in practice.

1.1. Realization of communicative self presentation strategies in Jeffery Far- nol’s “The Money Moon” The analysis of the dialogue between Mr. Bellew and Ms. Sylvia resulted in re- vealing the emotional approach of the woman and prevailing defensive strategy of the man. Mr. Bellew and Ms. Sylvia (Farnol, 1988, 61): “Do you know, Mr. Bellew, I’m growing quite jealous of you” “Well, I am sure you are not”

174 “I beg your pardon! -how awkward I am!” she exclaimed, in hot mortification. “No,” said Bellew, shaking his head, “it was a nail, you know, a bent, and rusty nail, -here, under the top bar. Is your dress much torn?” “Oh, that is nothing, thank you!” Conversations between the opposite sexes are commonly of special interest. The nature of a woman and a man appear to be quite different regarding their psychological-behavioural characteristics. It is felt though not strongly in the above dialogue that Mr. Bellew and Sylvia cherish kind feelings for each other. Consequently, we may speak of almost identical managing strategies. As for the lady, she chooses the tactic of the so called “favour seeking move”. She is definitely using the strategy of negative politeness with the elements of the positive impact including statements of friendship and compliments: “Do you know, Mr. Bellew, I’m growing quite jealous of you” -, which underpins the idea of longing to maintain the positive face of the listener. :“Do you know...” is the signal of opening, the speaker is thus reducing her own self importance in the matter and somewhat exaggerates that of the partner. The whole phrase is the so-called down-scaling compliment. Sylvia aims to create the comfort zone of the conversation by implementing an emotional approach. Mr. Bellew is actually supporting this attempt. “Well, I am sure you are not” is the example of negation used for the beneficial result. In this respect the man indirectly approves his face, minimizing the imposition not to seem extremely egoistic. Sylvia is good at defensive strategy uttering “I beg your pardon! – how awkward I am!” when the bestowed dress is torn. Both the excuse and the justification of her awkwardness create an effective tool to avoid threatening situation or means of self handicapping. The tactic is quite disarming as Mr. Bellew hurries to say “No,…it was a nail, you know, a bent, and rusty nail…”, probably, a predictable reaction. The man is interested whether Sylvia’s dress is much torn, which remains one of the hooks of politeness strategy – showing the listener he is understanding and concerned. They both follow the principles of indirect performance.

1.2. Realization of communicative self presentation strategies in Stephen King’s “Quitters, Inc.” The following dialogue between Mr. Donatti and Mr. Morrison gives the possibility to analyze the self management approach of Mr. Donatti. Mr. Donatti and Mr. Morrison (King, 2001, 11): “Good,” Donatti said. “We don’t bother with propaganda here, Mr. Morrison. Ques- tions of health or expense or social grace. We have no interest in why you want to stop smoking. We are pragmatists.” “Good,” Morrison said blankly. “We employ no drugs. We employ no Dale Carnegie people to sermonize you. We recom- mend no special diet. And we accept no payment until you have stopped smoking for one year. I wonder if you know this.” “My God,” Morrison said.

175 “Mr McCann didn’t tell you that?” “No.” It is obvious from the excerpt that Mr. Donatti, the head of the corporation of quitters, sounds adamant and impartial. In order to impress his new client Mr. Donatti uses direct assertive strategy to establish a desired image. The influential self-disclosure refers to the active verbal idealization of the self, moreover, the man is using plural nouns to seem more powerful and unshakable: “We don’t bother with propaganda here, Mr. Morrison. Questions of health or expense or social grace. We have no interest in why you want to stop smoking. We are pragmatists.” The impressive presentation of his self is achieved by the accurate use of nominalizations, repetition of the personal pronoun ‘we’ creates a hypnotic and continuing effect. “We employ no Dale Carnegie people to sermonize you” - the reference to the world-famous guru of manipulation Dale Carnegie is a brave and provoking hook that Mr. Donatti uses. In fact, his rejection to apply Carnegie’s methods proves his unquestionable reputation and self esteem, he is far better than any other person. The directness of the speech it believed to be the bald on-record strategy, when the speaker makes no effort to reduce the impact of the face threatening act. In this case Mr. Donatti is most likely to shock Mr. Morrison, which is manifested in the line having “My God” phrase. Mr. Donatti is blocking any possible attempt of the hearer to alter his positive face. On the other side, he addresses the negative politeness verbal hedge, for example: “I wonder if you know this...Mr. McCann didn’t tell you that?”. This also indicates concern for the hearer’s positive self image, though is rather focused on his own.

1.3. Realization of communicative self presentation strategies in Jack London’s “The Game” The analysis of self presentation and impression management strategies of Mr. Clausen are provided below. Mr. Clausen and Joe (London, 1995, 3): “Think I was never coming back, Joe?” queried the head of the department, a pink-and- white-faced man, whose side-whiskers were belied by genial little eyes. “And tonight, Joe?” Mr. Clausen asked anxiously, as they waited at the shaft. “How do you feel? Think you’ll do him?” “Sure,” Joe answered. “Never felt better in my life.” “You feel all right, eh? Good! Good! You see, I was just a – wonderi’ – you know, ha! ha! – goin’ to get married and the rest – thought you might be unstrung, eh, a trifle? – nerves just a bit off, you know. Know how getting’ married is myself. But you’re all right, eh? Of course you are. No use asking you that. Ha! ha! Well, good luck, my boy! I know you’ll win. Never had the least doubt, of course, of course.” It is obvious from the dialogue that Mr. Clausen has a rather friendly attitude to Joe as he is involved in his employee’s life. One can observe that the boss is using a positive politeness strategy and an emotional approach as he tends to focus on his listener’s personality, showing him he finds the conversation important and he is

176 sincerely interested in the young man’s plans: “And tonight, Joe?…How do you feel? Think you’ll do him?”. He sounds concerned and emotional as he asks 3 questions in a row, which suggests he is impatient and ready to give advice if needed. In Joe’s eyes he seems to be polite, tactful enough, perhaps too much involved. Knowing about Joe’s coming wedding he inquires about his feelings and appears to be supportive as he refers to his own marrying experience: “…goin’ to get married and the rest-- thought you might be unstrung, eh, a trifle?--nerves just a bit off, you know. Know how gettin’ married is myself”. The communicative cooperative tactic seems to be in use. Sharing your personal life experience and being interested in the listener’s problems contributes to the raise of speaker’s status. While analyzing Mr. Clausen’s behavior we also come to the idea of another direct communicative tactic he uses, that is ingratiation. He tries to influence a young man by emphasizing his (Joe’s) ability to win the game, expressing his belief in Joe’s talent: “Well, good luck, my boy! I know you’ll win. Never had the least doubt, of course, of course.” It is interesting to point out his inclination to the repetition of the so called ‘goodie’ adverbs, such as ‘good, good’ or ‘of course of course’ or ‘all right’ which support his speech and indicate his approval and appreciation of his interlocutor’s individuality.

Conclusions Thus, the analysed fiction literature excerpts make it possible to conclude that in most cases in the course of face-to-face interaction the speakers are likely to choose the indirect or off record strategies, when the listener is expected to react promptly but without much threat to his/her face. This kind of technique is preferably used in the conversation between those who either are distant or careful enough not to sound too much imposing or impolite. Such strategy is evidently interconnected with the defensive one, which is observable in the above examples. In addition, if the speaker is interested in his/her hearer’s personality, he/she prefers to show their personal involvement, implementing the emotional approach, sometimes using ingratiation, and minimizing the possible conflicts which may appear during interaction. Analysis also demonstrates that self-presentation consists of two distinct components: defensive and assertive tactics, which are rather correlated. Males seem more likely to use assertive self-presentation tactics than females. According to the results of the practical study on self presentation skills, one can make sure that forming a positive self impression and influencing people is a hard job. We are not born with perfect communication abilities. Just on the contrary, it is an acquired skill that has to be practiced. But once we master the basics of self presentation, we’ll be able to effectively say not only what we have to say in half the time, but our audience will also respond by careful listening to and keeping information in mind, getting interested and thus influenced. The way to success is the awareness that every action is a reaction and either in personal or professional communication the speaker should be ready to be proactive, patient and creative. Apparently, the usage

177 of appropriate non-verbal communication skills, as it can be understood from the analysis, adds a special charm to the speaker allowing gaining a positive disposition of the listener.

references 1. Brown, P & Levinson, S. 1987. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2. Davies, B. L. 1997. An Empirical Examination of Cooperation, Effort and Risk in Task-Oriented Dialogues. University of Edinburgh. Unpublished PhD thesis. 3. Goffman, E. 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Anchor. 4. Jones, E.E. and Pittman, T.S. 1982. Toward a General Theory of Strategic Self Presentation. In: J.Suls (Ed.) Psychological Perspectives on the Self. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.1982. P. 27-59. 5. Lakoff, R. 1990. Talking Power: The Politics of Language. London: Basic Hooks. 6. Levinson, S. C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7. Mills, J. & Clark M.S. Exchange in Communal Relationships. In: L.Wheeler (Ed.) Review of Personality and Social Psychology. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, vol.3, P.121- 144. 8. Richmond, V. and McCroskey, J. 1995. Nonverbal Behavior in Interpersonal Relations. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 9. Schlenker, B. R., Pontari, B. A. 2000. The Strategic Control of Information: Impression Management and Self-presentation in Daily Life. In: Psychological Perspectives on Self and Identity. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 2000, P. 199-232. 10. Taylor D., Altman I. 1987. Communication in Interpersonal Relationships: Social Penetration Processes. In: M.E.Roloff & G.R.Miller (Ed.), Interpersonal Processes: New Directions in Communication Research. Newbury Park, Oaks, CA: Sage. 1987, P.257-277.

sources 1. Farnol J. 1988. The Money Moon. L.A.: Vintage Crime. 2. King S. 2001. Quitters, Inc. N.Y.: Phoenix Press. 3. London J. 1995. The Game. N.Y.: Wildside Press.

178 Santrauka Savęs pristatymo strategija ir taktika šiuolaikiniame šnekamajame diskurse anglų kalba Tatjana Rusko

Šis straipsnis yra skirtas žmonių tarpusavio bendravimo teorinės bazės apžvalgai, atkreipiant dėmesį į savęs pristatymo taktiką ir įspūdžio vadybos motyvus. Straips- nyje nagrinėjami šiuolaikinė teigiamo įspūdžio formavimo ir poveikio klausytojui taktika bei strategija. Straipsnyje akcentuojami ir būtini neverbalinės komunikacijos gebėjimai. Groži- nės literatūros pavyzdžių analizės pagrindu yra pateikiamos labiausiai populiarios ir efektyvios bendravimo strategijos. Moksliniame darbe teigiama, kad sėkminga žmonių komunikacija ir tarpusavio sąveika iš esmės priklauso nuo tinkamos bendravimo ir savęs pristatymo taktikos, kurią kalbėtojas turi pasirinkti pats.

179 Types of Modality in Lithuanian Art Reviews: a Diachronic Approach

Jurgita Sriubaitė Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., LT-08106 Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT A piece of art serves as a tool of self-realization as well as a means of indirect communication. One of the functions of reviews is to help attract the reader’s attention to the work by analyzing it on the basis of certain criteria. Reviewers can assume three roles: that of a reporter, an analyst and a sideline observer. The key aims of the review seem to differ in various periods as this genre is developing with regard to certain conditions that the society experiences. The pilot study allows making an assumption that modern reviews will be different from the ones found in the Soviet period. The findings of the present qualitative research give evidence that contemporary critique is more frequently seen as sharing one’s impressions and interpretations rather than evaluating and analyzing the work thoroughly and that the prevailing types of modality in reviews of the above-mentioned periods seem to differ from deontic one that mainly serves to point out the established norms to epistemic modality that allows to reveal reviewer’s personal opinion and alethic modality that enables to give advice how to improve the work without imposing one’s subjective attitude to the society. Key-words: modality, epistemic modality, deontic modality, alethic modality.

INTRODUCTION A piece of art is considered as not only a way of self-realisation but also as a means of indirect communication. Its goal is to communicate one’s ideas to the others. Reviews, along with other functions, assist in attracting the addressee’s attention to the work. Review (Lat. recensio means ‘evaluation, assessment’) is an evaluation of a piece of work (e.g. a book, a movie, a play, a performance, a dance show etc.). The review’s author can ascribe the work certain significance in the context of the field it belongs to. It is a form of criticism where a piece of work is analysed on the basis of its content, style, and value. It can often be found in the media. Reviewers not only read and summarize the text (this word is used in the broadest sense here) but also have to disclose implied meanings if there are such. Reviews also help the audience to notice new points, new ideas and feel confident in perceiving

180 the work or change their perception. Some aspects are usually of greater importance than the others and are thus expected to be pointed out. Reviewers have to discuss whether the author has achieved the aim set and to make a judgment on the quality and adequacy of the work to the realia. It is quite usual for reviews to present some background information about the author of the work / the performers who were involved. Reviewers’ comments fall into two broad categories: technical and artistic/subjective ones. The latter refer to the points that are a matter of taste. The reviewer is also expected to speculate on the topic / issue dealt with by the work analysed and to promulgate his / her own ideas. When other works on the same topic / issue in the given category exist, appropriate comparisons are usually provided. By doing this, the attitudes of the reviewer are revealed. Thus reviews assist in forming the audience’s attitude and taste in general (Marcinkevičienė, 2008). Here are some examples presented:

(1) Bent trumpam grįžkime prie literatūros mokslininkų gvildenamo galvosūkio, kokius poreikius apskritai patenkina literatūra ir jos skaitymas. Daugelis li- teratūrologų, atrodo, sutinka, kad pagal prigimtį, pobūdį ir paskirtį meninio teksto skaitymas artimiausias žaidimui. (…) Viskas būtų gerai, jei nebūtų tobula… (ŽVV, 2009)

(2) Jau galvojau mesti šią knygą. Nuėjęs į virtuvę užsikaičiau elektrinį virdulį, jam ėmus pukšėti, ketvirčio litro puodelyje užsiplikiau nepilną šaukštelį arbatos (matės), įsidėjau apypilnį šaukštelį cukraus. (…) Skaitau toliau, ir vis dėlto tas dėstymo naivumas, arba šventas paprastumas, darosi kažkoks patrauklus. Tik gerokai vėliau nuo tada, kai perskaičiau šią knygą, ėmiau nejučia gromu- liuoti tai, kas buvo paviršiuje, bet lyg ir nematoma. Įtariu, kad ir pats autorius to nematė, ar bent jau racionaliai nesuvokė. Nes jeigu būtų matęs, būtų ėmęs racionaliai aiškinti šiuos potyrius arba bandęs forsuoti tą harmonijos nuojautą, išbraukyti, kas „nereikalinga”. (ŠP, 2009)

Example (1) first of all presents an opinion of other people (specialists in literature) and then gives a different reviewer’s opinion (which is later developed in the text). Example (2) reveals personal experience of the reviewer while reading the book and then his opinion is given how the author is expected to improve the work. The determination of reviews is to communicate to the addressee’s “mind the ideas and sensations the reviewer experienced while researching the content” (http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review#Book_review), thus the addressee “knows what the author sought to transmit, or what the reviewer experienced while reading” / watching (ibid). So reviewers assume three roles: • that of a reporter by informing the third party of the events, • that of an analyst by making judgments on the basis of experience, and

181 • that of a sideline observer by pretending to act as the addressee should “by expressing their own opinion, desires and expectations” (ibid). A review is an active relationship between the reviewer and the contemporary period, the socium, and the author, of course (Kazlauskaitė, 2009). A classic review presents the work, analyses and evaluates it paying attention to the structure of the work, its authenticity and originality, artistic advantages and disadvantages (Žurnalistikos enciklopedija, 1997). In general, reviews aim at evaluating, informing, commenting, interpreting, making statements, giving arguments, drawing conclusions, and producing recommendations. But the key aims differ in different periods as the genre of the review is still developing and changing. According to art critic Agnė Narušytė, nowadays reviewing / critique is perceived as interpretation and sharing one’s impressions, not so much evaluating, lacking arguments and thorough analysis (Kazlauskaitė, 2009). Compare examples (2) and (3):

(3) Tiesa, Gediminas pagaliau rado bendrą kalbą su pamainos meistru. Tai lyg turėtų reikšti, kad jis kaip pilnavertis narys įsiliejo į gamyklos kolektyvą. Ta- čiau apie šį faktą daugiau informuojama, negu atskleidžiama jo esmė. (KGN, 1975)

Reviewer’s personal experience, impression and interpretation in (2) create a contrast to analysis and rather strict criticism in (3). There is an assumption that the genre of the review changes depending on social conditions that the society experiences, therefore a hypothesis can be made that contemporary reviews are different from the ones from the Soviet period. So the above-mentioned reviews become the object of the study. This study aimed at finding out how the types of modality can indicate changes in the social system: from ideological to independent one. In this study the review is seen as realization of certain speech acts. According to the Speech Act Theory developed by the Oxford philosopher .J L. Austin and later refined by his pupil .J R. Searle, “the uttering of a sentence is (…) an action within the framework of social institutions and conventions” (Huang, 2007, 93). A threefold distinction of the speech acts that are simultaneously performed when producing an utterance was introduced: (a) a locutionary act is the basic act of speaking that consists of composing, producing and contextualising the utterance; (b) an illocutionary act (also called the illocutionary force of the utterance) refers to the types of function the author intends to fulfil, or the types of action the author intends to accomplish in the course of producing an utterance, e.g. congratulating, refusing, explaining, thanking etc.; (c) a perlocutionary act “concerns the effect an utterance may have on the addressee” (it is also called the perlocutionary effect), and it may be intentional and unintentional (Huang, 2007, 102-103).

182 If there is a direct relationship between a sentence type and an illocutionary force, a direct speech act is made; otherwise we have an indirect speech act. As S. Levinson points out (1983), in most cases we face with indirect speech acts that frequently carry a certain degree of conventionality and are associated with politeness (Huang, 2007) which is so important for reviewers, and modality is a good way for its realization, as well. Consider the following example where stronger advice is given in a form of a question using some cases of modality:

(4) Gal vis dėlto režisieriui vertėjo visus spektaklio veikėjus susodinti scenoje, o pereinant iš „čia ir dabar” į „ten ir tada” ir atgal pasitelkti apšvietimą ar paprasčiausią teatrinį sąlygiškumą? (ŽMTP, 2009)

If we look at two different periods, the Soviet period can be characterized as featuring all spheres of life (including the genre of reviews) strictly following the ideology. Reviews seem to have been intended to primarily make everyone follow the standards set by the authority, to award in case the work was in compliance with the requirements of the period and to suppress it if it challenged them, while nowadays reviews seek for such illocutionary goals as to evaluate the work according to general requirements, to attract the audience’s attention, to express one’s attitude, and to promulgate his / her own ideas on the subject analysed. Compare the following:

(5) Rūsčiu laiku [Tarybiniu pokario laikotarpiu] į meilę Rainienė žiūri kaip į savotišką visuomeninę pareigą (…).(TPDP, 1981)

(6) Didelės problemos, svarstymai apie žmogaus atsakomybę, pareigą, gyvenimo prasmę pakimba ore, išsivaduokime, kad nebūtų šito asmeninio konflikto (…). (KA, 1981)

(7) Taip grupė tarsi grįžta prie meno menui ir maištauja prieš sovietinę, postso- vietinę literatūrą ir rašytojus, kurie dirbo valstybės, politikos, religijos, tautos labui, iš pradžių todėl, kad taip liepė valdžia, o atgavus nepriklausomybę, matyt, iš įpročio, inercijos ar dėl laisvės atgavimo nuotaikų. Perskaičius V. Gedgaudo eilėraštį, kyla įspūdis, kad jis neigia daiktų įprastinę tvarką ir būseną. (PGK, 2010)

Reviewers in examples (5) and (6) say that the society must get rid of doubt about duty and responsibility to avoid inner conflict, whereas example (7) is much more personal and polite and it also gives a clue of the situation during the Soviet period. As for the perlocutionary effect, the Soviet population was expected to comply with the standard established norms without reservation and to make proper changes after receiving some criticism in order to have the equality in all spheres of life in accordance with the ideological doctrine of that period. After the restoration of Lithuanian

183 independence more and more freedom of speech has been exercised and thus the effect of the reviews / critique has changed considerably. There is no compulsion in giving advice or one’s opinion. Reviews serve as a means of expressing one’s attitude, be it friendly or unfriendly towards the issue, attracting or distracting the possible audience, creating new, open-ended standards. Modality as a global phenomenon, as we have already seen from the examples above, can serve to disclose the above-mentioned purports in art reviews. There are a number of definitions of modality; one of them is here:

“Modality is the category by which speakers express attitudes towards the event contained in the proposition” (Downing, Locke, 1992, 251).

Different classifications of the types of modality can be found but in this study the focus was on epistemic, deontic and alethic modality: • epistemic modality will allow expressing reviewer’s opinion and placing the work analysed on a scale of works of a similar category; • deontic modality is expected to appear in pointing out the established standards / norms; • alethic modality will enable to discuss the preferences of contemporary arts and provide with advice how to improve it without imposing one’s subjective attitude to the whole society.

STUDY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION For practical analysis 10 book / film / performance reviews from the newspaper “Literatūra ir menas” (“Literature and Art”) were taken from 2 periods: 1975-1981 and 2009-2010. The focus was on qualitative analysis rather than quantitative calculations of explicit realizations of different types of modality. The analysis has revealed that explicitly there is more or less the same number of cases of all the above-mentioned types of modality but if you go beyond the sentence boundaries and look at the idea the reviewer seeks to convey (both explicitly and implicitly) the data is different. Consider some more examples:

(8) Suprantame, kad autorius sąmoningai nutyli priešistorijį, jam rūpi pasiūlytoji situacija. Tačiau toks beatodairiškas kitų neigimas verčia suabejoti ir neigėju. Apskritai diskutuotina pati vertybių sistema. Neperlenkime lazdos kovodami su miesčioniškumu, žmonių sumaterialėjimu. (KA, 1981)

(9) Įsidėmėtinas vienas bruožas: beveik visi apysakos personažai savo istorijas atsinešė iš pokario. (…) Visos šaknys sueina tenai, taip pat ir pagrindinio konflikto. (…) Primygtinis suvedinėjimas galų į praeitį iškelia klausimą: ar ne per daug įpratome versti pokariui, tuo pačiu nuimdami dalį atsakomybės

184 nuo šiandienos? Juk gamtos teršimas, žmogaus abejingumas blogiui ir panašūs dalykai egzistuoja dabar ir apie juos reikia kalbėti iš dabarties pozicijų. (KA, 1981)

In example (8) explicit epistemic modality is followed by deontic modality and this results in overall deontic modality as the former actually implies deontic meaning. In (9) the chain of modalities appears in the following order: deontic, epistemic, deontic, deontic and the paragraph is seen as expressing overall deontic meaning.

(10) Galimas daiktas, kad filmo „Kur iškeliauja pasakos” kūrėjai, perskaitę šias eilutes, užprotestuotų ir papasakotų visiškai aiškią bei įtikinamą herojų konflikto priešistoriją, tąsą, motyvuotą lūžį, nurodytų tikslias socialines bei psichologines susidūrimo priežastis. Bet kinas – menas be „įžanginių žodžių”, čia kiekviena detalė privalo atsakyti už save. (KGN, 1975)

Example (10) starts with epistemic modality that becomes deontic and implies that the creators should have chosen another way to reveal their story. In (11) modals gal, galbūt (‘maybe’) are a means of realization of epistemic modality but in this case they actually serve for alethic modality expressed by the verb vertėjo (‘it was worthwhile to …, the director should have done …):

(11) Gal vis dėlto režisieriui vertėjo visus spektaklio veikėjus susodinti scenoje, o pereinant iš „čia ir dabar” į „ten ir tada” ir atgal pasitelkti apšvietimą ar pa- prasčiausią teatrinį sąlygiškumą? Galbūt taip būtų dar labiau koncentruota pastatymo idėja ir tvirčiau pagrįsta spektaklio, kaip psichoterapijos seanso, koncepcija. (ŽMTP, 2009)

So during the Soviet period on the surface explicitly we can see the realization of epistemic modality but looking at the co-text it may often become implicit realization of deontic modality. Examples from contemporary reviews show a tendency for epistemic modals to actually imply alethic modality. In conclusion, qualitative analysis of the research data show that the prevailing type of modality in reviews from the Soviet times when the society had to strictly follow the ideology, the norms set is deontic modality, whereas epistemic and alethic modality dominates in contemporary reviews when the reviewers are free to express their personal views.

185 References 1. Burneikienė, G., Dirvonaitė, D., Urbonas, J. V. (sud.). 1997. Žurnalistikos enciklopedija. Vilnius: Pradai. 2. Kazlauskaitė, G. 2009. Akademinė legenda apie literatūros kritikos krizę. Available at: http://www. tekstai.lt/tekstai-apie-tekstus/94-bendroji-literatros-kritika/5218- giedre-kazlauskaite-akademine-legenda-apie-literaturos-kritikos-krize.html. 3. Marcinkevičienė, R. 2008. Žanro ribos ir paribiai. Spaudos patirtys. Vilnius: Versus aureus. 4. Downing, A., Locke, Ph. 1992. A University Course in English Grammar. New York: Prentice Hall. 5. Huang, Y. 2007. Pragmatics. New York: Oxford University Press. 6. Levinson, S. C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review#Book_review .

Sources 1. Aukštikalnis, E. Šiapus ir anapus horizonto… // Literatūra ir menas. No 30 (1495) July 26, 1975. (ŠAH, 1975) 2. Čiupaila, R. Paklydėlių šauksmas // Literatūra ir menas. No 21 (1799) May 23, 1981. (PŠ, 1981) 3. Gadeikis, L. Konstatuoti ar analizuoti? // Literatūra ir menas. No 39 (1817) September 26, 1981. (KA, 1981) 4. Jevsejevas, A. Žinia iš mūsų teatro „paraščių” // Literatūra ir menas. No 8 (3225) February 20, 2009. (ŽMTP, 2009) 5. Jonušys, L. Šventas paprastumas // Literatūra ir menas. No 33 (3250) September 11, 2009. (ŠP, 2009) 6. Kazlauskaitė, A. Popieriniai V. Gedgaudo kareivėliai // Literatūra ir menas. No 4 (3268) January 22, 2010. (PGK, 2010) 7. Macaitis, S. Kas gražybe nepridengiama… // Literatūra ir menas. No 3 (1468) January 18, 1975. (KGN, 1975) 8. Pakalniškis, R. Tarp poetinės dramos ir poemos // Literatūra ir menas. No 47 (1825) November 21, 1981. (TPDP, 1981) 9. Ptakauskė, A. Žaidimas į vienus vartus // Literatūra ir menas. No 19 (3236) May 8, 2009. (ŽVV, 2009) 10. Viskauskas, R. Kas šen, kas ten… // Literatūra ir menas. No 11 (3275) March 12, 2010. (KŠKT, 2010)

186 Santrauka Modalumo rūšys lietuviškose meninių tekstų recenzijose: diachroninis aspektas Jurgita Sriubaitė

Meninis kūrinys yra jo autoriaus saviraiškos forma ir netiesioginis bendravimas su adresatu. Analizuodamos kūrinį pagal tam tikrus kriterijus, recenzijos padeda atkreipti skaitytojų / žiūrovų dėmesį į tą darbą. Recenzentai paprastai prisiima tris vaidmenis: pranešėjo, analitiko ir stebėtojo. Tačiau recenzijoms keliami tikslai skiriasi priklausomai nuo konkretaus laikotarpio, kadangi recenzijos žanras taip pat vystosi pagal sąlygas, kuriomis gyvena visuomenė. Šis žvalgomasis tyrimas leidžia daryti prielaidą, kad šiuolaikinės recenzijos skiriasi nuo jų tarybinių laikų analogų. Atlikto kokybinio tyrimo rezultatai rodo, kad šiuolaikinėse recenzijose dažniau dalijamasi asmeniniais įspūdžiais ir interpretacijomis nei pateikiama detali kūrinio analizė ir vertinimas. Taip pat peršasi išvada, kad tarybinių laikų recenzijose vyrauja deontinis modalumas, pasitarnaudamas primestų standartų / normų laikymuisi, o dabartinėse recenzijose dominuoja episteminis modalumas, leidžiantis atskleisti recenzento asmeninę nuo- monę, ir aletinis modalumas, suteikiantis galimybę patarti, kaip reikėtų patobulinti konkretų darbą, neprimetant savo subjektyvaus požiūrio visai visuomenei.

187 Girdinčiųjų ir sutrikusios klausos bendruomenės narių kalbinių nuostatų skirtumai: sociolingvistinis aspektas

Benita Sušinskaitė Vilniaus universitetas Kauno humanitarinis fakultetas, Muitinės g. 8, LT-44280, Kaunas, Lietuva, [email protected]

SANTRAUKA Straipsnyje pristatoma atlikto sociolingvistinio tyrimo medžiaga. Tyrimu siekta išsiaiškinti girdinčiųjų ir sutrikusios klausos bendruomenės narių kalbinių nuostatų skirtumus. Skiriamos dvi amžiaus grupės: 16–19 m. 19–25 m. Aptariama, kaip girdintieji ir sutrikusios klausos respondentai konceptualizuoja kalbą, kas jiems yra kalbėjimo autoritetas, kaip vertina kitų kalbų įtaką gimtajai kalbai. Pažymima, kad sutrikusios klausos bendruomenės narių kalbinis identitetas yra nevienalytis, nes, viena vertus, jie yra lietuvių gestų kalbos atstovai, kita vertus, lietuvių kalbos atstovai. Tyrimo rezultatai parodė, kad sutrikusios klausos bendruomenės narių kalbinės nuostatos iš esmės skiriasi nuo girdinčių respondentų, ir tai susiję su skirtinga kalbine aplinka ir skirtinga kalbine patirtimi. Raktiniai žodžiai: sutrikusi klausa, gestų kalba, kalbinės nuostatos, sociolingvistika.

ĮVADINĖS PASTABOS Vienas žymiausių XX a. pabaigos filosofų ir rašytojų Umberto Eco (2001, 43), konceptualizuodamas kalbą, žmonių kalbinį gebėjimą, teigė, kad „visi žmonės turi įgimtą polinkį kalbėti, natūralų gebėjimą kalbėti, vėliau pasireiškiantį skirtingomis lingvistinėmis formomis ir turiniais, taigi skirtingomis kalbomis“. Kurčiųjų bendruomenė turi savo gimtąją kalbą – gestų (VŽ, 1995, 38-948), kuri jiems yra bendravimo ir mąstymo priemonė, taip pat būdas patenkinti pagrindinius socialinius poreikius. Sutrikusios klausos bendruomenės nariai, reguliariai vartojantys gestų ir žodinę kalbą (dažniausiai rašytinę jos formą), yra laikomi bilingviais (plg. Grosjean, 20). Kurčiųjų dvikalbystė sudaro pagrindą kurčio vaiko pažintinei, kalbinei ir emocinei raidai (VŽ, 2007, 10-47), vadinasi, šios bendruomenės narių kalbinis identitetas yra nevienalytis, nes, viena vertus, jie yra lietuvių gestų kalbos atstovai,

188 kita vertus, lietuvių kalbos atstovai. S. Karaliūnas (1997, 34) pastebi, kad antroji kalba, būdama su gimtąja socialiai lygiateisė, žmogaus gyvenime bei veikloje gali esmingai papildyti gimtąją kalbą, prisidėti prie asmens gebėjimų plėtimo ir ugdymo. Šiame straipsnyje, remiantis empirinio tyrimo duomenimis, analizuojama gir- dinčiųjų ir sutrikusios klausos bendruomenės narių kalbinės nuostatos ir kalbinio mąstymo ypatumai.

1. TYRIMO PRISTATYMAS Empirinio tyrimo tikslas – nustatyti girdinčiųjų ir sutrikusios klausos bendruo- menės narių kalbinių nuostatų skirtumus. Psichologijos žodyne (1993, 47) rašoma, kad „nuostatos susidaro veikiamos įvairių veiksnių ir jos gali reguliuoti sąmoningą žmogaus psichinę veiklą“. Kiekvienas kalbos vartotojas tapatina save su tam tikromis socialinėmis grupėmis ir taip susikuria savo verbalinę sistemą, kurią sudaro kalbinių priemonių repertuaras, vartojamas bendraujant su vienos ar kitos grupės nariais, todėl, pasak C. Lucas (2000, 183), kalbinių nuostatų tyrimai yra nepaprastai svarbūs, nes ištyrus kalbos vartotojo nuostatas, galima prognozuoti ir jo elgesį. Tyrimo objektas – girdinčiųjų ir sutrikusios klausos asmenų kalbinės nuostatos, samprotavimai apie kalbą, jos išliekamąją vertę, kitų kalbų įtaką gimtajai kalbai. Siekiant išsiaiškinti respondentų kalbines nuostatas, buvo sudaryta anoniminė sociolingvistinė anketa. Respondentams pateikti klausimai, kuriais siekta išsiaiškinti, kaip respondentai konceptualizuoja kalbą, kas jiems yra kalbėjimo autoritetas, kaip vertina kitų kalbų įtaką gimtajai kalbai, kaip konceptualizuoja kalbą, ką laiko kalbė- jimo autoritetu. Iš respondentų atsakymų galima spręsti apie respondentų kalbinį sąmoningumą, jų kalbinę identifikaciją, taip pat apibendrinti sutrikusios klausos res- pondentų, kaip dvikalbių, kalbinių nuostatų skirtumus nuo girdinčių respondentų. Tyrimo imtis. Iš viso apklausta 190 respondentų: 100 girdinčių respondentų, 90 – sutrikusios klausos respondentų. Aptariant anketos duomenis, skiriamos dvi amžiaus grupės67: 16–19 m. ir 19–25 m. Girdinčių respondentų 16–19 m. amžiaus grupės (A) buvo apklausta 50 respondentų (26,3 proc. visų apklaustųjų), 19–25 m. amžiaus grupės (B) – 50 respondentų (26,3 proc.). Sutrikusios klausos respondentų

16–19 m. amžiaus grupės (A1) buvo apklausta 47 respondentai (24,7 proc.), 19–25 m. amžiaus grupės (B1) – 43 respondentai (22,7 proc.).

67 Pirmoji amžiaus grupė (16–19 m.) išskirta, remiantis L. Jovaišos (Jovaiša, 1991, p. 27–41) pateikta biologine-socialine amžiaus tarpsnių charakteristika: 16–18 m. – ankstyvoji jaunystė. Šie metai yra išskirtinis žmogaus vystymosi periodas, kuriam būdingas tapatybės formavimasis, gebėjimas mąstyti abstrakčiai, kelti hipotezes, daryti išvadas. Šiuo metu ypač kinta charakteris, kartu ir mąstymas, taip pat ir kalbinis sąmoningumas, kalbinės nuostatos bei kalbėjimo įpročiai. Amžiaus grupė 19–25 m. išskirta remiantis tuo, kad šio amžiaus žmonėms būdingas intelekto brendimas, didėjantis racionalumas organizuojant profesinę ir laisvalaikio veiklą bei tam tikros nusistovėjusios nuostatos ir požiūris į įvairius gyvenimo reiškinius. Pažymėtina, kad sutrikusios klausos asmenys mokyklą baigia šiek tiek vyresnio amžiaus nei girdintieji, dėl to, klasifikuojant anketų duomenis, atsižvelgiama į tai, ar sutrikusios klausos respondentas vis dar mokosi mokykloje.

189 2. TYRIMO REZULTATAI IR ANALIZĖ

2.1. Kalbos konceptualizavimas Sociolingvistinio tyrimo metu visų pirma siekta išsiaiškinti tiek girdinčių, tiek sutrikusios klausos respondentų požiūrį į kalbą apskritai. Respondentai turėjo parašyti pirmą į galvą atėjusį žodį (taip pat žodžių junginį ar frazę), kuris jiems asocijuojasi su žodžiu kalba. Atlikus statistinę analizę, išskirtos kelios atsakymų grupės. Remiantis respondentų atsakymais68, paaiškėjo, kad girdintiems respondentams žodis kalba asocijuojasi su: 1) bendravimu, 2) lietuvių kalba, 3) lietuvių kalbos pamoka, 4) užsienio kalba, 5) kalbos kultūra ir taisyklingu kalbėjimu, 6) išsilavinimu, 7) mąstymu, 8) vertybe, 9) tautiškumu. Sutrikusios klausos respondentams žodis kalba asocijuojasi su: 1) bendravimu, 2) gestų kalba, 3) lietuvių kalba, 4) užsienio kalba, 5) šeimos nariais; 6) mąstymu, 7) išsilavinimu, 8) vertybe, 9) garsine kalbos sandara. Konceptualizuodami kalbą, tiek girdinčiųjų, tiek sutrikusios klausos abiejų am- žiaus grupių respondentai kalbą sieja su bendravimu: „bendravimo priemonė, jos dėka mes galime bendrauti“, „sąveika tarp dviejų kūnų ar daugiau, pavyzdžiui, tarp žmonių, kompiuterinės programos ir žmogaus“, „bendravimo priemonė, atverianti kelią pažinti pasaulį bei išreikšti save“ (34 proc. A ir 42 proc. B amžiaus grupės responden- tų); „išmokti kalbėti, rašyti, kad tam bendrautų su žmonėmis“, „sms“, „tai kad mokėtu kalbėtu su kitais žmonėmis“, „komunikacinė kalba, kur reikalingai mums bendrauti“, „kalbėjimas, sugebėjimas kalbėti“, „tai yra gimtoji ir šnekamosios kalbos priemonė, kurios apima bendravimas visuomenėje su aplinkiniais“ (38 proc. A1 ir 51 proc. B1 amžiaus grupės respondentų); su mąstymu: būdas pasakyti, ką mąstau“, „žmogaus minčių ir jausmų išraiškos forma“, „žodžiai, kuriais mąstome“, „priemonė suprasti kito žmogaus mintis ir išsireiškimus“ (2 proc. A ir 6 proc. B amžiaus grupės respondentų); „kalbos dėka mes sugebame protauti bei išsireikšti tuom ir skiriamės nuo gyvūnų“, „galimybė suprasti vienas kitą“, „būdas reikšti mintį, nuomonę“; (2,1 proc. A1 ir 4,7 proc. B1 am- žiaus grupės respondentų); taip pat kalbą laiko vertybe: „kultūrinė vertybė“, vertybių vertybė“, žmogaus turtas be kurios nebūtu egzistavimo“ (6 proc. A ir 6 proc. B amžiaus grupės respondentų); „didžiausias žmogaus turtas“, „tai yra Dievo dovana, kad galima kalbėti kalbą“, „viena iš mūsų brangiausių vertybių“, „lobis“ (6,3 proc. A1 ir 2,3 proc. B1 amžiaus grupės respondentų). Šį tapatumą galima aiškinti tuo, kad kalba ir mąstymas yra susiję (plg. Gudavičius, 2007, 203), mąstymas ir pažinimas visuomet suponuoja kalbinį pasaulio aiškinimą, o pati kalba – atsiradus visuomenėje ir be jos neįmanomas visavertis bendravimas. Atlikta atsakymų analizė atskleidė, kad tik girdintys respondentai žodį kalba sieja su kalbos kultūra ir taisyklingumu: „kalbos kultūra“, „taisyklingas ir turtingas žodynas“, „taisyklinga, maloni kalba ir tartis“ (4 proc. A ir 8 proc. B amžiaus grupės

68 Respondentų atsakymai neredaguoti.

190 respondentų). Atsižvelgiant į tai, kad sutrikusios klausos respondentai nelinkę sieti kalbos su kalbos taisyklingumu, galima daryti prielaidą, kad sutrikusios klausos respondentai savo kalbėjimą linkę vertinti negatyviau, dėl to nesiryžta kalbos sieti su taisyklingu kalbėjimu. Tik girdintiems respondentams žodis kalba asocijuojasi su tauta, tėvyne, tautos istorija ir kultūra: „Lietuva“, „Maironis“, „tėvynė“, „gimtinė, gimtasis žodis“, „tauta, knyga“, „politinė kalba“, „laisvė“ (12 proc. A ir 6 proc. B amžiaus grupės respondentų). Pastebėtina, kad toks kalbos konceptualizavimas daugiausiai pasitaikė tarp mokyklinio amžiaus respondentų, todėl galima daryti prielaidą, kad toks konceptualizavimas susijęs su mokykloje diegiamomis vertybėmis, formuojamu požiūriu į kalbą, jos istoriškumą, išliekamumą ir vertę. Tik sutrikusios klausos respondentai kalbą sieja su gestų kalba: „gestų kalba“,

„gestai“ (19,1 proc. A1 ir 18,6 proc. B1 amžiaus grupės respondentų). Pastebėtina, kad nė vienas sutrikusios klausos mokyklinio amžiaus respondentas, pagal in- tegruotą mokymą besimokantis vidurinėje mokykloje, žodžio kalba nesiejo su gestų kalba. Įdomus ir netikėtas žodžio kalba siejimas su šeimos nariais. Nemaža dalis respon- dentų (12,7 proc. A1 ir 11,6 proc. B1 amžiaus grupės respondentų) nurodo, kad kalba, tai – mama (8 atsakymai), tėtė (1 atsakymas), mama ir tėtis (1 atsakymas), mama, tėtė, brolis, senelė (1 atsakymas). Pastebėta, kad taip konceptualizavusių kalbą respondentų kalbinę aplinką sudaro girdintys šeimos nariai (jei tėvai kurtieji, tuomet yra bent 1 girdintis brolis, sesuo, arba jeigu vienas iš tėvų yra kurčias, tuomet kitas – girdintis.). Vadinasi, galima daryti prielaidą, kad toks konceptualizavimas yra susijęs su kalbine aplinka ir tais žmonėmis, kurie sutrikusios klausos asmenis moko arba iš kurių jie patys mokosi žodinės kalbos. Tik sutrikusios klausos respondentai žodį kalba taip pat asocijuoja su kalbos garsine sandara (plg. Pakerys, 2003, 9), t.y. su tam tikrų kalbos padargų veikla: „kalba – tai garsų kratinys, kurį kiti supranta“, „kalba – tai liežuvis“, „kalba – tai lūpos“

(8,5 proc. A1 ir 2,3 proc. B1 amžiaus grupės respondentų). Remiantis tokiu kalbos konceptualizavimu ir tarties akcentavimu, galima daryti prielaidą, kad sutrikusios klausos asmenims yra svarbu gebėti kalbėti žodine kalba. Atsižvelgiant į tai, kad su kalbos garsine sandara žodį kalba sieja daugiausiai mokyklinio amžiaus respondentų, galima daryti prielaidą, kad tokiam kalbos konceptualizavimui įtakos turėjo tai, kad mokykloje sutrikusios klausos asmenims yra ypač akcentuojama taisyklingos tarties ir žodinės kalbos svarba. Trumpai apibendrinant kalbos konceptualizavimą, pastebėta akivaizdi tendencija sieti kalbą su pozityviais dalykais. Negatyvių atsakymų pasitaikė nedaug (pavyzdžiui, „kalba – nuobodi“). Vadinasi, respondentai yra daugiau ar mažiau pasižymintys kalbiniu sąmoningumu. Respondentų atsakymų pasiskirstymas amžiaus grupėse pateiktas 1 paveikslė- lyje.

191 Vadinasi, galima daryti prielaidą, kad toks konceptualizavimas yra susijĊs su kalbine aplinka ir tais žmonơmis, kurie sutrikusios klausos asmenis moko arba iš kuriǐ jie patys mokosi žodinơs kalbos. Tik sutrikusios klausos respondentai žodƳ kalba taip pat asocijuoja su kalbos garsine sandara (plg. Pakerys, 2003, 9), t.y. su tam tikrǐ kalbos padargǐ veikla: „kalba – tai garsǐ kratinys, kurƳ kiti supranta“, „kalba – tai liežuvis“, „kalba – tai lǌpos“ (8,5 proc. A1 ir 2,3 proc. B1 amžiaus grupơs respondentǐ). Remiantis tokiu kalbos konceptualizavimu ir tarties akcentavimu, galima daryti prielaidą, kad sutrikusios klausos asmenims yra svarbu gebơti kalbơti žodine kalba. Atsižvelgiant Ƴ tai, kad su kalbos garsine sandara žodƳ kalba sieja daugiausiai mokyklinio amžiaus respondentǐ, galima daryti prielaidą, kad tokiam kalbos konceptualizavimui Ƴtakos turơjo tai, kad mokykloje sutrikusios klausos asmenims yra ypaþ akcentuojama taisyklingos tarties ir žodinơs kalbos svarba. Trumpai apibendrinant kalbos konceptualizavimą, pastebơta akivaizdi tendencija sieti kalbą su pozityviais dalykais. Negatyviǐ atsakymǐ pasitaikơ nedaug (pavyzdžiui, „kalba – nuobodi“). Vadinasi, respondentai yra daugiau ar mažiau pasižymintys kalbiniu sąmoningumu. Respondentǐ atsakymǐ pasiskirstymas amžiaus grupơse pateiktas 1 paveikslơlyje.

25 16-19 m. 22 21 girdintys respondentai 20 18 17 16-19 m. sutrikusios 15 klausos respondentai 9 19-25 m. 10 8 8 7 7 girdintys 6 6 respondentai 5 5 4 4 4 5 3 33 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 19-25 m. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 sutrikusios 0 klausos

s a s respondentai a lb a a ariai k nim n io i lav ndravim ien i s šs Be I Už Šeimos

1 pav. Kalbos konceptualizavimas 1 pav. Kalbos konceptualizavimas 2.2. Kalbėjimo autoriteto pasirinkimas 2.2.Vertindami Kalbơjimo kitų autoriteto kalbėjimą pasirinkimas, girdintieji ir sutrikusios klausos respondentai nurodė skirtingusVertindami kalbėjimo kitǐ kalb autoritetusơjimą, girdintieji. Kalbėjimo ir autoritetai sutrikusios išsiskyrė klausos ir amžiaus respondentai grupėse nurod. ơ skirtingus kalbơjimo autoritetus. Kalbơjimo autoritetai išsiskyrơ ir amžiaus grupơse. 1 lentelė. Kalbėjimo autoritetas 1 lentel16–19ơ. Kalbm. girdintysơjimo autoritetas 19–25 m. girdintys 16–19 m. sutrikusios 19–25 m. sutrikusios respondentai respondentai klausos respondentai klausos respondentai Draugai (34 %) TV ir žiniasklaida Pedagogai (25,5 %) Subtitrai (35 %) 16–19 m. girdintys (3219–25 %) m. girdintys 16–19 m. sutrikusios 19–25 m. sutrikusios respondentai respondentai klausos respondentai klausos respondentai DraugaiTV ir (34žiniasklaida %) TVKnygos ir žiniasklaida (30 %) (32 %) PedagogaiSubtitrai (23, (25,56 %)%) Tėvai Subtitrai (18,7 (35 %) %) (30 %) Knygos (16 %) Pedagogai (14 %) Knygos146 (19,1 %) Pedagogai (13,9 %) Pedagogai (14 %) Kalbininkai (8 %) Tėvai (19,1 %) Draugai (11,6 %) Tėvai (6 %) Draugai (6 %) Draugai (8,5 %) Knygos (9,3%) Neturi kalbėjimo auto- TV ir žiniasklaida TV ir žiniasklaida riteto (6 %) (4,2 %) (6,9 %) Tėvai (4 %) Viršininkai (4,6 %)

Dauguma A amžiaus grupės (16–19 m.) girdinčių respondentų (34 proc.) nurodo, kad didžiausias kalbėjimo autoritetas jiems yra draugai: „todėl, kad su jais daugiausiai bendrauju, todėl po kiek laiko net pradedu kalbėti panašiai kaip jie“, „nes jie mane supa“. Bemaž tiek pat respondentų (30 proc.) kalbėjimo autoritetu laiko televiziją ir žiniasklaidą: „iš jų galima išgirsti beveik visada taisyklingai tariamus lietuviškus

192 žodžius“, „televizijos kalba labai įtaigi, iš jos galima išmokti protingų frazių, kurias galima panaudoti savo kalbėjime“. Daliai girdinčių respondentų (16 proc.) kalbėjimo autoritetas yra knygos; „nes tai dalykas, kuriuo iš tikrųjų galima pasitikėti“, „knygose (ypač vadovėliuose) kalba yra rišli, sklandi ir taisyklinga“; 14 proc. respondentų – pedagogai: „jie paaiškina, kodėl turi būti vienaip ar kitaip“, „nes jie žino, kad turi būti mums pavyzdys ir dažniausiai kalba taisyklingai“, „nes jie geriausiai tai išmano, o knygose vis tiek yra klaidų“ ir kt. Tik nedidelė dalis girdinčių respondentų (6 proc.) respondentų nurodo, kad kalbėjimo autoritetas jiems yra tėvai: „nes jie dažniausiai pastebi tai pastebi ir nori nenori, klausai jų“. Daugumai B amžiaus grupės (19–25 m.) girdinčių respondentų didžiausias kalbėjimo autoritetas yra televizija ir žiniasklaida (32 proc.) arba knygos (30 proc.): „nes jie kalba plačiai visuomenei, todėl mintis turi išreikšti taisyklinga lietuvių kalba“, „jie priversti kalbėti taisyklingai“; „knygos išleidžiamos tik tada, kai jas patikrina specialistai“, „knygos redaguojamos, bent jau klasika tai tikrai“. Dalis respondentų (14 proc.) nurodo, kad kalbėjimo autoritetas jiems yra pedagogai: „todėl, kad jie turi mus mokyti lietuvių kalbos“, „kompetentingą išsilavinimą turintys žmonės man yra autoritetas“. Nedidelė dalis respondentų (8 proc.) tvirtina, kad kalbėjimo autoritetas jiems yra kalbininkai: „nes jie tai jau tikrai kalba taisyklingai“, „jie niekada nedaro klaidų, bent jau viešai“; 6 proc. respondentų – draugai: „nes jie mane pastoviai supa“; 4 proc. respondentų – tėvai: „jie užaugino ir įskiepijo norą stengtis kalbėti taisyklingai“, „nes mano tėvai inteligentai“. Kai kurie respondentai (6 proc.) teigė, kad neturi kalbėjimo autoriteto, nes, jų manymu, šiais laikais niekas nekalba taisyklingai, o knygos šiuo metu leidžiamos daugiau komerciniais tikslais.

A1 amžiaus grupės (16–19 m.) sutrikusios klausos respondentai nurodo 4 pagrindinius kalbėjimo autoritetus: 1) pedagogai (25,5 proc.): „jie moko ir žino kalbą“, „nes jie pedagogai“, „aiškiai kalba“, „taiso mano klaidas“; 2) subtitrai (23,6 proc.): „taisyklingi žo- džiai“, „verta mokytis kalbos“, „visada sužinau žodžių“; 3) tėvai (19,1 proc.): „nuo mažens mokina“, „žino, kada pasakau blogai“, „nes jie girdi“; 4) knygos (19,1 proc.): „taisyklinga kalba“, „teisingi žodžiai, gramatika“, „daug sužinau iš išmokstu“. Tik nedidelė dalis A1 amžiaus grupės respondentų (8,5 proc.) tvirtina, kad kalbėjimo autoritetas jiems yra draugai: „turiu draugų gerai kalba“, „moka daug žodžių“ ir kt. Dar mažiau šios amžiaus grupės sutrikusios klausos respondentų (4,2 proc.) kalbėjimo autoritetu laiko televiziją ir žiniasklaidą: „tai rodo man žodinė kalbos pavyzdžius“. Pastarųjų grupę daugiausiai sudaro respondentai, besimokantys bendrojo lavinimo mokyklose.

Didžiajai daliai B1 amžiaus grupės (19–25 m.) sutrikusios klausos respondentų di- džiausias kalbėjimo autoritetas yra subtitrai (35 proc): „plečia mano žinyną“, „lietuvių kalba yra taisyklingiausia“, „skatina taisyklingai ir lietuviškai kalbėti“, „gražu žodžiai, negirdėti, nauji“, „padeda įsisavinti žodyną“. Nemaža dalis respondentų pozityviai vertina savo tėvų kalbėjimą ir laiko juos didžiausiu kalbėjimo autoritetu (18,7 proc.): „tėvai mokė kalbėti“, „nes mane jie išmokė gerai kalbėti“, „daug žinių žinoti“, yra pagyve- nę ir daug žino“. Šios amžiaus grupės respondentams ne mažiau svarbus ir pedagogų autoritetas (13,9 proc.): „pedagogai išmokyti mane žodinės kalbos“, „lietuvių kalbos

193 mokytojai“, „todėl gražiai kalba“. Daliai respondentų didžiausias kalbėjimo autoritetas yra sakytine lietuvių kalba geriau kalbantys draugai (11,6 proc.): „padeda man lengviau bendrauti“, „moka žodžių, padeda“; knygos (9,3 proc.): „pati skaitau knygas“, „jas tvarko autoriai, kad būtų taisyklinga“; televizija (6,9 proc.): „daug įdomių žodžių pasako“, „verta mokintis iš jų“. Kai kuriems respondentams kalbėjimo autoritetas yra viršininkai (4,6 proc.): „vertinu jų kalbą“. Trumpai apibendrinant, galima pastebėti, kad abiejų amžiaus grupių sutrikusios klausos respondentai didžiausiu kalbėjimo autoritetu pirmiausia laiko tuos, iš kurių jie turi galimybę pasimokyti žodinės kalbos. Kalbėjimo autoriteto pasirinkimas mokyklinio amžiaus girdinčių respondentų grupėje yra motyvuotas, nes kalba šio amžiaus respondentams yra vienas svarbiausių saviraiškos būdų, todėl suprantama, kad paaugliai savo kalbėjimą ne tik derina prie draugų, bet ir pastaruosius laiko di- džiausiu savo kalbėjimo autoritetu. Netgi “sociolingvistikos specialistai tvirtina, kad, atmesdamos tėvų vertybes, paauglių grupės iškelia savo vertybes, kurios jiems turi daug didesnės galios. Viena iš svarbiausių paauglių vertybių – kalba, kurią vartodami paaugliai tampa tikrais savo grupės nariais” (Lėgaudaitė, 2002, 3).

2.3. Kitų kalbų įtaka lietuvių kalbai Siekiant išsiaiškinti respondentų nuostatas į gimtosios kalbos išliekamąją vertę, jiems buvo užduotas klausimas, ar kitų kalbų mokymasis nenustelbia gimtosios kalbos? Daugumos A ir B amžiaus grupės girdinčių respondentų atsakymai beveik sutampa. Abiejų amžiaus grupių respondentai vieningai sutaria, kad kitos kalbos gimtosios kalbos nustelbti negali. Tokiai nuostatai pritaria 76 proc. A amžiaus grupės respondentų ir 80 proc. B amžiaus respondentų. Iš respondentų atsakymų išryškėjo dvi pagrindinės šios nuostatos priežastys: 1) gimtosios kalbos kaip vertybės suvokimas, 2) užsienio kalbos mokymosi privalumai. Respondentai pirmiausia akcentuoja gimtosios kalbos svarbą: „jeigu gerbsi savo gimtą kalbą, kitų kalbų mokėjimas niekuom netrukdys“, „todėl kad su gimtąja kalba žmogus yra gimęs ir jos pamiršti neįmanoma“, „gimtoji ir liks gimtąja, kitos yra tik pagalbinės, o ne kasdienės“ ir kt. (A amžiaus grupė); „niekas negali nustelbti gimtosios kalbos, jei žmogus yra patriotas ir gyvena gimtinėje, kur kalbama gimtąja kalba“, „gimtoji yra gimtoji, o užsienio – tik kaip intelekto plėtimui naudingas priedas“, „mokame nuo vaikystės ir ji yra užkoduota mumyse“ (B amžiaus grupė). Dauguma A amžiaus grupės respondentų užsienio kalbos mokėjimą sieja su užsienio kalbos pamokomis: „tiesiog tu išmoksti tos pačios reikšmės žodį pasakyti kita kalba“, „todėl kad vidurinėse mokyklose gimtajai kalbai skiriamas didesnis dėmesys“, „todėl, kad mes tik mokomės, o ne kiekvieną dieną šnekame ir taip nešnekame su artimaisiais“, „nuo to tik atmintis gerėja“ ir kt. Abiejų amžiaus grupių respondentai nurodo ir užsienio kalbos privalumus, pa- brėždami, kad šie privalumai nenustelbia gimtosios kalbos: „jei išmoksti svetimos kalbos, tai nereiškia, kad tampi kitataučiu, nes svetima kalba tik padeda susikalbėti su kitatau- čiais ir bendrauti“, „priešingai, pastebi, įvertini savo kalbos skirtumus lyginant su kitoms kalbomis, privalumus bei trūkumus“, „nenustelbia, nes gimtąją kalbą nuolat giliname, o

194 mokindamiesi kitų kalbų, mes galime savąją palyginti su kita kalba“, „gimtoji kalba visada liks pagrindine, tačiau savo žinias reikia tobulinti“ ir kt. (A amžiaus grupė); „išsilavinęs žmogus turi mokėti daugiau nei vieną kalbą“, „lygindami kitas kalbas su savo gimtąja, ją geriau pažįstame“, „kitų kalbų mokymasis skatina mąstymą, vertinimą, domėjimąsi“, „tai tik žmogaus tobulėjimas ir išprusimas“ (B amžiaus grupė). Nedidelė dalis (22 proc. A amžiaus grupės ir 8 proc. B amžiaus grupės respondentų) teigia, kad užsienio kalbos gimtąją kalbą gali nustelbti ir nurodo dvi priežastis: 1) dėl emigracijos ir ateities planavimo išvykti gyventi į užsienį; 2) dėl užsienio kalbų žodžių vartojimo kasdienėje kalboje: „kartais, kada labai domina kita užsienio kalba, jos nori labiau mokintis, nori išvykti į kitą šalį, nejausdamas imi vartoti kai kuriuos žodžius“, „nes besimokindami, bendraujam kita kalba ir po to pradedam vartoti žodžius savo kalboje“, „pradeda maišytis tarimas, žodžiai“, „nes mokinantis prie kitos kalbos galima priprasti“ ir kt. (A amžiaus grupė); „nustelbia, jeigu mokomasi tuo tikslu, kad išvykti į užsienį“, „anglų kalba kalbama daugelyje šalių ir kai kurie žmonės galbūt norės gyventi kitoje šalyje, tai jie gali pradėti labiau vertinti tą kalbą“ ir kt. (B amžiaus grupė). Dar mažiau (12 proc.) B amžiaus grupės respondentų mano, kad kitos kalbos tik iš dalies nustelbia gimtąją kalbą ir nurodo 4 priežastis: 1) dėl lietuviškų terminų atitikmenų nebuvimo ar neprigijimo bei svetimybių vartojimo kalboje: „nes kartais patogiau naudoti užsienio, pvz., kompiuterio dalys, pavadinimai“, „lietuvių kalba bendraujama tiek visuomenėje, tiek namuose, tačiau įvairios svetimybės ir žargonai kenkia gimtajai kalbai“; 2) dėl kompiuterinių technologijų plitimo užsienio kalba: „totalinis kompiuterizavimas“; 3) dėl gyvenamosios vietos: „Tai priklauso nuo to, ar gyveni gimtojoje šalyje, ar užsienio šalyje. Užsienyje gyvenant gali nustelbti, bet gimtojoje šalyje tikrai niekad“, „svetimoje šalyje pradedi daugiau kalbėti kita kalba ir primiršti savo, tačiau jei kartu tobulinama ir gimtoji kalba, tuomet nenustelbia“; 4) dėl paties žmogaus sąmoningumo puoselėti savo gimtąją kalbą: „čia kaip ir su bet kuriuo daly- ku, priklauso nuo žmogaus, kiek jis leis, kad nustelbtų“, „kalbos puoselėjimas priklauso nuo žmogaus etninės savimonės“ ir kt. Tik 2 proc. A amžiaus grupės respondentų neturėjo nuomonės ir negalėjo pasakyti, ar kitų kalbų mokymasis nustelbia gimtąją kalbą („man sunku mokytis kalbų, todėl aš jų ir nesimokau“). Vertindami69 kitų kalbų įtaką gimtajai kalbai, šiek tiek mažiau nei pusė (40,5 proc.)

A1 amžiaus grupės respondentų ir beveik pusė (48,9 proc.) B1 amžiaus grupės respon- dentų teigia, kad kitos kalbos nenustelbia gimtosios kalbos. Atsižvelgiant į respondentų klausos sutrikimo laipsnį, respondentų atsakymai buvo skirtingi. Sutrikusios klausos respondentai, turintys nežymų klausos sutrikimą, nurodo, kad gimtoji kalba yra ver- tybė pati savaime, todėl kitos kalbos jos nustelbti negali: „tarpusavio kalboje vartoju gimtąją“, „negali nustelbti, nes moku gimtąją, o kitos kalbos praverčia bendravimui su kitataučiais ir neturi reikšmės, susijusios su gimtąja kalba“ ir kt. (A1 amžiaus grupė); „gimtosios kalbos niekas negali užgožti“, „nėra prasmės vartoti kitus žodžius, nes yra

69 Sutrikusios klausos respondentai lietuvių kalbą laikė gimtąja ir vertino užsienio kalbas (anglų ir kt.)

195 gimti“ ir kt. (B1 amžiaus grupė). Visiškai kurti A1 ir B1 amžiaus grupės respondentai akcentuoja, kad jie nesupranta užsienio kalbų, todėl jos gimtosios kalbos ir negali nustelbti: „tai man nesuprantama kita kalba“, „nesuprantu kitų kalbų žodžių“, „nekalbu užsienis kalbomis“, „nereikalinga kita kalba, aš jos nesuprantu“ ir kt. Visiškai kurti abiejų amžiaus grupių respondentai, teigę, kad nežino, ar kitų kalbų mokymasis nustelbia gimtąją kalbą, nurodo tas pačias priežastis: „nežinau, ar turi nustelbti, nes pati nesimokau“, „nemoku kitas kalbas“, „nekalbu kita kalba“ ir kt. Apie kitų užsienio kalbų

įtaką gimtajai kalbai neturėjo nuomonės 36,1 proc. A1 amžiaus grupės ir 23,2 proc.

B1 amžiaus grupės respondentų.

Nedidelė dalis (23,4 proc. A1 amžiaus grupės ir 21 proc. B1 amžiaus grupės respon- dentų) sutrikusios klausos respondentų tvirtina, kad kitos kalbos tik iš dalies nustelbia gimtąją kalbą ir mano, kad pagrindinės priežastys yra sudėtinga lietuvių kalbos gramatika bei didesnė užsienio kalbų paklausa ir praktinė reikšmė: „anglų gera [geriau] mokytis nei lietuvių, nes tai yra sudėtinga lietuvių“, „naudoti kitos kalbos žodį lengviau nei lietuvių“, „lietuvių ilgi ir sunkūs nesuprantami žodžiai“, „pamirštu greitai lietuvių k. gramatiką“ (A1 amžiaus grupė); „nelabai gerai, trukdo, maišo žodžius“, „nes visi mokosi kitokių kalbų“, „verta kalbėti keliomis kalbomis“, „tai praverčia dirbant su kompiuteriu“ (B1 amžiaus grupė). Tik 6,9 proc. B1 amžiaus grupės respondentų tvirtina, kad kitos kalbos nustelbia gimtąją kalbą: „madinga mokytis kitas kalbas“, „verta išmokti laisvai užsienio kalbos pagrindus, kad galėti lietis į visuomenę ir su užsieniečiais laisvai bendrauti“.

BAIGIAMOSIOS PASTABOS Apibendrinus tyrimo rezultatus, galima išskirti šiuos girdinčiųjų ir sutrikusios klausos respondentų kalbinių nuostatų skirtumus: 1. Tik sutrikusios klausos respondentai žodį kalba sieja su konkrečia kalbine patirtimi (gestų kalba, šeimos nariais, kalbos garsine sandara) ir tik girdintiems res- pondenams kalba asocijuojasi su kalbos kultūra ir taisyklingumu bei tauta, tėvyne, tautos istorija ir kultūra. Kalbos konceptualizavimas atskleidė, kad sutrikusios klausos respondentams kalba yra vertybė visų pirma dėl kalbos komunikacinės funkcijos, o ne kultūriniu aspektu (kalba kaip kultūros vertybė pati savaime). 2. Sutrikusios klausos respondentams didžiausi kalbėjimo autoritetai yra pedagogai ir šeimos nariai, iš kurių jie turi galimybę išmokti taisyklingos žodinės kalbos, bei knygos, kurios jiems yra naujų žodžių mokymosi šaltinis. Girdinčių respondentų kalbai didžiausią įtaką daro viešoji erdvė (televizija ir žiniasklaida) ir knygos. Draugų, kaip didžiausio kalbėjimo autoriteto, pasirinkimas mokyklinio amžiaus girdinčių respondentų grupėje yra sąlygotas jų amžiaus tarpsnio ir susijęs su respondentų siekiu įtvirtinti savo identitetą tarp žmonių, kurie juos dažniausiai supa. 3. Girdintiems respondentams kitos kalbos daro didesnę įtaką nei kurtiesiems ar neprigirdintiesiems. Pastariesiems visų pirma aktuali yra lietuvių kalba ir poreikis plėsti žodyną lietuvių kalba. Sutrikusios klausos respondentų nuostatos į kitų kalbų įtaką lietuvių kalbai yra susijusios daugiau su praktine kalbos vartosena (jei vartojami

196 kitų kalbų žodžiai, tai todėl, kad jie yra paprastesni, trumpesni, suprantamesni), o ne su kalbos jausmu, požiūriu į kalbos istoriškumą ir išliekamumą.

LITERATŪROS SĄRAŠAS 1. Dėl dvikalbio kurčiųjų ugdymo sampratos patvirtinimo // Valstybės Žinios, 2007, sausio 25, Nr. 10, publ. nr. 411 (=VŽ) 2. Dėl kurčiųjų gestų kalbos pripažinimo gimtąja kalba // Valstybės žinios, 1995, Nr.: 38 -948 (=VŽ) 3. Eco, U. 2001Tobulos kalbos paieškos Europos kultūroje. Vilnius: Baltos lankos. 4. Grosjean, F. Living with two languages ant two cultures. Cultural and Language Diversity: Reflections on the Deaf Experience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, P. 20–37. 5. Gudavičius, A. 2007. Gretinamoji semantika. Šiauliai: ŠU leidykla. 6. Karaliūnas, S. 1997. Kalba ir visuomenė: psichosociologiniai ir komunikaciniai kalbos vartojimo bruožai. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. 7. Lėgaudaitė, J. 2002. Jaunimo slengas – psichosocialinis fenomenas. Disertacijos santrauka, VDU. Kaunas: VDU. 8. Lucas, C. 2000. The Sociolinguistics of Sign Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,. 9. Pakerys, A. 2003. Lietuvių bendrinės kalbos fonetika. Vilnius: Enciklopedija. 10. Psichologijos žodynas. 1993. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.

SUMMARY Differences of Linguistic Attitudes among the Members of Hearing and Hearing Impaired Communities: Sociolinguistic Aspect Benita Sušinskaitė

In the thesis there are introduced the results of the performed sociolinguistic research. The goal of the research was to find out the differences of linguistic provisions among the members of hearing and hearing impairment communities. There are differentiated two age groups: from 16-year-olds to 19-year-olds, and from 19-year-olds to 25-year-olds. It is being discussed how hearing respondents and hearing impaired respondents conceptualise language, what their authority of speaking is, what they think about the influence of other languages on their native language. It is noted that a linguistic identity of members of hearing impaired society is heterogeneous because, on the one hand, they are the representatives of Lithuanian sign language, and, on the other hand, the representatives of the Lithuanian language. The results of the research reveals that linguistic attitudes of members of hearing impaired society basically differ from hearing respondents and this is related with different linguistic environment and with different linguistic experience.

197 198 III. Kalbų ir kultūrų kontaktai / Linguistic and Cultural Contacts

199 200 Gender Concepts in O. Henry’s Creation: Comparative Translation Analysis

Vilma Asijavičiūtė, Nino Phartenadze Batumi State University, 35 Ninoshvili St., Batumi, Georgia, [email protected] International School of Law and Business, 58 Laisvės Ave., Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The core aim is to study how the American writer O. Henry depicts women and men in his short stories and how his attitude towards them was rendered while translating these stories into Georgian and Lithuanian. Secondly, the reasons of choosing one or another strategy of rendering certain concepts will be justified and compared between the two target languages. Moreover, some cultural aspects that manifest themselves in the stories are discussed. The methods applied for this work are descriptive, contrastive and analytical. Having these purposes in mind, two stories “The Gift of the Magi” and “Witch’s Loaves” were taken as examples of O. Henry’s creation and they have been analysed paying attention to the same aspects in both Georgian and Lithuanian target texts. These stories illustrate typical hard-working men and delicate women at the turn of the century. The authors of this paper aim to investigate if various translation strategies applied (generalization, specification, omission or even changes) add value to the target texts; create a similar or totally different image of what was originally meant by the author. Consequently, it is possible to conclude that O. Henry is not easy to be translated since even the smallest details convey the author’s attitude towards his heroes. Changing them or not paying appropriate attention may result in the loss of meaning while translating the texts from one language to another. The main reasons for the changes or modifications made by the translators are cultural, stylistic (specific to a certain language) or grammatical. Key-words: O. Henry, feminine and masculine concepts, translation strategies, cultural aspects.

Introduction Feminine and masculine concepts remain to be the leading ones in cultural studies while appearing to be quite a problematic translation issue as well since these two areas are closely related. Therefore correct acknowledgement of the concepts demands

201 both good background knowledge of the language and culture to which the concepts belong to and the knowledge about the target language and culture. O. Henry creates a range of images of men and wo//men in his stories, mainly the working-class people at the turn of the 20th century in the USA. Space does not permit a detailed discussion of O. Henry’s works thus the present article will be confined to two stories. The first part of the analysis gives a short study of some points from the story The Gift of the Magi, while the second one deals with translation issues found in Witches’ Loaves. We shall first investigate women concepts in each story as they are depicted in more detail and then men concepts will be analysed. The aim of the research is to carry out a comparative translational analysis between the original English text and the target Georgian and Lithuanian texts. A question that will be one of our concerns is to investigate how the language stereotypes, non-verbal communication and stylistic devices help to create the real images of an American man and woman, and to study if the above mentioned features are maintained or lost, or inadequately transferred in the translated text. Secondly, the reasons of choosing one or another strategy of rendering certain concepts will be justified and compared between the two target languages. In the cases where the source text’s (ST) image is not properly reflected, considerations why a certain discrepancy emerged will be provided. Two short stories The Gift of the Magi (1905) and Witches’ Loaves (1911) were taken as examples of O. Henry’s creation and analysed paying attention to the same aspects in both Georgian and Lithuanian target texts. The original language stories were found online at http://www.readbookonline.net and in O. Henry’s book 100 selected stories (1995). The translated Georgian stories are taken from the book ო. ჰენრი. მოკლე მოთხრობები (2009) [O. Henry. Short stories] and an online library at http://lib.ge. The Gif of the Magi was translated into Georgian by Maia Natadze in 1955, while Witches’ Loaves was translated by Irakli Lomouri in 2009. The Lithuanian stories were translated by the same person Silvija Lomsargytė-Pukienė and the ones analysed in the present article were published in the second revised edition of the book by O. Henry Išminčių dovanos (2006) [The Gift of the Magi].

1. THE GIFT OF THE MAGI As a convenient starting point it is useful to know the plot of the first story The Gift of the Magi. Della and Jim work hard to make ends met, however, Christmas come and they realise that they had not saved up enough to buy Christmas presents. So they decide to sacrifice their most valuable things to each other. Della sells her hair to buy a chain for Jim’s watch while Jim decides to sell the watch in order he would have money to buy a set of combs for his wife’s long hair. The author portrays both the protagonists positively; nevertheless, they are described as being so miser- able that they call compassion. Della appears to be incredibly childish and lovable and when she realises that she had not saved enough money to buy a present for her

202 husband, she starts crying. O. Henry expresses his thoughts about the women who are in despair like Della in a very neutral way with some generalisations about life. To cite his words:

There was clearly nothing left to do but flop down on the shabby little couch and howl. So Della did it. Which investigates the moral reflection that life is made of sobs, sniffles, and smiles, with sniffles predominating.

The Georgian translation of the specified passage becomes longer and contains even several inadequacies:

[She could not buy anything with this money. She flopped down on the couch and howled. A person passes the following spiritual processes in hard moments: first they despair, and then calm down, and then smile, that indicates that they simply adjust to the situation. The second step is the most important one – to calm down.]

To start with, the first sentence was divided into two and translated inadequately on the semantic level. Thus there was clearly nothing left to do is rendered in a more personalised way she could not buy anything with this money, so a Georgian reader cannot feel the neutral attitude of the author towards his character. Secondly, the translator uses a synonymous descriptive method to present the author’s opinion about life. This provides the narration from a different perspective, specifically,. O Henry states that life is more sad than funny and does not mention anything about getting used to the situation. Apart from this, the grammatical structure of the target text (TT) was substituted, i.e. all the nouns in the last sentence of the ST are changed into verbs in the TT, which results in a different perception, namely, the ST describes the state of utterance while the TT indicates the process of action. To compare with the Lithuanian translation no meaning loss was undergone in this place, just the SL negative sentence there was clearly nothing left to do is rendered by a positive sentence beliko viena išeitis [there was one way out] which sounds more positive and optimistic. Another difference is that the wordto howl was not translated directly staugti most probably that it would have too strong connotation related to animals. It is likewise that such situation is not serious enough for a Lithuanian to howl. Thus it became a milder one garsiai apsižliumbti [start crying loudly] which implies not the loudness but the hopelessness of the situation. The word žliumbti is used when speaking about children, thus this place implies that Della was childish. Cf. below:

Beliko viena išeitis – kristi ant mažos apšepusios sofutės ir garsiai apsižliumbti. Taip Dela ir padarė. Šitai teigia pamokomą mintį, kad gyvenimas susideda iš raudų, šnirpščiojimų bei šypsenų ir svarbiausia vieta čia tenka šnirpščiojimams. (Išminčių dovanos, 2006: 6).

203 The next remark is related to the stylistic device of repetition that is characteristic of O. Henry’s creation. Repetition is used in the situation where Della is thinking what to buy for her beloved husband. When people do not know how to behave they keep recycling the same idea in their mind for a long time and are searching for an answer. Therefore the wordsomething is repeated for three times in the ST which shows how strong Della’s desire to buy a suitable gift is. As O. Henry puts it:

Her Jim. Many happy hours she had spent planning for something nice for him. Some- thing fine and rare and sterling - something just a little bit near to being worthy of the honour of being owned by Jim.

The Georgian translation left out the key word something in all three places, therefore, this paragraph seems not to imply that Della has been recycling this idea and the text becomes more matter-of-fact, cf.:

[Jim - her Jim. She had spent many happy hours thinking what to buy for him. The present should be nice, suitable and special.]

So, the omission of the word something ruins the rhythmical description of a woman who does not know what to do in such a difficult situation. In contrast to Georgian, the translator to Lithuanian expresses something in two ways: kokį dailų daiktelį [some nice thing] and ką nors [something] and does not omit it in any of the three places, thus making the text more emotional. To cite the Lithuanian translation:

Jos Džimui. O kiek sykių ji laiminga svarstė, kokį dailų daiktelį jam nupirks. Ką nors puikaus ir neregėto, ir vertingo – ką nors, kas bent šiek tiek būtų vertas garbės priklausyti Džimui. (Išminčių dovanos, 2006: 6).

Now let us look at the masculine side of the story. Della’s husband Jim is charac- terised as being a devoted and loving husband, working all day long to support his family, the one who was never late home, thin and serious, honourable, less talkative but far-sighted. From the reaction when he notices his wife’s hair cut he seems to be a very restrained man. Here are the author’s words:

Jim stepped inside the door, as immovable as a setter at the scent of quail. His eyes were fixed upon Della, and there was an expression in them that she could not read, and it terrified her. It was not anger, nor surprise, nor disapproval, nor horror, nor any of the sentiments that she had been prepared for. He simply stared at her fixedly with that peculiar expression on his face.

204 Although the author compared a man to a dog, in present story this comparison is positive. Such kind of non-verbal communication lets the reader know that Jim was surprised but he was not evaluating, he was standing still and waiting to find out the reason. The Georgian translator left Jim’s comparison to a dog breed setter, while in Lithuanian setter was changed to medžioklinis šuo [hunting dog]. The symbol of dog here presupposes that Jim was devoted and obedient as dogs are. This generalisation technique might be explained by the fact that it would not be understandable for the readers what is meant by seteris in such a situation. Medžioklinis šuo creates a picture that is easier to understand and Jim‘s suprise in Lithuanian is emphasised by some ‘immovable’ words įbedė akis, įsmeigęs akis which show that Lithuanian is rich of synonyms to denote ways of watching. (Išminčių dovanos, 2006: 9). The Georgian text is adequate on the semantic level as well. The reader finally understands why Jim was staring so intensely at his wife’s cut hair when Della gets her Christmas present – a set of combs. Della’s reaction to the gift is so naïve – she says that her hair grows fast and then remembers that she also has something for her husband. Della is compared to a cat that leaps like singed to bring the present for Jim. O. Henry keeps repeating the image of a cat and compares women to cats in several other stories in the same way. Many other American writers also compare women and cats because in American culture the cat is a symbol of warmth, cosiness and care. However, in Georgian culture a cat is not regarded as a positive creature, moreover, it is thought to be cunning and sly. Therefore the cognitive and cultural meanings of this symbol do not match well and for a Georgian reader this symbol has less sense. Nevertheless, in order not to loose the original flavour, a word-to-word translation is presented in the TT. In Lithuanian a cat has a similar symbolic meaning to the American one; however, in this place the comparison was omitted at all. No meaning loss is undergone here for the reason that some kind of compensation is added to the word O! [Oh]: “Aš ir užmiršau!” [I almost forgot!]. Thus the author emphasizes the gift not the way this lady presented it. Jim is portrayed as a devoted husband and a very restrained person because, when he got his present, a chain for the watch that he had sold, Jim does not start to reproach his wife for wasting money. It is so masculine not to worry too much about the subject one cannot change at the moment and to be able to change the topic of talking to another one, i.e. to start speaking about food, as in this case, Jim mentions chops:

Dell, let’s put our Christmas presents away and keep ‘em awhile. They are toonice to use just at present. I sold the watch to get the money to buy your combs. And now suppose you put the chops on.

This passage is rendered to Georgian in a more matter-of-fact way:

205 [Dell, let’s keep our Christmas presents. They are too precious for us. I sold the watch; sold in order to buy this set of combs. Now put the chops on.]

It is noticeable that the Georgian translation of the above sentences is more gen- eralised. Moreover, the original word to describe presents nice carries a wider meaning than precious. The wordprecious has some allusion to money, while nice implies more than money and sounds milder and sadder. To compare with the Lithuanian variant, the translator used the word puikios [nice, fine] which does not imply them being merely expensive. Cf. below:

Del, tarė jis, paslėpkime mudu kur nors tas Kalėdų dovanas, tegul jos paguli. Šiuo metu jos mums per daug puikios. Aš pardaviau laikrodį, kad galėčiau tau nupirkti šukas. Na, dabar gali kepti kotletus.

Equally important is to compare here Lithuanian and foreign Christmas Eve traditions. Lithuanians have a festive dinner with 12 strictly meatless dishes for Christmas Eve, and all the family members try to return home for it. Therefore, most of Lithuanians, especially those of the older generation, would be surprised when they hear that meat is eaten on Christmas Eve. Despite this fact, it would not be proper to change a meat dish into something meatless and to loose the original flavour of the story.

2. WITCHES’ LOAVES Let us now consider the second story that is called Witches’ Loaves. The protagonist of Witches‘Loaves Miss Martha Meacham is not a typical housewife but she has a very feminine occupation – she sells bread and rolls. Moreover, she is incredibly brave for a woman of her times and risks first to show her attention to a man. However, her attempts are not rewarded and appear to be funny. Martha stuffs some butter into the loaves of stale bread that a „poor“artist buys. Yet it turns out that the artist is an architect who rubs his pencil drafts with the crumbs of stale bread and thus Martha ruins his important drafts. The author compared Martha to a witch because she wanted to seduce a man by adding something into his food and a witch in the authentic meaning is not present in this story. Thus let us look if the translated titles retained the word witch. The Georgian translation of the title is not adequate on semantic level – it was substituted to საშინელი პურები [Dangerous breads]. Firstly, the word witch is omitted because in the Georgian culture „ალქაჯი“ [a witch] denotes an ugly-looking old woman supposedly having special power derived from the devil (Sarjveladze, 1990). This demonstrates that the semantic meaning of the wordwitch in the English and Georgian languages is different and thus justifies the omission of this word in the Georgian TT. Another remark is related to the word bread that is countable in

206 Georgian that is why the plural word from bread appears instead of loaves. One more title Mysterious loaves could be suggested as being more neutral, closer to the original and more acceptable for Georgian readers. In Lithuanian the translator also substitutes both the words but manages to stay close to the original meaning. Vilioklės kepalėliai [Temptress’s little loaves] sounds more tender than the direct translation Raganos kepalai. Ragana [witch] has a negative connotation in Lithuanian as well, while O. Henry’s story refers to a woman who has a very sympathetic heart. The wordvilioklė [temptress] describes Martha’s behaviour more precisely. Another modification is related to loaves that are substituted to the diminutive form kepalėliai in Lithuanian [little loaves] which might indicate that the baker did not intend anything bad. By way of summing up it can be added that a witch in its archaic meaning in both target cultures had a more positive connotation, she was a sensible woman close to nature and the one who sees more than the others. Getting back to the protagonist of the story, Miss Martha was a woman around forty who wanted to get married and the author does not underestimate her chances by saying that ‘many people have married whose chances to do so were much inferior to Miss Martha’s’. Conversely, both the translators changed “many people” into [many women] (Georgian) and [the majority of women] (Lithuanian), thus loosing the neutral attitude intended by O. Henry. That might have happened because of the wordto get married which can be translated in two different words in both the TLs depending on whether the subject is a woman and a man. Therefore it can be presupposed that the translators did not want to make the sentence awkward by using people and two different verbs. Consequently, the readers have a more specified sentence which does not provide the author’s attitude. As a last point in this article, let us look at the man of the story. Women are very sensitive creatures, so Miss Martha notices even the smallest changes in her customer and that ‘he began to look thinner and discouraged’. The word discourage means „deprive of courage or hope; take away hope from” (http://www.macmillandictionary. com); but both the TL translators did not render the architect’s state semantically adequately, though more precise words exist in both languages. The Georgian translated text claims that the architect was “რაღაცნაირად დასeვდიანდა“[sad somehow] and the Lithuanian says that he was nepatenkintas [unhappy]. Later in the story the readers find out that this man was drafting and redrafting a plan of a new city hall, so he could have been called უიმედო [loosing hope] or nusivylęs [disappointed]. The man in this story is portrayed more as a specialist who keeps doing his job and is not interested in love affairs. He understands art while Martha just admires how clever a man can be. His masculinity manifests itself in its beauty at the end of the story when he angrily storms into Martha’s shop, starts shouting and calling her names for spoiling his draft. He calls Miss Martha a cat, the image that slipped in the story about Della. However, this time a cat is seen as some negative creature that interfered his life. The architect was a German, though a cat’s symbol in German is positive. While the architect was a foreigner, his English language contained some

207 mistakes which are also a challenge for a translator to render. To cite the OT: “You haf shpoilt me,” he cried, his blue eyes blazing behind his spectacles. “I vill tell you. You vas von _meddingsome old cat_!” The typical German grammatical mistakes that are made in the SL are also reflected in the Georgian TL by using the wrong case and number. In Lithuanian wrong case and number are used in addition to wrong subject and predicate agreement, adjective and noun gender agreement, and saying “z” instead of “s”. Cf. below:

“- Jūs man viskas ziugadinti, - rėkė jis, o mėlynos jo akys po akinias degte degė. – Aš jums pasakyti. Jūs yra senas, įkyrus katė!” [You to spoil everything for me, - cried he, and his blue eyes were blazing behind his spectacles. – I to tell you. You are an old intrusive cat!]

In another place the broken English was feasible to be rendered by changing or adding one letter. The architect mispronounced some English words by sayingblease instead of please or bicture instead of picture or goot instead of good. The Georgian translator also used different labial consonants to keep same effect in the TL,. e g. სეიძლება - შეიძლება [please - blease]. The Lithuanian translator tried to imagine how a native German would have spoken in Lithuanian in those times. Thus the word blease [please] was rendered as malionėkite, having in mind that German „l“ is always soft, andbalace [palace] was rendered as riūmas. One more remark relates to the letter „v“ which is called [fau] in German, that is why the customer pronounces sudžiūfęs instead of sudžiūvęs. To sum up, the strategies of compensation or substitution were employed to demonstrate that the architect was not a native speaker. The other strategies employed while translating these short stories include the cases of generalisation, specification, lexical, grammatical and stylistic transforma- tions and omission. Sometimes they were used appropriately, sometimes they needed a more detailed inspection of the original language and culture. Therefore, some of the feminine and masculine concepts were rendered vaguely or even lost in the Georgian translation, while the majority of the Lithuanian translation maintains the original emotional implications. Inadequacies or inappropriate translations emerge because every language has its specific features of expressions and translation deals with not only transferring the meaning of words or phrases but also with the relationship between the words and human thinking, history and culture. Thus the difference between the two languages and differences in cultures make the process of translation a real challenge.

COCLUSIONS To summarise all the above analysed problematic areas, it is possible to state that translation covers not only word-for-word translation but also many other factors. The concepts of one language may differ radically from those of another. The bigger

208 the cultural and linguistic gap is between the SL and the TL, the more difficult the process of transfer will be.

REFERENCES 1. Henry, O. 2006. Išminčių dovanos. Vilnius: Tyto alba. 2. Henry, O. 1995. 100 selected stories. Wordsworth Editions Limited. 3. Kirvaitis, G., Šurnaitė, A. 1997. American Literature. Kaunas: Šviesa. 4. ჰენრი, ო. 2009. ო. ჰენრი - მოკლე მოთხრობები. ��თბილისი: გამომცემლობა პალიტრა L. [Henry, O. 2009. O. Henry. Short stories. Tbilisi: Palitra L.) 5. სარჯველაძე , ზ. 1990. ქართულ ენათა ეტიმოლოგიური ლექსიკონი (ქართულ-აფხაზური ენები). თბილისი. [Sarjveladze, Z. 1990. Entomological Dictionary of Georgian (Georgian-Aphkhazian languages). Tbilisi.]

ONLINE SOURCES 1. Witche’s Loaves (OT). Available at: http://www.readbookonline.net/ readOnLine/1933/ 2. The Gift of the Magi (OT) Available at: http://www.readbookonline.net/ readOnLine/473/ 3. ნათარგმნი მიერ მაია ნათაძე. მოკლე მოთხრობები. [Translated by Maia Natadze. Short stories] Available at: http://lib.ge/body_text.php?5124 4. The Gift of of the Magi (Georgian Translation) Available at: http://lib.ge/body_text. php?5124 5. McMillan Dictionary Online. Available at: http://www.macmillandictionary.com 6. O. Henry and his stories. Available at: http://www.squidoo.com/ohenrystories 7. O. Henry. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O._Henry 8. Language groups. Available at: http://www.danshort.com/ie/iecentum.htm 9. http://www.danshort.com/ie/iesatem.htm 10. Knight, J. F. 198��6. O. Henry: Some Thoughts about the Urban Romanticist. Available at: http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/cultn/cultn010.pdf

Santrauka Lyties sąvokų O. Henry kūryboje lyginamoji vertimo analizė Vilma Asijavičiūtė, Nino Phartenadze

Pagrindinis šio straipsnio tikslas yra išnagrinėti, kaip amerikiečių apsakymų rašy- tojas O. Henry apibūdina moteris ir vyrus bei išanalizuoti, kaip gruzinų bei lietuvių vertėjams pavyko perduoti autoriaus požiūrį išverstuose tekstuose. Pagrindžiamos priežastys, kodėl vienas ar kitas vertimo variantas buvo pasirinktas ir lyginami gruzinų bei lietuvių vertimai. Darbe taikyti aprašomasis, lyginamasis bei analizės metodai.

209 Analizei buvo pasirinktos du charakteringi O. Henry kūriniai – “Išminčių dovanos” ir “Viliokės kepalėliai”. Tie patys aspektai palyginti gruzinų bei lietuvių vertimuose. Šiiuose kūriniuose vaizduojami tipiški XIX ir XX amžių sandūros daug dirbantys vyrai ir jų trapios moterys. Straipsnio autorės tiria, ar įvairios vertimo strategijos (apibendrinimai, sukonkretinimai, praleidimai ar net gi visiški pakeitimai) buvo reikalingos, ar jos prideda vertės išverstam tekstui, sukuria panašų ar visiškai kitokį įspūdį nei turėjo mintyje autorius. Išnagrinėjus vertimus, galima daryti išvadą, kad versti O. Henry kūrybą nėra lengva, svarbu nepraleisti smulkių detalių, kurios turi didžiulės įtakos išreiškiant autoriaus požiūrį. Pagrindinėmis vertėjų padarytų pa- keitimų priežastimis galima įvardinti kiekvienai kalbai būdingų normų laikymąsi ir kiekvienoje kutūroje priimtinas normas.

210 Translation Strategies Used in Translating Culture-Specific Food Items from English into Lithuanian of “Blackberry Wine” by Joanne Harris

Vytautė Daugėlaitė Vytautas Magnus University, Foreign Language Centre, Donelaičio 52-603, LT-44244 Kaunas, Lihuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT This article deals with the consideration of application different translation strategies in the process of translating culture-specific food items in Milda Dyke’s Lithuanian translation of the novel Blackberry Wine (2000). A range of highlighted procedures are employed to examine the effectiveness and appropriateness of culture-bound food items in the text and context of the book. The typical peculiarities while translating the names of culture-specific food items are disclosed by applying various translation strategies. The analysis showed that a translator Milda Dyke used the diversity of translation strategies in the process of translating culture-bound food entities found in the source text to meet the interests of the target text reader. Key-words: translation strategies, culture-specific food items.

INTRODUCTION Translation is frequently considered as communication among countries, representing the diversity of cultures by many linguists. When translation results in the absence of communication among different countries, it is considered to be a failure. Consequently, the process of rendering the message of the source text (ST futher on) into the one of the target text (TT futher on) is understood as a complex activity because a translator has to accommodate to the linguistic conventions of the target text so that the translated piece reads smoothly and has to adapt to target culture so that the translated piece is culturally acceptable to the target reader. The aim of this article is to analyse the translation strategies that are used in translating culture-bound food items in Lithuanian translation of Joanne Harris’ novel Blackberry Wine (2000). The consideration of different translation strategies and analysis of the strategies employed by a translator Milda Dyke of the novel Blackberry Wine (2000) into Lithuanian are discussed in this article.

211 The object of the article is the names of food references in the Lithuanian translation of Blackberry Wine (2000) by Joanne Harris, which frequently cause rather complex issues while translating literary works. The research method: a contrastive descriptive method has been used to disclose the cultural peculiarities of the chosen culture-specific food items in the SL and their counterpats in the TT.

1. THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE-SPECIFIC REALIA Translators are mediators between the source culture and the target culture who have to carry out a difficult task if translatinga culture-specific item(CSI futher on). As Rudaitytė (2006) states, the features of material culture that differ from one culture to another may lead to translation difficulties (Rudaitytė, 2006, 191). Thus the process of translation is not merely transferring words, but rather it is a means of perceiving culture and transferring CSIs from one culture to another. Cultural realia are named differently by scholars: Davies (2003) identifies them culture-specific references (Davies, 2003, 65) and Baker (1992) calls them culture- specific concepts (Baker, 1992, 21). These headings may be described as “the words, denoting things, concepts, social phenomena, etc., of the source language unfamiliar to people who share the target language” (Translation mine).70

2. COMMON TRANSLATION STRATEGIES IN TRANSLATION OF CULTURAL REALIA The choice of a certain translation strategy is influenced by the purpose of the TT, the TT reader, generic and textual constrains of a text and the importance of the cultural item itself (Kalėdaitė & Asijavičiūtė, 2005, 32). In this article the terms used by Davies (2003) for translation strategies will be applied: preservation, addition, omission, globalization, localization, transformation and creation (Davies 2003: 72-89). Preservation is a translation strategy using when a ST item is preserved in a TT without any changes or is changed phonologically (Davies, 2003, 72-73).71There are cases when a translator cannot find a close equivalent in the target culture and for this reason a translator simply decides to maintain the ST term in the translation (Davies, 2003, 72-73). Preservation is considered to be a two-fold translation strategy because it usually employs phonological and grammatical adaptations or adds only endings to the stem of the word. Addition is meant to keep the original item but supplement the text with additional information when simple preservation leads to obscurity (Davies, 2003, 78). Whereas, omission is defined as the “omission of a problematic CSI” (Davies, 2003, 79). This

70 „[…] žodžiai, žymintys kitakalbiams nežinomus daiktus, sąvokas, visuomeninius reiškinius ir pan.” (Armalytė�� & Pažūsis, 1990, 122). 71 Emphasis in bold and italics is mine, unless otherwise indicated.

212 strategy is sometimes justifiable because the inclusion of a problematic CSI into the TT might create inconsistency and a confusing effect (Davies, 2003, 80). Globalization is “the process of replacing culture-specific references with ones which are more neutral or general, in the sense that they are accessible to audiences from a wider range of cultural backgrounds” (Davies, 2003, 83). This strategy aims at conveying the essential characteristics of meaning from the ST to the TT and, accordingly, at avoiding the effect of unfamiliarity. Localization helps a translator to replace the source culture items with the references familiar to the target culture’s reader (Davies, 2003, 84). It may happen that the meaning of a CSI is lost when applying this strategy. Transformation is an “alteration or distortion of the original” (Davies, 2003, 86). A translator decides to use this strategy when it is difficult to understand the real meaning of an item of the ST but which cannot be left out. Meanwhile, creation is the invention of “CSIs not present in the original text“ (Davies, 2003, 88). Finally, Davie’s (2003) classification and labelling of strategies seem to be very practical because it is not so difficult to understand them and apply in the process of translation. The analysed data of CSIs has been grouped according to the translation strategies as offered by Davie’s (2003). Such grouping of translation strategies has displayed varying results: some translation strategies are employed more often than others.

3. TRANSLATION STRATEGIES USED IN TRANSLATION OF CULTURE-SPECIFIC FOOD ITEMS CSIs related to food dominate in the novel Blackberry Wine (2000)72 and play a significant role in the story. Taste and scent of food are a useful means for the characters of the novel in expressing their feeling of security. Food brings magic and mystery into the life of the main character Jay Makintosh: the prevailing pleasure and joy of the associated memories that inspire Jay to write his works. Furthermore, the food description relates to scent and taste which disclose the universality of food which makes it easily understandable to the reader. Since the first days of childhood, the world is experienced through two senses: taste and smell, which means that people’s emotional response to a taste or a smell can act on everybody at a very powerful and subconscious level. Eating remains a common experience for

72 Blackberry Wine (2000), published in Great Britain, has grasped the interest of readers who are fond of magic, mystery and food. A translator Milda Dyke translated the book in 2006 which is the second volume of Joanne Harris “food trilogy”: Chocolat (1999), Blackberry Wine (2000) and Five Quarters of the Orange (2001). Blackberry Wine (2000) is full of various names of food and the descriptions of it are the means by which the author provides an insight into a persons’ background, character, family and upbringing, as well as his or her general attitude towards life and other people in their surrounding. (http://joanne-harris.co.uk/v3site/books/blackberrywine/ index.html) [accessed 15 12 2010])

213 which cannot be left out. Meanwhile, creation is the invention of “CSIs not present in the original text“ (Davies, 2003, 88). Finally, Davie’s (2003) classification and labelling of strategies seem to be very practical because it is not so difficult to understand them and apply in the process of translation. The analysed data of CSIs has been grouped according to the translation strategies as offered by Davie’s (2003). Such grouping of translation strategies has displayed varying results: some translation strategies are employed more often than others.

3. TRANSLATION STRATEGIES USED IN TRANSLATION OF CULTURE-SPECIFIC FOOD ITEMS

CSIs related to food dominate in the novel Blackberry Wine (2000)68 and play a significant role in the story. Taste and scent of food are a useful means for the characters of the novel in expressing their feeling of security. Food brings magic and mystery into the life of the main character Jay Makintosh: the prevailing pleasure and joy of the associated memories that inspire Jay to write his works. Furthermore, the food description relates to scent and taste which disclose the universality of food which makes it easily understandable to the reader. Since the first days of childhood, the world is experienced through two senses: taste and smell, which means that people’s emotional response to a taste or a smell can act on everybody at a very powerful and subconscious level. Eating remains a people: acommon pleasure, a comfort experience and a means for of people: expression a ( http://www pleasure,.booksattrans a comfort- and a means of expression world.co(.uk/joanneharris/homehttp://www.booksattransworld.co.uk/joanne.htm) [accessed 15 12 2010])harris/home.htm) As a result, 205 CSIs [accessed 15 12 2010]) As a result, 205 have been found (Figure 1). CSIs have been found (Figure 1).

200 180 160 140 116 120 100 80 60 40 26 22 18 16 20 4 3 0 Preservation Globalization Addition Localization Omission Transformation Creation 57.14% 12.81% 10.84% 8.87% 7.88% 1.97% 1.48%

Figure 1: Translation strategies used in translation of culture-specific food items in LithuanianFigure translation 1: Translation of “Blackberry strategies Wine” (2000) used (,,Gervuogių in translation vynas” (2006)) of by culture-specific food items in Lithuanian translation of “BlackberryMilda Wine” Dyke (2000) (,,Gervuogiǐ vynas” (2006)) by Milda Dyke

There are 116 cases of preservation used in translation of food items which makes more than a half of There are 116 cases of preservation used in translation of food items which makes more thanall a caseshalf of all(57.14%).The cases (57.14%) research.The research data data have have demonstrated demonstrated thatthat the the frequency of globalization amounts frequencyup of toglobalization twenty-six amounts occurrences up to twenty-six which occurrences make 12.81% which make of all12. 81% CSIs analyzed. Other instances, such as of all CSIstwenty-two analyzed. Other examples instances, of such addition, as twenty-twomaking examples 10.84%, of addition, and eighteen mak- cases of localization, making 8.87%, ing 10.84%,are andfar eighteenmore frequent cases of localization,than, for instance, making 8 1.97%.87%, are of far transformation more frequent or 1.48% of creation. than, for instance, 1.97% of transformation or 1.48% of creation. 68 Blackberry Wine (2000), published in Great Britain, has grasped the interest of readers who are fond of magic, mystery and food. A 4. PRESERVATIONtranslator Milda Dyke translated the book in 2006 which is the second volume of Joanne Harris “food trilogy”: Chocolat (1999), Blackberry Wine (2000) and Five Quarters of the Orange (2001). Blackberry Wine (2000) is full of various names of food and the In thedescriptions novel Blackberry of it are Winethe means (2000) by which there theare author cases providesof literal an translation, insight into asa persons’ well background, character, family and upbringing, as as of the wellstraightforward as his ortranslation her general in regard attitude to food (Table towards 1): life and other people in their surrounding. (http://joanneharris.co.uk/v3site/books/blackberrywine/index.html) [accessed 15 12 2010]) Table 1: Preservation of Food Names The Source Text The Target Text Joanne Harris, Blackberry Wine (2000) Milda Dyke, Gervuogių 162vynas (2006) 1 [...] the plat du jour – a generous omlette [...] plat du jour – didžiulis omletas su saloto- with salad and fried potatotes – was good. mis ir keptomis bulvėmis buvo puikus. (123; (119; italics in the original) italics in the original) 2 Tuberosa rubra maritima, tuberosa dia- Tuberosa rubra maritima, tuberosa diabolica, bolica, tuberosa panax odarata [...] (331; tuberosa panax odarata [...] (344; italics in italics in the original) the original)

The examples of preservation are the cases where CSIs are left the same as they are in the ST; for instance, the plat du jour remains plat du jour in example (1). In

214 example (2) the terms Tuberosa rubra maritima, tuberosa diabolica, tuberosa panax odarata are preserved. These are the Latin names of different plants that helped Jay Makintosh to see the magic and mystery in gardening which became the part of his life.The rest examples provided in Table 2 are translated literally:

Table 2: Preservation of Food Names The Source Text The Target Text Joanne Harris, Blackberry Wine (2000) Milda Dyke, Gervuogių vynas (2006) 3 Wheat-grass juice, couscous salad, baby Varpučio žolės sultys, salotos su kuskusu, spinach leaves, yoghurts. (15) smulkių špinatų lapeliai, jogurtas. (15) 4 Blackberry blue, damson black. (254) Gervuogių mėlynas, aitriosios slyvos juodas. (266)

In example (3) couscous salad, baby spinach leaves, yoghurts are translated directly as salotos su kuskusu, smulkių špinatų lapeliai, jogurtas, since these food names exist in the target culture and did not pose any difficulties for the translator. The name for couscous originates from Maghrebi Arabic kuskusu, meaning well rolled or formed. Couscous is made from coarsely ground barley, pearl millet or pre-cooked sweetcorn flakes. The preparation of couscous salads is becoming popular in various countries (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, MWOD futher on). As the names of berries in example (4) have equivalents in Lithuanian, Milda Dyke finds no difficulty to translate them: Blackberry and damson are rendered as Gervuogių, aitriosios slyvos. In conclusion, the strategy of direct translation seems to be applied mostly. The translator Milda Dyke has translated the discussed food items and has not found any difficulties in finding the right equivalent in the. TT

5. ADDITION AND OMISSION The cases of addition make 10.84% of all translation strategies that have been applied to translate culture-specific food items (Figure 1; Table 3).

Table 3: Addition of Food Names The Source Text The Target Text Joanne Harris, Blackberry Wine (2000) Milda Dyke, Gervuogių vynas (2006) 1 Try my wife’��s gésiers farcis. (144; emphasis Paragausite mano žmonos gésiers farcis, įdarytų mine) skilvelių. (149; emphasis mine) 2 Over coffee andpetits fours the headache Po kavos ir petits fours, pyragaičių, galvos subsided [...] (145; emphasis mine) skausmas atslūgo [...] (151; emphasis mine)

In example (1) Milda Dyke has translated gésiers farcis as gésiers farcis, įdarytų skilvelių by adding įdarytų skilvelių. The translator retains the name of this food probably for the sake of foreigness and the addition of įdarytų skilvelių helps the target reader to know exactly what it is because not all Lithuanian readers can understand

215 what this French food means. The culinary meaning in French offarcir is to farce, to stuff foods in English (MWOD) According to MWOD, petits fours in example (2) “is a small cake cut from pound or sponge cake and frosted“ and it is generally eaten at the end of a meal or served as part of a large buffet. The Lithuanian translation is pyragėlis or sausainis prie kavos which is provided by Bronislovas Piesarskas (1998: 668), whereas Milda Dyke translated as petits fours, pyragaičių. The name comes from the Frenchpetit four, meaning “small oven”. The termpetit four may also refer to any of a variety of small confections. Finally, the French also use this term to describe small and fancy cookies. Omission is not so widely used by Milda Dyke: it amounts to 7.88% of the total number of all translated culture-specific food items (Figure 1; Table 4).

Table 4: Omission of Food Names The Source Text The Target Text Joanne Harris, Blackberry Wine (2000) Milda Dyke, Gervuogių vynas (2006) 1 [...] waxy red berries bursting with seeds, [...] vaškinės uogos sprogsta nuo sėklų, jų šonai splitting their sides with juice into the pan sprogsta nuo sulčių, jos kibirais liejasi į kaistuvą. by the bucketful [...] (181) (189) 2 [...] maybe, or the faint scent of ripe [...] gal silpnas gervuogių kvapas. (344) blackberries. (331)

Example (1) waxy red berries have the equivalent of vaškinės uogos in the TT without the word red because a possible association of waxy berries is with red. Instance (2) ripe blackberries is rendered as gervuogių by omitting ripe and treating this piece of information as not so significant in the TT. The analysed cases of addition and omission have not caused considerable difficulties in translating culture-specific food items. The usage of addition provides additional information about the CSIs, whereas the translation strategy of omission helps to avoid redundancy in most cases.

6. GLOBALIZATION AND LOCALIZATION Milda Dyke employs globalization in order to make a CSI accessible to the target reader (Table 5):

Table 5: Globalization of Food Names The Source Text The Target Text Joanne Harris, Blackberry Wine (2000) Milda Dyke, Gervuogių vynas (2006) 1 [...] High John the Conqueror. (43) [...] jalapinio sukučio. (45) 2 He bit off the head of hid Jelly Baby – Su pasimėgavimu nukando saldainiuko galą with relish and chose another from the ir iš pakelio iškrapštė kitą. (89) packet. (84)

216 In example (1) High John the Conqueror is globalized as jalapinio sukučio which makes it accessible to the target readers. In MWOD, High John the Conqueror is explained as a reference to the number of roots to which magical powers are ascribed in American folklore. The root is named after a folk hero called High John the Conqueror and this root belongs to Ipomoea jalapa family related to the Morning Glory and the sweet potato. The plant is known as bindweed or jalap root which has a pleasant, but it is a strong laxative if taken internally (MWOD). Jay loves to pick different kinds of plants and make preserves out of them. The scent that comes from different plants brings magic to Jay’s gardening and inspires him to continue his writing. In case (2) the head of hid Jelly Baby is globalized as saldainiuko galą and back translation of this CSI is the head of a small sweet which has a slightly different meaning. Jelly baby is “a small soft jelly-like sweet made in the shape of a baby, in a variety of colours, often eaten by children” (Summers, 1999, 704). This definition helps to explain the motivation of the translator to render the head of hid Jelly Baby as saldainiuko galą: the diminutive refers to a small size and the general word saldainiuko has been chosen because the name Jelly Baby does not exist in Lithuanian culture. The name for Jelly Baby sweet resembles guminukai in the target culture. The strategy oflocalization “is one of the most imperative norms for Lithuanian translators” (Danytė, 2006, 207). However, this statement has not been proved in the translation of food entities in the Lithuanian translation of Blackberry Wine (2000) because only eighteen examples make 8.87% of all occurrences (Figure 1; Table 6).

Table 6: Localization of Food Names The Source Text The Target Text Joanne Harris, Blackberry Wine (2000) Milda Dyke, Gervuogių vynas (2006) 1 [...] apple pie, ice cream, fried fish and [...] obuolių pyragą, ledus, keptą žuvį ir su scollops. (91) grietine paruoštas bulves. (95) 2 POT LUCK WITH THE BUILDER AND Kuklus užkandis su statybininku ir jo žmona HIS wife, [...] (144; capitalization in the [...] (149) original)

In example (1) the word scollops is translated as su grietine paruoštas bulves. The scholar Della Summers (1999) defines scollops as “thin slice of meat (especially veal) usually fried or broiled” (Summers 1999: 1200). Scallops are „eskalopas (ypač veršienos)“ (Piesarskas 1998: 799). Milda Dyke’s translation su grietine paruoštas bulves (back translation is scalloped potatoes) loses the real meaning of scallops because Lithuanian readers would not guess that these are slices of meat, especially veal, not potatoes. As the majority of traditional Lithuanian meals are made of potatoes, the translator has decided to refer to potatoes but not to meat and this is closely matched with the target culture. In example (2) POT LUCK is translated as kuklus užkandis which has the meaning of a modest appetiser. As it is explained in MWOD, pot luck is “the regular meal available to a guest for whom no special preparations have

217 been made or a communal meal to which people bring food to share”. Milda Dyke has referred to this food entity with some irony, describing it as kuklus but really the snack was not modest at all. Globalization and localization are not so frequently applied in Lithuanian version of Blackberry Wine (2000). The application of globalization and localization indicates that the translator has tried to bring the target reader closer to the cultural background of the ST.

7. TRANSFORMATION AND CREATION Transformation amounts to 1.97% of all food items mentioned in the translation of Blackberry Wine (2000) (Figure 1; Table 7).

Table 7: Transformation of Food Names The Source Text The Target Text Joanne Harris, Blackberry Wine (2000) Milda Dyke, Gervuogių vynas (2006) 1 [...] sprouting broccoli for September, [...]gūžinių kopūstų rugsėjui, ankstyvesnių rocket and frisée for July and August. (216; bei vėlyvesnių liepai ir rugpjūčiui. (226; emphasis mine) emphasis mine) 2 [...] chopped shallots to the pasta sauce [...] [...] susmulkintų žolynų į gaminamą pasta (233; emphasis mine) padažą [...] (243; emphasis mine)

Dyke translates broccoli using the strategy of transformation as gūžinių kopūstų (cabbage-head) and the same strategy has been employed while rendering rocket and frisée as ankstyvesnių and vėlyvesnių in example (1). Bronislovas Piesarskas (1998) definesbroccoli as “brokolis, šparaginis kopūstas” (Piesarskas 1998: 116). The translation of broccoli as gūžinių kopūstų does not convey the exact meaning of the reference; however, Dyke has tried to maintain some similarity of the vegetable in the TT. The word rocket is defined as “a vegetable of the mustard family with small green leaves usually eaten in SALADS, and a fashionable food in the UK” (MWOD; capitalized in the original). In the TT the translation ankstyvesnių does not correspond with the meaning of “vakarutė” (Piesarskas 1998: 777). The variation of translating frisée as vėlyvesnių refers to the generalization of these entities because it means “curly leaves of endive that have finely dissected edges and are used in salads” (Summers 1999:5 25). As the TT has no equivalents for the discussed food entities, Milda Dyke has chosen the method of transformation because it is difficult for the TT reader to understand the real meaning of the CSI of the ST. Another example (2) chopped shallots is transformed into susmilkintų žolynų (back translation is chopped greens) and does not convey the meaning of the original item which means “a bulbous perennial onion that produces small clustered bulbs which resemble those of garlic and are used in seasoning” (MWOD). The literal meaning of shallot is “askaloninis česnakas” but it would be difficult for the TT reader to understand what it means or it would need an explanation; therefore, the

218 translator Milda Dyke has used the strategy of transformation when translating chopped shallots. Finally, creation amounts to 1.48% of all culture-specific food examples which have been detected in the translation of Blackberry Wine (2000), (Figure 1; Table 8).

Table 8: Creation of Food Names The Source Text The Target Text Joanne Harris, Blackberry Wine (2000) Milda Dyke, Gervuogių vynas (2006) 1 Cherries, plums, redcurrants, bilberries. Vyšnių, slyvų, raudonųjų serbentų, span- (68) guolių. (72) 2 [...] rapsberry red, blackberry blue [...] [...] raudonas aviečių, mėlynas mėlynių (109) [...] (112)

In example (1) the translation of bilberries into spanguolių (back translation is cranberries) does not express the meaning of the original item which means mėlynės. It might be due to the fact that Milda Dyke has referred to the red colour of all the berries enumerated in this example. The wordspanguolių for bilberries is a mistrans- lation. In example (2) where blackberry is rendered as mėlynių which is a different kind of berries. Milda Dyke tried to convey the common saying of the target language mėlynas mėlynių which has a reference to the emphasized blue colour, as well as the reference to the similar sound of the syllables and which is easy to remember. There are cases when the translation is not very precise. It could be explained by the lack of exact equivalents in the TT or it could be done on a particular purpose to display the effect of the text or context.

CONCLUSION The aim of this article was to see what translation strategies have been applied by the translator Milda Dyke in translation of Joanne Harris‘ novel Blackberry Wine (2000). The translator Milda Dyke has used the diversity of translation strategies in the process of translating the novel. The focus of the present research is the translation of food items. The strategy of preservation has been used most frequently. The names of food items have been retained either using transliteration or maintaining the names of references. The translation strategies ofaddition and omission have been also useful dealing with some difficult cases of food references to avoid problematic translations. Globalization provides the general meaning of the CSIs without distorting the original meaning of the cultural items. Localization has been used to make the names of culture-bound food items more familiar for the target readership. Finally, transformation and creation have been used in moderation. In general, the translator Milda Dyke finds appropriate ways to render the names of food items into the target language by applying different translation strategies.

219 REFERENCES 1. Armalytė, O. & Pažūsis, L. 1990. Vertimo teorijos pradmenys. Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas. 2. Baker, Mona. 1992. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. London: Routledge. Danytė, Milda. 2006. “Lithuanian Translations of Canadian Literature”. Darbai ir dienos. Vol. 45(1): 195-213. 3. Davies, Eirlys E. 2003. A Goblin or a Dirty Nose? In: The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Cummunication 9 (I): P. 65-100. 4. Harris, Joanne. 2001. Blackberry Wine. Great Britain: Black Swan. 5. Harris, Joanne. 2006. Gervuogių vynas. Vilnius: Versus aureus. 6. Kalėdaitė, V. & V. Asijavičiūtė. 2005. Translation of Lithuanian Culture-Specific Items 7. into English. In : Kalbotyra 55(3): P. 31-37. 8. Piesarskas, Bronislovas. 1998. Didysis anglų-lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Vilnius: Alma littera. 9. Rudaitytė, R. 2006. Excitements and Pitfalls: Translating Ian McEwan‘s Novel Amsterdam. In: Darbai ir dienos. Vol. 45(1): P. 187-193. 10. Summers, Della. 1999. Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. 2nd ed. Harlow: Longman.

SOURCES 1. http://joanne-harris.co.uk/v3site/books/blackberrywine/index.html 2. http://www.booksattransworld.co.uk/joanneharris/home.htm 3. Merriam-Webster Online. Available at: http://www.m-w.com

SANTRAUKA Vertimo strategijų pritaikymas verčiant kultūrinius valgių pavadinimus iš anglų į lietuvių kalbą Joanne Harris romane „Gervuogių vynas“ Vytautė Daugėlaitė

Šiame straipsnyje nagrinėjamos skirtingos vertimo strategijos, kurias taiko vertėja Milda Dyke perteikiant valgių kultūros realijas lietuviškame O. Harris novelės vertime ,,Gervuogių vynas“ (2006). Analizuojamas dažniausiai pasitaikančių vertimo ypatumų efektyvumas ir tinkamumas perteikiant valgių kultūros realijas, pritaikius įvairias vertimo strategijas. Tyrimas parodė, kad vertėja Milda Dyke panaudojo vertimo strategijų įvairovę, versdama kultūros realijas iš anglų į lietuvių kalbą.

220 Wissenschaftlich oder journalistisch? Überschriften populärwissenschaftlicher Zeitschriftenartikel im deutsch- litauischen Vergleich

Jurgita Kohrs Universität Vilnius, 5 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Litauen, [email protected]

ABSTRACT In Germany and other countries making scientific knowledge accessible to the society has long been treated as part of a researcher’s work. The priority of raising the society’s awareness of scientific discoveries is officially declared in Lithuania too; however, the society, research institutions and the researchers still do not give it sufficient attention. Linguists have hardly investigated the issue at all. The present investigation is an attempt to look at popular science from the point of view of contrastive linguistics. The research is based on 167 German and the same number of Lithuanian article headlines randomly chosen in two popular science magazines: the German Rubin and the Lithuanian Spectrum. The aim is to identify tendencies of writing such headlines in German and Lithuanian with the focus on their main structural, functional and stylistic peculiarities. The results point out that in the German data, journalistic strategies of writing headlines prevail; in Lithuanian, preference is given to “dry”, strictly professional style, Lithuanian article headlines are thus more similar to research paper titles. Key words: contrastive analysis of German and Lithuanian, popular science article, headlines, scientific or journalistic.

1. ��VORBEMERKUNGEN Die verständliche Vermittlung wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse an die breite Öffentlichkeit ist in Deutschland schon lange Gegenstand wissenschaftlicher und öffentlicher Diskussionen. So wird z.B. bereits seit 20 Jahren alljährlich der Leib- fried-Preis für lebendig und verständlich geschriebene Dissertationen vergeben. Zu erwähnen sind auch zahlreiche Preise, mit denen Journalisten ausgezeichnet werden, die aktuelle wissenschaftliche Themen allgemein verständlich vermitteln.

221 Damit deutsche Wissenschaftler ihre Erkenntnisse häufiger in populären Medien publizieren, werden Workshops organisiert, wo sie Techniken und Strategien po- pulärwissenschaftlichen Schreibens erlernen können. All diese Aktivitäten zeugen davon, dass der verständlichen Wissenschaftsvermittlung in Deutschland hohe Bedeutung beigemessen wird. Obwohl die Notwendigkeit der Wissenschaftspopularisierung in den letzten Jah- ren auch in Litauen offiziell anerkannt wurde,73 hat dieses Thema noch keine breite Resonanz in der Öffentlichkeit und unter den Wissenschaftlern selbst gefunden (vgl. Portalo interviu 2009, Nevinskaitė et al. 2007, 7). Während in der deutschen Sprach- forschung zahlreiche Einzelbeiträge und umfangreiche Studien zu verschiedenen sprachlichen Aspekten populärwissenschaftlicher Texte vorliegen, sind sie in der litauischen Linguistik noch nie behandelt worden. Dieser Beitrag stellt den ersten Versuch dar, populärwissenschaftliche Sprachmittel anhand des Sprachenpaars Deutsch-Litauisch zu analysieren. Die Untersuchung wird ausschließlich auf die Überschriften populärwissen- schaftlicher Artikel eingeschränkt, weil es im Rahmen dieses Beitrags nicht möglich ist, auf alle sprachlichen Phänomene populärwissenschaftlicher Texte (ihre Syntax, Textstruktur, Lexik) einzugehen. Das Ziel besteht darin, deutsche und litauische Überschriften zu vergleichen und anhand ihrer strukturellen, semantisch-funktionalen und stilistisch-rhetorischen Besonderheiten festzustellen, ob sie den Titelgebungstendenzen wissenschaftlicher Texte folgen oder vielmehr den journalistischen Strategien unterliegen. Die Analyse erfolgt anhand von jeweils 167 Überschriften, die dem deutschen Forschungsmagazin RUBIN (Ruhr-Universität Bochum) und dem litauischen Ma- gazin SPECTRUM (Universität Vilnius) entnommen sind. Während die ersten hoch- schuleigenen Druckmedien, in denen die Wissenschaftler selbst über ihre aktuellen Forschungsergebnisse populärwissenschaftlich berichten, in Deutschland bereits in den 70er Jahren entstanden sind, und mittlerweile jede größere deutsche Hochschule über ihr eigenes nichtkommerzielles Forschungsmagazin verfügt, ist SPECTRUM in Litauen seit 2004 der einzige Vertreter dieser Gattung. Deswegen konnten keine weiteren litauischen Vergleichskorpora herangezogen werden.

73 Davon zeugt der 2003 vom litauischen Bildungs- und Wissenschaftsministerium gegründete Preis für Wissenschaftler, die ihre Arbeiten einem breiteren Laienpublikum zugänglich machen (Švietimo naujienos 2008). Mehr zur Situation der Wissenschaftspopularisierung in Litauen und Deutschland s. Kohrs (im Druck).

222 2. ÜBERSCHRIFTEN ALS LINGUISTISCHER GEGENSTAND: ZUM FORSCHUNGSSTAND Da die Terminologie in den linguistischen Arbeiten sehr uneinheitlich ist,74 soll zunächst der BegriffÜberschrift von den konkurrierenden BegriffenSchlagzeile und Titel abgegrenzt werden. Während der Begriff Schlagzeile vor allem auf den Ge- brauchstext Zeitung beschränkt ist, zeichnen sich die Termini Titel und Überschrift durch eine viel größere Verwendungsvielfalt aus (mehr dazu Burger, 2005, 115). Obwohl Überschrift oft als Oberbegriff für Schlagzeile gewählt wird, bezieht sie sich nicht nur auf den journalistischen Bereich: In den Büchern können Überschriften auf den Inhalt eines Kapitels hinweisen, innerhalb von den Sammelbänden einen Beitrag ankündigen. Steht eine Überschrift als Bezeichnung für ein ganzes Werk, so spricht man vom Titel. Dies gilt auch für die Werke nicht-sprachlicher Natur wie Musik- stücke oder Gemälde. Ein Titel kann zudem unabhängig vom Folgetext auftauchen (in Katalogen oder Verzeichnissen). Die Frage ist nun, welcher Begriff – Überschrift oder Titel – alsN ame für den po- pulärwissenschaftlichen Zeitschriftenartikel zu verwenden ist? Für wissenschaftliche Zeitschriftenaufsätze können nach Gnutzmann (1988, 24) sowohl Überschrift als auch Titel synonym verwendet werden, Dietz (1995, 1999) benutzt beispielsweise für alle wissenschaftlichen Texte ausschließlich den Begriff Titel. Da ein populärwissenschaft- licher Zeitschriftenartikel journalistisch aufbereitet ist, wird hier in Anlehnung an Gläser (1990, 186-195), die einen solchen Artikel als popularisierende Fachtextsorte bezeichnet, der Begriff Überschrift verwendet. Neben der gesamten Textgestaltung und optischen Präsentation kommt den Überschriften eine besondere Bedeutung zu: Sie werden als erstes wahrgenommen und dienen daher als wesentliches Entscheidungskriterium dafür, „ob man mit der Lektüre des dazugehörigen Textes beginnt oder nicht“ (Lenk, 2005, 160). Laut Burger (2005, 117) weisen die Überschriften eine relative Selbständigkeit auf, deswegen lassen sie sich auch intern, d. h. vom zugehörigen Fließtext isoliert, analysieren. Während literarische Titel (Wulff 1979, Rothe 1986, Weinrich 2000),75 Titel wissenschaftlicher Texte (Gnutzmann 1988, Dietz 1995, 1998, Kohrs 2010), vor allem aber Überschriften bzw. Schlagzeilen verschiedener Pressetextsorten76 schon mehrmals

74 Z. B. Lenk (2005, 159) benutzt in seinen Beiträgen zu Kommentarüberschriften in den Tag- eszeitungen die beiden BegriffeÜberschrift und Titel synonym. 75 Literarische Titel sind im Vergleich zu den Zeitungsüberschriften bzw. Schlagzeilen ein viel älteres Forschungsobjekt. Ein Überblick über die Geschichte und den aktuellen Stand der Titel- forschung, die in den 1980er Jahren zu einem eigenständigen Forschungsbereich wurde, findet sich in Kohrs (2010, 59-61). 76 Es können hier nicht alle Beiträge erwähnt werden. Einen guten Überblick über ältere Arbeiten, die verschiedene Aspekte der Überschrift bzw. Schlagzeile im Deutschen untersuchen, bietet z.B. Di Meola (1998, 217). Von den detaillierteren Studien sei in diesem Zusammenhang auf Sandig (1971), Brand (1991), Oberhauser (1993), Lenk (2005), Burger (2005) verwiesen.

223 Gegenstand linguistischer Untersuchungen waren, liegen zu populärwissenschaftli- chen Überschriften meines Wissens noch keine Beiträge vor.

3. ERGEBNISSE 3.1. Zur formalen Gestaltung der Überschriften: strukturelle Besonderheiten Da die Struktur der Überschriften in der Regel von der Redaktion der jeweiligen Zeitschrift festgelegt wird und somit für deren Autoren verbindlich ist, steht sie nicht im Vordergrund der Untersuchung. Ungeachtet dessen sind hier einige Bemerkun- gen notwendig, weil sich die strukturellen Besonderheiten der Überschriften sehr stark auf ihre Semantik auswirken. Für die deutschen Überschriften in RUBIN ist kennzeichnend, dass sie (insgesamt 72 %) aus zwei Teilen, der sog. Dachzeile und der Hauptüberschrift,77 bestehen, z. B.:

(Dachzeile) EU fördert Forschung für kleine und mittelständische Unternehmen (Hauptüberschrift)Wie Biogas in die Pipeline kommt (2007, 26)

Im SPECTRUM finden sich solche Belege nicht. Um die Vergleichbarkeit zwischen den deutschen und litauischen Überschriften zu ermöglichen, bezieht sich die folgende Analyse nur auf die Hauptüberschriften. Deutsche Dachzeilen, die weder im Inhaltsverzeichnis der Printversionen noch in der Themenübersicht der Online- Ausgaben erscheinen, werden im Weiteren nicht berücksichtigt.

3.2. Funktionale Besonderheiten Die Funktionen der Zeitungsüberschriften (vgl. Brand 1991, Di Meola 1998, Lenk 2005, Burger 2005) und Werktitel (Gnutzmann 1988, Dietz 1999, Weinrich 2000) sind in der Fachliteratur schon mehrmals behandelt worden, deswegen wird hier aus Platzgründen nicht auf eine Diskussion verschiedener Funktionsauffassungen eingegangen. Ganz allgemein scheint es nicht mehr umstritten zu sein, dass die Hauptfunktion der Zeitungsüberschrift weniger darin besteht, den Inhalt des Beitrags zusammenzufassen als vielmehr die Neugier des Lesers zu wecken (Biere, 1998, 59, Lenk, 2005, 177), während der Untersuchungsgegenstand bzw. das Thema in den Titeln wissenschaftlicher Texte, wie quantitative Analysen zeigen (vgl. dazu Dietz, 1995, 67, Kohrs, 2010, 70-72), zu einem der wichtigsten Titelelemente gehört. Nun soll untersucht werden, welche Funktionen die Überschriften populärwissenschaftlicher Texte übernehmen. Ausgehend davon, ob die Überschriften primär der Informationsvermittlung oder primär dem Leseanreiz dienen, kann man in Anlehnung an Lenk (2005, 178) folgende zwei Haupttypen – primär informative und primär appellative Überschriften

77 In den Ausgaben ab 2005 sind alle Überschriften zweiteilig. Bei der Reproduktion deutscher Überschriften wurden typographische Unterscheidungen zwischen der Dachzeile und der Hauptüberschrift neutralisiert.

224 – unterscheiden,78 die sich in weitere Untertypen gliedern lassen. Im Folgenden soll jeder einzelne Untertyp besprochen werden.

3.2.1. Primär informierende Überschriften Thematische Überschriften Den ersten Untertyp informativer Überschriften bilden solche Überschriften, die das Thema bzw. das Forschungsfeld des zugehörigen Ganztextes explizit nennen:

(1) Šiuolaikinės veido ir žandikaulių chirurgijos galimybės (4/2006, 21) (2) Vilniaus Stepono Batoro universiteto regalijos (2/2005, 22) (3) Sanskritas (10/2010, 28) (4) Wider Kalk in den Adern Winter (Winter 2009/10, 60) (5) Sturmwinter in der Antarktis (Sommer 2009, 30)

Solche Überschriften sind sachlich-neutral formuliert und enthalten keine Wer- tung. Nominale Elemente wie Genitiv- bzw. Präpositionalattribute, Verbalsubstantive und andere Nominalisierungen sind hier vorherrschend. Zusammenfassende Überschriften Zum zweiten Untertyp gehören Überschriften, die die Kernaussage des zugehöri- gen Textes wiedergeben und daher als eine Art Zusammenfassung des Ganztextes zu betrachten sind. Die Informationsvermittlung erfolgt meistens durch eine sachbetonte Zustandsbeschreibung oder Ereignisdarstellung, z.B.:

(6) Vienas iš keturių žmonių per gyvenimą patiria psichikos sutrikimų (8/2008, 16) (7) Vilniaus universitete studentai turi galimybę mokytis kinų kalbos (5/2006, 34) (8) Lietuvoje žinių visuomenė dar auga (10/2009, 38) (9) Moterims tinklalapiai – pramogoms, vyrams – dalykiniam bendravimui (9/2008, 39) (10) Ohne Kinder gibt es keine Renten (Winter 2009/10, 18) (11) Geschlechterrollen wirken lange nach (1/2006, 14) (12) Besteuerung vereinfachen: Dann atmen Bürger und Beamte auf (1/2002, 42)

Die angeführten Belege verdeutlichen, dass für die Überschriften nicht nur ellip- tische Konstruktionen charakteristisch sind, auch wenn Sandig (1971) sie als deren prägendes Merkmal betrachtet. Sehr häufig sind auch vollständige Überschriften

78 Eine ähnliche Einteilung findet sich auch bei Di Meola (1998, 217-219), der darauf hinweist, dass die beiden Hauptfunktionen keine Dichotomie bilden, sondern vielmehr Endpunkte auf einer Skala zwischen maximaler Transparenz und maximaler Informationsverschleierung darstellen.

225 anzutreffen, die früher nach Burger (2005, 117) vorwiegend für die Boulevardpresse typisch waren, heute aber in allen Zeitungstypen sehr verbreitet sind. Wie aus den Belegen hervorgeht, scheinen sowohl litauische als auch deutsche Überschriften dieser Tendenz zu folgen. Neben den sachbetont informierenden Überschriften finden sich auch solche, in denen die Bewertungskomponente mehr oder weniger stark ausgeprägt ist. Sie lassen explizit wertende Stellungnahme des Verfassers zu dem dargestellten Sachverhalt bzw. der beschriebenen Situation erkennen:

(13) Įrašas Konstantino Sirvydo žodyne – gražus draugystės ir lietuvybės pavyzdys (6/2007, 35) (14) Japonologija – viena populiariausių specialybių (6/2007, 30) (15) Turkų kalba Lietuvoje – dar egzotiška (11/2009, 32) (16) Mikrotinklaraščiai – nauja interneto mada (10/2009, 36) (17) Keine Ausreden für angestaubtes Amtsdeutsch (Sommer 2009, 52)

3.2.2. Primär appellative Überschriften RätselhafteÜberschriften Als rätselhaft werden semantisch offene Überschriften bezeichnet, die isoliert rezipiert keinen Rückschluss auf den Gegenstand des Themas erlauben (mehr dazu vgl. Dietz (1995, 136), Lenk (2005, 178), Burger (2005, 118-120). „Rätselhaft oder, linguistisch ausgedrückt, unterdeterminiert“, nennt Dietz (1995, 136) solche Titel deswegen, „weil sie entweder zu allgemeine Begriffe enthalten, das heißt alles- oder nichtssagend sind, oder weil sie einen derart spezifischen Teilaspekt des Themas benennen, dass eine sinnvolle Interpretation unmöglich ist.“

(18) Nušvitimo ir užuojautos kalba (12/2010, 34) (19) Ir kariavo, ir midų gėrė... (9/2008, 16) (20) Svečiuose pas XXI amžiaus „išrinktuosius“, arba „Paukščių kalba“ iš arčiau (9/2008, 32) (21) Svarbu nebūti varna (5/2006, 38) (22) Staub aufwirbeln mit Methode (2/2002, 69) (23) „Es ist doch nur ein Spiel ...“ (2/2002, 52) (24) Zeolithe erobern den Alltag: Das Spiel mit den Strukturen (4/2004, 12) (25) Die Jugend literarisch auf Linie bringen (1/2005, 6) (26) Sicher auf die sanfte Tour (2007, 8) (27) Nur ein paar Zellen (2007, 44)

Da z.B. aus dem Beleg 22 nicht hervorgeht, dass mit dem Substantiv Staub kos- mische Staubnebel gemeint sind, und Spiel (Beleg 23) auf die Gefahr gewalthaltiger Video- und Computerspiele hindeutet, wird der Leser angeregt, die Ganztexte zu lesen. Im Beleg 24 wird zwar der BegriffZeolith genannt, er kann aber bei einem Laien nicht

226 unbedingt als bekannt vorausgesetzt werden. Rothe (1986, 110-114) meint, dass der Informationsentzug den Leser zum Lesen verlockt und gerade die Inhaltsverrätselung immer spannungszeugend sei. Es soll jedoch auch darauf hingewiesen werden, dass eine zu große Verrätselung die Appellfunktion in ihr Gegenteil umkehren kann. Die Unterdeterminiertheit der Überschriften wird meist durch die Metaphern erreicht – eine sehr häufige Erscheinung in deutschen Überschriften, die im Weiteren eingehender behandelt wird. Provozierende Überschriften Unter provozierenden Überschriften sind nach Lenk (2005, 178) solche Über- schriften zu verstehen, „die durch ihren Inhalt oder ihre Form bei den Lesern einen Widerspruch zum vorhandenen Wissen evozieren oder in mehr oder weniger pro- vokanter Weise deren Erwartungen widersprechen“. Meistens sind es Thesen, deren Gültigkeit kritisch in Frage gestellt wird. Indem der Leser diese These bezweifelt, oder das Angekündigte auf ihn sensationell bzw. unglaubwürdig wirkt, wird er auf den Ganztext neugierig:

(28) Alergiją galima įveikti žiniomis (3/2005, 24) (39) Schlanke Wände – warme Zimmer (4/2004, 45) (30) Auch mit Darmkrebs gut leben (4/2004, 52) (31) Nicht alle atmen die gleiche Luft (Winter 2009/10, 64) (32) Erstarrung in der Schwebe (Frühjahr 2008, 30)

Die Zuordnung zu den provokativen Überschriften ist selbstverständlich eine sehr subjektive Entscheidung: Was von einem Leser bezweifelt wird, kann für einen anderen als eine längst bekannte Information erscheinen. Deswegen kann je nach dem Wissensniveau des Rezipienten ein und dieselbe Überschrift entweder als zusammenfassend oder provokativ empfunden werden. Somit stellen die provokativen Überschriften eine Übergangsgruppe zwischen den informativen und appellativen Überschriften dar, weil sie, im Gegensatz zu den semantisch offenen Überschriften, auch Informationen vermitteln. Welchen Anteil die jeweiligen Überschriften am Gesamtkorpus bilden, zeigt Tabelle 1.

Tabelle 1: Typen und Untertypen der Überschriften und ihr prozentualer Anteil am Gesamtkorpus primär informativ primär appellativ thematisch zusammenfassend gesamt rätselhaft provozierend gesamt dt. 45 11 56 38 7,3 45,3 lt. 62 30 92 6 0,7 6,7

227 Aus der Tabelle geht hervor, dass im Litauischen mit 92% informative Überschrif- ten vorherrschen, im Deutschen ist der Anteil der informativen und appellativen Überschriften ähnlich. Auffällig ist es, dass im Deutschen rätselhafte Überschriften (38%) sehr verbreitet sind. Dies lässt sich dadurch erklären, dass die meisten deutschen Überschriften in RUBIN, wie eingangs erwähnt, noch eine Dachzeile enthalten, die in der Regel mehr oder weniger informierend ist.

4. Stilistisch-rhetorische Mittel Die quantitative Untersuchung stilistisch-rhetorischer Mittel hat ergeben, dass 40% aller deutschen Überschriften metaphorisch sind. Auch im Litauischen beträgt ihr Anteil 21%, deswegen soll dieses Stilmittel eingehender besprochen werden. Die kognitive und kommunikative Funktion der Metapher im Erkenntnisprozess ist schon lange anerkannt worden (Köller, 1975, 269). Metaphern werden als eine nützliche Hilfe betrachtet, komplizierte und abstrakte Sachverhalte durch das Kon- kret-Sinnliche zu veranschaulichen und begreifbar zu machen. Somit erfüllen sie die erkenntnisfördernde Funktion (Drewer, 2003, 77-83). Wird diese Funktion auch in den Überschriften realisiert? Aufgrund ihrer Anschaulichkeit sind Metaphern in populärwissenschaftlichen Texten sehr beliebt, weil durch anschauliche Bilder, Vergleiche mit Alltagserfahrungen und Alltagsvorstellungen wissenschaftliche Zusammenhänge bzw. neue Erkenntnisse dem Leser leichter zugänglich gemacht werden (vgl. Niederhauser, 1999, 218). Oft werden Metaphern deswegen anstelle exakter Fachtermini eingesetzt. In den Über- schriften ist jedoch die Erkennung und die Entschlüsselung der Metapher problema- tisch, weil die übertragene Bedeutung eines Ausdrucks erst im Kontext verständlich ist (mehr dazu Rothe, 1986, 55). Deswegen ist es in manchen Fällen kaum möglich, eine Metapher ohne die Textlektüre als solche zu identifizieren, z. B.:

(33) Bildhauer ohne Hammer und Meißel (1/2002, 13) (34) Detektive der Bibliotheken (2/2002, 44) (35) Europa geht unter die Erde (Herbst 2007, 57)

Man kann im Beleg 33 nicht ahnen, dass mit Bildhauer Biomechaniker gemeint sind, die die Implantatforschung betreiben, genauso wie aus dem Beleg 34 nicht hervorgeht, dass Detektiv ein metaphorischer Ausdruck für eine präzise Kleinarbeit bei der Erforschung unbekannter Manuskripte ist. Der Beleg 35 ist so mehrdeutig, dass hier verschiedene Interpretationen möglich sind. Die angeführten Belege zeigen, dass durch den Metapherngebrauch die Eindeutig- keit und die Prägnanz der Überschrift verloren gehen. Warum sind die Metaphern in den Überschriften trotzdem so beliebt?N ach Rothe (186, 57) drängt die Verhüllung der Metapher zu ihrer Enthüllung. Somit übernehmen die meisten Metaphern eine Appellfunktion und beeinflussen das Leserverhalten, z.B.:

228 (36) Vegetarische „Vampire“ – Flughunde als Gärtner im Regenwald (1/2002, 56) (37) Gift aus dem Wasserhahn(Frühjahr 2008, 46)

Die Verbindung des BegriffsVampir als Blut saugendes Tier mit vegetarisch bildet einen Widerspruch. Gerade diese semantische Unverträglichkeit weckt das Interesse des Lesers. Durch die Übertragung der Bedeutung von Gift auf Wasser werden eine gewisse Dramatisierung und Übertreibung erreicht, was wiederum eine besondere Aufmerksamkeit erregt und appellativ wirkt. Im Litauischen sind vor allem usuelle, d.h. altbewährte, Metaphern verbreitet, die kaum noch als semantische Abweichungen empfunden werden (z. B. gyva istorija), die aber Stimmungen transportieren und mehr der Farbigkeit und Attraktivität dienen als der Sacherkenntnis. Sehr beliebt sind im Litauischen anthropomorphe Metaphern, die weniger erkenntnisfördernd eingesetzt werden, sondern in erster Linie als Stimmungsträger fungieren.

(38) Pažadinti užmigusį laiką (3/2005, 26) (39) Lietuvos totorių rankraščiai – gyva šios tautos kultūros istorija (3/2005, 32) (40) Vilniaus universiteto vargai vokiečių okupacijos metais (3/2005, 34) (41) Pirmieji Universiteto akademinio choro žingsniai (7/2007,33) (42) Atgyja kelių šimtų metų piešiniai (2/2005, 20) (43) Universiteto požemių paslapčių šydą pravėrus (9/2008, 36)

5. SCHLUSSBEMERKUNGEN UND FORSCHUNGSPERSPEKTIVEN Die vorliegende Untersuchung zeigt, dass zwischen den deutschen und litauischen Überschriften viele Unterschiede bestehen. Sowohl strukturell, funktional als auch in sprachlich-semantischer Hinsicht stehen deutsche Überschriften den journalistischen viel näher als litauische. Warum? Wie jede Zeitung oder Zeitschrift hat auch jedes populärwissenschaftliche Ma- gazin seinen eigenen Stil, der sich nicht nur in der Sprache, sondern auch in der formalen Gestaltung manifestiert. Da die Struktur der Überschriften von der Redaktion des jeweiligen Magazins festgelegt wird, könnte man die mehrteiligen Überschriften von RUBIN einerseits und die einteiligen Überschriften in SPECTRUM andererseits als rein zeitschriftenspezifische Merkmale betrachten. Stellt man diese strukturellen Unterschiede jedoch in einen breiteren Kontext, so lassen sich daran einige wichtige Tendenzen erkennen. Die Untersuchungen von Brandt (1991, 220) und Burger (2005, 116) zeigen, dass zweiteilige Überschriften, .d h. Kombinationen von Schlagzeile mit einer Ober- und/oder Unterzeile in allen Zeitungstypen sehr verbreitet sind.79 Zieht

79 In der Untersuchung von Brand (1991, 220) sind beispielsweise 70,2 % aller Überschriften zwei- bzw. mehrteilig.

229 man auch die quantitativen Analysen der Fachtitel von Dietz (1995) und Kohrs (2010) heran, so lässt sich sagen, dass mehrteilige Überschriften im Deutschen generell sehr häufig vorkommen. Als nächster Unterschied ist der primär appellative Charakter deutscher Über- schriften zu nennen, was wiederum für alle Zeitungsüberschriften kennzeichnend ist. Sehr beliebt sind im deutschen Korpus die sog. rätselhaften Überschriften(insgesamt 38 %), die wenig oder gar keine inhaltliche Vororientierung bieten, aber aufgrund ihrer semantischen Offenheit appellativ wirken. Die untersuchten litauischen Überschriften dagegen versuchen den Leser über den Inhalt des Artikels möglichst umfassend zu informieren, sind viel sachlicher und neutraler formuliert und erfüllen vor allem die Informationsfunktion, deswegen sind sie funktional mit den wissenschaftlichen Titeln vergleichbar. Auch in sprachlich-semantischer Hinsicht scheinen deutsche Überschriften den journalistischen Strategien zu folgen. Es werden in erster Linie kreative, dramatisie- rende Metaphern benutzt, die in journalistischen Überschriften sehr beliebt sind, weil sie primär dem Leseanreiz dienen. Die einzige Gemeinsamkeit zwischen den deutschen und litauischen Überschrif- ten findet sich auf der syntaktischen Ebene. Statt Ellipsen werden in beiden Sprachen immer häufiger lange, vollständige Sätze verwendet. Das Prinzip der Ökonomie, dass früher nach Sandig (1971) für Überschriften maßgebend war, scheint vor allem im Deutschen immer weniger relevant zu sein. Zum Schluss soll betont werden, dass die ermittelten Ergebnisse nur für die untersuchten Magazine relevant sind. Bei der Zusammenstellung anderer Vergleichskor- pora könnten sie ganz anders ausfallen, deswegen wäre es eine nicht gerechtfertigte Übergeneralisierung, die festgestellten Differenzen pauschal als kulturspezifisch zu interpretieren. Dafür ist ein größeres heterogenes Textkorpus erforderlich. Es wäre beispielsweise sehr sinnvoll, durch weitere kontrastive Untersuchungen mehrerer populärwissenschaftlicher Zeitschriften der Frage nachzugehen, ob. z B. im Gebrauch von Fachwörtern, Passivkonstruktionen oder anderen Sprachmitteln eine einzel- sprachlich homogene Sprachverwendung überhaupt möglich ist.

QUELLEN Das Forschungsmagazin der Ruhr-Universität Bochum RUBIN (Jg. 2002-2010) Das Forschungsmagazin der Universitat Vilnius SPECTRUM (Jg. 2004-2010)

LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 1. N�evinskaitė,�� L. et�� al. 2007��. Mokslo�� populiarinimo poreikio analizė http://www. smm.lt/smt/docs/m_pop/Mokslo%20populiarinimo%20poreikio%20analize_ internetui.pdf (20.08.2010) 2. Portalo interviu 2009. Mokslo populiarinimas Lietuvoje: nuo problemų iki perspektyvų. 17.02.2009. http://www.technologijos.lt/n/mokslas/idomusis_

230 mokslas/straipsnis?name=straipsnis-6498 (30.09.2010) 3. Švietimo naujienos 2008. Mokslo populiarinimas – vertas pagarbos. Nr. 18 (273) http://www.sac.smm.lt/images/file/leidiniai/18%20SN%20numeris.pdf 4. Biere, B. U. 1998. Boulevardisierungstendenzen in der Wissenschaftsberichterstattung? Ein nnäherungsversuchA . In: Holly, W. / Biere, B. U. (Hg.): Medien im Wandel. Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 49-61. 5. Brand, W. 1991. Zeitungssprache heute: Überschriften. Eine Stichprobe. In: Brinker, K. (Hg.): Aspekte der Textlinguistik. (=Germanistische Linguistik; 106- 107). Hildesheim [u.a.]: Olms, 213-244. 6. Burger, H. 2005. Mediensprache. Eine Einführung in Sprache und Kommunikationsformen der Massenmedien. Berlin /New York: de Gruyter. 7. Di Meola, C. 1998. Zur Syntax und Semantik von Schlagzeilen in der deutschen Tagespresse // Muttersprache, 108, 217-231. 8. Dietz, G. 1995. Titel wissenschaftlicher Texte. Tübingen: Narr. 9. Dietz, G. 1998. Titel in wissenschaftlichen Texten. Hoffmann, L./Kalverkämper, H./Wiegand, H. E. (Hg.). Fachsprachen: ein internationales Handbuch zur Fachsprachenforschung und Terminologiewissenschaft. Halbbd. 1 (= Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft; 14.1) Berlin [u.a.]: de Gruyter, 488-493. 10. Drewer, P. 2003. Die kognitive Metapher als Werkzeug des Denkens. Zur Rolle der Analogie bei der Gewinnung und Vermittlung wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse (=Forum für Fachsprachenforschung). Tübingen: Narr. 11. Gläser, R. 1990. Fachtextsorten im Englischen. Tübingen: Narr. 12. Gnutzmann, C. 1988. Aufsatztitel in englischsprachigen Fachzeitschriften. Linguistische Strukturen und kommunikative Funktionen. Gnutzmann, C. (Hg.). Fachbezogener Fremdsprachenunterricht. Tübingen: Narr, 24-38. 13. Lenk, H. E. H. 2005. Form und Funktion von Kommentarüberschriften in deutsch-, finnisch- und englischsprachigen Tageszeitungen. In: Lenk, H. E. H./ Chesterman, A. (Hg.): Pressetextsorten im Vergleich – Contrasting text types in the press. Hildesheim [u.a.]: Olms, 159-184. 14. Kohrs, J. 2010. In der Kürze liegt die Würze? Strategien der Informationsdarbietung in deutschen und litauischen Fachtiteln. // Kalbotyra 62 (3), 58-74. 15. Kohrs, J. (im Druck): Populärwissenschaftliche Wissensvermittlung als linguistischer Gegenstand: Zur Situation in Deutschland und Litauen // Triangulum. Germanistisches Jahrbuch für Estland, Lettland und Litauen 17 (2011). 16. Köller, W. 1975. Semiotik und Metapher. Untersuchungen zur grammatischen Struktur und kommunikativen Funktion von Metaphern. Stuttgart: Metzler. 17 �iederhauser, J. 1999. Wissenschaftssprache und populärwissenschaftliche Vermittlung. Tübingen: Narr. 18. Oberhauser, S. 1993. „Nur noch 65.000 Tiefflugstunden“. Eine linguistische Beschreibung des Handlungspotentials von hard news-Überschriften in deutschen Tageszeitungen. Frankfurt (M): Lang.

231 19. Rothe, A. 1986. Der Titel: Funktionen, Formen, Geschichte. Frankfurt (M): Klostermann. 20. Sandig, B. 1971. Syntaktische Typologie der Schlagzeile: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Sprachökonomie im Zeitungsdeutsch. München: Hueber. 21. Weinrich, H. 2000. Titel für Texte. Mecke, J./Heiler, S. (Hg.). Titel, Text, Kontext: Randbezirke eines Textes; Festschrift für Arnold Rothe zum 65. Geburtstag. Berlin: Galda+Wilch, 3-15. 22. Wulff, H. I. 1979. Von der Bibliofilie zur Textgrammatik. Eine annotierte Bibliographie zum Phänomen des Titels. In: Papiere des Münsteraner Arbeitskreises für Semiotik 12, 1-128.

SANTRAUKA Mokslinis ar žurnalistinis stilius? Gretinamoji mokslo populiarinimo straipsnių pavadinimų analizė Jurgita Kohrs

Mokslo žinių pateikimas plačiajai visuomenei lengvai suprantama ir patrauklia forma Vokietijoje ir kitose šalyse jau seniai laikomas neatskiriama mokslininkų bei tyrėjų pareiga. Nors mokslo populiarinimo svarba oficialiai pripažinta ir Lietuvoje, jos visuomenė, mokslo institucijos ir patys mokslininkai mokslo žinių platinimui skiria per mažai dėmesio. Lingvistinių tyrimų šia tema Lietuvoje dar nėra. Šis straipsnis tai pirmas bandymas palyginti mokslo populiarinimo kalbines priemones vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbose. Tirta 167 vokiškų ir tiek pat lietuviškų straips- nių pavadinimų, atsitiktinai parinktų iš dviejų mokslo populiarinimo leidinių (liet. SPECTRUM, vok. RUBIN). Straipsnio tikslas – paanalizuoti pavadinimo formulavimo tendencijas vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbose ir nustatyti jų pagrindinius struktūrinius, funkcinius bei stilistinius skirtumus. Daroma išvada, kad vokiškuose pavadinimuose dominuoja žurnalistikoje papli- tusios antraščių formulavimo strategijos, o daugeliui lietuviškų pavadinimų būdin- gas dalykiškas, beveik „sausas“ stilius, del to jie daugiau primena mokslo straipsnių pavadinimus.

232 Zum Gebrauch der fremdsprachlichen Wortbildungselemente von typ Bio-, Euro- in der Deutschen und der Litauischen presse- und Mediensprache

Ernesta Račienė Philologische Fakultät, Pädagogische Universität Vilnius, 39 Studentų Str., LT-08106 Vilnius, Litauen, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The German language at the present period of its development, in the same way as the Lithuanian language, is influenced by other languages and the most general character of this influence is that of internationalisation. Compound words with certain component parts from other languages, mostly from Greek and Latin, are especially typical of the German language. Those component parts are definied as confixes. In the Lithuanian language, in turn, the number of components of non- native origin is also increasing. The article studies some tendencies in the use of compounds with confixes in both German and Lithuanian including the intercultural aspects of the uses. Key words: fremdsprachliche Wortbildungselemente, Konfix, Konfixkomposita, deutsch-litauischer interkultureller Sprachvergleich.

EINLEITUNG Sowohl Deutsch als auch Litauisch werden in der heutigen mehrsprachigen und multikulturellen Welt von vielen anderen Sprachen beeinflusst und durch die Tendenzen der Internationalisierung charakterisiert. Die Fragen der Spra- chenvielfalt im Globalisierungsprozess, der Auswirkungen von Globalisierung auf Sprachen und nationale Kulturen, Probleme der Wechselbeziehungen der Sprachen Europas, des Einflusses der englichen Sprache auf das Deutsche und andere Nationalsprachen werden zurzeit in der deutschen Sprachwissenschaft

233 mehrfach diskuttiert.80 Ähnliche Fragen stehen auch im Mittelpunkt der For- schung mehrerer Lituanisten, die besondere Aufmerksamkeit dem Problem von Entlehnungsprozessen in der litauischen Gegenwartssprache schenken.81 In der deutschen Standardsprache sind Fremdelemente von Typ bio-, euro- sehr wortbildungsaktiv, z.B.: Bio-Apfel, Bio-Baby-Lebensmittel, Bio-Baby-Nahrungs- mittel-Produzenten, Bio-Backstube, Bio-Blickfeld, Bio-Chancen, Euro-Bürokraten, Euro-Abgeordneten, Euro-Enthusiasten u. a. Im litauischen Pressediskurs ist auch die ähnliche Tendenz der häufigen Verwendung von fremdsprachlichen Wortbil- dungselementen zu beobachten. In den letzten Jahrzehnten ist in der litauischen Standardsprache überhaupt der Gebrauch von Entlehnungen aktiv geworden. Eines der charakteristischen Merkmale der litauischen Gegenwartssprache aber ist die Entlehnung nicht nur von Wörtern sondern auch von Wortbildungselementen, z.B.: aero-, agro-, astro-, audio-, auto-, avia-, bio-, eko-, ekspo-, ekspres-, elektro-, euro-, foto-, hidro-, info-, kosmo-, makro, moto-, pop-, porno-radio-, servo-, stereo-, techno-, tele-, termo-, turbo-, velo-, vibro-, video-. Ziel des vorliegenden Beitrags ist einige Gebrauchstendenzen von Bildungen mit solchen Elementen in der litauischen Sprache im interkulturellen Vergleich mit dem Deutschen vorzustellen. Die Untersuchung stellt eine Pilotstudie dar, in der die Sprache der Presse und Medien analysiert wird. Dieser Diskurs liefert zahlreiche Beispiele, weil er am schnellsten auf alle Veränderungen in der Sprache reagiert und am deutlichsten die Entwicklungstendenzen des Wortschatzes widerspiegelt. Die litauischen Belege wurden Zeitungen und Zeitschriften, den Publikation von .V Rudaitienė entnommen, auch wurden die Daten des Korpus der litauischen Gegenwartssprache82 (KLG) (Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas http://donelaitis.vdu.lt) herangezogen. Als Quelle für Beispielsätze aus der deutschen Presse wurden teilweise die Korpora der geschriebenen Sprache des Instituts für Deutsche Sprache, Mannheim (www. ids-mannheim.de) und Wortschatz-Datenbank „Wortschatzlexikon“ der Universität Leipzig (http://wortschatz.uni-leipzig) benutzt.

1. ZU DEN BEGRIFFEN KONFIX UND KONFIXKOMPOSITUM Das Konfix als Wortbildungseinheit und die damit gebildeten Wortbildungs- konstruktionen werden in der germanistischen Sprachwissenschaft seit den 80er Jahren intensiv untersucht. In der deutschen Sprachwissenschaft werden Bildungen

80 Vgl. Duden - Publikationen zum Thema Deutsch: Die deutsche Sprache zur Jahrtausendwen- de. Sprachkultur oder Sprachverfall? Hrsg. K. M. Eichhoff-Cyrus und R. Hoberg. Mannheim, Leipzig,Wien, Zürich: Dudenverlag, 2000, Deutsch-Englisch-Europäisch. Impulse für eine neue Sprachpolitik. Hrsg. R. Hoberg. Mannheim, Leipzig,Wien, Zürich: Dudenverlag, 2002, Sprache und Politik. Deutsch im demokratischen Staat. Hrsg. J. Kilian. Mannheim, Leipzig,Wien, Zürich: Dudenverlag, 2005 u.a. 81 Vgl. Publikationen von V. Rudaitienė, J. Girčienė, L. Vaicekauskienė u.a. 82 Im Weiteren wird im Text die Abkürzung KLG verwendet

234 von Typ Bioladen als Konfixkomposita betrachtet: „Konfixe sind fremdsprachliche nicht wortfähige Einheiten, die eine lexikalische Bedeutung tragen wie Stämme, aber im Unterschied zu diesen ausschließlich in komplexen Wörtern auftreten (-gen in fotogen, -thek in Videothek, bio- in Bioladen, bioaktiv)“ (Duden. Die Grammatik, 2005, 658). Konfixe oder Kombineme sind bedeutungstragende Einheiten, die nur gebunden vorkommen, wie bio-, -therm, -drom. Zusammen mit einem Wort oder mit einem weiteren Konfix bilden sie Komposita (Bioladen, Thermostat), mit einem Suffix Derivate (Thermik, thermisch), mit Präfixen können sich Konfixe nicht verbinden (vgl. Fleischer/Barz , 1995, 25, Eichinger, 2000, 53, Lohde, 2006,18). E. Donalies fasst das Konfix auch als eine Einheit der deutschen Wortbildung auf und zählt zu den kompositionsgliedfähigen Konfixen anthrop-, bio-, geo-, therm-, elektr- u.a. (vgl. Donalies, 2005, 21-23, 86). Man unterscheidet folgende Modelle der substantivischen Konfixkomposita: Konfix + Substantiv (Ökosteuer, Biojoghurt), Substantiv+Konfix (Filmothek, Aquadrom), Konfix+Konfix (Autogramm, Telethek) (vgl. Donalies, 2005, 74, Duden. Die Grammatik, 2005, 692). Die Bildung von Konfixkomposita ist gegenwärtig in vielen europäischen Spra- chen ein äußerst produktives Wortbildungsverfahren. Steigende Produktivität der Konfixkomposition wird auch im Deutschen festgestellt: „ Während native Konfixe wortbildungsinaktive historische Relikte darstellen […], machen fremdsprachliche Konfixkomposita einen zentralen Bereich produktiver Kompositionstypen aus, vgl. Komposita mit audio-, bio-, öko-, tele-, mono-, poly, -thek, -gramm u.a.“( Duden. Die Grammatik, 2005, 692). Besonders verbreitet sind die Konfixkomposita in der deutschen Pressesprache, z. B.: Die Europarlamentarier wollen außerdem nicht hinnehmen, dass der Rat über die Datenspeicherung allein entscheiden will - ohne Mitwirkung des Parlaments Sp 2005. Eine Umfrage von Eurobarometer zeigte, daß sich nur 35 Prozent der Europäer für einen Beitritt der Türkei aussprechen W 2005. Wenn diese Linie beibehalten wird, dürfte sich die Zeit bis zumEuro- Beitritt hinauszögern Fra 2005. Hofläden und Marktständen von direkt vermarktenden Erzeugern bleiben die Kunden weg, die jagen - nach dem Motto „Geiz ist auch in der Biowelt geil“ – in den Bio-Supermärkten jedem Cent hinterher Fra 2005. Seit mehr als drei Jahren koche er sein Süppchen nach politisch korrekten Rezepten, sagt der Bio-Apostel, der keiner sein will Fr 2005. In einer „Bio-Woche“ bot der Discounter kürzlich über 30 Artikel an - darunter Bio-Cappuccino, Bio-Wurst und Bio-Weißwein BO 2005. Wörter mit fremdsprachlichen Wortbildungselementen werden auch in der litauischen Sprache verwendet und von litauischen Sprachwissenschaftlern untersucht. Fremdsprachliche Wortbildungselemente werden in der litauischen Linguistik unterschiedlich betrachtet und terminologisch bezeichnet – als Komponenten der zusammengesetzten Wörter, als Präfixe, als Präfixoide, als präpositionale fremdsprachliche Komponenten (vgl. Rudaitienė, 2001, 94-107). In Anlehnung an internationale und germanistische Forschung wird hier der Vorschlag gemacht, den Terminus Konfix zu verwenden und die Bildungen des Typsbioenergija, euroderybininkas als Konfixkomposita zu betrachten.

235 2. ZU FAKTOREN DER VERBREITUNG VON FREMDSPRACHLICHEN WORTBILDUNGSELEMENTEN (KONFIXEN) Wie bereits oben erwähnt, sind Wörter mit fremdsprachlichen Wortbildungsele- menten keine neue Erscheinung im Gegenwartslitauischen. Das Neue besteht laut V. Rudaitienė aber darin, dass ihre Zahl in der litauischen Gegenwartssprache besonders seit den 90er Jahren immer zunimmt, und sie verdrängen die für das Litauische üb- lichen Verbindungen aus zwei Wörtern, wie z. B.: audioaparatūra – garso aparatūra, audioįrašas – garso įrašas, audiovizualinės visuomenės informavimo priemonės – garso ir vaizdo visuomenės informavimo priemonės, euroderybininkas – derybininkas su Europos Sąjunga (vgl. Rudaitienė, 2001). Die Verbreitung von fremdsprachlichen Wortbildungselementen im heutigen Litauisch wird von mehreren extralinguistischen und intralinguistischen Faktoren bedingt. Traditionelle Lebensweise verändet sich, neue Technologien entstehen. Der Bedarf an internationalen Termini für die wissenschaftliche Kommunikation und Zusammenarbeit ist groß. Neue Termini werden mit entlehnten Elementen aus klassischen Sprachen gebildet oder als schon fertige Fachbegriffe übernommen. Wenn komplexe Begriffe benannt werden sollen, bildet man unter dem Einfluss der Tendenz zur Sprachökonomie Konfixkomposita. Ein Kompositum bedeutet auch eine höhere Abstrahierungsstufe im Vergleich zu Wortverbindung. Wissenschaftliche Termini dringen aktiv in andere funktionale Stile der litauischen Gegenwartssprache. Die Verbreitung der fremdsprachlichen Wortbil- dungselemente in der litauischen Standardsprache und besonders im litauischen Pressediskurs wird durch Integrations- und Globalisierungsprozesse, intensive Sprachkontakte besonders mit dem Englischen, Übersetzungen der wissenschaftlichen und der schönen Literatur, andere internationale Kontakte gefördert. So wird der Gebrauch von Konfixen nicht nur für die Bildung der Termini charakteristisch, sondern auch auf die Wortbildung der Standardsprache übertragen, z.B. europarlamentaras (135 Verwendungsfälle im Publizistikteil des KLG), bioenergija (13 Verwendungsfälle im Publizistikteil des KLG), agroturizmas (16 Verwendungsfälle im Publizistikteil des KLG) u.a. Dabei spielt der Einfluss der englischen Sprache besonders große Rolle – bei Sprachkontakten werden bestimmte Wortbildungs- modelle aktiv, es kommt zu der Entlehnung der Wortbildungsmodelle, darunter auch der Konfixkomposition. In der deutschen Sprache entstehen aus ähnlichen Gründen zahlreiche Neologis- men und Okkasionalismen, die als Konfixkomposita typisiert werden.

236 3. EINIGE GEBRAUCHSTENDENZEN VON KONFIXKOMPOSITA IM DEUTSCH - LITAUISCHEN VERGLEICH In der deutschen Sprache ist das Modell Konfix-Substantiv-Komposita vital und sehr aktiv, deswegen sind die Verbindungen Konfix+Fremdwort/Internationalismus sehr häufig, .z B.: Agro-Experte Hb 2006, Agro-Terroristen Tg 2005, Bio-Bank Kn 2005, Bio-Café Gea 2006, Euro-Enthusiasten W 2005 , Info-Adressen SPO 2005, Pop-Kultur Hb 2006, Aviapartner W 2005. Euro-Finanzminister sprechen über Erweiterung der Euro-Zone Die Finanzmi- nister der Staaten mit der Euro- Währung kommen heute in Luxemburg zusammen, um über die Erweiterung des gemeinsamen Währungsgebietes zu sprechen SüdO 2006. In der litauischen Sprache steigt auch die Anzahl von Komposita, in denen Kon- fixe in Erstgliedposition (als erste Komponente) sich mit Fremdwörtern, meistens Internationalismen, verbinden. Das sind vorwiegend Entlehnungen, die auch in verschiedenen anderen Sprachen verwendet werden. Z.B.: agrofirma LR (SA) 2010 , agroturizmas LŽ 2005, aviadispetčeris LR (TVA) 2009, aviakompanija LŽ 2010, bioenergetika LŽ 2000, biotualetas LR (RV) 2008, ekoprodukcija LA 2001, ekoturizmas LR (GB) 2000, euroentuziastas,-ė LA 1999, infotekstas LR (GB) 2009, popmuzika LR 1999, pornoelementas LŽ 2009 u.a. Kuo jis verčiasi, geriausiai apibūdina žodžiai “bioenergetika” ir “aiškiaregystė” KD 2005; Juodasis skaitliukas sukasi vis greičiau”, – rašo europarlamentaras BER 2007; Nes tokie dalykai kaip pornoindustrija visada buvo, yra ir bus ateityje LR 2001. Im Deutschen sind Konfix-Konfix-Komposita häufig vertreten, dieses Modell ist aktiv, z.B.: Anthroposoph, Aquadrom, Astronaut, Biograf, Chronometer, Genozid. Hier sind, wie schon oben gesagt, zahlreiche Neologismen und Okkasionalismen möglich, z.B.: Was bitteschön ist ein Psychonaut? SZ 2006; Auch der kleine Junge Raz möchte um jeden Preis der Welt Psychonaut werden und meldet sich freiwillig zum Training bei Morceau „Morry“ Oleander, einem Coach mit den Allüren eines zackigen Generals SZ 2006; Im wörtlichen und im übertragenen Sinn, denn der Erpresser „Juggernaut“ (was soviel wie „Moloch“ bedeutet), hat sieben Zeitbomben an Bord plaziert Fra 2005; Der erste Taikonaut Yang Liwei, heute ein Volksheld, verbrachte die 21 Stunden seines Fluges im Raumanzug, sitzend in seiner Kapsel Sp 2005; Am Wochenende finden auf dem Minidrom Köditz die Wertungsläufe zur Deutschen Meisterschaft der Formel 1 der Großmodelle statt Frp 2005; Tempodrom W 2005; Mehr als 6000 Tänzerinnen und Tänzer präsentieren ihre Körper und Kostüme vom 25. bis 28. Februar in den Straßen Rios und beim traditionellen Wettbewerb der Tanzschulen im Sambadrom W 2006; Nächstes Mal spiele ich ja vielleicht im Videodrom BO 2006; Was Lewis in eher schlichter Satin-Jeans mit T-Shirt in Hamburgs KDW, dem ehemaligen Phonodrom, zu bieten hatte, schien von schlechten Eltern W 2005. In der litauischen Sprache verbreiten sich auch entlehnte Konfix-Konfix-Kom- posita, z.B. : aeronautika LR 2006, autostrada LA 2009, biocidas LA 1999, ekomobilis

237 LA 2010, elektrobusas LA 2005, eurokratas R 2010, kinoteka LA 2005, motodromas LR (SA) 2008, telekomas LŽ 2010, velomobilis LA 1999, videofilas MD 1998, videoteka LR 2009. Solche Entlehnungen werden in das grammatische System des Litauischen integriert, indem sie die für litauische Sprache üblichen Endungen erhalten. Im Deutschen sind Hybridkomposita von Typ Konfix+natives Substantiv sehr produktiv. In der Presse- und Mediensprache treten sie in Form der sogn. Binde- strichkomposita auf, z.B.: Aero-Bedienoberfläche S1 2006, Aero-Darstellung S1 2006, Agro-Sparte Hb 2006, Auto-Abenteuer Hb 2005, Auto-Abend Ab 2005, Bio-Abfall Fra 2005, Bio-Aufkleber WO 2006;Euro-Abgeordneten jetzt gut beraten, jegliche Nebentätig- keiten einzustellen BO 2005; Der aktuelle Film heißt „Euro-Busen“ und handelt von vier jungen Damen, die es mit der Vereinigung sehr ernst meinen Sp 2005; Turbo-Baureihe, diesmal schon mit 300 PS Sp 2005; Techno-Ereignis groß gemacht Sp 2005. Ähnliche Wortbildungstendenz läßt sich auch im Litauischen beobachten, z.B. agromiškas LA 2007, audiogrotuvas LA 1999, autoverslininkas,-ė LA 1996, biokuras LA 2009, biolaukas LŽ 1999, euroaugalas LA 1998, euroderybininkas, -ė LA 1999, info- pasaulis VN 1999, makrodalelė LR 1997, mikrogyvenimas LR (S) 1999, technoaudinys LR (GB) 1999, technonaktis LR(S) 2005. Konfixe in Erstgliedposition (als erste Komponente) neigen im Deutschen zur Verselbständigung, sie werden als selbständige Kurzwörter verwendet. In solchen Fällen haben das Kurzwort und das gleichlautende Konfix unterschiedliche Bedeu- tungen, „denn das Kurzwort übernimmt die lexikalische Bedeutung seiner jeweiligen Vollform“ (vgl. DUDEN-Grammatik, 2005, S. 692-693). Z.B : • Audio (Audiogerät)( Audio mit Dolby Digital 7.1 Surround Sound) • Auto (Automobil) • Euro ( Europa: Eurokonzern, Euro Währungsbezeichnung aus europäische Währungseinheit) • Info (Information) „Die Info habe ich per Telegramm erhalten - es kam sehr unerwartet Ab 2005. • Porno (Pornographie) In dem ganzen Film fällt nur ein richtiger Satz, der Rest ist Gemurmel, Gesang und Porno W 2005. • Pop (Popmusik) Dort spielen fünf junge Musiker lauten iranischen Pop Fra 2005. • Stereo (stereophon) Stereo hören ist nicht out“, sagt der Geschäftsführer eines norddeutschen media marktes Hb 2005. • Mikro (Mikrofon) Auf meiner ersten Party musste ich zwei Stunden warten, bis sich der erste Gast ans Mikro getraut hat”, erzählt Ron BO 2005. • Super (positiv bewertend) “Super” seufzte dann auch jemand genußvoll aus dem Publikum Ab 2005. Die gleiche Tendenz kann man im Litauischen (besonders in der jugendsprachli- chen Kommunikation) feststellen, was durch folgende litauische Beispiele illustriert werden kann: • audio (audioaparatūra, audiokasetė, audiomagnetofonas)

238 • auto (automobilis) • euro (Europa; aber: euras als Währungsbezeichnung) • info (informacija, informacinis,-ė) • Porno (pornografija, pornografinis, -ė) • Pop ( popmuzika) • Stereo (stereofonija, stereofoninis,-ė, stereoskopas, stereoskopinis,-ė) • Turbo (turbokopmpresorius) • Video (videoaparatūra, videomagnetofonas, videoprograma) • Super (positiv bewertend)

SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN Pressediskurs spiegelt am deutlichsten die Entwicklungstendenzen des Wortschat- zes wider und kann zahlreiche Beispiele für die Veranschaulichung der sprachlichen Internationalisierungs- und Globalisierungstendenzen liefern. In beiden verglichenen Sprachen steigt die Produktivität der Wortbildung mit fremdsprachlichen Wort- bildungselementen. Diese neuen Bildungen sind sehr zahlreich in der Presse- und Mediensprache vertreten. Die vorliegende Pilotstudie zeigt ähnliche Gebrauchsten- denzen der Konfixkomposita im Deutschen und im Litauischen: 1. In der deutschen Sprache ist das Modell Konfix-Substantiv-Komposita vital und sehr aktiv, deswegen sind die Verbindungen Konfix+Fremdwort/Internationalismus sehr häufig. In der litauischen Sprache steigt auch die Anzahl von Komposita, in denen Konfixe in Erstgliedposition (als erste Komponente) sich mit Fremdwörtern, meistens Internationalismen, verbinden. 2. Im Deutschen zeichnen sich Konfix-Konfix-Komposita durch besondere Pro- duktivität aus, es entsteht so eine Vielzahl von Neologismen und Okkasionalismen. Im Litauischen verbreiten sich ebenso entlehnte Konfix-Konfix-Komposita. 3. In der deutschen und der litauischen Sprache werden die Bildungsmöglichkeiten der Hybridkomposita von Typ Konfix+natives Substantiv intensiv genutzt. 4. Konfixe in Erstgliedposition (als erste Komponente der Konfixkomposita) neigen in beiden Sprachen zur Verselbständigung, sie werden als selbständige Kurz- wörter verwendet.

LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 1. Girčienė, J. 2004. Skoliniai ir bendrinė kalba. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. 2. Girčienė, J. 2005. Naujųjų skolinių atitikmenys: struktūra ir vartosena. Serija Opera Linguistica Lithuanica 8, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. 3. Rudaitienė V., Vitkauskas V. 1998. Vakarų kalbų naujieji skoliniai. Vilnius: Enciklopedija. 4. Rudaitienė, V. 2000. Tarptautinių žodžių vartojimo polinkiai // Lituanistica, 1 / 2 (41-42), S. 65-71.

239 5. Rudaitienė, V. 2001. Žodžiai su nelietuviškos kilmės prepoziciniais dėmenimis // Lituanistika, 2 (46), S. 94-107. 6. Vaicekauskienė, L. 2007. Naujieji lietuvių kalbos svetimžodžiai: kalbos politika ir vartosena, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla,. 7. Donalies, E. 2005. Die Wortbildung des Deutschen. Ein Überblick. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. 8. Duden. Die Grammatik. 7., völlig neu erarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. 2005. Mannheim, Leipzig, Wien, Zürich: Dudenverlag. 9. Eichhoff-Cyrus, K. M., Hoberg, R. (Hrsg.) 2000. Die deutsche Sprache zur Jahrtausendwende. Sprachkultur oder Sprachverfall? Mannheim, Leipzig,Wien, Zürich: Dudenverlag. 10. Eichinger, L. 2000. Deutsche Wortbildung. Eine Einführung. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. 11. Fleischer, W., Barz. I. 1995. Wortbildung der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. 12. Hoberg, R. (Hrsg. ) 2002. Deutsch-Englisch-Europäisch. Impulse für eine neue Sprachpolitik. Mannheim, Leipzig, Wien, Zürich: Dudenverlag. 13. Kilian, J. (Hrsg.) 2005. Sprache und Politik. Deutsch im demokratischen Staat. Mannheim, Leipzig, Wien, Zürich: Dudenverlag. 14. Lohde, M. 2006. Wortbildung des modernen Deutschen – ein Lehr- und Übungsbuch. Tübingen: Narr Francke Attempto Verlag.

ABKÜRZUNGSVERZEICHNIS DER QUELLEN BER – www.bernardinai.lt KD – Kauno diena. LA – Lietuvos aidas. LR – Lietuvos rytas. LR(GB) – Lietuvos ryto priedas ”Gyvenimo būdas”. LR(RV) – Lietuvos ryto priedas ”Rytai-vakarai”. LR(SA) – Lietuvos ryto priedas ”Sporto arena”. LR(S) - Lietuvos ryto priedas ”Stilius”. LR(TVA) – Lietuvos ryto priedas ”TV antena”. LŽ – Lietuvos žinios. MD – 7 meno dienos. Ab - abendblatt.de BO - berlinonline.de Fra - fr-aktuell.de Frp - frankenpost.de Gea - gea.de Hb - handelsblatt.com Kn - kn-online.de S1- sat1.de Sp - Der Spiegel. SpO – Der Spiegel Online.

240 SüdO - Süddeutsche Online. SZ – Süddeutsche Zeitung. W – Die Welt. WO – Die Welt Online.

Santrauka Apie svetimų kalbų žodžių darybos elementų vartojimą vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbose Ernesta Račienė

Vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbos dabartiniame raidos etape yra veikiamos kitų kalbų, joms būdingi internacionalizavimo procesai. Vokiečių kalboje labai aktyviai vartojami sudurtiniai žodžiai su svetimų kalbų komponentais, dažnai kilusiais iš graikų ir lo- tynų kalbų. Šie dėmenys apibrėžiami kaip konfiksai. Lietuvių kalboje taip pat nuolat daugėja dūrinių su nelietuviškos kilmės komponentais. Straipsnyje nagrinėjamos ir tarpkultūriniu aspektu gretinamos kai kurios sudurtinių žodžių su konfiksais vartosenos tendencijos vokiečių ir lietuvių spaudos kalbose.

241 Vokiečių kalbos veiksmažodžių abstraktų vertimo polinkiai

Sigita Stankevičienė Kauno technologijos universitetas, Gedimino gt. 43-204, 44240 Kaunas, Lietuva, [email protected]

Santrauka Straipsnyje aptariami dalykiniams tekstams vokiečių kalba būdingų veiksmažodžių abstraktų vertimo polinkiai ir jų vertimo kokybė norminio ekvivalentiškumo požiūriu, darant prielaidą, kad originalo daiktavardinis stilius gali turėti įtakos vertimui. Nusta- tyta, kad veiksmažodžių abstraktus į lietuvių kalbą linkstama versti veiksmažodinėmis formomis, daugiausiai padalyviais, o pasitaikančios kalbos klaidos aiškintinos ne originalo kalbos poveikiu, o gimtosios kalbos kultūros stoka. Raktiniai žodžiai: veiksmažodžių abstraktai, vertimo polinkiai, norminis ekvivalentiškumas, interferencija.

ĮVADINĖS PASTABOS Vertėjas visada yra tarp dviejų priešybių: viena vertus, turi kuo adekvačiau per- teikti tekstą, kiek įmanoma nenutolti nuo originalo kalbos struktūrų, kita vertus, išvengti pažodiškumo, kurti gyvą, „skaitomą“ tekstą. Šią prieštarą vertimo teoretikas W. Willsas (1991, 3) yra apibūdinęs kaip asimiliacinį ir distancinį vertėjo santykį su verčiamu tekstu. Asimiliacija, atsirandanti dėl originalo kalbos įtakos, esanti reflek- siška, nesąmoninga, o norint atsiplėšti nuo originalo visada reikia dėti sąmoningų pastangų. Todėl versti reikia ne žodžius, o turinį (P. Kussmaulio žodžiais tariant, semantinių požymių telkinius), nes tik abstrahavimas leidžiantis atskirti turinį nuo originalo kalbos formos ir „supilti“ jį į kitokią – vertimo kalbos – formą (plg. Kus- smaul, 1995, 32–33). Taip išvengiama dažnos vertimų ydos – pažodiškumo, vertimo kalbai nebūdingos raiškos. Šiame straipsnyje aptariami dalykiniams tekstams vokiečių kalba itin būdingų veiksmažodžių abstraktų vertimo polinkiai, darant prielaidą, kad originalo daiktavardinis stilius gali turėti įtakos vertimo teksto struktūroms. Siekta panagrinėti, ar verčiant abstraktus pasireiškia kalbinė interferencija. Šiuo atveju tikėtina gramatinė interferencija, aptariama ne tik vertimo mokslo veikaluose, bet ir kalbų kontaktus ir bilingvizmą nagrinėjančiuose darbuose.

242 1. TYRIMO TIKSLAS IR EMPIRINĖ MEDŽIAGA Žvalgomojo tyrimo tikslas dvejopas – nustatyti vokiečių kalbos techniniuose tekstuose vartojamų veiksmažodžių abstraktų vertimo į lietuvių kalbą polinkius ir drauge aptarti jų vertimo kokybę norminio ekvivalentiškumo požiūriu, t. y. panagri- nėti galimą originalo teksto struktūrų įtaką vertimo teksto struktūroms ir jos prie- žastis. Veiksmažodžių abstraktų vertimo polinkiai nagrinėjami remiantis lingvistinės vertimo teorijos kategorijomis. Norminis ekvivalentiškumas dar siejamas ir su kalbų kontaktų, kalbinės interferencijos reiškiniais. Tyrimo objektas – vokiečių kalbos veiksmažodžių abstraktai techniniuose tekstuose ir jų atitikmenys lietuviškuose verstiniuose tekstuose. Iš veiksmažodžių abstraktų daugiausiai dėmesio skiriama veiksmažodinei konversijai ir vediniams, ypač priesagos –ung, kaip prototipinėms veiksmų pavadinimų (nomina actionis) raiškos formoms vokiečių kalboje. Didžiąją dalį veiksmažodžių abstraktų vokiškuose techniniuose tekstuose ir sudaro minėtieji dariniai, kuriais nusakomi veiksmai ir procesai. Tiriamąją medžiagą sudaro po 200 sakinių originalo ir vertimo kalbomis. Pavyzdžiai rinkti iš techninių tekstų, kuriuos galima priskirti išorinei dalykinei komunikacijai (adresantai – specialistai, adresatai – nespecialistai). Tai devynios vokiečių gamintojų AEG, Braun, Miele buities prietaisų (kavavirės, gruzdintuvės, maisto produktų džiovintuvo, troškintuvo, lygintuvo, sulčiaspaudės, kokteilių plaktuvo, kraujospūdžio matuoklio, skalbyklės) instrukcijos ir parankinė knyga (Günther, H. (2001). Dieseldiagnose: Fehlersuche an modernen Dieselmotoren. Würzburg: Vogel Buchverlag; Günther, H. (2007). Dyzelinių variklių diagnostika: automobilių serviso vadovas / vert. S. Slavinskas. Kaunas: „Smaltijos“ leidykla). Remiantis Susanne Göpferich (1992, 194; 1998, 548) sudaryta gamtos mokslų ir technikos tekstų klasifikacija, šie tekstai laikyti didaktiniais-instrukciniais: tai žmogaus ir technikos tarpusavio sąveikos (dvikrypčiai, praktiniai) tekstai, skirti platesniam adresatų ratui, jų paskirtis – žinių sklaida praktinio taikymo reikmėms. Todėl šių tekstų specializacijos ir abstrakcijos laipsnis kiek mažesnis nei tekstų, priskiriamų vidinei dalykinei komunikacijai, jiems būdingas didesnis raiškos prie- monių įvairavimas.

2. VEIKSMAŽODŽIŲ ABSTRAKTAI VOKIEČIŲ IR LIETUVIŲ KALBOJE Veiksmažodžių abstraktai arba veiksmų pavadinimai (nomina actionis) reiškia veiksmą arba būseną, o pamatiniu veiksmažodžiu pasakytas veiksmas abstrahuo- jamas, atskiriamas nuo konkretaus atlikėjo (LKE, 1999, 14). Tradiciškai aptariami gramatikos ir žodžių darybos darbuose. Gretinamose kalbose padaromi skirtingais būdais: vokiečių kalboje – priesaginės vedybos, vidinės derivacijos arba konversijos būdu (Fleischer ir Barz, 1995), o lietuvių – priesaginės ir galūninės vedybos būdais (DLKG, 2006, 94; LKE, 1999, 130). Nors tiek vokiečių, tiek lietuvių kalboje veiksmų

243 pavadinimams darytis turimas gausus darybos priemonių inventorius, tačiau darių formantų skaičius ribotas. Lietuvių kalbos normos klausimus nagrinėjančiuose darbuose dar aptariamos ir abstraktų vartosenos klaidos, kylančios dėl svetimų kalbų ar verstinės literatūros įta- kos: daugiskaitos vartojimas vietoj vienaskaitos (Kasperavičienė, 2006; Mikelionienė, 2007), abstraktų vartojimas su laiką reiškiančiais prielinksniais (KP2, 2003, 74–75; 82; Miliūnaitė, 2003, 21–22). Taip pat siejama su abstraktų konkretėjimu, leksikalizacija. Galima daryti prielaidą, kad šių klaidų daugiau pasitaiko vertimuose. Gretinamųjų veiksmų pavadinimų tyrimų vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbose yra atlikusi R. Labanauskaitė (2001, 2004). Ištyrusi sudaiktavardėjusios bendraties atitikmenis lietuvių kalboje, R. Labanauskaitė nustatė, kad lietuvių kalboje jai artimiausi veiks- mažodiniai daiktavardžiai su priesaga ‑imas/‑ymas (Labanauskaitė, 2001). Sisteminiu požiūriu gretinant vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbų veiksmažodžių abstraktus galima nustatyti darybos būdų ir formantų darumo skirtybes. Tačiau vertimo teorijos ir praktikos požiūriu šie skirtumai yra menkos aiškinamosios ir taikomosios vertės, nes gretinant sistemiškai visai ar tik iš dalies atsižvelgiama į kontekstą, o vertimo vienetas yra didesnis nei vienas žodis – sakinys ir tekstas. Todėl analizuojant veiksmažodžių abstraktų vertimą svarbesnės nei sisteminės jų ypatybės yra jų funkcija sakinyje, t. y. kokiuose junginiuose jie vartojami ir kokia sakinio dalimi eina. Tad tiriamoji medžiaga pirmiausia suskirstyta į dvi stambias grupes: 1) veiksmažodžio abstraktas įeina į prielinksninio junginio, einančio aplin- kybe, sudėtį (158 pavyzdžiai); 2) veiksmažodžio abstraktas sakinyje vartojamas be prielinksnio ir savarankiškai eina sakinio dalimi – veiksniu, papildiniu, predikatyvu ar priedėliu (42 pavyzdžiai). Iš veiksmažodžių išvestų daiktavardžių su prielinksniais konstrukcijos vokiečių dalykinėje kalboje laikytinos šalutinių sakinių sintaksiniais sinonimais: trans- formuojant į šalutinį sakinį, veiksmažodinis daiktavardis virsta veiksmažodžiu, einančiu tariniu, o prielinksniu išreikštą semantinį ryšį žymi prijungiamojo sakinio jungtukas. Antra vertus, tokių junginių semantika interpretuojama laisviau, vienu metu gali būti aktualizuojamos kelios reikšmės (plg. Braun, 1987, 123–124). E. Kontutytė (2002), tyrusi kondensuotą aplinkybių raišką ekonominiuose tekstuose vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbomis, nustatė, kad net 79 proc. vokiškuose tekstuose vartojamų aplinkybių reiškiamos prielinksninėmis daiktavardžių konstrukcijomis. Šie duomenys ir abstraktų pasiskirstymo žvalgomojo tyrimo medžiagoje skaitiniai duomenys (prielinksniniai junginiai sudaro 79 proc. visų pavyzdžių) atspindi abstraktų vartojimo techniniuose tekstuose polinkius, tai aiškus daiktavardinio stiliaus, kuriame šalutinius sakinius keičia jų sintaksinis sinonimas – prielinksninės konstrukcijos, požymis.

244 3. PRIELINKSNIŲ JUNGINIŲ SU VEIKSMAŽODŽIŲ ABSTRAKTAIS VERTIMO POLINKIAI Verčiant šio tipo junginius į lietuvių kalbą neišvengiama transpozicija (kalbos dalies kaita) ir transformacija (sintaksinė transformacija ir sakinio dalių kaita): jie verčiami padalyviu (108), bendratimi (16), pusdalyviu (11), dalyviu (10), asmenuo- jamu veiksmažodžiu (7), daiktavardžiu (4), prielinksnio konstrukcija (2). Padalyvinėmis konstrukcijomis į lietuvių kalbą verčiami tie prielinksnių junginiai su veiksmažodžių abstraktais, kuriais reiškiamos aplinkybės žymi veiksmą, kurio atlikėjas nesutampa su pagrindiniu sakinio veiksniu. Esamojo ir būtojo kartinio laiko padalyviai pasiskirstė tolygiai (po 54 pavyzdžius). Su laiko, sąlygos, būdo bei priemonės, priežasties, tikslo bei paskirties prielinksniais bei, vor, nach, durch, zu, für vartojami veiksmažodžių abstraktai verčiami padalyviais, o prielinksnio semantiką atitinka aplinkybės reikšmė, pvz.:

1a) laiko (pagrindinis ir antraeilis veiksmai vyksta vienu metu) vok. Beim Zerlegen und beim Zusammenbau der Düse ist auf absolute Sauberkeit zu achten. lt. Išardant ir surenkant purkštuvą reikia laikytis švaros. 1b) laiko (ankstesnis veiksmas): vok. Nach der Montage des Ventildeckels und dem Entlüften der Anlage kann der Motor gestartet werden. lt. Uždėjus vožtuvų dangtelį ir pašalinus iš sistemos orą, galima paleisti vari- klį. 1c) laiko (vėlesnis veiksmas): vok. Vor dem Auswechseln des Fahrpedalgebers müssen (...) geprüft werden. lt. Prieš keičiant akceleratoriaus padėties jutiklį reikia patikrinti (...). 2) būdo: vok. Weicht der abgelesene Wert vom Sollwert ab, kann man durch Drehen der Einstellschraube (Schlüsselweite 8 mm) am Pumpenflansch den Förderbeginn korrigieren. lt. Jei rodoma vertė skiriasi nuo kontrolinės, sukant reguliavimo sraigtą (8 mm raktu) ant siurblio flanšo, galima koreguoti įpurškimo pradžios momentą. 3) priežasties: vok. Durch das Verschließen des Ansaugrohres erhält der Motor beim Auslaufen keine Frischluft. lt. Uždarius įsiurbimo vamzdį, stabdomas variklis negauna šviežio oro. 4) tikslo: vok. Zum Löschen des Fehlerspeichers wird häufig die Spannungsversorgung des Steuergeräts bei ausgeschalteter Zündung unterbrochen oder die Reizleitung erneut auf Masse gelegt.

245 lt. Norint ištrinti įrašus gedimų atmintinėje, dažniausiai išjungus uždegimą nutraukiamas įtampos tiekimas valdymo blokui arba sužadinimo laidas vėl sujungiamas su mase.

Kuriuo – esamojo ar būtojo laiko – padalyviu verčiamas prielinksnio ir veiksma- žodžio abstrakto junginys, sprendžiama loginiu pagrindu, ne visada laiko santykį rodo prielinksnis. Pavyzdžiui, originalo sakinyje gali būti išreikštas vienalaikiškumo santykis su sąlygos ar priežasties atspalviu, o vertimo sakinyje vietoj vienalaikiškumo eksplikuotas veiksmų sekos santykis, išlaikant ir kauzalinę reikšmę:

vok. Bei Ausfall des Gebers springt der Motor nicht an. (Kai jutiklis sugedęs, variklis neužsiveda. S. S. vert.) lt. Sugedus jutikliui, variklis neužsiveda.

Pusdalyviu abstraktai verčiami tada, kai pagrindinio ir šalutinio veiksmo atlikėjai sutampa:

vok. Durch den Vergleich der beiden Spannungen ermittelt das Steuergerät die Lage der Verstellwelle. lt. Lygindamas abi įtampas valdymo blokas apskaičiuoja pavaros veleno padė- tį.

Neveikiamuoju dalyviu ar asmenuojamomis veiksmažodžio formomis abstraktas virsta tada, kai prielinksninis junginys verčiant transformuojamas į šalutinį sakinį arba pertvarkoma visa sakinio struktūra:

vok. Bei der Voreinspritzung wird nach dem Aufschlagen des Ventils der Strom abgeschaltet. lt. Pagalbinio įpurškimo metu srovė išjungiama, kai tik vožtuvas atsidaro. vok. Bei Verwendung anderer als Original Braun Ersatzteile erlischt die Garan- tie. lt. Jei naudotos neoriginalios Braun dalys, garantija nustoja galioti. vok. Bei der Aufbewahrung des Bügeleisens sollte der textile rotector immer ab- genommen sein. lt. Lygintuvą visuomet laikykite nuėmę audinio apsauginį antgalį.

Bendratimi verčiami prielinksniniai junginiai, turintys tikslo bei paskirties reikšmę:

vok. Nach dem Abschalten des Magnetventils kann die entstehende Selbstinduk- tionsspannung über die Dioden zum Aufladen des Kondensators genutzt werden.

246 lt. Išjungiant elektromagnetą, susidarančią saviindukcijos įtampą per diodus galima panaudoti kondensatoriui įkrauti.

Padalyvines aplinkybes ir kitus veiksmažodinius atitikmenis galima laikyti re- guliariais prielinksninių junginių su veiksmažodžių abstraktais, sakinyje einančių aplinkybėmis, atitikmenimis. Vertėjui parankus padalyvinių aplinkybių daugiareikš- miškumas, nes nereikia spręsti kurią iš galimų reikšmių realizuoti, kaip, tarkime, toliau pateiktame sakinyje, kur prielinksninę konstrukciją galima interpretuoti ir kaip kauzalinę, ir kaip modalinę:

vok. Durch das Einspritzen einer kleinen Kraftstoffmenge wird der Brennraum vorgewärmt und die Luftbewegung verstärkt. lt. Įpurškiant nedidelį degalų kiekį, degimo kamera sušildoma ir sustiprinamas oro judėjimas.

Minėtuose junginiuose vartojami abstraktai paprastai yra reguliarieji dariniai, ypač tai pasakytina apie sudaiktavardėjusią bendratį: prireikus iš kiekvieno veiks- mažodžio konversijos būdu galima pasidaryti veiksmo pavadinimą. Techninių tekstų nominaliniam stiliui kurti reguliarieji dariniai dažnai pasitelkiami, juolab kad be darybinės – veiksmo pavadinimo – reikšmės, turi tranzityvumo ir laiko kategorijų požymių, tad yra artimi veiksmažodžiams. Dėl šios priežasties veiksmažodžių abstraktų leksikalizacija ir terminizacija ver- čiant tėra antraeilis kriterijus po sintaksinės funkcijos. Net ir terminizuoti veiksmažo- džių abstraktai negali būti automatiškai keičiami atitinkamais lietuviškais termininiais vienetais, laikantis technikos kalbos vertimo teorijoje postuluojamo terminologinio ekvivalentiškumo principo, kai originalo kalbos terminas ne verčiamas, o pakeičiamas atitinkamu vertimo kalbos terminu (Horn-Helf, 1999, 117). Lietuvių kalbos aplinky- bių raiška neleidžia taikyti terminologinio ekvivalentiškumo principo, jis nusileidžia norminio ekvivalentiškumo (vertimo kalbos normų ir teksto žanro normų laikymosi, Horn-Helf, 1999, 127–128) primatui. Pavyzdžiui, leksikalizuotas ir terminizuotas, to- dėl apkonkretėjęs, daiktavardis Störung verčiant junginį bei Störung des Geräts negali būti keičiamas lietuviškais ekvivalentais gedimas, sutrikimas, nepažeidžiant sintaksinių normų, todėl daiktavardžio transpozicija į veiksmažodžio formą ar veiksmažodinį junginį natūrali (prietaisui sugedus, jei prietaisas sugedo ir pan.). Vertinant vertimus norminio ekvivalentiškumo požiūriu, šioje grupėje galima išskirti dviejų rūšių klaidas: padalyvio ir abstraktų naudininko. Pasitaiko padalyvio vartojimo klaidų, aiškintinų ne originalo įtaka, o kalbos kultūros stoka:

vok. Vor der ersten Benutzung bitte alle Teile des Gerätes einmal reinigen. lt. Prieš naudojantis aparatu pirmą kartą, išplaukite dalis, skirtas sultims. [:Prieš naudodamiesi ...]

247 Daiktavardžių naudininku į lietuvių kalbą buvo verčiami tik keli tikslo ir paskirties reikšmės prielinksniniai junginiai (dauguma buvo verčiami taisyklingai: bendratimi arba padalyviu norint):

vok. Bei Mercedes-Motoren sitzt in der Leitung zur Hochdruckpumpe das Abschal- tventil, das zur Notabschaltung dient. lt. „Mercedes“ variklių degalų tiekimo didelio slėgio siurbliui linijoje įrengtas išjungimo vožtuvas, skirtas avariniam variklio išjungimui.

Abstrakčiųjų veiksmažodžių naudininką paskirčiai reikšti, laikantis lietuvių kalbos normų, šiais atvejais derėtų keisti bendratimi [:(skirtas) varikliui išjungti, įvykus avarijai]. Naudininko vartojimas greičiausiai nulemtas vartosenoje įsigalėjusio junginio avarinis išjungimas – dėl derinamojo pažyminio sunkiau keisti daiktavardinį junginį padaly- viniu, tai aiškintina teksto spaudimu (plg. R. Miliūnaitės įžvalgas apie sakinio modelio spaudimą, taip pat ir abstrakčiųjų daiktavardžių vartosenai, Miliūnaitė, 2007, 74–75). Abstraktai su laiką reiškiančiais prielinksniais vor ir nach (prieš ir po) nebuvo verčiami prielinksninėmis konstrukcijomis. Tai rodo, kad vertėjams pavyko išvengti interferencijos.

4. BE PRIELINKSNIŲ VARTOJAMŲ ABSTRAKTŲ VERTIMO POLINKIAI Vokiečių kalbos veiksmažodžių abstraktai, vartojami be prielinksnio ir sakinyje einantys veiksniu, papildiniu, priedėliu ar vardine tarinio dalimi, sudaro palyginti negausią ir kartu labai heterogenišką grupę. Jie į lietuvių kalbą verčiami atitinkamais daiktavardžiais (17), bendratimi (11), dalyviu (5), asmenuojama veiksmažodžio forma (4), padalyviu (2), pusdalyviu (2), vieną kartą praleista. Vertimas abstrakčiu daiktavardžiu neretai vertintinas kaip pažodinis:

vok. (...), anschließend wird ein künstliches Ruckeln eingeleitet. lt. (...), paskui sukeliamas dirbtinis trūkčiojimas. vok. Der niedrigere Haltestrom erleichtert das schnelle Schließen des Magnetven- tils. lt. Mažesnė palaikymo srovė palengvina greitą vožtuvo uždarymą. vok. Die schnellste und aussagekräftigste Messung ist die Prüfung des Injektors- troms mit einer Stromzange. lt. Greičiausias ir informatyviausias matavimas yra purkštuvo srovės tikrinimas srovės matavimo replėmis.

Atidžiau panagrinėjus šiuos vertimus, kai kuriuos galima siūlyti keisti veiksmažo- dinės raiškos variantais, pvz.: vožtuvas greičiau uždaromas, greičiausiai ir patikimiau- siai matuojama, kai purkštuvo srovė tikrinama srovės matavimo replėmis.

248 Kai predikatyvais ar galininkiniais papildiniais, neveikiamųjų sakinių veiksniais einantys abstraktai transformuojami į bendratį, vertimo raiška esti natūralesnė, bū- dingesnė lietuvių kalbai:

vok. Wir empfehlen die Verwendung von flüssigem Frittieröl. lt. Mes rekomenduojame naudoti skystą kepimo aliejų. vok. Wird es gemäß der Gebrauchsanweisung benutzt, ist ein regelmäßiges Kali- brieren nicht notwendig. lt. Jeigu bus laikomasi naudojimosi taisyklių, iš naujo kalibruoti nereikės.

Transpozicija į veiksmažodinę formą praktiškai būtina, kai sakinyje veiksniu einantis veiksmažodžio abstraktas vartojamas su tariniu, reiškiamu neapibrėžtos reikšmės veiksmažodžiu:

vok. Sollte die Dampfentwicklung aufhören, prüfen Sie bitte den Wasserstand. lt. Jeigu nesusidaro garai, būtinas vandens papildymas. vok. Wenn Sie im Motorkabelbaum einen Zwischenstecker oder Teile entdecken, die nicht zum Originalkabelbaum gehören, können Sie sicher sein, dass eine Leistungssteigerung durchgeführt wurde. lt. Jei variklio kabelyje radote tarpinę jungtį arba detalę, kuri nepriklauso origi- naliam kabeliui, galite būti tikri, kad buvo didinta variklio galia.

APIBENDRINAMOS PASTABOS Apibendrinus analizės rezultatus, galima išskirti šiuos veiksmažodžių abstraktų vertimo į lietuvių kalbą polinkius: • Techniniame tekste su prielinksniais vartojami veiksmažodžių abstraktus, einančius aplinkybėmis, linkstama versti veiksmažodinėmis formomis, daugiausiai padalyviais. • Verčiant veiksmažodžių abstraktus prielinksniniuose junginiuose, laikomasi norminio ekvivalentiškumo principo, todėl, priešingai nei tikėtasi, nagrinė- tiems vertimams šios konstrukcijos interferencija nebūdinga. • Pasitaikančios kalbos klaidos aiškintinos greičiau gimtosios kalbos kultūros stoka, o ne originalo kalbos poveikiu. • Didesnis pažodiškumas būdingesnis veiksmažodžių abstraktų, vartojamų be prielinksnių, vertimui. Siekiant geresnės vertimo teksto kokybės, būtinos struktūrų perkūrimo procedūros.

249 LITERATŪROS SĄRAŠAS 1. Kalbos patarimai. Sintaksė: prielinksnių ir polinksnių vartojimas (=KP2). 2003. Vilnius: MELI. 2. Kasperavičienė, R. 2006. Skaičiaus formų vartojimas ir norma // Kalbos kultūra. Nr. 79. P. 217–223. 3. Kontutytė, E. 2002. Kondensation von Adverbialbestimmungen in deutschen Wirtschaftstexten. // Kalbotyra 51 (3). P. 39–47. 4. Labanauskaitė, R. 2001. Der substantivierte Infinitiv als Nomen actionis im Deutschen und Italienischen im Vergleich zu den Nomina actionis im Litauischen und im Russischen // Žmogus ir žodis. T. 3, Nr. 3. P. 84–92. 5. Labanauskaitė, R. 2004. Sudaiktavardėjusios vokiečių kalbos bendraties vertimo į lietuvių, rusų ir italų kalbas galimybės // Kalbų studijos (= Studies about Languages). Nr. 12. P. 13–20. 6. Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija (= LKE), 1999. Vilnius: MELI. 7. Mikelionienė, J. 2007. Nauji polinkiai abstrakčiųjų daiktavardžių vartosenoje // Valoda – 2007: Valoda dažadu kultūru konteksta : zinatnisko rakstu krajums XVII (= Language 2007 : Language in Various Cultural Contexts). Daugavpils: Daugavpils Universitate. P. 449–454. 8. Miliūnaitė, R. 2003. Nenorminiai gramatikos reiškiniai ir jų vertinimo ypatumai // Kalbos kultūra. Nr. 76. P. 17–29. 9. Miliūnaitė, R. 2007. Teksto spaudimas // Lituanistika. T. 53, Nr. 4 (72). P. 63–75. 10. Braun, P. 1987. Tendenzen in der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. 11. Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika (=DLKG), 2006. Vilnius: MELI. 12. Fleischer, W., Barz, I. 1995. Wortbildung der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Tübingen: Niemeyer. 13. Göpferich, S. 1992. Eine pragmatische Typologie von Fachtextsorten der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik. In: Kontrastive Fachsprachenforschung. Kontrastive Fachsprachenforschung / Baumann, K. D., Kalverkämper, H. (Hrsg.). Tübingen: Narr. S. 190–210. 14. Göpferich, S. 1998. Fachtextsorten der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik: ein Überblick. In: Fachsprachen. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Fachsprachenforschung und Terminologiewissenschaft / Hoffmann, L., Kalverkämper, H., Wiegand, H. E. (Hrsg.). Berlin/New York. Bd. 1. S. 545–556. 15. Horn-Helf, B.1999. Technisches Übersetzen in Theorie und Praxis. Tübingen: Francke. 16. Kußmaul, P. 1995. Zur Relevanz einiger Semantikmodelle für die Übersetzung. In: Sprachtransfer – Kulturtransfer / Salnikow, N. (Hrsg.). Frankfurt/M: Peter Lang. S. 31–48.

250 SUMMARY Patterns in Translation of German Deverbal Nouns Sigita Stankevičienė

The paper focuses on the translation patterns of deverbal nouns from German into Lithuanian. These translation units do not share the same syntactic functions and the frequency of use in German and Lithuanian technical texts and therefore should be discussed from the perspective of target text quality assuming that nominal style of the source text may significantly affect the quality of the target text. However, the findings of the pilot research do not prove the hypothesis and show that regular translation shifts occur in the process of translation: deverbal nouns are usually transferred into verbal forms, mostly gerunds. The main cause of the standard language inadequacies found in the target text is the lack of linguistic competence in the mother tongue, whereby direct influence of the source text plays only secondary role.

251 Zur Verbsemantik in ausgewählten mit dem lateinischen Gerundiv vergleichbaren deutschen und litauischen Konstruktionen: eine Analyse anhand juristischer Texte

Vaiva Žeimantienė Universität Vilnius, Universiteto Str. 5, LT-01513 Vilnius, Litauen, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The article deals with German and Lithuanian constructions equivalent to the Latin gerundive, i.e. constructions sein + zu-Infinitiv and zu-Partizip in German and Lithuanian constructions with the Participle of Necessity. The analysis is based on examples from a corpus of legal texts. The aim of the analysis is to establish a set of verbs frequently occurring in such constructions in Lithuanian and German legal texts and analyse them semantically. The results of the semantic analysis were used for a contrastive analysis of the verbs in German and Lithuanian. Key words: gerundive-like constructions, participle of necessity, contrastive analysis of German and Lithuanian, legal texts.

EINLEITUNG Das Augenmerk wird im vorliegenden Beitrag auf die Verwendung und Bedeutung von Verben in ausgewählten deutschen und litauischen Konstruktionen gerichtet, die mit dem lateinischen Gerundiv vergleichbar sind. Das Gerundiv(um) des La- teinischen (Partizipium Necessitatis) drückt die Eigenschaft einer in der Zukunft auszuführenden Handlung aus und hat passivisch-modale Bedeutung. Die entsprechenden passivisch-modalen Konstruktionen im Deutschen sind die Konstruktionen mit sein + zu-Infinitiv und die mit dem sog. zu-Partizip (vgl. Duden-Grammatik, 2005, 569). Im Litauischen sind es die Konstruktionen mit dem Partizip der Not- wendigkeit (reikiamybės dalyvis). Das Ziel des vorliegenden Beitrags ist, anhand von Belegen aus juristischen Texten die in den analysierten deutschen und litauischen Konstruktionen verwendeten Verben hinsichtlich ihrer Bedeutung zu beschreiben, ihre kennzeichnenden semantischen Merkmale festzuhalten und die Parallelen zwischen den beschriebenen Sprachen – Deutsch und Litauisch – aufzuzeigen. Der

252 Vergleich soll tiefere Einsichten in die Verwendung der im Folgenden beschriebenen Konstruktionen in beiden Sprachen liefern.

1. DAS LATEINISCHE GERUNDIV UND VERGLEICHBARE FORMEN IN ANDEREN SPRACHEN Das lateinische Gerundiv und mit ihm vergleichbare Formen des Deutschen, Fran- zösischen und Englischen beschreibt Glinz in „Grammatiken im Vergleich“ (1994). Die lateinischen Verbformen auf „... -ndus/-nda/-ndum“ gehören nach Glinz „zu den am vielfältigsten verwendbaren lateinischen Verbformen überhaupt, sie überspielen die Grenze zwischen Passiv und Aktiv und zwischen Partizip und Infinitiv“ (Glinz, 1994, 727). Glinz erläutert die Bedeutung des lateinischen Gerundivs und illustriert durch Beispiele seine möglichen Verwendungsweisen. Als die häufigste und bekannteste Verwendungsweise nennt Glinz diejenige „für die Kennzeichnung der Erforderlichkeit eines Handelns, für den Ausdruck eines Sollens/Müssens, so in dem bekannten Aus- spruch Catos: ‚Ceterum censeo Carthaginem delendam esse – Ich bin der Meinung, daß Karthago zu zerstören ist‘ “ (Glinz, 1994, 727). Bekannt sei nach Glinz auch der fundamentale rechtlich-ethische Grundsatz „Pacta sunt servanda – Verträge sind zu halten“ (ebd., 727). Durch Gerundiv kann „aber auch die Durchführbarkeit eines Verhaltens/Handelns signalisiert werden: „Hoc mihi molestius ferendum est quam tibi – Das ist für mich schwerer zu ertragen als für dich“ (oder: „Es kann von mir nur mit mehr Mühe und Pein ertragen werden als von dir“)“ (Glinz, 1994, 727-728). In Bezug auf Deutsch, Französisch und Englisch, die mit dem Lateinischen verglichen werden, hält Glinz fest: „Neben dem System der grammatischen Zeiten gibt es in allen drei modernen Sprachen die Möglichkeit, durch die Kombination von „haben/avoir/have“ oder „sein/être/be“ mit einem durch „zu/à/to“ angeschlos- senen Infinitiv ein Sollen„ /Müssen“, einen „Antrieb von außen“ zu signalisieren. Bei „sein/être/be“ ist gelegentlich auch die Durchführbarkeit gemeint: eine Proposition „Das ist durchaus in einem Tag zu leisten“ bedeutet „Es kann in einem Tag geleistet werden.“ (Glinz, 1994, 726) Die Gerundiv-Konstruktionen können also in den vier von Glinz analysierten Sprachen sowohl den Aspekt müssen/sollen wie auch den Aspekt können/dürfen ausdrücken, sie können aber auch zur Darstellung der Tätigkeit als solcher dienen, z. B. „in rebus gerendis ‚in den zu führenden Geschäften‘ “ (vgl. Glinz, 1994, 728). Dass die entsprechenden deutschen Konstruktionen über unterschiedliche Lesarten ver- fügen, wurde beispielsweise auch in einer umfangreichen Studie von Gelhaus (1977) nachgewiesen. Die Beschreibung der litauischen Konstruktionen mit dem Partizip der Notwendigkeit kommt in den litauischen Grammatiken nur kurz vor, und zwar aus dem Grunde, weil sie im Gegenwartslitauisch selten verwendet werden (LKG, 1971, 326). Dabei wird hinsichtlich der Verwendung des Partizips der Notwendigkeit im Litauischen gewöhnlich die Bedeutung eben der Notwendigkeit thematisiert (LKG, 1971, 347, 367). Der Aspekt der Tätigkeit als solcher wird gelegentlich aber auch

253 genannt (LKG, 1971, 347; DLKG, 2006, 355), als Beispiele dafür werden Konstruktio- nen angeführt wie: abejotinas pasakojimas ‚fragwürdige Geschichte‘, būtinas reikalas ‚notwendige Angelegenheit‘, įtartinas žmogus ‚verdächtiger Mensch‘, mirtinas pavojus ‚tödliche Gefahr‘, pageidautinas svečias ‚wünschenswerter Gast‘, stebėtinas dalykas ‚bewundernswerte Sache‘ (DLKG, 2006, 355). Die genannten litauischen Formen dieser Gruppe zeichnen sich aber durch ihre Nähe zum Adjektiv aus, sie verfügen wie Adjektive auch über eigene Einträge im Wörterbuch der litauischen Sprache (vgl. DLKŽ, 1972, 3, 94, 261, 404, 739). Dass die mit dem lateinischen Gerundiv vergleichbaren litauischen Konstruktio- nen mit dem Partizip der Notwendigkeit ebenso wie in den vier von Glinz verglichenen Sprachen über unterschiedliche Verwendungsweisen verfügen, wurde anhand von Belegen aus sprachwissenschaftlichen Arbeiten und Lehrwerken schon früher zu zeigen versucht (Žeimantienė, 2008). Im vorliegenden Beitrag sollen mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbare deutsche und litauische Konstruktionen anhand von Belegen aus juristischen Texten analysiert werden. Die juristischen Texte wurden deshalb gewählt, weil im Deutschen die Konstruktionen mit sein + zu-Infinitiv und die mit dem zu-Partizip vor allem in bürokratisch-juristischen Zusammenhängen durchaus häufig vorkommen (vgl. IDS-Grammatik, 1997, 1900). In einschlägigen Untersuchun- gen zur Verwendung der grammatischen Formen in litauischen Fachtexten wird behauptet, dass das litauische Partizip der Notwendigkeit für die Behördensprache (administracinė kalba) nicht typisch ist (Kniūkšta, 2005, 28). Die Sichtung juristischer Texte hat aber ergeben, dass auch im Litauischen Belege mit dem Partizip der Not- wendigkeit beobachtet werden. Die vorliegende sich auf Belege aus deutschen und litauischen Gerichtsbeschlüssen stützende Analyse soll klären, welche Verben bzw. von ihnen abgeleiteten Partizipien in den mit dem lateinischen Gerundiv vergleichbaren deutschen und litauischen Konstruktionen verwendet werden und welche Parallelen sich hinsichtlich ihrer Verwendung in beiden Sprachen beobachten lassen. Diese Untersuchung knüpft an einen vorherigen Beitrag an, in dem die Beschreibung der funktionalen Verwendungstypen der verglichenen Konstruktionen in deutschen und litauischen juristischen Texten vorgelegt wurde (vgl. Žeimantienė, 2011).

2. VERBEN UND IHRE VERWENDUNG IN DEN MIT DEM GERUNDIV VERGLEICHBAREN KONSTRUKTIONEN IN DEUTSCHEN UND LITAUISCHEN GERICHTSBESCHLÜSSEN Als Belegkorpus für eine vergleichende Analyse der Verben und ihrer Bedeu- tung in juristischen Texten dienten 200 deutsche und 200 litauische Beispielsätze, die entsprechende mit dem lateinischen Gerundiv vergleichbare Konstruktionen enthalten. Die Belege wurden den Gerichtsbeschlüssen in Zivilsachen entnommen, die auf der Seite des Obersten Gerichts der Republik Litauen83 und der des Bun-

83 http://www.lat.lt/Default.aspx?item=tn_liteko&lang=1 (Stand: 09.08.2010)

254 desgerichtshofs84 veröffentlicht sind. Bei der Erstellung des Belegkorpus wurde in den nach dem Zufallsprinzip ausgewählten deutschen Gerichtsbeschlüssen nach Sätzen gesucht, in denen das zu-Partizip bzw. die Konstruktion sein + zu-Infinitiv vorkommen, und in den litauischen entsprechend nach den Konstruktionen, die das Partizip der Notwendigkeit enthalten. Es wurden alle Beispielsätze der Reihe nach aufgeschrieben, bis die Zahl der Belege für beide Sprachen jeweils 200 erreichte. Die Auswertung der Belege ergab, dass sowohl im Deutschen als auch im Litau- ischen in den zu beschreibenden mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbaren Konstruktionen bestimmte Verben und von ihnen abgeleitete Partizipien auffällig oft verwendet werden. In den analysierten 200 litauischen Konstruktionen kommen dabei insgesamt 39 unterschiedliche Verben vor, in den untersuchten deutschen Belegen 85. Es gibt somit in beiden Sprachen Verben, die bei der Bildung des mit dem lateinischen Gerundiv vergleichbaren Musters produktiv und für dessen Verwendung in den analysierten juristischen Texten charakteristisch sind. Die Liste der litauischen Verben ist um mehr als die Hälfte kürzer als die entsprechende deutsche Liste. Die Tabellen 1 und 2 enthalten diejenigen deutschen und litauischen Verben, die selbst oder in Form der von ihnen gebildeten Partizipien in dem analysierten Korpus mehr als einmal beobachtet wurden; die Zahlen in Klammern geben dabei ihre Verwendungshäufigkeit an.

Tabelle 1: Deutsche Verben, die in den analysierten Konstruktionen mehr als einmal verwendet wurden ansehen (13), auslegen (11), prüfen (8), sehen (8), berücksichtigen (7), feststellen (7), zulassen (7), zurückweisen (6), ausgehen (von) (5), hinnehmen (5), ausschließen (4), einstufen (als) (4), entnehmen (4), stellen (Anforderungen) (4), anrechnen (3), beanstanden (3), behandeln (als) (3), heranziehen (3), hinweisen (3), treffen (Entscheidung / Feststellungen) (3), unterstellen (3), verstehen (3), vornehmen (3), antworten (2), anwenden (2), aufheben (2), bestimmen (2), beurteilen (2), bewilligen (2), einbeziehen (2), erkennen (2), vollstrecken (2), zahlen (2), zurechnen (2), zurückführen (auf) (2)

Tabelle 1 umfasst 35 deutsche Verben, die in dem analysierten Korpus unterschiedlich häufig verwendet werden. Die häufigsten unter ihnen sind die Verben ansehen, auslegen, prüfen, sehen, berücksichtigen, feststellen, zulassen. Tabelle 2 enthält 24 litauische Verben, von denen Partizipien der Notwendigkeit gebildet und in den untersuchten Gerichtsbeschlüssen mehr als einmal verwendet werden.

84 http://juris.bundesgerichtshof.de/cgi-bin/rechtsprechung/list.py?Gericht=bgh&Art=en&Datu m=Aktuell&Sort=12288 (Stand: 28.09.2010)

255 Tabelle 2: Litauische Verben, die in den analysierten Konstruktionen mehr als einmal verwendet werden priteisti (22) ‘auferlegen’, pažymėti (19) ‘feststellen’, dalyti (17) ‘teilen’, laikyti (kuo) (16) ‘ansehen (als)’, taikyti (13) ‘anwenden’, pripažinti (kuo) (12) ‘ansehen (als)’, skelbti (11) ‘bekannt geben’ vertinti (kaip) (11) ‘ansehen (als)’, daryti (išvadą) (8) ‘(Schlussfolgerung) ziehen’, konstatuoti (7) ‘feststellen’, leisti (7) ‘zulassen’, atlyginti (5) ‘ersetzen’, atkreipti (dėmesį) (4) ‘(Aufmerksamkeit) richten’, atmesti (4) ‘ablehnen’, kvalifikuoti (4) ‘auslegen’, priskirti (4) ‘übertragen’, įrodinėti (3) ‘beweisen’, nutraukti (2) ‘abbrechen’, palikti (2) ‘lassen’, priimti (2) ‘annehmen’, spręsti (2) ‘entscheiden’, tenkinti (prašymą) (2) ‘(Antrag) bewilligen’ traukti (2) ‘heranziehen’, vykdyti (2) ‘vollstrecken’

Aus den Tabellen 1 und 2 ist ersichtlich, dass bestimmte Verben oder von ihnen gebildete Partizipien der Notwendigkeit in den analysierten Belegen besonders oft verwendet werden. Dies ist insbesondere im Hinblick auf das Litauische hervorzu- heben. An dieser Stelle sei auf die Bemerkung von B. Wiemer zur Lexikalisierung des litauischen Partizips der Notwendigkeit hingewiesen, der die Beobachtung äußert, dass das Partizip der Notwendigkeit im Litauischen „nur von einer begrenzten Zahl von Verben bildbar“ ist (Wiemer, 2001, 68). Die durchgeführte Analyse der Belege aus Gerichtsbeschlüssen hat gezeigt, dass sich von bestimmten Verben gebildete Partizi- pien der Notwendigkeit durch besonders häufige Verwendung in den beschriebenen litauischen Konstruktionen auszeichnen. Die von den folgenden Verben abgeleiteten Partizipien der Notwendigkeit werden in dem analysierten Belegkorpus mehr als zehn Mal verwendet: priteisti ‘auferlegen’, pažymėti ‘feststellen’, dalyti ‘teilen’, laikyti (kuo) ‘ansehen als’, taikyti ‘anwenden’, pripažinti (kuo) ‘ansehen als’, skelbti ‘bekannt geben’ vertinti (kaip) ‘ansehen als’. Eine Übersicht über die acht im analysierten Korpus jeweils am häufigsten verwendeten deutschen und litauischen Verben gibt die Tabelle 3. In Klammern wird angegeben, wie häufig das entsprechende Verb bzw. ein von ihm gebildetes Partizip im Belegkorpus verwendet wurde. Aus Tabelle 3 ist ersichtlich, dass einzelne litauische Verben häufiger verwendet werden als die häufigsten deutschen. Eine vergleichende Betrachtung dieser acht in den analysierten Gerichtsbeschlüs- sen am häufigsten verwendeten deutschen und litauischen Verben, die in den mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbaren Konstruktionen verwendet werden, lässt erkennen, dass sich einige dieser Verben aus beiden Sprachen hinsichtlich ihrer Bedeutung miteinander in Beziehung bringen lassen. Von den acht in den analysierten Belegen am häufigsten verwendeten deutschen und litauischen Verben haben mindestens vier Verben in beiden Sprachen vergleichbare Bedeutungen, z. B. lt. pažymėti ‘feststellen’ vs. dt. feststellen; dt. ansehen vs. lt. laikyti ‘(an)sehen’, pripažinti ‘ansehen’, vertinti ‘ansehen’. Es ist darüber hinaus darauf hinzuweisen, dass im analysierten Belegkorpus, das Belege mit 39 verschiedenen litauischen und 85 verschiedenen deutschen Verben

256 umfasst, sich für 28 litauische Verben gleichbedeutende deutsche Verben finden (z. B., apskaičiuoti – berechnen, atlyginti – vergüten, grąžinti – zurückverweisen, priimti – zulassen, atmesti – zurückweisen, vykdyti – vollstrecken usw.). Man kann daher annehmen, dass sowohl in deutschen als auch in litauischen Gerichtsbeschlüssen in den mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbaren Konstruktionen bestimmte Verben bevorzugt verwendet werden und eine Verwendung dieser Verben in diesen Konstruktionen als für Gerichtsbeschlüsse spezifisch angesehen werden kann.

Tabelle 3: Die häufigsten Verben in den analysierten deutschen und litauischen Konstruktionen im Litauischen im Deutschen priteisti (22) ‘auferlegen’ ansehen (13) pažymėti (19) ‘feststellen’ auslegen (11) dalyti (17) ‘teilen’ prüfen (8) laikyti (16) ‘ansehen’ sehen (8) taikyti (13) ‘anwenden’ berücksichtigen (7) pripažinti (12) ‘ansehen’ feststellen (7) skelbti (11) ‘bekannt geben’ zulassen (7) vertinti (11) ‘ansehen’, ‘verstehen’ zurückweisen (6)

3. VERBEN UND IHRE BEDEUTUNGSGRUPPEN Die zu beschreibenden deutschen und litauischen Verben in den analysierten mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbaren Konstruktionen wie auch die häufigsten Verben aus den Tabellen 1 und 2 lassen sich ihrer Bedeutung nach grundsätzlich in zwei Grup- pen einteilen. Eine Gruppe umfasst dabei die Verben, die zum Ausdruck mentaler Prozesse dienen (vgl. die deutschen Verben ansehen, auslegen, prüfen, sehen, berück- sichtigen, feststellen und die litauischen Verben pažymėti ‘feststellen’, laikyti ‘ansehen’, pripažinti ‘ansehen’, vertinti ‘ansehen’, ‘verstehen’). In einer anderen Gruppe können die Verben zusammengefasst werden, mit denen verschiedene Gerichtshandlungen bezeichnet werden (im Deutschen z. B. zurückweisen, zulassen, beurteilen, vollstrecken und im Litauischen priteisti ‘auferlegen’, taikyti ‘anwenden’, atmesti ‘ablehnen’, įrodinėti ‘beweisen’ u. a.). Eine der Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen den beiden Sprachen ist, dass die in den deutschen und in den litauischen Gerichtsbeschlüssen verwendeten mit dem Ge- rundivum vergleichenden Konstruktionen häufig mithilfe der sog. Verben der kognitiven Einstellung gebildet werden, d. h. mit Verben der sinnlichen Wahrnehmung, mit denen des Sagens und Denkens sowie mit denen der subjektiven Einstellung. Solche im analysierten Belegkorpus ermittelten litauischen Verben sind atsižvelgti (į) ‘berücksichtigen’, įvertinti ‘bemessen’, konstatuoti ‘feststellen’, kvalifikuoti ‘auslegen’, laikyti (kuo) ‘ansehen als’, nagrinėti ‘klären’, pažymėti ‘feststellen’, pripažinti (kuo)

257 ‘ansehen’, priskirti ‘übertragen’, siekti ‘anstreben’, skelbti ‘bekannt geben’, vertinti ‘ansehen als’ u. a., z. B.:

(1) toks įrodymų pateikimas solch.NOM.SG.M Beweis.GEN.PL.M Vorlegen.NOM.SG.M nelaikytinas tinkamu NEG.halt.GER.NOM.SG.M geeignet.INSTR.SG.M ‘eine solche Beweisführung ist nicht für geeignet zu halten’ (2) šie sandoriai pripažintini DEM.NOM.PL.M Rechtsgeschäft.NOM.PL.M anseh.GER.NOM.PL.M apsimestiniais unecht.INSTR.PL.M ‘diese Rechtsgeschäfte sind als unecht anzusehen’

Die Gruppe der Verben der kognitiven Einstellung, die in den analysierten deutschen Belegen verwendet werden, ist noch umfangreicher als in der entsprechenden litauischen Gruppe. Darunter sind solche Verben wie achten, anmerken, ansehen (als), antworten, ausgehen (von), auslegen, ausschließen, beanstanden, bedenken, befürchten, behandeln (als), beipflichten, bemessen, berücksichtigen, bestimmen, bewerten, erinnern, erkennen, erklären, feststellen, heranziehen, hinweisen, klären, prüfen, sehen, verstehen, würdigen, zuschreiben usw., z. B.:

(3) das von ihnen eingelegte Rechtsmittel sei als Revision anzusehen (4) Zugunsten der Revision ist daher davon auszugehen, dass

Als zweite Gemeinsamkeit der Verwendung der analysierten deutschen und litauischen Konstruktionen in Gerichtsbeschlüssen muss festgehalten werden, dass die mit dem lateinischen Gerundivum vergleichbaren Konstruktionen in beiden Sprachen zum Ausdruck von Handlungen des Gerichts verwendet werden, vgl.:

(5) Dėl to ieškovų ir atsakovo kasacinių deshalb Kläger.GEN.PL.M und Beklagter.GEN.SG.M revisions.ADJ.GEN.PL.M skundų argumentai ... atmestini Beschwerde.GEN.PL.M Argument.NOM.PL.M zurückweis.GER.NOM.PL.M ‘deshalb sind die Argumente der Revisionsbeschwerden der Kläger und des Be- klagten zurückzuweisen’

(6) Nach allem ist die Revision der Beklagten mit der Kostenfolge aus § 97 Abs. 1 ZPO zurückzuweisen.

258 (7) byla perduotina tam pačiam Sache.NOM.SG.F übergeb.GER.NOM.SG.F derselbe.DAT.SG.M apeliacinės instancijos teismui berufungs.ADJ.GEN.SG.F Instanz.GEN.SG.F Gericht.DAT.SG.M nagrinėti iš naujo apeliacine tvarka verhandel.INF erneut berufungs.ADJ.INSTR.SG.F Ordnung.INSTR.SG.F ‘die Sache ist zur erneuten Verhandlung nach der Berufungsverfahrensordnung an dasselbe Berufungsgericht zu übergeben’

(8) Die Sache ist nicht entscheidungsreif, da weitere Feststellungen zu treffen sind, und daher zur neuen Verhandlung und Entscheidung an das Berufungsgericht zurück- zuverweisen (§ 563 Abs. 1 ZPO).

Für die angeführten Belege (5)-(8) beider analysierten Sprachen ist typisch, dass durch die mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbaren Konstruktionen bestimmte Gerichts- handlungen benannt werden, über deren Verwirklichung entschieden werden muss oder deren Ausführung beantragt wird. Im Unterschied zu anderen deutschen und litauischen ebenfalls impersonalen Konstruktionen wie z. B. den Infinitivkonstruktio- nen bzw. den Konstruktionen mit dem werden-Passiv im Deutschen oder den mit dem Partizip Passiv Präsens im Litauischen, die zum Ausdruck einer eindeutig direktiven Bedeutung verwendet werden können, verfügen die mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbaren deutschen und litauischen Konstruktionen über eine bestimmte modale Kompo- nente und damit auch über eine bestimmte Möglichkeit der Aussagemodifizierung. Durch diese modale Komponente enthalten die mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbaren Konstruktionen eine Bedeutung, die sich weder im Deutschen noch im Litauischen mit einer anderen Konstruktion gleichermaßen umschreiben lässt.

SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN Die Analyse der in den mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbaren deutschen und litauischen Konstruktionen verwendeten Verben hat gezeigt, dass sich hinsichtlich ihrer Verwendung in den untersuchten Gerichtsbeschlüssen Ähnlichkeiten feststellen lassen. Die Auswertung des Belegmaterials hat ergeben, dass sich in den analysierten Konstruktionen beider Sprachen zwei spezifische Bedeutungsgruppen der darin verwendeten Verben unterscheiden lassen: Verben zum Ausdruck kognitiver Einstellungen und Verben zum Ausdruck der Handlungen des Gerichts. Es wurden originale deutsche und litauische Gerichtsbeschlüsse in Zivilsachen untersucht, die Listen der in den analysierten Konstruktionen verwendeten Verben beider Sprachen enthalten aber eine ganze Reihe von gleichbedeutenden Verben. Es kann daher behauptet werden, dass die analysierten Konstruktionen mit ihrer komplexen modal-passivischen Bedeutung sowohl im Deutschen als auch im Litauischen für die Sprache der Gerichtsbeschlüsse charakteristisch sind. Die mit dem Gerundiv

259 vergleichbaren Konstruktionen werden in den Gerichtsbeschlüssen zum Ausdruck von Gerichtshandlungen verwendet, deren Ausführung beantragt wird bzw. die durch eine bestimmte Beweisführung unterstützt oder als richtig angenommen werden. In der Bedeutung einer mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbaren Konstruktion ist eine modale Komponente enthalten, die sich weder im Deutschen noch im Litauischen mit einer anderen Konstruktion gleichermaßen umschreiben lässt. Eine solche Bedeutung kon- stituiert sich insbesondere in den mit dem Gerundiv vergleichbaren Kostruktionen mit Verben zum Ausdruck der kognitiven Einstellung.

LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 1. DLKG 2006. Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Red. V. Ambrazas. Ketvirtoji pataisyta laida. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. 2. DLKŽ 1972. Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Red. J. Kruopas. Antras papildytas leidimas. Vilnius: Mintis. 3. Duden-Grammatik 2005. Die Grammatik. 7., völlig neu erarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. Hrsg. von der Dudenredaktion. Mannheim: Dudenverlag. 4. Gelhaus, H. 1977. Der modale Infinitiv. Tübingen: Narr. 5. Glinz, H. 1994. Grammatiken im Vergleich: Deutsch – Französisch – Englisch – Latein; Formen – Bedeutungen – Verstehen. Tübingen: Niemeyer. 6. IDS-Grammatik 1997. Grammatik der deutschen Sprache. Hrsg. G. Zifonun, L. Hoffmann, .B Strecker. Bd. 1-3. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter. 7. Kniūkšta, P. 2005. Administracinė kalba ir jos vartosena. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. 8 LKG 1971 . Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Vyr. redaktorius K. Ulvydas. II t. Vilnius: Mintis. 9. Wiemer, B. 2001. Partizipien zwischen Syntax, Semantik und Pragmatik: Ein Überblick zu aspektuellen, diathesebezogenen und diskursrelevanten Eigenschaften im modernen Litauischen. Sprachbeschreibung & Typologie. Publikation zum Workshop vom 16. Dezember 2000 in Bern. Arbeitspapiere 38. Hrsg. B. Wälchli, F. Zúñiga. Bern: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft. 65-81. 10. Žeimantienė, V. 2008. Zur Verwendung und Bedeutung des litauischen Partizips der Notwendigkeit im Vergleich zum Deutschen. Kalbotyra 59(3), 306-312. 11. Žeimantienė, V. 2011. Gerundivum und vergleichbare Konstruktionen des Deutschen sowie des Litauischen. Eine kontrastive Beispielanalyse anhand juristischer Texte. „Ich war immer zwischen Ost und West…“ Grenzüberschreitende Beiträge zur Sprache und Literatur. Gedenkschrift für Ina Meiksinaitė zum 90. Geburtstag. Hrsg. von V. Žeimantienė. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. 229-244.

260 SANTRAUKA Apie vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbos su gerundyvu palyginamose konstrukcijose vartojamų veiksmažodžių reikšmę: pavyzdžiais iš teisės tekstų paremtas tyrimas Vaiva Žeimantienė

Straipsnyje aprašomos vokiečių ir lietuvių kalbos su lotynų kalbos gerundyvu palyginamos konstrukcijos (konstrukcijos su sein + zu-Infinitiv irzu -Partizip vokiečių kalboje ir konstrukcijos su reikiamybės dalyviu lietuvių kalboje). Tyrimas remiasi teisės tekstų pavyzdžiais. Tyrimo tikslas – nustatyti, kokie veiksmažodžiai vartojami nagrinėjamose vokiečių ir lietuvių konstrukcijose teisės tekstuose, suskirstyti šiuos veiksmažodžius pagal reikšmę ir ištirti, ar aprašomose kalbose yra jų vartosenos panašumų.

261 262 IV. Svetimų kalbų mokymas / Foreign Language Teaching

263 264 Užsienio kalbos kompetencijų svarba ir jų ugdymas anglų kalbos pamokose

Loreta Andziulienė, Nida Kožemiakaitė Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas, Studentų g. 39, LT-08106 Vilnius, Lietuva,� [email protected] Vilniaus Simono Daukanto gimnazija, J. Jasinskio g. 11, LT-01111 Vilnius, Lietuva, [email protected]

SANTRAUKA Straipsnyje apžvelgiamas atnaujintų Vidurinio ugdymo bendrųjų programų projektas bei jo svarstymas Lietuvos anglų kalbos mokytojų bendruomenėje, ak- centuojant užsienio kalbos kompetencijų svarbą ir jų ugdymo būdus anglų kalbos pamokose. Pateikiami kompetencijos sąvokos apibrėžimai ir kompetencijų rūšys įvairiuose šaltiniuose, išskiriant „Bendruosius Europos kalbų mokymosi, mokymo ir vertinimo metmenis“, kurių pagrindu yra atnaujintos Užsienio kalbų vidurinio ugdymo bendrosios programos. Straipsnyje svarstomas mokymo(si) proceso, efektyviai ugdančio besimokančiojo kompetencijas, planavimas atkreipiant dėmesį į tikslus bei uždavinius, mokymo(si) metodus bei mokomosios medžiagos svarbą. Taip pat pateikiami du anglų kalbos pamokos plano, paruošto pagal atnaujintas bendrąsias programas, pavyzdžiai. Raktiniai žodžiai: kompetencija, BEKM, Užsienio kalbų VUBP, ugdymo planavimas, mokomoji medžiaga

ĮVADAS Esminės priežastys, kodėl iškilo poreikis atnaujinti Vidurinio ugdymo bendrąsias programas (http://www.upc.smm.lt/naujienos/asoc/video.php#pv56) – tai besikei- čiantys visuomenės poreikiai, kai orientuojamasi į kompetencijų ugdymą, pedagogikos kaita, kai sukuriami ir taikomi metodai, leidžiantys išugdyti gebėjimus, kurių anksčiau išugdyti nepavykdavo, bei vadybos kaita, kai daugiau paliekama laisvės mokyklai renkantis ugdymo turinį, numatant ugdymo kokybės ir mokinių pasiekimų tikrinimo būdus ir mokytojai įtraukiami į ugdymo turinio kūrimą.

265 1. UŽSIENIO KALBŲ VIDURINIO UGDYMO BENDRŲJŲ PROGRAMŲ ATNAUJINIMAS „Ugdymo plėtotės centras“ prie Švietimo ir mokslo ministerijos, siekdamas ugdymo kokybės ir norėdamas įtraukti visas suinteresuotas grupes į atnaujinamo ugdymo turinio aptarimą, parengė pakoreguotų vidurinio ugdymo bendrųjų progra- mų projektų aptarimo priemonių planą 2010 metams (Petty, 2008). Lietuvos anglų kalbos mokytojų asociacijos (LAKMA) projektas „BEKM atnaujintoje užsienio kalbų vidurinio ugdymo bendrojoje programoje: kompetencijų samprata ir jų ugdymo ke- liai“ buvo viena iš priemonių, vykdomų pagal Dalykų mokytojų ir vadovų asociacijų konkursą, kurį organizavo Ugdymo plėtotės centras atnaujintų Vidurinio ugdymo bendrųjų programų projektų aptarimui ir pasirengimui diegti. Šiuo projektu buvo siekta padėti esamiems ir būsimiems anglų kalbos mokytojams atrasti konkrečius būdus ir kelius ugdyti užsienio kalbos kompetencijas vidurinėje mokykloje. Buvo atlikta kompetencijos dėmenų analizė, gilinimasi į Bendruosiuose Europos kalbų metmenyse (BEKM) (http://www.smm.lt/ugdymas/docs/lkmp/kalbu%20metmenys. pdf) pateiktus atskaitos lygius, aptarti mokinius aktyvinantys veiklos būdai ir jų diegimas pagal konkrečias mokymosi konteksto sąlygas ir taikomi inovatyvūs mokymosi būdai. Projekto turinį sudarė darbas su projekto dalyviais, nagrinėjant naująsias bendrojo lavinimo vidurinių mokyklų programas pagal numatytus renginius ir priemones. Renginiuose dalyvavę anglų kalbos mokytojai buvo skatinami bendradarbiauti, keistis gerąja patirtimi ir ateityje iniciatyviai ir lanksčiai vadovautis naujosiomis vidurinio ugdymo bendrosiomis programomis. Projekto renginiuose dalyvavo vyres- niųjų klasių anglų kalbos mokytojai ir dėstytojai, būsimieji anglų kalbos mokytojai, VPU anglų filologijos bakalauro studijų trečio kurso studentai bei VPU profesinių kompetencijų tobulinimo instituto perkvalifikavimo studijų studentai. Pastarieji į projektą buvo įtraukiami modifikavus dalyko didaktikos kurso programą pagal šio projekto tikslus. Vilniaus Simono Daukanto gimnazijoje vyresniųjų klasių anglų kalbos mokytojai dalyvavo seminare „Užsienio kalbos kompetencijų svarba ir jų ugdymo būdai anglų kalbos pamokose” (2010-11-04/05). Seminaro dalyviai pateikė siūlymų tobulinti projekto dalis, aprašančias kalbinę komunikacinę, lingvistinę, pragmatinę, semantinę, sociokultūrinę ir strateginę kompetencijas, tematiką ir mokinių pasiekimų lygius kurie buvo paskelbti ir aptarti IV-oje tarptautinėje Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto Filologijos fakulteto konferencijoje „Kalbos funkcionavimo aspektai lingvistiniame, didaktiniame ir sociokultūriniame kontekstuose“ (2010-11-18/19), LAKMA asamblė- jos metu (2010-11-19) ir Švietimo asociacijų forume ,,Vidurinio ugdymo bendrosios programos: susitarimai ir bendradarbiavimo gairės“ (2010-12-17) (http://www.smm. lt/ugdymas/docs/lkmp/kalbu%20metmenys.pdf).

266 2. KOMPETENCIJOS SĄVOKA Mokslinėje literatūroje ir žodynuose pateikiami įvairūs kompetencijos sąvokos apibrėžimai, tačiau visi jie panašūs. Mokykliniame tarptautinių žodžių žodyne kompetencija apibūdinama kaip „tikimo, pasirengimo, kuriam nors darbui laipsnis; profesija, specialybė; ko nors kokybės ir rūšies žymėjimas, vertinimas“ (MTŽŽ, 1995, 186). Vaitkevičiūtės parengtame tarptautinių žodžių žodyne kompetencija apibrėžiama kaip funkcinis gebėjimas adekvačiai atlikti tam tikrą veiklą, turėti jai pakankamai žinių, įgūdžių, energijos (Vaitkevičiūtė, 2007). Pedagogikos terminų aiškinamajame žodyne, Jovaiša kompetenciją aiškina kaip gebėjimą pagal kvalifi- kaciją, įgūdžius, žinias gerai atlikti veiklą, tai įgaliojimų turėjimas ką nors daryti; labai kvalifikuotas žinojimas (Jovaiša, 1993). Taip pat jis teigia, kad kompetencija yra profesinio ugdymo reikalavimų įgyvendinimo kokybė ir veiklos specializuota kokybė, suteikiama baigus atitinkamos pakopos nuosekliąsias studijas ar profesines mokyklas (Jovaiša, 2007). Rengiant atnaujintą Užsienio kalbų VUBP buvo nutarta remtis sisteminio po- būdžio BEKM, kurie kalbos kompetenciją suskirsto į konkrečius komponentus, kad palengvintų kalbos mokymąsi, kurio metu susiduriama su psichologinėmis ir pedagoginėmis problemomis. „Bendruosiuose Europos kalbų mokymosi, mokymo ir vertinimo metmenyse“ kompetencijos apibūdinamos kaip „visuma žinių, gebėjimų ir ypatybių, kurios leidžia asmeniui veikti. Bendrosios kompetencijos yra būdingos ne vien kalbai, jų reikia bet kurios rūšies veiklai, taip pat ir kalbinei, atlikti. Komunikacinės kalbinės kompetencijos įgalina asmenį veikti būtent kalbos priemo- nėmis.“ (BEKM, 2008, 26) Pagal BEKM, kuriuo remtasi atnaujinant Užsienio kalbų vidurinio ugdymo bendrąsias programas (Užsienio kalbų VUBP) (Vaitkevičiūtė, 2007), bendrasias kompetencijas sudaro deklaratyvios žinios, t.y pasaulio pažini- mas, sociokultūrinės žinios, tarpkultūrinis sąmoningumas; socialiniai, gyvenimo, profesiniai, laisvalaikio, tarpkultūriniai gebėjimai ir praktinė patirtis; egzistencinė kompetencija, t.y. nuostatos, motyvacija, vertybės, kognityviniai stiliai, įsitikinimai, asmenybės veiksniai; bei gebėjimas mokytis, t.y. kalbos ir komunikacijos supratimas, bendras fonetikos suvokimas ir įgūdžiai, mokymosi būdai, euristiniai gebėjimai. Ko- munikacinę kompetenciją sudaro lingvistinė komepetencija, t.y. leksinė, gramatinė, semantinė, fonologinė, ortografinė, ortoepinė; sociolingvistinė kompetencija, t.y. kalbiniai socialinių santykių žymekliai, mandagumo normos, tautos išmintį pertei- kiantys posakiai, registro skirtumai, tarmė ir akcentas; bei pragmatinė kompetencija, t.y. diskurso ir funkcinė. (Žr. Diagramą).

267 ơ ir akcentas) ơ s Sociolingvistin (kalbiniai žymekliai, ơ mandagumas, posakiai, registrai, tarm s ơ kalbin , ) ơ , ơ ) ơ ơ Komunikacin s ơ ơ , ortoepin, , fonologin ơ , gramatin ơ ơ Lingvistin Pragmatin (diskurso,funkcin (leksin ortografin semantin ơ , r.) , ơ ǌ ơ Kompetencijos (socialin jimas mokytis jimai ir praktin ơ ơ patirtis gyvenimo, profesin Geb laisvalaikio,tarpkult Geb ) ơ Bendrosios r.) r.) s, ǌ ơ ơ (nuostatos, (pasaulio, r., tarpkult ǌ Egzistencin Deklaratyvios Deklaratyvios žinios motyvacija, vertyb sociokult kognityv. stiliai, asmenyb kompetencija

268 „Metmenyse“ atskirtos ir suklasifikuotos kompetencijos sudėtingai sąveikauda- mos tarpusavyje formuoja kiekvieno žmogaus asmenybę. Dalyvaudamas socialinėje veikloje kiekvienas besimokantysis mezga daugialypius santykius su iš dalies sutam- pančiomis socialinėmis grupėmis, ir visas šis bendravimas apibūdina jų tapatybę. „Tarpkultūriniu požiūriu esminis kalbos mokymosi tikslas yra skatinti palankiausią visos mokinio asmenybės raidą ir tapatybės jausmą, savo ruožtu plečiant kitos kalbos ir kultūros patirtį. Mokytojams ir patiems mokiniams tenka pavienes dalis integruoti į besiformuojančią darnią visumą.“ (BEKM, 2008, 16) „Metmenų“ sudarytojai aprašo plačią kalbos žinių, gebėjimų ir vartojimo įvairovę, kad kalbos vartotojai galėtų api- brėžti savo kalbos mokymosi tikslus ir uždavinius. BEKM ir atnaujintose Užsienio kalbų vidurinio ugdymo programose išskaidomos įvairios kalbos mokėjimo dimen- sijos ir pateikiami apibendrinti orientaciniai trijų pasiekimų lygių (patenkinamo, pagrindinio ir aukštesniojo) mokinių dalyko žinių ir supratimo, dalyko veiklos sričių ir mokymosi mokytis gebėjimų ir nuostatų ugdymosi kokybiniai aprašai, kuriais siūloma vadovautis sprendžiant apie mokinių pasiekimus.

3. MOKYMO(SI) PROCESO, EFEKTYVIAI UGDANČIO BESIMOKANČIOJO KOMPETENCIJAS, PLANAVIMAS

3.1. Tikslai Planuojant mokymosi procesą (žr. Pamokos planą), svarbu atsižvelgti į bendrą viziją (tikslus), aiškiai suformuluoti mokymo(si) uždavinius, apibrėžti mokymo(si) pasiekimus ir numatyti, kaip jie bus įvertinti. Reikia apmąstyti, kaip pateikti pamokos kalbinę medžiagą aiškiai ir suprantamai bei palengvinti jos įsisavinimą. Pamokose mokiniai turi būti skatinami aktyviai bendrauti užsienio kalba, naudoti naujas kalbines struktūras. Ne mažiau svarbu, kad mokytojas aiškiai formuluotų užduotis, skatinančias besimokančiųjų kritinį mąstymą, ir atitinkančias jų kalbos mokėjimo bei kognityvinį lygį, ir numatytų būdus pamatuoti pažangą. Užduotys turi sietis su tikslais, uždaviniais ir mokymosi pasiekimais, nuosekliai sunkėti, padėti įsisavinti kalbinę medžiagą. Ir mokytojui, ir mokiniams turi būti aiškus užduoties atlikimo tikslas, mokiniai turi būti įsisavinę kalbines priemones, kurių reikės užduočiai atlikti, ir/arba mokytojas turi jiems pateikti kalbinę paramą. Svarbu efektyviai panaudoti pamokos laiką, skirti jo pakankamai užduotims atlikti (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010).

3.2. Mokymo(si) metodai Mokiniai pasiekia geriausių mokymosi rezultatų, kai užsiima praktine, jų mokymosi stilius atitinkančia veikla. Petty (2006) įvardija aktyvius mokymo(si) metodus kaip labiausiai patinkančius mokiniams: diskusija grupėje, žaidimai / simuliacijos, vaidinimas, meno darbai, projektavimas, eksperimentai, grožinės literatūros skaitymas, medžiagos ieškojimas ir rastos informacijos apdorojimas, produktų kūrimas. Tarp nemėgstamiausių veiklų vardijami stebėjimas, uždavinynai, informacijos skaitymas,

269 terminai, analizė, teorija, rašiniai ir paskaitos. Mokiniams patinka veiksmas, jie vertina galimybę pasirinkti bei jausminį patyrimą. Tokios užduotys naudingos ir tuo, kad teigiamai veikia besimokančiųjų tarpusavio bendravimo kultūrą, įtakoja kultūrinių skirtumų supratimą, ugdo pilietiškumą, sudaro sąlygas pateikti požiūrį į tą patį reiš- kinį iš kitos perspektyvos. Bet kokiu atveju, prieš pasirinkdami strategiją, mokymo naujovę ar metodą, mokytojai turi tai palyginti su visais alternatyviais būdais tiems patiems tikslams pasiekti, aiškiai suprasti, kodėl tai veiksmingiausias būdas pasiekti geriausių rezultatų (Petty, 2006). Pamokoje naudojama mokomoji medžiaga turėtų užtikrinti keturių kalbinės veiklos rūšių (kalbėjimas, skaitymas, klausymas ir rašymas) integravimą bei strategijų ir technikų įvairovę priklausomai nuo veiklos pobūdžio ir tikslo. Įvairios interaktyvios, logiška seka pateiktos užduotys porose ir grupėse, atitinkančios besimokančiųjų mokymosi stilius, projektinė veikla, problemų sprendimas ir informacinių ir kito- kių technologijų naudojimas skatina mokymosi mokytis įgūdžių lavinimą, kritinio mąstymo įgūdžių formavimą(si) ir kūrybingumą. Pateikiamos kalbinės struktūros, padedančios kurti žodinį arba rašytinį tekstą, vaizdinės priemones bei informacijos sisteminimo įrankiai reikalauja aktyvios besimokančiųjų veiklos pamokoje ir skatina juos apmąstyti mokymosi procesą ir eksperimentuoti mokantis. Planuodamas mokinių veiklą pamokoje mokytojas įvertina galimus mokymosi sunkumus, pasiruošia sudaryti sąlygas besimokantiesiems įtvirtinti anksčiau išmoktą medžiagą ir įsivertinti savo pasiekimus; taip pat numato būdus patikrinti jų pasiekimus ir teikti grįžtamąjį ryšį, kuris skatins juos tobulėti, sužinoti mokinių nuomonę ir į ją reaguoti. Po pamokos sprendžiama, ką reiktų keisti, kokių reikia papildomų užduočių, ar reikia ko nors atsisakyti.

3.3. Mokymo(si) medžiaga Medžiagos atrinkimas, parengimas ir pritaikymas mokyti užsienio kalbos šiuolai- kinėje mokykloje – dar vienas iššūkis mokytojui. Mokyklų bibliotekose, knygynuose bei internete gausu vadovėlių ir metodinės literatūros, skirtų užsienio kalbų mokymui, todėl reikia kritiškai įvertinti siūlomų mokymo priemonių turinį bei formą. Pamokoje naudojama mokomoji medžiaga turi atitikti dalyko programą ir užtikrinti numatytų mokymosi pasiekimų įgyvendinimą. Ji taip pat privalo būti autentiška, susieta su šiuolaikinio gyvenimo aktualijom ir realybe bei besimokančiųjų gyvenimu, interesais, kad būtų patraukli besimokančiajam. Svarbu aktyvuoti besimokančiųjų turimas žinias ir pateikti tiek naujos jų kalbos mokėjimo lygį atitinkančios medžiagos, kiek jie gali įsisavinti. Remdamiesi įvairiais šaltiniais (straipsniais, filmais, naujienų portalais, ži- niasklaida, etc.) užsienio kalbų mokytojai natūraliai integruoja kalbos ir įvairių dalykų (pvz., istorijos, geografijos, biologijos ir kt.) mokymą, todėl yra priversti tuos šaltinius adaptuoti, supaprastinti, palengvinti žodyno supratimą, paaiškindami nežinomus terminus. Visa tai leidžia mokiniams suprasti, kad kalba yra puiki priemonė keistis žiniomis ir nuomonėmis apie realų pasaulį bei įgalina ir motyvuoja juos tobulinti savo kompetencijas savarankiškai visą tolesnį savo gyvenimą.

270 4. PAMOKŲ PLANŲ PAVYZDŽIAI Pamokos planas 1A

Mokykla: Vilniaus Simono Daukanto gimnazija Mokomasis dalykas ir klasė: anglų kalba Mokytoja: Nida Kožemiakaitė Pamokos tema: pokalbis dėl darbo (A Job Interview)

Bendras temos apibūdinimas Pamokos pavyzdys Mokiniai šią temą pirmą kartą nagrinėjo 9 klasėje. TIKSLINĖ GRUPĖ / KLASĖ Kai kurie iš jų jau turi darbo patirties, tad apie po- III gimnazijos klasės (17-18 metų) mo- kalbius dėl darbo žino ne tik iš pamokų mokykloje, kiniai vyresnių žmonių pasakojimų, žiniasklaidos, bet ir iš savo asmeninės patirties. Nagrinėjant darbo LAIKO PASKIRSTYMAS, TRUKMĖ tematiką, mokiniai mokėsi įvairių profesijų pava- 1 pamoka (45 min.) dinimus, aptarė, kokių žinių, gebėjimų, įgūdžių, patirties reikia jas atlikti, kokius darbus jie patys UŽDUOTYS IR VEIKLA svajoja dirbti ir kodėl ir kt. 1. Mokytoja pristato pamokos temą ir veda trumpą pokalbį su visa grupe, užduodama TIKSLAI klausimus (Have you had a job? Have you Pamokoje siekiama suteikti mokiniams žinių ir attended a job interview? What questions ugdyti jų gebėjimus, reikalingus siekiant rasti dar- did the interviewer ask you?..). bą, tobulinti jų grupinio darbo įgūdžius, gebėjimą 2. Mokiniai klauso garso įrašo, kuriame duo- mąstyti kūrybingai ir kritiškai. dami patarimai, kaip pasiruošti pokalbiui dėl darbo, ir pateiktoje teksto santraukoje PAGRINDINĖS SĄVOKOS įrašo trūkstamą informaciją. Atlikta Pokalbis dėl darbo, darbdavys, laisva darbo vieta, užduotis patikrinama iš pradžių porose, reikalavimai po to tai atlieka visa klasė, padedama mokytojos. (vadovėlis ��“Upstream�� Upper METODAI IR STRATEGIJOS Intermediate“, pratybos 2, psl. 5��0) Vaidmenų žaidimas, darbas porose ir grupėse, 3. Žiūrėdami vaizdo įrašą “Classic Job In- diskusija terview Questions” (www.youtube.com), mokiniai užrašo pokalbiuose dėl darbo PRIEMONĖS dažniausiai užduodamus keturis klau- 1. Anglų kalbos vadovėlis Obee B., Evans V. simus ir patarimus, kaip į juos atsakyti. “��Upstream Upper Intermediate��”�, Express Pu- Atlikta užduotis patikrinama iš pradžių blishing. porose, po to tai atlieka visa klasė, pade- 2. Videoįrašas ��“��Classic Job Interview Questions” dama mokytojos. (www.youtube.com). 4. Mokiniai suskirstomi į dvi grupes – darb- 3. Padalomoji medžiaga - vienos Lietuvoje vei- davius ir darbo ieškančius. Jie perskaito kiančios tarptautinės kompanijos bei laisvos pateiktą padalomąją medžiagą apie vieną darbo vietos aprašas/reikalavimai. Lietuvoje veikiančią tarptautinę kom- paniją (pvz, „Zara“) bei laisvos darbo vietos aprašą/ reikalavimus. Abi grupės pasiruošia dalyvauti pokalbyje šiai darbo vietai gauti (pasiruošia užduoti klausimus, pateikti informaciją apie save). →

271 ← Bendras temos apibūdinimas Pamokos pavyzdys UŽDUOTYS IR VEIKLA 5. Mokiniai padalinami į grupes po keturis: du 1. Diskusija / Pokalbis, kurį veda mokytoja. „darbdaviai“, „ieškantysis darbo“ ir stebėto- 2. Klausymo užduotys, kurios padeda moki- jas. Suvaidinamas pokalbis dėl darbo, kuris niams geriau suvokti pagrindinę informaciją po to aptariamas – pasisako visi jo dalyviai bei detales. ir stebėtojas. 3. Grupinis darbas – pasiruošimas dalyvauti 6. Šiose grupėse mokiniai surašo dešimt patari- vaidmenų žaidime. mų (“Ten Commandments“), kaip pasiruošti 4. Vaidmenų žaidimas, jo aptarimas. pokalbiui dėl darbo bei kaip elgtis jo metu. 5. Pamokos rezultatų apibendrinimas – dešim- Grupės pristato savo sąrašus visai klasei. ties svarbiausių patarimų sąrašo sudarymas. NAUDOTI METODAI REZULTATAI, VERTINIMAS Vaidmenų žaidimas, darbas porose ir grupėse, 1. Mokiniai sužinojo, kaip efektyviai pasiruošti diskusija pokalbiui dėl darbo ir kokie klausimai daž- APTARTI TERMINAI, SĄVOKOS niausiai užduodami jo metu. Pokalbis dėl darbo, darbdavys, laisva darbo 2. Mokiniai sudalyvavo improvizuotame pokal- vieta, reikalavimai byje dėl darbo jiems žinomoje tarptautinėje kompanijoje Lietuvoje. INTEGRAVIMAS Į MOKOMĄJĮ DALYKĄ, 3. Mokiniai apibendrino įgytas žinias bei patirtį, PROGRAMAS sudarydami svarbiausių patarimų sąrašą. Pamoka integruojama į anglų kalbos mokymo 4. Mokiniai patobulino savo gebėjimą suprasti programos dalį „Darbas“ („Work. Employ- klausomus tekstus, dirbti grupėje, mąstyti ment“). kritiškai. PAPILDOMOS TEMOS Darbo apibūdinimas, reikalingos žinios, ge- bėjimai ir patirtis PRIEMONĖS 1. Anglų kalbos vadovėlis Obee B., Evans V. “��Upstream Upper Intermediate”��, Express Publishing. 2. Videoįrašas “��Job�� Interview Questions�” (www.youtube.com). 3. Padalomoji medžiaga - vienos Lietuvoje veikiančios tarptautinės kompanijos bei laisvos darbo vietos aprašas/reikalavimai. REZULTATAI 1. Mokiniai sužinojo, kaip efektyviai pasiruoš- ti pokalbiui dėl darbo ir kokie klausimai dažniausiai užduodami jo metu. 2. Mokiniai sudalyvavo improvizuotame pokalbyje dėl darbo jiems žinomoje tarp- tautinėje kompanijoje Lietuvoje. 3. Mokiniai apibendrino įgytas žinias bei patir- tį, sudarydami svarbiausių patarimų sąrašą. 4. Mokiniai patobulino savo gebėjimą suprasti klausomus tekstus, dirbti grupėje, mąstyti kritiškai.

272 Pamokos planas 1B Vilniaus Simono Daukanto gimnazija PAMOKOS PLANAS

Data Klasė Mokytojas III gimnazijos klasė Nida Kožemiakaitė Pamokos tema Pokalbis dėl darbo (A Job Interview) Mokymo(si) uždaviniai 1. Klausydami tekstą ir žiūrėdavi vaizdo įrašą, ir tuo pat metu atlikdami skirtas užduotis, mokiniai sužinos, kaip efektyviai pasiruošti pokalbiui dėl darbo ir kokie klausimai dažniausiai užduodami jo metu. 2. Mokiniai sudalyvaus improvizuotame pokalbyje dėl darbo jiems žinomoje tarptautinėje kompanijoje Lietuvoje, naudodamiesi pateiktu tos kompanijos bei laisvos darbo vietos aprašymu. 3 �audodami pamokoje įgyta informacija bei patirtimi, mokiniai sudarys svarbiausių patarimų sąrašą, besiruošiantiems dalyvauti pokalbyje dėl darbo. 4. Mokiniai patobulins savo gebėjimą suprasti klausomus tekstus, dirbti grupėje, mąstyti kri- tiškai. Mokymo(si) būdai, metodai Vaidmenų žaidimas, darbas porose ir grupėse, diskusija Pamokos struktūra (sudominimas, naujos medžiagos pateikimas, praktinis taikymas, apibendrinimas) 1. Mokytoja pristato pamokos temą ir veda trumpą pokalbį su visa grupe, užduodama klausimus (Have you had a job? Have you attended a job interview? What questions did the interviewer ask you?..). 2. Mokiniai klauso garso įrašo, kuriame duodami patarimai, kaip pasiruošti pokalbiui dėl darbo, ir pateiktoje teksto santraukoje įrašo trūkstamą informaciją. Atlikta užduotis patikrinama iš pradžių porose, po to – visa klase su mokytoja. (vadovėlis “��Upstream Upper Intermediate”,�� pratybos 2, psl��. 5��0)� 3. Žiūrėdami vaizdo įrašą “Classic Job Interview Questions” (www.youtube.com), mokiniai užrašo pokalbiuose dėl darbo dažniausiai užduodamus keturis klausimus bei patarimus, kaip į juos atsakyti. Atlikta užduotis patikrinama iš pradžių porose, po to tai atlieka visa klasė, padedama mokytojos. 4. Mokiniai suskirstomi į dvi grupes – darbdavius ir darbo ieškančius. Jie perskaito pateiktą padalomąją medžiagą apie vieną Lietuvoje veikiančią tarptautinę kompaniją (pvz., „Zara“) ir laisvos darbo vietos aprašą/ reikalavimus. Abi grupės pasiruošia dalyvauti pokalbyje šiai darbo vietai gauti (pasiruošia užduoti klausimus, pateikti informaciją apie save). 5. Mokiniai padalinami į grupes po keturis: du „darbdaviai“, „ieškantysis darbo“ ir stebėtojas. Su- vaidinamas pokalbis dėl darbo, kuris po to aptariamas – pasisako visi jo dalyviai ir stebėtojas. 6. Šiose grupėse mokiniai surašo dešimt patarimų (“Ten Commandments”), kaip pasiruošti pokalbiui dėl darbo ir kaip elgtis jo metu. Grupės pristato savo sąrašus visai klasei. Pažangos ir pasiekimų vertinimas Taikomas formuojamasis vertinimas Namų darbai Mokymo(si) priemonės, didaktinė medžiaga, IKT 1. Anglų kalbos vadovėlis Obee B., Evans V. ��“��Upstream Upper Intermediate”��, Express Publishing. 2. Videoįrašas ��“��Classic Job Interview Questions”�� (www.youtube.com). 3. Padalomoji medžiaga - vienos Lietuvoje veikiančios tarptautinės kompanijos bei laisvos darbo vietos aprašas/reikalavimai. Mokytojo refleksija

273 IŠVADOS Tai, kad Vidurinio ugdymo bendrųjų programų atnaujinimo procese aktyviai dalyvavo dalykų mokytojų asociacijų, vadovų asociacijos, mokinių asociacijų, mokinių tėvų asociacijų, švietimo centrų, švietimo centrų asociacijos atstovai, pedagogai ir mokslininkai parodė šio dokumento svarbą ir aktualumą. Jame buvo atsižvelgta į besikeičiančius visuomenės poreikius, mokymo metodų ir priemonių kaitą ir akcentuojamas ugdymo turinio planavimas mokyklos lygmeniu. Užsienio kalbų Vidurinio ugdymo bendrosiose programose pateikiamos bendrųjų kompe- tencijų ir tiesiogiai su kalba susijusių kalbinių komunikacinių kompetencijų ugdymo gairės. Tai ir atskleidžia tikrąją šių Bendrųjų programų paskirtį – „apibrėžti užsienio kalbos kaip mokomojo dalyko mokinių pasiekimus vidurinėje mokykloje, mokymosi kurso ugdymo apimtį, mokinių pasiekimų vertinimo rodiklius“ (Petty, 2006).

LITERATŪROS SĄRAŠAS 1. Bendrieji Europos kalbų mokymosi, mokymo ir vertinimo metmenys. 2008. Vilnius: Firidas. 2. Coyle, D. Hood, P. Marsh, D. 2010. CLIL. Content and Language Integrated Learning, CUP. 3. Jovaiša L. 2007. Enciklopedinis edukologijos žodynas. Vilnius. 4. Jovaiša L. 1993.Pedagogikos terminai. Kaunas. 5. Mokyklinis tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. 1995. Kaunas. 6. Petty, G. 2008. Įrodymais pagrįstas mokymas: praktinis vadovas. Vilnius: Tyto Alba. 7. Petty, G. 200��6. Šiuolaikinis mokymas: praktinis vadovas. Vilnius: Tyto Alba. 8. Vaitkevičiūtė V. 2007. Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Vilnius. 9. Užsienio kalbų vidurinio ugdymo bendrųjų programų projektas. Prieiga:�� http://www.pedagogika. lt/index.php?159258531). 10. http://www.smm.lt/ugdymas/docs/lkmp/kalbu%20metmenys.pdf 11. http://www.upc.smm.lt/naujienos/asoc/video.php#pv56

SUMMARY The Importance of Foreign Language Competences and Ways to Develop them in English Classrooms Loreta Andziulienė, Nida Kožemiakaitė

This article gives an overview of the project of the renewed curriculum for secondary education and its hearing in the community of Lithuanian English language teachers. The emphasis is put on the importance of foreign language competences and ways to develop them in English classrooms because definitions and types of competences described in the “Common European Framework for Languages” were

274 used as the basis for renewing the curriculum for secondary education (foreign languages). The article discusses the teaching / learning process, effective ways of developing learners’ competences and focuses on learning goals and objectives, teaching / learning methods and the importance of teaching materials. The two sample English lesson plans serve as examples of planning instruction in accordance with the renewed curriculum.

275 Teaching Culture through Language

Inga Banytė, Raminta Inčiūrienė International School of Law and Business, 58 Laisvės Ave., Vilnius LT – 05120, Lithuania [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT In the article we would like to emphasize the importance of teaching culture in a foreign language classroom. In the theoretical part we touch upon the understanding of foreign language learning, name its components making the emphasis on the importance of integrating culture and providing related observations of some prominent scholars. In addition, we try to reveal the essence of culture in relationship with a language and make an effort to prove that a language and culture are inseparable. In retrospect we shortly review the attempts of some linguists of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to support the idea of teaching culture through language. We also indicate the most common drawbacks in teaching a foreign language which are typical of many teachers in Lithuania and throughout the world. Thus, we provide the reasons for teaching culture in a foreign language classroom and outline the goals for this. We also give some advice on how to introduce cultural elements into a foreign language classroom, suggest what to start with in order to raise students’ awareness of culture and encourage them to compare their own and target cultures at different levels of studies. Besides we provide examples of how different acts of behaviour would be interpreted in different cultures and suggest incorporating different forms of non- verbal communication. We also give and analyse the data of our research, which only replenish both the theoretical and practical parts of the article. Key-words: culture, foreign language, teaching, non-verbal communication.

Introduction Foreign language learning is comprised of several components, including grammatical competence, communicative competence, language proficiency, as well as a change in attitudes towards one’s own or another culture. The knowledge of the conventions, customs, beliefs, and systems of meaning of another country, is indisputably an integral part of foreign language learning. In reality, most teachers and students seem to have forgotten the fact that ‘knowledge of the grammatical system of a language [grammatical competence] has to be complemented by understanding of culture-specific meanings [communicative or rather cultural competence]’ (Byram, Morgan et al., 1994, 4).

276 Thus, understanding that language learning is just acquiring a set of rules, or teaching it through imitation or “drills” should be re-considered. We would like to show that foreign language learning is foreign culture learning, and, in one way or another, culture has to be taught in the foreign language classroom for different reasons. What could be debatable, though, is what is meant by the term “culture” and how it is integrated into language learning and teaching. Here we should notice Kramsch’s observation:

Culture in language learning is not an expendable fifth skill, tacked on, so to speak, to the teaching of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. It is always in the background, right from day one, ready to unsettle the good language learners when they expect to least, making evident the limitations of their hard-won communicative competence, challenging their ability to make sense of the world around them. (Kramsch, 1993, 1).

Although, the teaching of culture is not just the transmission of information regarding the people of the target community or country – even though knowledge about the “target group” is an important ingredient (Nostrand, 1967, 118). Kramsch herself seems to insinuate that to learn a foreign language is not merely to learn how to communicate but also to discover how much the target language allows learners to manipulate grammatical forms, sounds, and meanings, and socially accepted norms at work both, in their own or the target culture. Thus, the aim of the present paper is to emphasize the importance of teaching culture in a foreign language classroom in order to enrich and give far deeper meaning to cross-cultural understanding which transcends the boundaries of linguistic forms, i.e. we cannot teach a foreign language without some insights into its speakers’ culture. Consequently, having in mind the above mentioned target, we carried out a survey among students of Tourism and Hotel Administration; the following questions were asked: what is culture; if culture and language are related; how much they have learnt about the country’s culture while studying its language; how they could learn more about the country’s culture studying its language.

1. What is culture and why should it be taught? To begin with, language is a social institution, both shaping and shaped by society at large, or in particular the ‘cultural niches’ (Eleanor Armour-Thomas & Sharon-Ann Gopaul-McNicol, 1998) in which it plays an important role. Thus, the language is, or should be, understood as cultural practice, and we must also reconsider the notion of culture in relation to language. Language is not an ‘autonomous construct’ (Fairclough, 1989) but social practice, both creating and created by ‘the structures and forces of the social institutions within which we live and function’. Certainly, a language cannot exist in a vacuum.

277 Undoubtedly, everyday language is intertwined with culture – a fact most people seem to ignore. By the very act of talking, we assume social and cultural roles which are so deeply entrenched in our thought processes. ‘Language does not exist apart from culture, that is, from the socially inherited assemblage of practices and beliefs that determines the texture of our lives’ (Sapir, 1970, 207). In a sense, it is ‘a key to the cultural past of a society” (Salzmann, 1998, 41). Already the nineteenth-century sociologists, such as Durkheim, were well aware of the interdependence of language and culture. For Durkheim (1912, 1047), children master their mother tongue by dint of making hypotheses as to the possible circumstances under which it can be used, and by learning probabilities. In other words, ‘socioculturally structured associations have to be internalized’ – and, often these associations vary from culture to culture. Many ethnographers have attempted to show that ‘language and culture are from the start inseparably connected’ (Buttjes, 1990, 55, cited in Lessard-Clouston, 1997). Although language acquisition differs across cultures, the process of becoming a competent member of society is realized through exchanges of language in particular social situations. Buttjes says that language teaching is culture teaching and teachers do their students a great disservice in emphasizing the former. Culture and communication are inseparable because culture not only dictates who starts talking to whom, about what, and how the communication proceeds, it also helps to determine how people encode messages, the meanings they have for messages, and the conditions and circumstances under which various messages may or may not be sent, noticed, or interpreted. Actually, culture is the foundation of communication. It is evident that culture is a concept difficult to define, yet it is implicitly related to language. Duranti remarks:

Words carry in them a myriad possibilities for connecting us to other human beings, other situations, events, acts, beliefs, feelings… The indexicality of language is thus a part of the constitution of any act of speaking as an act of participation in a community of language users’ (Duranti, 1997, 46).

Some prominent scholars, such as Lado (1957), Peck (1998) think that culture is all the accepted and patterned ways of behaviour of a given people. It is a part of learned behaviour shared with others. This concept also includes internalized patterns for doing certain things and the group’s achievements and contributions to civilization. Robinson (1988) defines culture as a dynamic ‘system of symbols and meanings; culture is constantly changing, and our past experiences influence our present and future actions, thus affecting meaning. Culture is a force forging our identities and our relationships with the surrounding world. We acquire and accept value judge- ments in the culture we grow up.

278 Sometimes educators are hardly aware of the necessity of culture teaching, and may raise a question why culture should be taught when there are other aspects of the curriculum like application of grammatical rules in oral and written texts that need more attention. Even the learners cannot appreciate the importance of learning the cultural aspects of communication unless they visit a foreign country and experience the difficulties. Students’ intellectual curiosity is aroused and satisfied when they learn that there exists another mode of expression to talk about feelings, wishes, needs and when they read the literature of the foreign country. For cultural understanding it is necessary to see how such patterns function in relation to each other and to appreciate their place in the cultural system. The aim of teaching culture is, first of all, ‘to increase students’ awareness and to develop their curiosity towards the target culture and their own, helping them to make comparisons among cultures’ (Tavares & Cavalcanti, 1996, 19). Making the comparisons will enrich students’ experience and make them more aware of cultural diversity. According to Tomalin and Stempleski (1993, 7-8), the teaching of culture has the following goals: • To help students develop an understanding of the fact that all people exhibit culturally-conditioned behaviours. • To help students develop an understanding that social variables such as age, sex, social class, and place of residence influence the ways in which people speak and behave. • To help students become more aware of conventional behaviour in common situations in the target culture. • To help students increase their awareness of the cultural connotations of words and phrases in the target language. • To help students develop the ability to evaluate and refine generalizations about the target culture, in terms of supporting evidence. • To help students develop the necessary skills to locate and organize information about the target culture.

2. How to teach culture through language If we want to foster cultural awareness and insight into the target civilisation, we have to consider ways how to teach culture in the foreign language classroom. If we give long formal speeches on the geography, history or political development of the foreign culture, its customs, everyday life details, ceremonies, festivals and the like, the study of the foreign culture will be a boring and unrewarding task. Teachers can try focusing on those traits that are important to the members of target community. They can raise their students’ awareness that all cultures are equally important. There are real differences between groups and cultures. Therefore, language teachers cannot avoid conveying impressions of another culture. Language cannot be separated completely from the culture in which it is deeply imbedded. Any opportunity to listen to the utterances of native speakers, to read original texts, examine pictures

279 of native speakers engaged in natural activities will introduce cultural elements into the classroom. When teaching culture, it is necessary, first of all, to raise students’ awareness of their own culture; learners should be given an opportunity to feel what it means to be part of their own culture by discussing the values, customs and traditions before exploring a new one. This helps understand and evaluate the target culture with higher objectivity. For instance, learners should be given a chance to enjoy such activities of their own culture as sports or songs before exploring those of the target culture; another enjoyable activity is an evening when language learners have to prepare their own national dishes and taste them together with native students. In a fast- moving world which is facing globalization, a teacher should help language learners move comfortably from one cultural environment to another. Effective communication among cultures requires that one know the other party’s values and manners. Culture is that power which can help maintain stability. But what teachers need to be aware of is that a number of language learners experience certain psychological blocks and other inhibiting effects of the second culture. Sensitive and perceptive teachers can help learners overcome a feeling of alienation in the process of learning a foreign language and turn such an experience into one of increased cultural and self-awareness. By using techniques that promote cultural understanding teachers can be of great help to fragile students. The use of role play can help students deal with psychological-cultural problems and it promotes the process of cross-cultural dialogues while at the same time it provides opportunities for oral communication. Culture teaching should be performed in a structured way, thus methodology is essential. Teacher’s task is to make students interested in the target culture. The foreign language classroom should become a place where students are provided with different ways of learning and various opportunities to interact with one another. According to Peck (1998), beginners want real experience - feeling, touching, smelling and seeing rather than hearing the language of the target culture. Teachers are recommended to bring to the classroom pictures, maps, posters and other realia in order to help learners develop the image of the target culture. Students will also be glad to go to the supermarkets, various stores and write down the names of imported goods, or just go to the restaurant, café or bar to make a list of all national dishes of the target culture and taste some of them. Teachers can also invite guest speakers to share experience of visiting or living in the foreign country. Another activity could be organized in groups of 3-4 students whose task is to draw up a list of those characteristics that distinguish the home and target cultures. According to Tomalin and Stempleski (1993, 16), the list could include music, sports, climate, crafts, clothing, food, physical features, geography and the like. A teacher’s role here is to break down cultural barriers. One way to begin teaching culture on a positive note is to emphasize similarities between people. A discussion of differences between members of students’ family, between families, between schools and between cultures may follow. To enhance learning it is advised to give first language

280 equivalent while teaching a culture specific topic. All the materials should contain activities involving the cultural values of the target culture. A cultural series may start at the elementary stage with discussions of the daily life of the students in the other language community – their families, friends, leisure-time activities, their school, the festivals they celebrate, dating and marriage customs. At intermediate levels learning may focus on the geographical and historical factors influencing daily life, the organization of society, transport, buying and selling, art, music, dance and so on. These activities will increase students’ awareness and raise their respect towards the target culture and their own, helping them to make comparisons between cultures. The comparisons will enrich their experience and help them understand that in a globalized world there is still diversity among cultures. Peck and Seelye (1984) suggest providing cultural information through cultural clusters, which are a series of culture capsules. For instance, a narrative on the etiquette during a family meal helps students learn how the members of the target culture enjoy a meal together, students can even practise how to eat. Sometimes it would be very useful to give examples of how to call a taxi in the target culture, as this differs from country to country. Another point that has to be addressed is that if we wish the learners to master another language, we should help them become communicatively competent in that language as much as possible. Learners have to know when to use the language and under what circumstances certain patterns should be uttered. A teacher should always inform students that the language varies according to age, sex, social class, education, location and register. Thus, which linguistic realization we choose for making an offer, request or apology in any language might depend on many social factors. Students can be made aware that certain words are used more by men than by women, and vice versa, and there are also different dialects. Henrichsen (1998) proposes two interesting methods: culture assimilators and cultoons. Students read short descriptions of various situations where one person from the target culture interacts with people from the home culture. After reading they get four possible interpretations of the meaning of the behaviour and speech. Students have to choose the correct interpretation and discuss the reasons of their choice. This is a good method of giving students a chance to understand cultural information. Cultoons are visual culture assimilators. When students get a series of pictures high- lighting misunderstanding experienced by people in contact with the target culture, they evaluate the characters’ reactions if they are appropriate or not. After that, reading short texts folows, explaining what was happening in the cultoons. Students should also acquaint themselves with conventional behaviour norms in common situations. For example, Lithuanian students will normally knock on the door and apologize to the teacher when they are late, which is uncommon for a student from the USA or UK. There are significant differences across cultures regarding the ways in which the teacher is addressed; which topics are considered taboos; when a student

281 is supposed to raise a hand, to finish a meal or not at a guest’s house. For example, in Lithuania it is polite to finish your meal to show a host it has been very delicious, but a Japanese student knows that finishing every last bite of your meal in Japan is implying you have not been given enough. Other examples include giving a gift with your left hand, which in the Middle East cultures is considered offensive, while in this country nobody cares which hand to use to give a gift. In Russia and this country, even numbers of flowers are only ever given at funerals, and such a gift is seen as inviting death. It is worth mentioning white colour, which in this country is a symbol of purity, innocence and hope, but don’t give anyone in Bangladesh white flowers as they are almost identical to a word for “death.” Don’t wrap your present in white paper in China as well as this suggests funerals. Students coming to study the Lithuanian language should be aware that, for instance, in this culture white colour is the purest of all colours worn on festal days and celebrations and has nothing to do with death. Teachers could also incorporate teaching of various forms of non-verbal communication typical of the target culture. Misinterpretation of some gestures and facial expressions may lead to miscommunication. A teacher may ask students to role-play emotions from the list of words indicating emotions such as guilt, sadness, anger, fear, joy, pain, excitement. Then follows a discussion on the different ways people express emotions in different cultures. A teacher may explain that some signs might be mis- interpreted and are considered offensive when used in public in the target culture. The thumbs-up sign has been confusing people for thousands of years. For instance, the sign in Lithuania expresses nothing more than approval, thus a thumb-up sign accompanied with verbal ‘OK’ is a positive sign, while in West Africa, South America and the Middle East it is considered offensive.

3. Results of the research The results of the research have shown that the respondents understand the notion and essence of culture: 17 out of 29 consider culture as a complex of geography, history, art and music, religion, social behaviour and lifestyle, beliefs, values, traditions, etc. of a group of people. 27 respondents see a close relation between language and culture. The majority of the people questioned think that it would be beneficial to learn about the country’s culture while studying its language. We have also found out that 50% of the students learned too little about the culture of the target language. The remaining part think they have received a satisfactory amount of information about the country whose language they have been studying. As far as the methods of teaching culture are concerned, the figures tell that 8 respondents consider reading articles the best way to learn about culture through language; 7 students highlight communication including role-plays in class and meeting local people; 12 respondents think that all the ways have to be integrated, starting with reading, listening, role-plays, games and finishing with communication with local people and sightseeing.

282 Conclusions Having summarized and considered the results of the research, we would like to conclude that the need for learning culture is obvious, i.e. it should be integrated into language learning; more diverse activities should be offered to students in language learning. It would be worth considering including the subject of culture already at a secondary school; and finally, students should be provided with more frequent opportunities to hear native speakers and communicate with them.

References 1 Armour-Thomas, E. ��& Gopaul-N��icol, S. ��1998. Assessing Intelligence. Applying a Bio-Cultural Model. USA: Sage Publications. 2 Byram, M M,., Morgan, C. ��and Colleagues. ��1994. Teaching and Learning Language and Culture. Great Britain: WBC. 3 Duranti, A. 1997��. Linguistic anthropology. Cambridge: University Press. 4 Durkheim, E. ��1947. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. Glencoe: The Free Press. 5. ��Fairclough, �N. ��1989. Language and Power. London: Longman.  Henrichsen, L. E�. 1998��. Understanding Culture and Helping Students Understand Culture. (Web document) 7 Kramsch, C. 1993��. Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8 Lado, R. ��1957. Linguistics Across Cultures. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 9 Lessard-Clouston, M. ��1997. ��Towards an Understanding of Culture in L2/FL Education. In: Ronko, K.G. Studies in English, 25, P. 131-150. Japan: Kwansei Gakuin University Press. 10. N�ostrand,�� H. L�. 19��67. A�� Second Culture: �N��ew Imperative for American Education. In: Michel, J. Foreign Language Teaching. An Anthology. London: Collier-MacMillan. 11 Peck, D . ��1998. Teaching Culture: Beyond Language. Yale: New Haven Teachers Institute. 12 Robinson, G. 1988��. Crosscultural understanding. New York: Prentice-Hall. 13 Salzmann, Z . ��1998. Language, Culture and Society. An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. USA: Westview Press. 14 Sapir, E . 1921��. Language. An Introduction to the Study of Speech. London: Rupert Hart-Davis. 1 Swan, M . ��2005. Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1 Tavares, R. ��& Cavalcanti, I. ��1996. Developing Cultural Awareness in EFL Classrooms. English Forum, 34:3, July-September, 1996. 17 Tomalin, B. ��& Stempleski, S. ��1993. Cultural Awareness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

283 SANTRAUKA Kultūros mokymas per kalbą Inga Banytė, Raminta Inčiūrienė

Straipsnyje pabrėžiama, kaip svarbu, mokantis užsienio kalbos, mokytis tos šalies kultūros. Nagrinėjama, kokios yra užsienio kalbos mokymosi sudedamosios dalys, pabrėžiant kultūrinio elemento integravimo svarbą; taip pat pateikiama ir keleto įžymių lingvistų pastebėjimų apie tai. Straipsnyje stengiamasi atskleisti kultūros esmę santykyje su kalba bei bandoma įrodyti, jog kalba ir kultūra neatsiejamos. Re- trospektyviai apžvelgiamos kai kurių XIX-XX amžių kalbininkų idėjos, remiančios kultūros mokymą per kalbos mokymą(si). Pateikiama praktinių patarimų, kaip reikėtų integruoti kultūrinius elementus užsienio kalbos klasėje/auditorijoje. Pabaigoje pateikiami atlikto tyrimo rezultatai bei analizė, kuri papildo tiek teorinę, tiek ir praktinę straipsnio dalis.

284 Investigating the Development of Students’ Intercultural Competence

Marek Derenowski Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa w Koninie ul. Przyjaźni 1 62-510 Polska, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The bases for a successful intercultural communication are emotional competence, together with individual intercultural sensitivity. Intercultural competence is needed as the basic ability for any interaction. It is not only necessary to have social skills, but also to improve the sensitivity and understanding for other values, views, ways of living and thinking, as well as being self-conscious in transferring one’s own values and views in a clear, but appropriate way. Intercultural competence helps understanding others and achieving goals. Different individuals will have different goals and will attain varying levels of competence. For some, a goal might be to achieve native-like behavior; for others, it may be to gain acceptance in the host culture; and for still others, just to survive. The paper will aim at investigating the teachers’ awareness of intercultural competence and the means used for the development of the intercultural competence among individual students. Key-words: intercultural competence, cultural training, teaching and developing of culture.

Introduction There are many theories concerning a relationship between a language and culture. One of the scientists to see this phenomenon was Sapir (1970) who stated that the language cannot exist without culture because the language is the expression of a particular culture. This relationship is not accidental but the processes of development of language and culture are not connected and they cannot be compared. The language’s vocabulary reflects culture to a lesser or greater degree. Sapir and Whorf put forward a hypothesis that the grammar of a native language enforces a particular style of perceiving and understanding the world and this is different from thinking norms and behavior of people using other languages (Banach 2003, 4). Risager (2005, 185) suggests that there are two viewpoints on the relationship between language and culture: language and culture as inseparable phenomena and language and culture as separated phenomena. From the first point of view, language is closely associated with a culture while the second one claims language to be cultur-

285 ally neutral. The concept of languaculture helps to explain a new understanding of the relationship between language and culture in a globalised world. Risager (2005, 190) reports that the concept of languaculture was developed by Agar (1994), who stated that it comprises language plus culture. He devotes attention to its variability in discourse and the semantic and pragmatic variability of linguistic practice and distinguishes three dimensions of languaculture: the semantic and pragmatic potential, the poetic potential, the identity potential. The first potential deals with constancy and variability in the semantics and pragmatics of specific languages. The second one refers to the specific kinds of meaning created in the exploitation of the phonological and syllabic structure of the language in question. In the case of the third dimension, it concerns the social variation of the language in question. However, Moran’s (2001, 35) point is that the language is literally everywhere in the culture. People living in the culture see and hear the language all around, so language and culture are inseparable. Language embodies the products, practices, perspectives, communities, and persons of a culture and the study of language is indispensable in order to reveal the culture fully. Language as a product of the culture is intended to carry out all cultural practices, to identify and organize all cultural products, and to name the underlying cultural perspectives in all communities involved in the culture. Moran (2001, 35) leads to the point that “[t]he words of the language, its expressions, structures, sounds, and scripts reflect the culture, just as the cultural products and practices reflect the language. Language, therefore, is a window to the culture”. He adds that people also need language to practice culture, as we need to communicate with members of the culture. The language needs to be used properly and in a desirable way. This is language of self expression, communication, and social interaction. According to Moran’s (2001, 36) summary, in the case of the first dimension, there is a variety of products of a culture: from isolated objects, artifacts or tools to places, complex social institutions, and other constructions, like art, literature, architecture, and music. Language is a tool in using these products by members of the culture. What is more, some of the products, such as: literature, tax codes, telephone directories, operating instructions, passports consist entirely of language. Similarly, the second dimension - cultural practices mainly require language as people talk when they meet and engage in cultural practices. Interactions and communication among members of the culture involve speaking, listening, reading, and writing. The people involved use either simple or complicated language, depending on the nature of the practice in question. Language also expresses cultural perspectives - the third dimension. It is used to name and understand the perceptions, values, attitudes, and beliefs that influence our lifestyle. We talk, hear, read, and write about perspectives. The perspectives are present in words, phrases, and sentences but some people, particularly outsiders may not understand them clearly (Moran, 2001, 37). Referring to the fourth dimension, when language is situated in specific communities there are variations in forms, meanings, and use. In Moran’s (2001, 38) words, “[c]ommunities develop distinct language to describe and carry out the particular

286 practices and products associated with their group and its activities”. He continues that communities also define norms for language use when they are combined with cultural practices. Different social factors influence who speaks, what they say, and how they say it within groups. It is crucial to use appropriate language. Finally, language is personal. A person shares it with other people on the basis of his or her background, experiences, social groups, personal outlook, and identity. Every individual has a different manner of self-expression in the language which unique, for example: a tone of voice, a certain pitch, or a preference for certain words. They use their own version of language to describe, understand, and respond to their experiences and themselves. The clear relationship between language and culture is also declared by Kramsch (1999, 87). The author distinguishes three types of links between language instruction and the teaching of culture: universal, national, and local links. As far as universal links are concerned, a certain universal culture was acquired when languages like Latin, Greek or Hebrew were taught. What is important, the link between language study and culture was immediate and undisputed. The national links between language and culture imply separation of language teaching from culture teaching. Language teaching is kept within strict structural or functional bounds while culture is considered to be a fifth skill. Kramsch (1999, 88) argues that “language acquisition became the acquisition of skills, of automatic verbal behaviors that were perceived as having no cultural value in themselves, but that could later give access to a national literature with unique cultural value”. In the case of local links, language teaching was supposed to meet the local needs of local speakers in locally situated contexts of communication. The cultural component of language teaching is recognized as the pragmatic functions and notions expressed through language in usual ways of speaking. Moreover, Lambert (1999, 66) refers to the 1993 annual meeting of the Council on International Educational Exchange while discussing the concept of language and ‘intercultural competence’, as his counterpart for ‘global competence’. The definition and the components of global competence were presented during the conference. The analysis of the concept of global competence led to the distinction between knowledge about other societies and three sets of attitudes and skills that are: empathy, approval, and task performance. At present, the first component of intercultural competence - knowledge of other societies and cultures is in the center of attention. Culture is said to be related to language as language provides access to culture. However the degree of similarity of the country where the language is spoken determines the extent of cultural infusion into language instruction. In the case when cultures are very similar to one’s own, cultural materials that are only closely related to the actual speech act are introduced. Lambert (1999, 67) contends that “if the full goal of language instruction is to create intercultural competence, then language teaching must attend to the creation of a set of attitudes and skills as well as cultural content”. The first attitude – intercultural

287 empathy is defined as the ability to see matters in the way the other speaker would. It has been recently referred to as ethnorelativism in the United States. In the case of the second attitude – approval, the learner is expected to view the other society favorably or at least negative stereotypes are believed to be dispelled. There is no necessary link between empathy and approval of another culture and they are even assumed to be the same thing. Lambert (1999, 69) remarks that apart from general purpose language instruction, that includes cultural knowledge, empathy, and approval; there is also vocationally-oriented language education. As it becomes more and more important, a number of major policy steps to deal with it have been taken, such as: the setting of standards for occupational use of languages, monitoring progress, and funding the development of new programs. The point here is that language instruction is supposed to produce more specific intercultural competence. Byram (1997) introduced the concept of intercultural communicative competence (ICC). It was defined as the knowledge, skills and abilities to participate in activities where the target language is the main communication code and in situations where it is the common code for those with different preferred languages (Hall, 2002, 108). Made popular by Byram (1997) this concept was developed as an expansion of communicative competence in response to what Byram (1997) argued, was the need to consider the competence that learners of additional languages develop as qualitatively different form competence that members develop as native speakers of social groups and communities. Learners of other languages should be perceived not as aspiring native speakers but rather as developing intercultural communicators (Hall, 2002, 109). Contacts with other languages and cultures provide an excellent opportunity to foster the development of intercultural communicative competence. Once the process has begun, however, the development of ICC normally involved an on-going and lengthy process, occasionally even with periods of regression or stagnation, and normally with no end point. Different individuals will have different goals and will attain varying levels of competence. For some, a goal might be to achieve native-like behavior; for others, it may be to gain acceptance in the host culture; and for still others, just to survive. It is interesting to note that the more deeply an individual enters into a second language-culture (LC2, or linguaculture), the more profound are its effects on one’s native linguaculture (LC1). A common result is that the individuals will modify their initial perspectives and understanding of the world. Both transcendence and transformation of one’s original mode of perceiving, knowing, and expressing about the world, take place in the process (Hall, 2002, 111). People need the ability to communicate in a successful way. Basic needs are sensitivity and self-consciousness. The understanding of other behaviors and ways of thinking as well as the ability to express one’s own point of view in a transparent way with the aim to be understood and respected by staying flexible where this is possible, and being clear and transparent where this is necessary. Intercultural communicative competence is the ability of successful communication with people of other cultures.

288 This ability can exist in the individual at a young age, or may be developed and improved due to willpower and competence. The bases for a successful intercultural communication are emotional competence, together with individual intercultural sensitivity. Intercultural communicative competence is needed as the basic ability for any interaction. It is not only necessary to have social skills, but also to improve the sensitivity and understanding for other values, views, ways of living and thinking, as well as being self-conscious in transferring one’s own values and views in a clear, but appropriate way (Byram, 1997). According to Hall (2002, 48) “[…] current understanding stands in marked contrast to the more traditional view of language and culture learning”. The acquisition of language and the acquisition of social and cultural competence are not develop- mentally independent processes, nor is one process a developmental prerequisite of the other. Rather the two above mentioned processes are intertwined from the earliest moment of entering the society. Knowledge of these cues is the basis for both linguistic and culture competence (Ochs, 1996, 407). According to him specific components of ICC include the following: • Savoirs: includes the general knowledge of relevant sociocultural groups and their significant communicative activities and events. • Savoir-apprendre: includes the ability to use this knowledge to communicate with others in conventional or expected ways at the levels of both the individual and the group, and the ability to sort through, reflect on and use one’s understanding of the differences and similarities across individuals and groups to form open, flexible communicative plans and perspectives. • Savoir-faire: includes skills of identification, interpretation, analysis and synthesis of patterns and perspectives and of potential sources of miscommunication and incompatibilities. It also includes skills needed to negotiate agreement on places of conflict and acceptance of differences and incompatibilities. • Savoir-etre: refers to general attitudinal dispositions, including a curiosity with and openness to difference, a readiness to suspend disbelief and judgment with respect to others’ meanings, beliefs and behaviors, and a willingness to understand and be sensitive to the perspectives of others (Byram, 1997). Byram (2000b, 2) on the other hand, reports, that intercultural competence involves five elements: 1. attitudes (savoir être): curiosity and openness, readiness to suspend disbelief about other cultures and belief about one’s own; 2. knowledge (saviors): of social groups and their products and practices in one’s own and in one’s interlocutor’s country, and of the general processes of societal and individual interaction;

289 3. skills of interpreting and relating (savoir comprendre) : the ability to interpret a document or event from another culture, to explain it and relate it to documents from one’s own; 4. skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire): the ability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices and the ability to operate knowledge, attitudes and skills under the constraints of real-time communication and interaction; 5. critical cultural awareness/political education (savoir s’engager): an ability to evaluate critically and on the basis of explicit criteria perspectives, practices and products in one’s own and other cultures and countries. In Byram – Gribkova – Starkey’s (2002, 10) opinion, the aims of intercultural dimension teaching are: • to give learners intercultural competence as well as linguistic competence; • to prepare them for interaction with people of other cultures; • to enable them to understand and accept people from other cultures as individuals with other distinctive perspectives, values and behaviors; • to help them to see that such interaction is an enriching experience. The teacher’s role is not to try to change learners’ values but to make them conscious in relations with others, if a given situation requires valuation (Byram, Gribkova, Starkey 2002, 13). Moreover, Bandura (2000, 67) enumerates several assumptions of present foreign language teaching that are characteristic of intercultural approach: 1. Students should be enabled to use the knowledge of their own language and culture in foreign language classes. 2. Students’ knowledge and the ability to analyze and drawing conclusions determine the course and the effect of classes learner-centered( approach). 3. In the integrated language and culture teaching, the content taken from other subjects in the native language is used (content-based and cross-curricular teaching). 4. The teaching involves solving problems, usually while playing simulation games (problem solving, task-oriented learning). 5. Students are required to work with various authentic texts, Internet, and media (authenticity). 6. Teachers and students have the possibility to choose materials they are interested in (autonomy). 7. The classes should prepare students for the direct confrontation with foreign culture during school exchanges or trips to foreign countries (teaching through action). 8. Teachers and students have the opportunity to mediate on cultural identity while reflections which have unpredictable result. Byram (1989, 136) made an attempt to illustrate the process of learning foreign culture in foreign language classes and a model which embraces the philosophy of

290 language and culture teaching. As far as teaching is concerned, the author suggests referring to social sciences, particularly cultural and social anthropology. However, in the case of learning he mentions social psychology, particularly one of cognitive psychology theory which explains people’s thinking, acting, and perceiving by means of cognitive patterns and scripts, that is hypotheses about surrounding reality that are formulated by people. Cognitive patterns and scripts are the ways people order their cultural experiences and the process of acculturation can be understood by the analysis of the manner of their modification in the individual’s mind. Therefore, if one wants to understand any new aspect of culture, he or she needs to find a proper pattern suitable for the fragment of reality experienced recently. It is both interesting and difficult to explain how cognitive patterns are changed. Byram (1989, 111) assumes that within the process of socialization, a student gradually acquires and modifies cognitive patterns. It is significant that language is of great importance in native culture transferring because within learning culture from family and society, the individual continually negotiates cultural meanings and its patterns of cultural knowledge are modified. He continues that the role of foreign language and culture teacher would be to encourage a student to develop new cognitive patterns which would not substitute for the old ones and the students would use them depending on the situational context. Cognitive structures as cultural meanings which determine the distinction of cultural community serve an important role. In order to change them and make contacts with other cultures possible, the individual should undergo new cultural experience. This experience should be approached gradually and deliberately. Otherwise, previous way of separating between ‘one’s own’ and ‘foreign’ might be intensified. Byram (1989, 116-117) suggests that, in order to change the scheme concerning the concept of foreignness, the starting point should be the change of one’s own identity scheme. The example of new experience can be the presentation of foreigners’ view- point of students’ or of their own culture. In Byram’s (1989, 137-138) conception of foreign culture teaching, known as a modification of monocultural awareness, apart from the learners’ mother tongue importance in the process of cognitive structures changes, teaching foreign culture and language combined proves highly beneficial. The model for language and culture teaching involves four components: • Teaching language skills in order to achieve fluency and correctness in the target language. • Developing the awareness of language as a social and cultural phenomenon. The aim is to understand the relationship between language and other cultural phenomena and this is helpful in foreign language learning and foreign culture understanding. The dominant teaching medium is the learner’s mother tongue and the topics range from first language acquisition, dialects, historical relationships between different languages to social attitudes towards speech and writing.

291 • Teaching cultural awareness which is intended to understand the relationship between language and culture. Both foreign and native language is used, by means of comparison of knowledge about native and foreign culture, particularly from the observer’s perspective (of foreign culture) and the participant’s perspective (of native culture). • Direct cultural experience in the foreign language. It will serve its role if three previous components prepare students for that. It also provides motivation and materials for the other components. Cultural experience is widely available through visits to foreign countries, contacts with native speakers of the target language and also during bilingual classes where the goal of teaching is cultural content and language is used instrumentally. The time allocated to each component will depend on the students’ language level and intellectual maturity. The ratio of language and culture learning integration will vary from 60% of the time spent on language learning in the beginning to 40% on cultural experience in the final year of secondary school (Byram, 1989, 146-147). It is generally accepted that the goal of language learning from a sociocultural perspective is for learners to add alternative knowledge, skills, and abilities for understanding and participating in a range of intellectual and practical activities to their already established repertoires of sense-making knowledge and abilities. Byram, Gribkova and Starkey (2002, 10) present four main aims of intercultural education. They include: 1. Simultaneous development of intercultural and linguistic competences. 2. Making students ready to cooperate with representatives of other cultures. 3. Allowing students to understand and accept the representatives of other cultures. 4. Making students aware that cross-cultural contacts may be an enriching experience. Pulverness (1999, 101-102) describes the essence of acquiring intercultural communicative competence as a modification of monocultural awareness, leading to the discovery of self through an awareness of the politics of difference. The acquisition of language and the acquisition of social and cultural competence are not develop- mentally independent processes, nor is one process a developmental prerequisite of the other. Rather the two above mentioned processes are intertwined from the earliest moment of entering the society. Knowledge of these cues is the basis for both linguistic and culture competence. Byram, Gribkova and Starkey (2002, in Bandura 2007, 66) state that while developing ICC the aim of the teacher is not to introduce change into the students’ value system, but to make them use it effectively whenever they take part in intercultural contacts which require valuing. On the other hand the aim of the ICC development is the critical understanding of otherness. While developing intercultural communicative competence in the language classroom certain assumptions have to be taken into consideration (Bandura, 2007, 67-68):

292 • Student’s knowledge and his/her ability to analyze and draw conclusions decide on the outcome of the lesson. • Students should be allowed to use their knowledge of L1 and L1 culture during lessons. • Teaching language and culture should be incorporated with knowledge from other subjects (content based and cross-curricular teaching). • Learning happens through problem solving and task-oriented learning. • Authentic texts should be used. • Materials should be chosen according to students’ interests. • Lessons should prepare students for authentic interaction with members of other cultures. • Teacher and students have the chance to autoreflect on cultural identity. During the ICC development the focus should also be on so called transferable skills, which can later be used in any cultural context (Byram, Zarate 1997, 13) and include: critical reading and listening skills (in order to distinguish facts from opinions); comparing and contrasting skills (in order to notice differences between cultures and to make the right conclusions); ethnographic skills; research skills; and affective understanding. Additionally, in the intercultural approach the emphasis is put on integration between learning in the classroom and learning outside the classroom. So called learning-in-action is highly beneficial for the language students while developing ICC, and includes such techniques as: journal writing and self-reflection; portfolio and projects; simulations and drama; problem solving; activities developing creativity and empathy; group work developing cooperation; and field trips, school exchanges (Bandura, 2007, 61). The aim of the research was to find out how teachers develop their students’ intercultural competence. Additionally the research aimed at finding out what teaching culture meant for the respondents and what techniques they used for developing IC in their language classrooms. Methods. Conducted at four secondary schools in Konin, the study included thirty teachers of English, German who were asked to fill in a short questionnaire regarding their understanding of the concept of intercultural competence. Some of the questions included a 5-point Likert scale from 5 = strongly positive to 1 = strongly negative. Teachers were also asked to add any personal comments. At the end of the research four teachers were invited to a semi structured interview and asked the following questions: • How do you understand the term culture? • How important for you is teaching culture in the language classroom? • How do you incorporate the elements of the target language culture into your lessons? • How do you understand the term intercultural communicative competence? • How do help your students to develop their IC?

293 Teachers were supervised by the researcher who explained the purpose of the research and answered any questions. The research was designed as a pilot study and the collected data was mainly qualitative but also quantitative.

Results of the research It was clear from the questionnaire results that all teachers understood the importance of teaching culture in the foreign language classroom (mean = 5.00). Additional, individual comments included: Culture and language are inseparable. Without culture learning a language is not complete. I cannot imagine my language lessons without some TLC in it. Despite such a unanimous answer, it has to be clearly stated that although teachers acknowledge the importance of incorporating the elements of the target language culture into the language curriculum, they often do not put theory into practice. Nowadays all the coursebooks include TLC however, many teachers either do not develop the students’ cultural awareness or they just follow the coursebook without any additional materials or comments. The teachers were also asked to evaluate statements as to what teaching culture meant for them. ‘Being open and tolerant towards other cultures’ was given a reasonably high ranking (mean = 4.56). Comments included: Students have to be willing and tolerant to accept other cultures and differences. Without tolerance and openness my students will never be effective language users. Similarly to ‘Contact with various forms of other cultures such as music, literature, movies’ (mean = 4.43). Movies and songs are the easiest ways of teaching culture. Films and songs make students motivated and are a great source of the TLC. Through songs and their lyrics I can teach my students contemporary target language culture. ‘Providing information about customs and traditions of other cultures’ proved to be less popular (mean = 3.82). Here some of the comments included: It would be nice if the students looked for the information on their own. I cannot do everything for them. Sometimes I think I do not know enough to teach culture. ‘Developing knowledge concerning L1 culture’ was the least preferred statement (mean = 3.12). The teachers taking part in the research project admitted to not having sufficient knowledge of their own culture. In their comments they often wrote that more extensive knowledge of L1 culture would help them in teaching target language culture. Teachers often do not see the need for developing their general knowledge of the world and they prefer to stick to the selected coursebook, which is a problem because students often mention the teacher’s ‘knowledge of the world’ as a characteristic of a respected and professional language teacher. The next question

294 in the study investigated the most popular means/techniques for teaching culture in the classroom. The teachers’ choices are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Teachers’ choices of techniques used for teaching TL culture No Means/techniques used for teaching TL culture Rate (% of subjects) 1 Tell students what I read or heard about other cultures 40% 2 Tell students about my travel experience 45% 3 Ask my students about their travel experience 70% 4 Decorate classroom with posters and other visual aids 80% 5 Compare cultures. Stereotypes 85% 6 Use visual aids, video, CD-ROM, internet 90% 7 Tell students about my personal perception of other cultures 35% 8 Compare selected aspects of their own culture and TLC 56% 9 Describe aspects of their own culture in the target language 23% 10 Role plays 12% 11 Authentic materials brought to the classroom 55% 12 Ask students to reflect on the aspects of the TLC 13% 13 Ask students to imagine life in the TLC 10%

As can be seen from the table the most popular means/techniques for teaching target language culture the most popular were the use of audio visual aids, comparing cultures, and decorating classrooms with posters and pictures. The other side of the scale included: asking students to imagine life in the TLC, role plays, and reflection on the TLC. It seems that teachers prefer means/techniques which are easily accessible and easy to prepare (or ready made). On the other hand, means/techniques which require from teachers and their students some background knowledge of the outside world and analytical skills are treated with reservation. The reason for such situation may be the overall approach towards language teaching and language learning. The language is now seen as a tool rather than knowledge. Students look for techniques that would quickly equip them with the necessary language skills rather than make them analyze and think about the process of language acquisition. Teachers seem to adjust themselves to the students’ instrumental demands. The last section of the questionnaire focused on the teachers’ opinions concerning the concept of intercultural communicative competence. The highest mean preference was expressed for such statements as: ‘all students should acquire IC’ (mean = 4.63), understanding of the L1 culture is equally important as understanding the TLC (mean = 4.56), ‘the more students know about culture the more tolerant they are’ (mean= 4.54), ‘teachers are responsible for showing the real image of the TLC, even the negative one’ (mean= 4.34), ‘if the number foreign language hours is limited learning a language should have priority over learning the TL culture’ (mean = 4.24), and ‘misunderstandings result not only from lack of cultural awareness but also from lack of language competence’ (mean = 4.13). The lowest mean preference was for such

295 statements as: ‘students have to become language proficient before learning the TLC’ (mean = 3.12), ‘culture education strengthens the already existing stereotypes’ (mean = 3.35), and ‘one cannot develop IC in the language classroom’ (mean = 3.21). When analyzing the above presented results one can clearly see that teachers do acknowledge the importance of developing students’ IC. However, it has to be mentioned that questionnaires used for collecting data may not be completely reliable as they often present the teachers’ wishful thinking and not the reality. Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that the teachers’ awareness of the IC and their willingness to develop it in their students is still a promising perspective. Without exception, all the teachers who were interviewed believed that incorporating the elements of the target language culture is an essential condition for students to become proficient foreign language users. Furthermore, all interviewees used a variety of techniques used for teaching the elements of the target language culture during the process of language teaching. Some of the techniques, such as using audio visual aids or presenting stereotypes were often mentioned by the interviewed teachers as the most effective ones. When asked about the ways of helping students in developing their intercultural communicative competence all the interviewed teachers acknowledged the importance of IC in the effective and meaningful language communication. The interviewees agreed that intercultural communicative competence development has to be incorporated into their daily classroom teaching routines. They also stated that IC can and should be developed outside the classroom, without teacher’s direct guidance. Teachers who took part in the interview stated that their teaching practices focus on developing students’ cultural awareness and sensitivity towards otherness of foreign language cultures. At the same time they admitted that their own knowledge concerning TLC is either not sufficient enough or not broaden regularly. Moreover, the interviewees said that the culture teaching was based mainly on the audio-visual aids, usually included in the coursebooks.

Conclusions A sociocultural perspective on human actions locates the essence of social life in communication. With the use of the language people establish personal goals and negotiate means to achieve them. Simultaneously people articulate and manage their individual identities, interpersonal relationships, as well as, membership in social groups and communities (Hall, 2002, 11). It seems natural to assume that the language one uses, defines the culture it originates from. Finnocchiaro (1964, 8) defines language as “a system which allows all the representatives of the same culture and all the people who learnt the system of the given culture to communicate and interact”. If so, it seems logical to state that simultaneously with the language development the students should automatically extend their knowledge concerning the target language culture. It is worth presenting few, undisputable benefits resulting from the development

296 of students’ intercultural competence. First of all, students become more self aware. They learn about their own strengths, weaknesses, prejudices, and preconceptions. Second of all, students become more self confident and motivated. Through self- analysis people begin to recognize areas in which they need to improve and become motivated to develop. The development of ICC results also in building trust which is the outcome of the cultural dialogue among students. Cultural competency training helps learners to think outside the box and opens their horizons. The same cultural training demystifies ‘the other’ and creates awareness. Another undisputable benefit of IC development is the increase of sensitivity and empathy which leads to more effective communication. Finally, intercultural communicative competence training enhances people’s skills and therefore future employment opportunities.

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298 SANTRAUKA Studentų tarpkultūrinės kompetencijos ugdymo tyrimas Marek Derenowski

Straipsnyje tiriama, kaip mokytojai suvokia trapkultūrinę kompetenciją ir kokiomis priemonėmis ugdoma studentų asmeninė tarpkultūrinė kompetencija. Sėkmingos tarpkultūrinės komunikacijos pagrindas – emocinė kompetencija ir asmeninis tarpkultūrinių skirtumų suvokimas. Tarpkultūrinė kompetencija kaip esminis gebėjimas yra reikalingas bet kokiai komunikacijai. Būtina turėti ne tik socialinius įgūdžius, bet tobulinti kitų vertybių, požiūrių, gyvenimo būdo ir mąstymo supratimą, o taip pat būti sąmoningu aiškiai ir tinkamai perteikiant savas vertybes ir požiūrius. Tarpkultūrinė kompetencija padeda suprasti kitus ir pasiekti savo tikslus. Skirtingi žmonės turės skirtingus tikslus ir pasieks juos naudodami įvairius kompe- tencijų lygius. Vieniems tikslas – išsiugdyti tokį elgesį, kuris būdingas konkrečioje šalyje gyvenantiems žmonėms, kitiems – būti priimtiems svetimoje kultūroje, tre- tiems – tik išgyventi.

299 Massmedia, Family and Sociocultural Aspects

Ondrej Halas Constantine the Philosopher University, Faculty of Arts, Department of Culturology, 1 Hodzova St., SK-949 74, Nitra, Slovak Republic, [email protected]

ABSTRACT A true reflexion of the culture becomes very actual in the teaching process nowadays. It is very important to grow out culturally. Therefore, this presentation will try to follow the cultural and social aspects having impact on the quality of the teaching process with regard to existing cultural and multicultural surrounding world with its need for education in foreign languages. The aim of this presentation is to focus mainly on the impact of media onto the well-balanced cultural development of individuals, the contribution of media to education of young people and the importance of the education in families and schools. Families, schools and media can really form the culture and way of education, because they are usually our patterns of life and behavior. Key words: family, society, culture, education, edification

INTRODUCTION A human being is a social entity living in a community. The word “community” acquires a new dimension, another meaning and inner comprehension nowadays. The community becomes an inner spiritual tie connecting people, enabling them to develop fully and assert their features. Interpersonal relationships are important. A human being becomes a man due to society educating her/him. Thinking about this it can be realised that everybody needs inevitably somebody else. There must be somebody available the individual can commit to her/him and trust her/him. It is important that a man with her/his meaning changes internally in the main. An individual is a unique being. Therefore, she/he shall enrich her/his inner spirituality, education and culture. She/he never shall devastate them.

1. SOCIETY AND FAMILY It is very important for the life of each man where and how does she/he grow up. More accurate, what does impact the proper formation of her/his personality. In this regards, it is important to point out that she/he lives in a society which rec- ognises certain values connected with the correct or incorrect development of the

300 socio-cultural feeling. Than, everything is reflected in relationships into which the individual enters. At present, information technologies – with connected expansion of mass media like press, television and internet – are considered as the greatest educator and helper and at the same time, as an enemy. They can help with education, edification and basic cultural value inculcation into pupils, students and youth minds on one side. On the other hand, we the fact must be accepted that these media offer to young people an increasing quantity of movies with action or erotic scenes which usually have nothing to do with the correct cultural and sophisticated intellectual growth of individuals. The education to correct values shall mainly originate from families because the family is considered as one of the main surroundings where children grow up and learn. The family should not be forgotten because it is very useful for education and edification. The family should prepare individuals which have especially there obtained the spiritual and socio-cultural fundamentals in the shape of moral and ethic standards formulating ideally her/his opinions and acts. The family is an institution helping the individual to find what she/he needs. The family is a community implanting into individuals how to behave, what to profess, how to enter into mutual interactions, how to grow culturally and spiritually. Just in the family, the axiological chart of the life priorities of the individual – family, religion, culture, money, carrier etc. – has been formulated, highly probably without her/his appreciation. Our world needs more justice, honesty, culture, cultivation, certain scale of humil- ity. All that can be reached when the spiritual and cultural formation of individuals is routed correctly. Emotional, educational, social and protective family functions should be applied in families as much as possible. Than, the conscience will assure that the individuals will comply with the good and oppose the evil.

2. MASSMEDIA AND CULTURE IN EDUCATION PROCESS Further on, the school has to prepare the pupil for the life so that she/he shall be able to come up with the changing requirements of the society which will surely wait for her/him in the future. The scientific and technical progress relates to this issue because it influences expressively the education and edification. Mass media influence expressively the education and edification processes not only in schools. It is necessary to be well oriented in the quantities of information offered by media. The correct polarization of children and young people lies on the shoulders of parents and schoolmen. In many cases, media owing to help with children´s education and teaching undermine the efforts of parents and teachers to formulate the personality of these individuals. Enthroning of positive human characters or different cultural events

301 seem to became old fashioned. There is a question about how the next generation will grow up. Even by means of media, many interesting and edifying things could get to pupils, students and children. Instead of that, the efforts of schoolmen, parents and cultural workers stop on a sort of degraded understanding of sense and need for educative process and cultural growth. Though, there is a wide scale of multi media programs, didactic games, educational programs, electronic textbooks which can influence the teaching process and the personality of the pupil. Media, internet and PC constitute an integral part of the today´s world especially in educational incidence on youth. They shall make life easier by bringing information about local and international events, movies, entertainment, documentary movies and others. In the past, there were broadcasted many educational programs specialised in history, culture, habits and traditions, nature, travelling, foreign language teaching. These programs disappeared slowly from display screens and were substituted by movies which are full of action scenes, blood, violence, sex. This fact really begins to have negative impacts in everyday´s life. When speaking about media, education of youth and culture, it is necessary to think about the content of the word “culture” itself – what is it and what it has to be. The culture is a cultivated form of human being, style of personal and social form, growing, maturing and cultivating humanity, e.g. culture is a human work and its result. It is a non-personal and objective result of human activity changing its creator and bearing witness of the cultural performance quality. The individual in the present should grow much more culturally compared to the past periods when our parents and grandparents were grown up. Still, less and less culture is to be seen around and in media. The question is whether is it possible for a young man to grow culturally in the current media world. Culture itself is an integral part of human life. The surrounding society influences the individual´s way of thinking, behaviour and practices. The individual is always confronted with it. Culture is a complex of spiritual and material values of all society members. The culture formats the human way of thinking. It is not profitable for the social growth when the culture is not comprehended in human lives and media. The information owing to educate and inform people disappears from display screens. In order to reach higher profits, many organisations do not care about the content of individual information. Sometimes, to the prejudice of the culture. Fairy tales are one of the means of teaching and certain way of educating. They can be read or watched in television. A fairy tale shows another world, another culture to pupils. It has an educative function too helping, for example, by teaching foreign languages. In many cases, the educating function of fairy tales disappears being replaced by growing scale of violence. For example, the Japanese animated serial named Pokemon represents a “drop in violence sea” only which is watched by children daily. They started to broadcast it

302 on April 1, 1997 in Japan. The 11th series are already casted there. In USA, Canada, United Kingdom and Australia, it started to be broadcasted in September 1998. The first three series have been broadcasted since 2001 in Slovakia. In 2005, they started to broadcast the serial from the beginning again, including the fourth series. The television had to pay a penalty for breach of the law by broadcasting the Pokemon serial, especially for its content. The interesting fact is that four years later, nobody came to think of this content and nobody fined it. The fairy tale tells a story about a boy leaving his native place in order to become the best Pokemon instructor. He travels through Japan regions where hi still has to fight against other opposes. The substance of this story is that through its permanent Pokemon combats the serial has got a negative influence onto a healthy development of children and youth psyche. The number of adventures based on violence and aggressiveness graduates permanently and the aggressiveness of the protagonists and Pokemons grows by reaching higher levels. The question is where would end it. A cultural and cultivated speech should become an essential part of media. The language is the means of communication. Therefore, the language should be overmas- tered by individuals. The culture has been broadened mainly by means of speaking – e.g. by communication with surroundings. The cultivation of people´s speech interrelates with the culture demonstration. The substance of the language cultivation is its improvement and advancement in accordance with the language needs of the society. The language presentation is really very important in culture and media. In language, an individual is getting to know not only the surrounding world but also the results of knowledge and culture being created by the mankind during more than two millenniums. Using vulgarisms, watching more and more action movies full with violence decrease the quality of culture of a nation and future generations. Media are bearers of culture, behaviour and performance patterns. Therefore, the aspects of culture, language, ethics, didactics and law should be considered when choosing and creating content of individual speech. Media should take part on education in an increased degree because they educate and edify the youth too. Hardly anybody demures to assess their content and influence on the lives of generations. In a mass society, the media shall become the mediators of cultural values. They shall present not only up-to-date information about events happening around but also they shall create full-valued information beneficial for people. Press and other media preserving a certain cultural heritage shall support the creativity. The articles fulfil the amusing and informational function but they do not enrich the life of a man. The meaning of culture would gain another importance. It is advisable for the renewal of the culture to get the idea of the culture into human consciousness in its correct sense of the word and not as it is presented by media like a synonym for arts.

303 The media or cultural education shall be involved into educational system by foreign language learning. A child would learn how to recognise the true values from the false ones. Naturally, the renewal in the culture in teaching can be reached by conscience formulation which will become more sensitive for not measurable value of the man´s life.

3. FOREING LANGUAGES AND THEIR CULTURAL ADDITION The foreign language teaching can be confronted through mass media. Digital broadcasting with programs in different languages is accessible which can enable the teaching of foreign languages and make the teaching process more effective. English, German and French are the mostly spoken languages. The knowledge of foreign languages is inevitable at present. The study of foreign languages is correct. But it is important to preserve a certain national identity, cultural habits and traditions too. The language shall become means of communication with surrounding world – it means a multicultural component enabling to get know other worlds and cultures. There is a proverb – how many languages you speak as many time you become a man. Besides English, there are other languages worth studying – Slavonian languages as Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, Polish, Russian and others. The contemporary world has been Americanised too much – it is interlaced by English which became something like a world Esperanto. Each language has something to offer to world. The methods of teaching are different. It does not need to be English only. An evidence of the fact that other languages are pleasant too is the example from Eurovision 2004 contest. A Serbian singer sang his song in his mother tongue – Serbian. He did not behave like others, he did not sing in English. He gained the second place, some voices only behind the winning Ruslana singing English. Media, television, press, radio, internet showed that each language is a cultural phenomena having the power to enrich people spiritually and culturally. The language represents the culture, habits of the given country. It shall not be forgotten when learning and teaching foreign languages – everybody can become enriched spiritually. The foreign language learning comprises the culture and cultural aspects too. It consists of knowledge of habits and traditions of the given country. The culture represents the pattern of human behaviour, communication, language, habits and traditions of a group of people. Presently, the culture becomes an integral part of teaching. Many cultural elements can approximate the language and culture to students. Thanks to culture and approximated habits, the students can understand better the behaviour of people, social situation, cultural similarities and language differences. The culture develops an ability of a certain understanding and empathies to target culture and language by the students. Media and technical conquests can help in this process. The cultural aspects are usually disclosed by a nearer contact with language, authentic materials like news-

304 papers, magazines, television broadcasting, internet, songs, reading of literary works showing the traditions, habits, way of habitation, living, representation. In the past, the languages were tutored mainly by memorising without any possibility of direct confrontation with other ways of teaching, other cultures. Presently thanks to media, teaching programs, new ways of tutoring, it is possible to travel to foreign countries in order to get educated there and to get familiar with the surroundings, to read, listen, watch programs and understand better the language and the culture there. It enriches people. It is very important to use the literature in the given foreign language because the learning can become more motivating and attractive. Mainly the authentic materials can enrich the trainee. Reading and literary studies play an important role in learning. They belong to the oldest but very effective ways. Thanks to texts, the visual and listening ability, fantasy, humour and aesthetic qualities of students are developed. The literature helps fulfil oneself in foreign languages, it brings new ideas, opinions to cultural understanding and universal human values. It helps understand and feel oneself more deeply into target culture and target language.

CONCLUSIONS The aim of this presentation is to show the socio-cultural aspects having an influence on the life of an individual and her/his socio-cultural and socio-educational development. A man learns all the time, she/he lives in a society which influences her/his education. The education proceeds mainly in families and schools presently. The media cannot be forgotten because they can help by teaching in a positive or negative sense. Media can be used in culture-educational process. Very often, violence appears in media having a negative influence on healthy development of individuals. If media are used in an effective way the quality of education and cultural life will be improved. Media approximate world, culture, habits, traditions, foreign language to others. Thanks to learning foreign languages, the world approximates to individuals. The quality of the broadcasting content is very important.

REFERENCES 1 Čapková, R. ��2005. ��Česká reklama a intertextualita. ��In: Zborník RARA AVIS. Trnava: KSJL FF UCM, p. 58-66, ISBN 80-89034-96-9. 2. Ď�urigová,�� N.� 2004��. ��Medzikultúrna komunikácia. ��Aktuálne problémy a možnosti riešenia. In: Acta Culutologica 14. Bratislava: UK. 3 Halás, O . ��2009. ��De�ť��om patrí ozajstné detstvo bez násilia. ��In: Katolícke noviny. Bratislava: vol. 121, No. 37. 4 Hanus, L:L.: 1994. ��Romano Guardini. Myslite��ľ a�� pedagóg storočia. Bratislava:�� LÚ�Č,�� Kováčová, Z. 2004. Slangové výrazové prostriedky v masmediálnej komunikácii

305 a ich vplyv na kultúru jazykového prejavu mládeže. In: Otázky jazykovej kultúry. Nitra: KSJ FF UKF. 5. ��Kralčák, �Ľ. 2004��. ��Jazyková kultúra a dynamika jazyka. ��In: Otázky jazykovej kultúry. Nitra: KSJ FF UKF, P. 101-112.  Mistrík, E . ��and col. ��1999. ��Kultúra a multikultúrna výchova. ��Culture and Multicultural Education. Bratislava: IRIS. 7. ��Obert, V. 2003��. Rozvíjanie literárnej kultúry žiakov. Bratislava: OG – Vydavateľstvo Poľana. 8 Petlák, E. 1997��. Všeobecná�� didaktika. ��Bratislava: IRIS.. 9 Petlák, E. –�� Komora, J. ��2003. Vyučovanie�� v otázkách a odpovediach. Bratislava��. 10 Pokrivčák, A,A., Pokrivčáková, S. ��2006. Understanding literture. Brno: MSD. 11 Pokrivčáková, S. ��2010. Modern teacher of English. Nitra: ASPA. 12. http://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokemon

Santrauka Masinės komunikacijos priemonės, šeima ir sociokultūriniai aspektai Ondrej Halas

Dabartiniu momentu tikslus kultūros atspindėjimas tampa itin svarbiu aspektu ugdymo procese. Kadangi kultūrinis žmogaus ugdymas yra reikšmingas, šiame straipsnyje bus analizuojami kultūriniai ir socialiniai aspektai, tiesiogiai įtakojantys ugdymo proceso kokybę, kreipiant dėmesį į kultūrinį ir daugiakultūrinį mus supantį pasaulį, kuriam būdingas poreikis mokytis užsienio kalbų. Straipsnyje dėmesys sutelkiamas ties masinių informacijos priemonių poveikiu gerai subalansuotam kultūriniam individo ugdymui, jų indėlį į jaunų žmonių švietimą ir ugdymo svarbą šeimose ir mokyklose. Šeima, mokykla ir masinės informavimo priemonės realiai gali formuoti ugdymo kultūrą ir būdus, nes tai yra veiksniai, kurie dažniausiai modeliuoja gyvenimo būdą ir elgesį.

306 Promoting Writing Instruction in English in the Lithuanian Context

Laima Erika Katkuvienė Department of English Philology, Vilnius University, 3 Universiteto St., Vilnius LT–01513, Lithuania [email protected]

ABSTRACT Over the last decade the overall English language proficiency has improved considerably in Lithuania, however, writing has not yet merited the attention it deserves. Thus the aim of the article is to familiarize the audience with several important issues in the area. The article will focus on the types and functions of writing and will attempt to explain why writing competence in general and specifically in English matters in this country. Then it will trace the development of the discipline of academic writing at the Department of English Philology, Vilnius University and will give an overview of written assignments such as diaries, journals, reports, essays, critiques and research papers that English Philology students are expected to produce at the BA level as well as the methods used to teach these genres. The text will include the presentation of the writing program offered at the department, the problems that were encountered while implementing it and the assistance rendered by international cultural and educational institutions. It will end by attempting to evaluate the efficacy of the program and achievements in the area. Key-words: writing competence, academic writing, written assignments.

The purpose of the article is twofold. First, it is designed to remind the audience of the fact that in the present day society writing is a key skill; then it will focus on the development of writing instruction at the Department of English Philology, Vilnius University and will try to evaluate the writing program offered there. It is a well-known truth that writing is a fascinating object of research. It is a complex phenomenon that lends itself to many different approaches. In what follows just a few of them will be mentioned. We will start by comparing the mastery of the four language skills: the acquired skills-speaking and listening vs. the learned skills – reading and writing. It goes without saying that everybody is familiar with this division but perhaps not many have given thought to why it exists; according to Kaplan (1987) , ‘speech was built into the DNA/genetic code of a human being, but writing was not, because it appeared much

307 later; that is why it has to be learned only through purposeful exposure.’ He goes on to say that ‘one may acquire the ability to write but not the ability to write as an aim /to compose’. Hence the conclusion that in order to master writing as an aim, special instruction is needed. But what is the difference between writing as an aim and writing as a means? What are the functions of writing? If we use writing to teach and test vocabulary, spelling, grammar rules etc. then this application of writing is called ‘writing as an aid’; writing is used as a teaching and/or testing instrument; but if we ask students to write a letter, a story, a paragraph or an essay, i.e. which is writing above sentence level, then we have writing as an aim where students learn to structure their ideas, using their own words and grammatical structures (Ur, 1996). Why mention it? Because often teachers claim that they do devote a lot of time to writing but this is not borne out by a closer look at the kind of writing activities performed in class or at home (cf. Fulwiler (1982): in US schools about 44% of time is devoted to writing but only 3% to writing as an aim).This used to be an overall typical attitude to writing; the distinction between writing as a means and as an aim was not perceived in this country even by university teachers – the book with a promising title ’A Course in Written English’ by Walsh et al, published in 1983 in Moscow and intended for tertiary educational institutions, included primarily exercises in phonetics, morphology, grammatical structures, elements of style, punctuation, etc.- thus writing was mostly used as a learning tool, with merely several pages devoted to writing proper, such as the structure and types of essays , summary writing, etc. and a few exercises which required higher-level thinking skills, e.g., complete the story, write a composition on an assigned topic. Though at present the importance of writing as an aim is widely acknowledged, the distinction between these two functions of writing should always be kept in mind. What is it that we gain by recourse to writing? How do we benefit from the acquisition of writing skills? Researchers typically indicate a very close relationship between writing and thinking. The first benefit of writing is one’s intellectual growth – Robert Frost claims that ‘to learn to write is to learn to have ideas’. Writing may also help to clarify vague ideas; according to E.M.Forster, ‘how the devil do I know what I think till I see what I have written?’ (for more information see Katkuvienė, 2003). A similar idea is expressed by the Lithuanian philosopher Maceina (2000): Nežinojau, kaip šią idėją reiks išvystyti. O kai pradėjau rašyti, mintys susikris- talizavo pačiu rašymo vyksmu ir sekėsi labai gerai. Neaiški, man pačiam tamsi idėja išsisklaidė, išryškėjo. In addition, we have to organize our ideas into a coherent, linear text; so writing can help us to discover flaws in our thinking and can also tell us when we need to gather additional information or discard an idea (White & Arndt 1996); as a result, it promotes higher-level thinking skills. It may also be interesting to discover what practical applications writing lends itself to. What follows are only the most important ones; writing may be used

308 - as a memory aid (shopping lists are coming into use even in this country) - as a therapeutic method (expressing our emotions through writing and thus getting them off our chest) - as a means of self-actualisation (esp. in diaries, where we explore many different aspects of ourselves through writing) - as a means of communication - it is an indispensable skill for students and - a critical tool for teachers (for more information see Katkuvienė, 2003) But what about the mastery of writing skills in English? Should we promote our students’ written proficiency in English? Now that English functions as lingua franca in a number of important areas such as business, mass media, research, sports, tourism, youth culture etc, Lithuania does not seem to present an exception to this global trend. While some researchers view English as a threat to national languages, especially those of minor nations, others treat it as ‘a safe gateway language for lesser known cultures’ (Zauberga, 1999) and maintain that ‘to be deprived of the opportunity to learn to write(in English) is to be excluded from a wide range of social roles’ (Trib- ble,1996). There are many other challenging lines of exploration in the area of writing such as a comparison of written-based and oral-based cultures, methods of teaching writing, the status of writing in the present world etc. Besides, we may divide the products of writing, or, as the English call it, the writing cake itself in more ways than one – we may compile a list of written genres which are produced at our institution, familiarize ourselves with the four modes of writing – description, narration, exposition and argumentation, discuss the four worlds of writing – the private world, the public world, the working world, and the academia – all of which are challenging objects of inquiry (for more information see Katkuvienė, 2003). But at this point it is time to narrow down the subject – and switch over from writing in general to writing instruction in English and the writing program at the Department of English Philology, Vilnius University. For more than two decades writing has been taught at the department and, most importantly, as a subject in its own right; but this has not always been the case. So what was the Lithuanian context several decades ago? It would not be fair to say that writing was absolutely non-existent earlier. Some three or four decades ago it was practiced extensively (same as at present) as a learning and testing tool; in addition, students were expected to produce writing as an aim texts, mostly literary genres, such as stories, fables, fairy tales, etc. A specific assignment, called ‘activisation’ of words and expressions through building a text around them was very popular; words were provided, but the content and structure were of one’s own choice; so this was an intermediary assignment between writing as a means and writing as an aim. And, certainly, the key genre was the research paper, primarily

309 yearly papers. The graduation paper was not obligatory – very few students, if any at all, were then considered to be sufficiently mature to compose it. There were several drawbacks here; in the first place, the choice and frequency of writing tasks depended very much on personal likes or dislikes of the teacher – writing was integrated into the language practice classes and written assignments were not a must. The greatest problem, however, was that students were not taught to write. It was taken for granted that once they entered the university they were expected to possess sufficient writing skills. If they had any problems with writing they had to cope with them on their own; typically they were expected to learn to write by perusing texts of other authors and imitating them. As a matter of fact, supervisors did offer help with research papers – in the area of content but not, as a rule, in the area of structure or organization. One more stumbling block was absence of writing textbooks, both in English and in Lithuanian. To the best of my knowledge, the only book in Lithuanian that addressed writing issues at university level was Bendrosios mokslinio darbo metodikos pradai by Šalkauskis. But, published in 1933, it was practically unavailable. The only valuable book in English that addressed the issue of modes of writing (A Guide-Book to Written English) was composed by my colleague, Lilija Talmantienė, in 1978 as well as the aforementioned A Course in Written English by Walsh et al., 1983. So when in 1987 I found myself in Guildford University, Surrey, I made several astonishing discoveries: that, first, writing could – and should – be taught, moreover, as a separate subject and, second, there were a number of excellent writing teachers who specialized in this aspect of language proficiency. One more fantastic discovery was the abundance of writing textbooks. When we were leaving for home after an intensive four-month writing instruction, my writing teacher, Ms. Smiljka Gee, presented me with two books, which later became a sort of Bible for me and my colleagues; they were the 1st edition of Introduction to Academic English by Oshima & Hogue, 1987 and Research Matters by Lyons and Courter, 1984. On return I started integrating the writing component into my language practice classes and tried to interest my colleagues into this new aspect; at first they were skep- tical but soon word spread among students that there were interesting developments in several groups and this encouraged my colleagues to join the writing project. So it was a kind of grass-roots movement (we seem to have been the first higher educational institution in this country to have offered systematic writing instruction in English). In the beginning writing was integrated into language practice classes, but soon we decided that it was as important an aspect as, say, phonetics or grammar and this was the beginning of writing as a discipline in its own right. There was a snowball effect, too; at first writing was taught only to 2nd year students but later it was introduced to the curriculum of all BA level courses, later, to the MA level as well. One of the greatest problems that we faced was that having received no writing instruction, teachers themselves lacked writing skills – it was like the blind leading the blind. How did we solve it? ‘The old guard’ was not too enthusiastic about acquiring a

310 new specialization, so we focused on the young colleagues. Whenever a new teacher was recruited to the department she had to pass a kind of apprenticeship as a writing teacher; it is common knowledge that the best way to learn something is by teaching it! But even though the enthusiasm of my young colleagues was commendable who was to act as our mentors? At this point I would like to express our gratitude to international educational and cultural institutions for offering invaluable assistance in this area. Recognis- ing the importance of this skill and the lack of writing expertise in Lithuania, they worked in several directions – first, they helped organize conferences where prominent writing experts made presentations alongside with our modest attempts at writing research; a number of writing projects were launched as well, some of them covering the three Baltic countries, which not only increased our written proficiency but also provided us with writing textbooks which we ourselves could not afford at the time; and, second, scholarships – both at home and abroad – were offered to writing teachers. Of special help was the institution of the British Council; in 1995 it launched a Pan-Baltic Advanced Writing Project which included teachers of English from three universities – Tallinn, Riga and Vilnius. The project lasted for 3 years and ended in a joint book titled Teachers’ Handbook of Advanced Writing (Tallinn, 1999). The Brit- ish Council was also instrumental in organizing advanced writing conferences in the above universities where key presenters were prominent British writing experts Chris Tribble and Ron White. It should be noted that teachers of English Philology actively participated in these conferences thus passing from writing apprenticeship to the stage of mature writing teachers. The British Council also supported my four week attachment to Reading University under the guidance of Ron White, the author of several influential books on writing. The America Centre was another institution which very actively promoted our attempts to acquire written proficiency. They presented the department with US $ 1,000 book voucher which was the beginning of the departmental library section of writing books. In 2000 I was granted the Fulbright scholarship at Carnegie-Mel- lon University, Pennsylvania; another scholarship was offered by the Open Society Lithuania. The result of these scholarships were my two books on writing – ‘Writing Matters’ (2003) and ‘Research Matters’ (with coauthor, 2006) ; the latter book went into 2 editions. In addition, the America Centre was instrumental in providing the department with a number of Fulbright scholars from various American universities who shared their writing expertise with the faculty and students. Invaluable help was offered by the Nordic Council and the Department of Eng- lish, Uppsala University. The department hosted six English Philology teachers for longer or shorter periods of stay, with Ingegerd Baecklund, the hospitable head of the department, familiarising us with Swedish scholarship and writing expertise. In 1996-97 two teachers of this department – Alan Shima and Pamela Marston-worked with our students – by e-mail or during extended visits-within the framework of the

311 Swedish Institute project with the aim to introduce the Swedish writing curriculum and methodology to our writing program. So with all this generous help, what are our achievements in the area of writing instruction? At our department writing is taught as a subject in its own right in all four years of the BA level. Specialised writing instruction is also offered at the MA level. The genres that we consider essential at these levels are as follows: the diary and the journal (personal writing); the report based on a questionaire; the essay (primarily expositive and argumentative); the exam essay; the critique; and, to crown it all, the research paper – yearly papers, BA and MA papers – with a special focus on such subgenres as types of the abstract, titles and outlines. Finally, a course on rhetoric is offered which helps to put practical knowledge gained against a theoretical background and provides the student with a possibility to systemize all knowledge gained. What is the methodology used to bring all this expertise home to our students? Certainly, much depends on personal preferences of individual teachers but overall we seem to resort to a mixed bag of teaching strategies. Tribble (1996) maintains that it would be wrong to view different methods of teaching writing as incompatible; what is more, he encourages teachers to draw on the strengths of all the approaches, taking into consideration the type of institution, the level of the students and their particular needs. Thus with essays we try to combine the focus on the writer method with that of focus on the form; the research paper seems to lend itself most readily to the genre approach plus focus on the writer. Besides, in supervising the composition of the research paper we also resort to Writing across the Curriculum approach; we believe that this combination of methods provides a supervisee with much individual attention both from the subject and writing teacher and from peers, since, according to W. C. Booth, ‘the lack of individual attention … is most harmful in the teaching of writing” (for more information see Katkuvienė, 2003). So was the game worth the candle? Was it worth while investing so much time and energy into promoting our students’ written competence? Can we claim that our students’ writing knowledge has improved considerably? This is the most difficult question for me to answer – written proficiency varies from student to student, from year to year; a lot depends on the writing instruction in the native language which they have received at secondary school. Perhaps the answer should be provided by the students themselves. As a matter of fact, the answer was provided a month ago- in a report which aimed to assess what the English Philology alumni see as their strengths, the former students mentioned their writing skills (accessed 15 December, 2010, available from w.w.w. Balsas.lt). In addition, there is an indirect indication of our students’ written proficiency offered by MA level teachers – there our students compare favourably with students from other educational institutions on a regular basis. Interestingly, several of our former students now work as writing teachers in US and Canada. But there is one thing I am sure about – writing is considered by a number of my colleagues to be a challenging and researchable area which is attested by the fact that

312 at present five PhD theses (some of them have already been defended, others are still in the process of preparation) in our department address various writing issues-both in English and Lithuanian. Interestingly, some of them use texts composed by our students as the object of their research. On the basis of our students’ texts two corpora have been compiled as part of the international ICLE corpus (Leuven Catholic University); the first includes 226 texts written by first year students and consists of more than 92,000 words while the second comprises 253 texts of third and fourth year students and consists of 137,000 words. In addition, the department boasts the presence of some five mature writing teachers. So there is interest in writing at least on the part of the faculty. How do we compare with other departments at the Faculty of Philology? Even though not all of them have as yet included writing into their programs it occupies an important place in the curricular of the departments of German Philology and Nordic languages. So academic writing seems to have come to stay. It may be fitting to end this text with a paraphrasis ofN eil Postman’s words which he said about education – ‘writing does not serve a public. It creates a public.’ I have a modest hope that the public for writing has been created at the Department of English Philology, Vilnius University.

References 1 Fulwiler, T. ��1982. ��Writing: An Act of Cognition. ��In Griffin (ed.) Teaching Writing in All Disciplines. Jossey-Bass Inc. Publishers. 2 Katkuvienė, L . �E. ��2003. Writing Matters. A book for students and teachers in universities and schools. VUP. 3 Kaplan, RBR.B. ��1987. ��Cultural thought patterns revisited. In�� Connor and Kaplan (eds.) Writing across languages: analysis of L2 texts. Addison-Wesley. 4. ��Maceina, A. 2000. ��Dienoraštis. Kultūros barai 6.  Talmantienė, L . ��1978. A Guide-book to Written English. Vilnius.  Ur, P . 199��6. A Course in Language Teaching. England: OUP. 7 White, R. and�� V.Arndt. ��1996. Process Writing. London: Longman. 8 Zauberga, I. 1999��. ��English as the ‘Gateway Language ‘for Minor Literatures. Anglicana Turkuensia 20.

SANTRAUKA Anglų kalbos rašymo gebėjimų plėtojimas lietuviškajame kontekste Laima Erika Katkuvienė

Straipsnio tikslas – dar kartą atkreipti dėmesį į rašymo, o ypač rašymo angliškai, svarbą, ir apžvelgti rašymo disciplinos evoliuciją Anglų filologijos katedroje, Vilniaus universitete. Straipsnis susideda iš dviejų dalių: pirmojoje kalbama apie rašymo ti-

313 pus bei funkcijas ir bandoma pagrįsti, kodėl rašymo mokymas – ir gimtąja, ir anglų kalba – yra labai svarbus uždavinys. Antrojoje dalyje aptariama, kaip rašymo kursas atsirado Anglų filologijos katedroje ir tapo svarbia disciplina, bei kas padėjo įgyti rašymo dėstytojų kvalifikaciją. Be to, apžvelgiami rašytiniai žanrai, kuriuos katedros studentai turi įsisavinti bei aptariama metodikos, naudojamos rašymo užsiėmimų metu. Straipsnio pabaigoje bandoma įvertinti katedros rašymo programos pasiekimus ir efektyvumą.

314 Motivation Factors in Learning Legal English at Mykolas Romeris University

Rūta Navickaitė, Eglė Selevičienė Mykolo Romerio Universitetas, 20 Ateities St., LT-08303 Vilnius, Lithuania [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT In this article we will discuss a number of factors and inducements that influence the students majoring in Law and Law and Management study programmes to learn a compulsory subject of Professional Foreign Language at Mykolas Romeris University. The main objective of the study was to collect information regarding the issue of motivation within the context of Professional Foreign Language course at the university. In order to answer the question what factors contribute to our students’ enthusiasm and involvement into the subject we designed a questionnaire, which was composed of 15 statements that in our opinion might influence our students’ motivation to study. The factors (both intrinsic and extrinsic) that proved to be motivating according to the findings of our questionnaire are as follows: interesting topics of the study material, a variety of teaching methods used by the lecturers and the ways they present the study material, being enrolled in project based activities, giving and receiving feedback, employment expectations and cultivating an atmosphere of respect in class. Key words: legal English, motivation factors, intrinsic and extrinsic factors, feedback, goal theory.

The article deals with number of factors and inducements that influence Mykolas Romeris University students to learn a compulsory subject of Legal English. Legal English is meant for students majoring in Law and Law and Management study programmes, English being the second language for them. The course is being taught by using several textbooks and teacher designed worksheets, based on authentic material. The nature of the study material is complex enough: the course consists of 15 sections, each being divided into several topics, thus the proportions of professional vocabulary to be memorized are huge. Having covered a set of topics, students write progress tests, are enrolled in certain projects and are evaluated. Attendance is not compulsory, but it is worth saying, the level of attendance is high enough. The main objective of the study was to collect information regarding the issue of motivation within the context of a Legal English course at the universities. Methods and participants of the study. What factors contribute to students’ enthusiasm and involvement into the subject? To answer the question, we designed a

315 questionnaire, which was composed out of 15 statements that, in our opinion might influence our students’ motivation to learn Legal English. The students were asked to tick one of five possible options suiting each of the statement ranging from A (greatly increasing motivation to study), B (tending to increase motivation to study), C (having no effect on motivation to study), D (tending to reduce motivation to study) to E (greatly reducing motivation to study). Data from 90 questionnaires were compiled and the findings were analyzed. The issue of motivation and its importance in ESP learning has been studied profoundly and discussed by many authors; therefore we will only explain the most important terms and base our choice for one or another theory, not going deeper into it. Motivation is usually defined as ‘internal and externalfactor s that stimulate desire and energy in people to be continually interested in and committed to a job, role, or subject, and to exert persistent effort in attaining agoa l’ (http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/motivation.html) In language learning motivation is explained as the learner‘s orientation with regard to the goal of learning a second language’ (Crookes and Schmidt 1991:469) Traditionally, motivation is distinguished as stemming from a desire either to integrate with the target language community (integrative motivation), or to achieve a practical goal (instrumental motivation) (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Thus, researches on students’ motivation are usually aimed at deciding whether they are motivated instrumentally or integratively. However, some authors believe that ‘language teachers can’t really do very much to influence learner’s instrumental or integrative motivation, but they can do a tremendous amount to try to develop some kind of intrinsic interest in the performance of different kinds of achievements’. Namely, ‘motivation as intrinsic interest is yet largely unexplored area of research’ (Ellis, 1993, 8-9). There- fore while designing our questionnaire we chose a different direction, concentrating basically on different factors of motivation, both intrinsic and extrinsic, at the same time resting on other popular theories. Michael Armstrong describes intrinsic or internal factors as ‘…self generated factors (responsibility, freedom to act, scope to use and develop skills and abilities, interesting and challenging work, opportunities for advancement) they have a deeper and longer-term effect’ (http://www.themanager.org/Resources/Motivation.htm). Extrinsic or external factors are defined as ‘what is done for people to motivate them (rewards, promotion, punishment) – they have an immediate and powerful effect, but won’t necessarily last long’ http://www( .themanager.org/Resources/Mo- tivation.htm). When designing our questionnaire, we rested on Leo van Lier’s suggestion that ‘…intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are like two forces which may well start out as being separate, but which converge and intertwine’ (Lier, 1996,110), thus the 15 statements composing our questionnaire could be described as a combination of factors of both types.

316 A famous linguist Chomsky once suggested an interesting fact, that ‘…about 99% of teaching is making the students feel interested in the material’ (1998,181), for this reason it was interesting to know whether the topics of the study material (Statement 1) are interesting for our students and provide any incentives to their future development. It appeared that 23 respondents out of 90 related the statement to option A, saying they greatly increase their motivation to study, 39 stated that they tend to increase motivation to study (B) thus recognizing indirectly that the topics are not just informative and up-to-date, but also stimulate their interests and curiosity. We related this factor to the sphere of intrinsic motivation, as it deals with ‘behavior performed for its own sake, in order to experience pleasure and satisfaction such as the joy of doing a particular activity or satisfying one’s curiosity’ (Dǒrnyei, 1998,121). However, 12 students felt indifferent about the choice of the topics, saying they have no effect on their motivation to study (C) and 6 wrote that the topics tend to reduce their motivation to study. Nobody chose variant E (greatly reduce motivation to study).

Statement 1 A B C D E 23 39 12 6 0

As it was mentioned before, alongside with material presented in textbooks, students are also provided with teacher designed worksheets, usually based on authentic material (extracts from famous cases, newspaper articles, laws, etc.) The study has revealed that the students’ attitudes towards a number of handouts provided by a lecturer (statement 6) are more positive than negative, although it is not a factor that highly motivates our students.

Statement 6 A B C D E 10 35 27 7 1

Authenticity in ESP is a matter of discussion. Tom Hutchinson and Alan Waters, for example believe that ‘…there is no intrinsic merit in an ‘authentic’ text. What we have to do is once more to see the text as part of the teaching/learning process. The question should not be: ’Is this text ‘authentic’?’ but ‘What role do I want the text to play in the learning process?’ We should be looking not for some abstract concept of ‘authenticity’, but rather the practical concept of ‘fitness to the learning purpose’ (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, 159) Thus, we think certain material in a form of handouts should be revised concerning the principle of suitability to provide the learners more incentive stimuli in relation to the subject we teach.

317 When asked about the variety of teaching methods used by the lecturer (statement 2) and its impact on motivation, the majority of the respondents chose either option A (40 students), or B (34). 4 people marked option C, one person chose option D and one person marked variant E.

Statement 2 A B C D E 40 34 4 1 1

The data presented show that the methods employed by lecturers proved to be a highly motivating factor. It can be related to Zhe’s idea that ‘the proper teaching methodology can increase students’ motivation. The teacher should be aware that the method he employs will have some effect on the students’ motivation. For example, in the Communicative Language Teaching context, students’ initiative and creativity are brought about as they deeply involve themselves in a variety of interesting and challenging learning tasks that require speaking, listening, reading, writing and thinking. Students work cooperatively and learn from each other. The teacher is a facilitator rather than a director and helps them in any way that motivates them to learn. This result is not only an overall motivational climate which further facilitates learning but also a harmonious interpersonal relationship between the teacher and the students’ (Zhe,1997, 21) 13 respondents indicated that the complex nature of the study material (State- ment 3) greatly increases their motivation to study (A), 35 selected option B, 22 felt no influence on their motivation (C), 9 chose D and 1 – option E.

Statement 3 A B C D E 13 35 22 9 1

The fact that the complexity of the study material is not scary to the learners may correlate to the findings concerning Statement 4(the ways the lecturers present the study material).

Statement 4 A B C D E 41 28 8 1 2

As we see, many respondents feel motivated because of the teacher’s abilities to present the material, to explain things, to promote certain goals and this might lead to a possible hypothesis that students’ motivation to learn may be extrinsic because it is related to the teacher’s behavior and his/her personality. Still, the efforts of a

318 gifted teacher may become of no use if a student’s participation in the learning process is inadequate. We have already mentioned that proportions of professional vocabulary to be memorized are huge and for this reason were willing to know whether learning by heart (Statement 5) and additional homework tasks (Statement 7) encourage our students to learn legal English. It turned out, however, that quite a number of the respondents selected options C, D and E thus acknowledging the fact that enthusiasm to learn may sometimes be flagged as long as personal input and efforts are required:

Statement 5 A B C D E 13 24 16 18 9

Statement 7 A B C D E 8 27 23 15 7

Statements 8 (Project based activities) and 9 (IT application in classes) can be related to both: intrinsic and extrinsic type of motivation. The study showed that students like being enrolled in different projects such as mock-trials or group presentations on a certain area of law, most probably because they find them interesting and enjoying (intrinsic motivation). On the other hand, a well-acted role and profes- sionalism shown in a mock-trial or an excellently prepared presentation using modern IT technologies is a chance to gain a good grade (extrinsic motivation).

Statement 8 A B C D E 33 30 12 4 1

Statement 9 A B C D E 11 39 23 6 1

A good grade and evaluation in general is a really important factor for any learner. According to Hutchinson and Waters, ‘evaluation can fulfill two functions – assessment and feedback. Assessment is a matter of measuring what the learners already know. But any assessment should also provide positive feedback to inform teachers and learners about what is still not known, thus providing important input to the content and methods of future work.’ (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, 151) Therefore we decided to include a statement on giving and receiving feedback (Statement 10)

319 into the questionnaire and it appeared that it proved to be quite a motivating factor for most of the respondents:

Statement 10 A B C D E 34 27 17 2 0

However, the results with reference to Statement 11, concerning progress tests, show that one half of the students feel motivated by them, whereas the other is either indifferent or bears more negative attitudes towards them:

Statement 11 A B C D E 23 23 19 6 9

Nevertheless, theorists believe that tests could become a motivating factor if both teachers and learners recognized the role tests play within a learning-centred approach to ESP. Tom Hutchinson and Alan Waters, for example, say that ‘the value of tests depends primarily on how they are used. Teachers and learners need, first of all, a positive attitude to tests’. ‘We need to see test results less as an end in themselves and more as a starting point for genuine negotiation and interaction between the teacher and the learners, and among learners themselves. A grade, however good or bad, is in itself of little significance: its real meaning lies in understanding the reasons why it was given and what it tells the students about how they might improve their future work’ (Hutchinson T. & Waters, 1987, 151). Besides, the students we work with are adult learners. They ‘…contrary to young learners who can study for the sake of a good grade or other indirect rewards, put forth sustained efforts for some other goals than the immediate enjoyment of the activity’ (http://www.esp-world.info /Articles_2/ Aspects%20E.html). Being fully-fledged citizens of the European Union they may dream of a challenging job waiting for them in the near future not only in Lithuania, but also in any other country of the EU. Requirements for English literacy, possible overseas assignments and trips related to their future job, inevitable workshops and conferences in English, welcoming foreign visitors, professional differentiation and specialization, e-communication – all these variables may add to our students’ desire to learn a professional language to achieve their goal concerning their future carrier. Accordingly, it appeared that Statement 15 (employment expectations) proved to be a highly motivating internal factor.

Statement 15 A B C D E 39 26 14 0 1

320 Statement 15 (employment expectations), as well as Statement 10 (giving and receiving feedback) and 11 (progress tests) could also be related to Locke’s and Latham’s goal theory, which proposes that ‘motivation and performance are higher when individuals have or are set specific goals. These goals have to be difficult but accepted and feedback on performance is important (http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dabbish/locke.pdf). ‘For goals to be effective, people need summary feedback that reveals progress in relation to their goals. If they do not know how they are doing, it is difficult or impossible for them to adjust the level or direction of their effort or to adjust their performance strategies to match what the goal requires’ (http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dabbish/locke. pdf). We have already discussed the teacher’s role in promoting certain goals and its relation to students’ motivation to learn. However, some more statements remain concerning a teacher’s role as a trainer. In modern teaching there is a tendency for a teacher to be more a guide than a leader. What is our students’ attitude towards this model? The results regarding Statement 12 (The lecturer’s role of a guide, not a leader) provide evidence that it is a motivating factor for the majority of the respondents.

Statement 12 A B C D E 18 42 19 1 0

Having in mind that it is related to a teacher’s behavior, it could be considered an extrinsic factor of motivation. The findings concerning statement 13 (cultivating an atmosphere of respect in class) are even more positive:

Statement 13 A B C D E 43 27 9 1 0

According to Allison Heath, a teacher in Prince George County, Virginia, ‘respect should be a two way street . . . if a student feels valued, then they are more than likely to be more motivated to take part in class activities’ (personal communication, Sep- tember 17, 2006). We believe that activities involving group work (discussions, debates, group presentations, project work, etc.) add to stimulating students’ respect and toleration towards each other and may increase intrinsic dimension of motivation. This accord with the suggestions made by Mingzhi (2005). He proposes that the student workshop or presentation is very helpful in enhancing interaction in an EFL classroom because students will be required to demonstrate the techniques they have learned and play the role of the teacher in class. This suggestion explains why unequal contribution helps in the formation of a harmonious sociological climate within the group members. When students work in groups individual high achievement of a

321 group member is favored by his/her co-workers because maximum group achievement is attained. Thus since high achievers help the weaker ones, their bonds become stronger and the result is positive. Group productivity reaches a peak and co-workers feel accepted. Also this way enables students to work autonomously away from their tutor (Mingzhi, 2005, 56). Autonomy and freedom of choice is related to statement 14 in the questionnaire, i.e. not compulsory nature of attendance. The results indicate that the majority of the respondents are either indifferent or are negatively influenced by the possibility to independently plan the attendance of the subject.

Statement 14 A B C D E 13 21 36 10 0

‘Mandatory attendance policies have been used by educators as tools to encourage students to attend class, under the dual assumption that such policies improve class attendance, and that attendance in turn improves academic performance. Research on the correlation between class attendance and grades indicates that attendance has a positive effect on academic performance. Yet, hardly any research is available on the impact of mandatory attendance policies on class attendance and motivation’, says Marja Verbeteen from Northern Arizona University (http://proquest.umi.com/ pqdlink). We think that in our case the students are motivated intrinsically, because the attendance in general is high, although not mandatory. Conclusions: We would like to believe that the reasons for attending the classes are interesting topics of the study material, the variety of teaching methods used by the lecturers and the ways they present the study material, being enrolled in project based activities, giving and receiving feedback, employment expectations and cultivating an atmosphere of respect in class – the factors (both intrinsic and extrinsic) that proved to be motivating according to the findings of our questionnaire.

APPENDIX Questionnaire

Tick one of the boxes representing the options for each of the following statements:

Options: A Greatly reduces my motivation to study B Tends to reduce my motivation to study C Has no effect on my motivation to study D Tends to increase my motivation to study E Greatly increases my motivation to study

322 Statements: 1.The topics of the study material A  B  C  D  E  2.A variety of teaching methods used by the lecturer A  B  C  D  E  3.The complex nature of the study material A  B  C  D  E  4.The way the lecturer presents the study material A  B  C  D  E  5.A variety of teaching methods used by the lecturer A  B  C  D  E  6.Learning by heart A  B  C  D  E  7.Handouts provided by the lecturer A  B  C  D  E  8.Additional homework tasks A  B  C  D  E  9.Project based activities A  B  C  D  E  10.IT application in classes A  B  C  D  E  11.Giving and receiving feedback A  B  C  D  E  12.Progress tests A  B  C  D  E  13.Lecturer’s role of guide, not leader A  B  C  D  E  14.Cultivating an atmosphere of respect in class A  B  C  D  E  15.Not compulsory nature of attendance A  B  C  D  E  16. Employment expectations A  B  C  D  E 

REFERENCES 1. Crookes, G., & Schmidt R.W. 1991. Motivation: Reopening the research agenda. In: Language Learning, 41(4), 469-512 2. Hutchinson T. & Waters A. 1987. English for Specific Purposes, a Learning Centered Approach. Cambridge university Press, 1987 3. Lier, L. 1996. Interaction in the Language Curriculum: Awareness, autonomy and authenticity. Longman Group Limited: USA

323 4. Mingzhi, X. 2005. Enhancing interaction in our EFL classroom. In: CELEA Journal, Vol28 (2), P. 56-62 5. Mishan F. 2005) Designing Authenticity into Language Learning Materials. Intellect Books, Bristol, Intellect Ltd, 27p.(315p.) 6. XU Zhe. 1997. Communicative language teaching. In: ELI Teaching: A Journal of Theory and Practice, P. 21-26 7. Zoltán Dǒrnyei, 1998. Motivation in second and foreign language learning. In: Language teaching. UK: Cambridge University Press, P. 117-135 8. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/motivation.html 9. http://www.themanager.org/Resources/Motivation.htm 10. http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_2/Aspects%20E.htm 11. http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dabbish/locke.pdf 12. http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_and_Cultural_Foundations_of_American_ Education/Classroom_Issues/Motivation 13. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?Ver=1&Exp=08262015&FMT=7&DID=99027 5771&RQT=309&attempt=1&cfc=1

SANTRAUKA Motyvacijos faktoriai mokantis teisinę anglų kalbą Mykolo Romerio universitete Rūta Navickaitė, Eglė Selevičienė

Straipsnyje aptariama visa eilė faktorių skatinančių studentus studijuojančius My- kolo Romerio universitete teisės bei teisės ir valdymo programas mokytis profesinės užsienio kalbos. Pagrindinis tyrimo tikslas buvo surinkti informaciją susijusią su motyvacijos klausimu profesinės užsienio kalbos kurso dėstymo kontekste universitete. Siekiant atsakyti į klausimą kokie faktoriai suteikia studentams entuziazmo ir labiau įtraukia į studijų procesą, mes sukūrėme klausimyną susidedantį iš 15 teiginių kurie, mūsų nuomone, galėtų įtakoti mūsų studentų motyvaciją studijuoti. Remiantis tyrimo rezultatais galime teigti, kad sekantys faktoriai (tiek vidiniai, tiek išoriniai) yra motyvuojantys mokantis teisinę anglų kalbą: įdomios temos įtrauktos į studijų medžiagą, mokymo metodų įvairovė, kurią naudoja lektoriai pristatant mokomąją medžiagą, darbo lūkesčiai, įsitraukimas į projektinę veiklą, grįžtamojo ryšio suteikimas ir gavimas, bei kuriama pagarbos atmosfera užsiėmimų metu.

324 Identifying, Describing and Appraising Grammar Learning Strategies: Another Piece of the Puzzle

Mirosław Pawlak Instytut Neofilologii PWSZ Koninie, ul. Przyjaźni 1, 62-510 Konin, Poland, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Although major advances have been made in research into language learning strategies since Rubin (1975) first drew our attention to the characteristics of successful language learners, there are still areas that have been largely neglected by theorists and researchers. One such domain is the use of strategies for learning foreign language grammar since only a handful of studies have addressed this intriguing issue (e.g. Oxford, Rang Lee and Park, 2007; Pawlak, 2008, 2009a, 2010). The present paper represents an attempt to contribute to this important line of inquiry by describing the results of a research project which explored the use of such strategies reported by 200 advanced learners of English in response to open-ended queries accompanying Likert-scale items aimed at measuring the frequency of use of these devices. The results are then used as a basis for tentative pedagogical implications and suggestions for further research into grammar learning strategies. Key-words: grammar learning strategies, Likert-scale, open-ended queries.

Introduction Surprising as it might seem given the importance that is attached to grammar instruction in the majority of educational contexts, our understanding of the ways in which learners approach mastering this crucial subsystem is extremely limited, with a marked paucity of empirical investigations addressing this area. When it comes to research on grammar teaching, which has been on the increase after the relatively short period of fascination with the so-called zero grammar option (Krashen 1982; Prabhu 1987) and the related non-interventionist approaches to foreign language pedagogy (e.g. immersion programs, the Natural Approach), it has primarily focused upon the techniques and procedures that teachers can most beneficially employ to facilitate the acquisition of grammar structures (see e.g. Ellis, 2001; Pawlak, 2006, 2007; Nassaji and Fotos, 2007; Ellis, 2008; Larsen-Freeman, 2009; Ellis, 2010, for overviews). As a result, researchers have investigated, for example, the relative benefits of explicit and

325 implicit options, production-oriented and comprehension-based instruction, or different types of corrective feedback, but they have paid little attention to the thoughts and actions that learners employ when studying and practicing the features of grammar taught. Major advances have also been made in research into language learning strategies, which is evidenced by the substantial evolution of the definition of these strategies, the emergence of various classifications of strategic devices, the accumulation of data concerning the variables influencing strategy choice, growing understanding of the complex relationship between the use of strategies and language attainment, increasing emphasis on the qualitative dimension of the application of strategic devices, or the doubts concerning the theoretical bases of this notion (see Dörnyei, 2005, Ellis, 2008; Griffiths, 2008; Grenfell and Macaro, 2007, for overviews). Also in this case, however, scholars have not singled out strategies applied in learning grammar, either ignoring them altogether in recognition of the low profile grammar was accorded in communicative approaches, or assigning them to the broad category of cognitive strategies (cf. Oxford, Rang Lee and Park, 2007). Commenting on such a state of affairs, Anderson (2005, 766) points out that: “What is greatly lacking in the research are studies that specifically target the identification of the learning strategies that L2 learners use to learn grammar and to understand the elements of grammar”. The main aim of the present paper is to contribute to closing this unfortunate gap by reporting the results of a study which sought to identify, describe and evaluate the strategies for learning foreign language grammar used by advanced Polish learners of English, and was part of a larger-scale research project intended to empirically validate a taxonomy of such strategic devices and a data collection instrument designed on its basis. In the first part, an attempt will be made to provide a brief overview of empirical investigations of grammar learning strategies (GLS) conducted to date, laying particular emphasis on the research tools that can be used for this purpose, the most crucial results of previous studies, possible ways of classifying these strategic devices, as well as the taxonomy of GLS that provided a point of reference for the analysis of the data. In the second part, the aims, participants and methods of data collection and analysis will be described, and the findings will be presented, discussed and interpreted. These, in turn, will serve as a basis for a handful of pedagogical implications as well as suggestions for future research into grammar learning strategies in the concluding section of the article.

1. The status of research into grammar learning strategies Since, as mentioned above, grammar learning strategies have thus far not been the focus of much theorizing and research, few attempts have been made to provide a definition of these strategic devices. One such proposal comes from Oxford, Rang Lee and Park (2007, 117) who build upon the general characterization of language learning strategies introduced by Oxford (1990) and define them as “(…) actions and

326 thoughts that learners consciously employ to make language learning and/or language use easier, more effective, more efficient, and more enjoyable”. A more recent definition, which is in fact adopted for the purposes of the present paper, has been proposed by Cohen and Pinilla-Herrera who describe grammar learning strategies as “deliberate thoughts and actions that students consciously employed for learning and getting better control over the use of grammar structures” (2009, 64). Its strength lies in the fact that it overtly recognizes that the full mastery of grammar in a foreign language involves not only conscious knowledge of rules which can be applied in controlled exercises or on tests but also requires the ability to employ these rules in real-time communication when limited attentional resources are primary allocated to expressing meanings, comprehension and online planning. In other words, inherent in this definition is the vital distinction between explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge, which is at the heart of research into language learning and teaching (cf. Ellis, 2005, 2009), or at least the admission that conscious rule knowledge has to be automatized to such an extent that it can be drawn upon in spontaneous communication (cf. DeKeyser, 2003). In the case of grammar learning strategies, this would mean that in describing the actions and thoughts learners fall back upon, it is necessary to take into account not only those that help them better understand and remember specific rules but also those which facilitate the use of particular grammatical features for meaning and message conveyance. As is the case with research into general language learning strategies, a number of different tools can be applied in empirical investigations of the strategic devices that can be used when learning foreign language grammar, such as observations, questionanires, interviews, diaries, journals, stimulated recall procedures or think- aloud protocols (cf. (Chamot, 2004; White, Schramm and Chamot, 2007). When it comes to observations, they were often applied in the studies of the characteristics and behaviors of the so-called good language learners (e.g. Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975), but their value is limited since they fail to provide insights into learners’ thinking processes and involve too much need for interpretation on the part of the researcher (cf. Droździał-Szelest 1997), which may explain why they have not been utilized in empirical investigations of GLS. Much more widespread is the use of self-report questionnaires which also suffer from a number of weaknesses such as the general nature of responses, the potential for misinterpretation of descriptions of strategic devices, insufficient focus on the strategies used at an earlier time or lack of contextualization, but at the same time make it possible for scholars to collect a huge amount of information in a very short time and analyze it in a multitude of ways (cf. Chamot, 2004; McKay, 2006; Dörnyei, 2007). These instruments range from those which are intended to obtain information about overall use of strategies, such as Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) or Cohen and Chi’s (2002) Language Strategy Use Inventory and Index (LSUII), to those which are limited to a specific language skill or subsystem, such as Mokhtari and Sheorey’s (2002) Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) or Tseng, Dörnyei and Schmitt’s (2006) Self-Regulating

327 Capacity in Vocabulary Learning Scale (SRCvoc). Not surprisingly, questionnaires have also been used the most frequently in research on grammar learning strategies, but few attempts have been made to develop tools specifically for this purpose, with most studies relying on adaptations of existing taxonomies and inventories. Data on strategy use is also collected by means of semi-structured interviews which are likely to provide much richer information than questionanires, not least because learners cannot leave empty spaces and there is an opportunity to ask additional questions when the response is too general or unclear. This can be a stand-alone procedure focusing on overall strategy use, but there is also a possibility of employing interviews in combination with questionnaires, relating them to specific language tasks or basing them on video recordings of various activities, in which case we are dealing with stimulated recall interviews (cf. Chamot, 2004; White, Schramm and Chamot, 2007). Yet another tool used in strategy research and employed in some studies on GLS is a diary which can provide valuable data that researchers could otherwise overlook, allows greater contextualization of refection on the use of strategies, and provides insights into how learners’ actions and thoughts change over time. Although learners are often unwill- ing to keep diaries on a regular basis, their comments are bound to be subjective and the analysis of lengthy entries poses a considerable challenge, such problems are not insurmountable and the very act of reflecting on the ways of learning can contribute to greater awareness and autonomy (cf. Rubin 2003). Finally, there is much potential in the application of think-aloud protocols concurrent with the learning task as they allow access to the mental processes learners engage in and the ways in which they combine different strategies to attain a particular goal, although it must be admitted that the subjects may have difficulty in faithfully describing what they are thinking about and that such verbalization may interfere with the activity itself (cf. Droździał- Szelest, 1997; Anderson, 2005; McKay, 2006; Dörnyei, 2007). While this technique has not so far been applied in empirical investigations focusing specifically on GLS, it could undoubtedly supply interesting insights into the application of such strategies during the preparation, performance and evaluation stages of grammar-based activities and tasks. Irrespective of which of these tools is ultimately chosen to collect data on GLS, it should be carefully piloted and, since all of them have their strengths and weaknesses, it is advisable to opt for a combination of several procedures in a single study. As mentioned in the introduction to the present article, there is little research that has addressed the use of grammar learning strategies, with early studies looking at GLS in the context of the overall repertoire of language learning strategies used by particular groups of learners and others drawing upon a variety of data collection instruments, not always appropriate for this purpose. As regards the former category, interesting insights into the use of GLS come from a study in which Droździał-Szelest (1997) examined the overall use of strategies applied by Polish secondary school students in learning all the skills and subsystems, basing her analysis on the classification proposed by O’Malley and Chamot (1990). The participants’ responses to the relevant open-ended questions demonstrated that they had a propensity to draw

328 upon traditional cognitive strategies such as deduction, much less frequently relied on metacognitive GLS such as selective attention, and never reported using socioaf- fective strategies. This led the researcher to comment that: “Generally, the strategies used by the students were not very original. However, they seem to accurately reflect the general tendency in language teaching in Polish schools (…) the strategies are quite informative about the mode of instruction used by individual teachers in their classrooms” (1997, 123). This is indeed a very acute observation in that it stresses the close correspondence between the decisions made by the teacher in the classroom and the GLS typically utilized by students, a tendency that was corroborated in subsequent research. When it comes to studies which have targeted GLS as such, an interesting line of inquiry involved exploring the assignment of gender to nouns in the first and additional languages (e.g. Stevens, 1984; Cain, Weber-Olsen and Smith, 1987), but the findings of such research projects have been undervalued or ignored by second language acquisition specialists. Several empirical investigations of grammar learning strategies have also been conducted in the Polish educational context. In one of them, Mystkowska-Wiertelak (2008) employed a modified version of Oxford’s SILL with secondary school students and, unlike Droździał-Szelest (1997), found that the subjects most often reported using metacognitive GLS, followed by compensation, social, memory, cognitive and affective. Pawlak (2008, 2009a), in turn, conducted two studies which investigated the use of grammar learning strategies by advanced learners of English who were Polish BA students majoring in English. The first of them (Pawlak 2008) was based on guided diaries and showed that although the participants reported utilizing a variety of GLS, there was a clear preference for traditional, unconventional strategies such as formal practice, which could be attributed to predominant modes of instruction and examination requirements. A very similar pattern was discovered in the second (Pawlak 2009a) which relied on a data-collection instrument comprising Likert-scale items designed according to the descriptive scheme proposed by Oxford, Rang Lee and Park (2007) as well as a set of open-ended questions. In this case, the responses in the Likert-scale section, which indicated a preference for learning grammar in the course of communicative tasks, stood in contrast to those in the open-ended part, where traditional learning approaches were emphasized. Worth mentioning are also research projects which sought to relate the use of GLS to proficiency, although their findings are conflicting and inconclusive. This is because while Mystkowska-Wi- ertelak (2008) found a link between the two factors, Tilfarlioğlu (2005) failed to do so, and Pawlak (2009b) only identified a statistically significant but still weak correlation between the application of grammar learning strategies representing explicit deductive learning and final grades in a course in grammar. Given the fact that the studies described above mainly drew upon general divisions of learning strategies which do not give justice to the intricacies of learning grammar and employed different data collection tools, which may be responsible for diverse findings, there is a clear need to come up with a comprehensive taxonomy of GLS and construct on that basis a suitable research instrument. One such attempt has

329 been made by Pawlak (2009c) who adopted as a point of reference the taxonomy of learning strategies drawn up by Cohen and Dörnyei (2002), the division of options in teaching grammar proposed by Ellis (1997) and modified by Pawlak (2006), and the results of some of the research projects summarized above. The resulting classification consists of four groups of GLS as follows: (1) metacognitive strategies (e.g. being able to identify one’s strengths and weaknesses when it comes to grammar, looking for opportunities to practice points of grammar), (2) affective strategies(e .g. rewarding oneself for doing well on a grammar test, keeping a diary with comments on efforts to master grammar), (3)social strategies (e.g. asking the teacher for assistance, practicing grammatical features with others), and (4) cognitive strategies. The last category is the most important part of the taxonomy as it deals with the mental processes and operations that learners apply when studying or using grammar structures, and it is further subdivided into four more specific groups, namely: (1) GLS used for production and reception of grammar in communicative tasks (e.g. using a structure to achieve a particular communicative goal, paying attention to structures that have been highlighted in texts), (2) GLS employed for developing explicit knowledge through deduction and induction (e.g. paying attention to rules provided by the teacher or the coursebook, discovering rules by analyzing examples), (3) GLS used for developing implicit knowledge through production or reception (e.g. doing controlled grammar exercises, listening to texts containing a specific structure), and (4)GLS used for dealing with corrective feedback (e.g. paying attention to teacher corrective moves, attempting to notice and self-correct one’s own errors). This classification served as a basis for developing a data collection instrument which contains five-point Likert- scale items related to the categories outlined above and open-ended items, and was employed in several research projects (e.g. Pawlak, 2010).

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT The study described below was aimed to investigate the patterns of grammar learning strategy use by advanced learners of English, with a view to further validat- ing both the classification of GLS presented above and the research tool constructed on its basis. To be more precise, it aimed to identify the actions and thoughts that learners employ when dealing with grammar, assigning them to specific categories and evaluating their utility in terms of developing both explicit and implicit knowledge. The participants were 200 Polish students majoring in English who were enrolled in year 1 (56), year 2 (48) and year 3 (96) of a three-year BA program. Their proficiency level ranged from B1 to C1 but it was self-assessed as 4.24 on a six-point scale (1 – lowest, 6 – highest) and the group as a whole could be regarded as relatively advanced in their target language ability. As part of the program, the students attended intensive English classes subdivided into courses in phonetics, grammar, speaking, writing and integrated skills, and all of them had some degree of training in foreign language methodology.

330 The data were collected by means of the questionnaire mentioned in the previous section of the article, which comprised Likert-scale items and open-ended questions, but the present study is confined only to the descriptive responses provided to the latter. The queries were as follows: (1) Can you think of any other ways of learning grammar? (i.e. in addition to the GLS represented by the Likert-scale items), (2) What is your favorite way of learning English grammar?, (3) What do you do to use grammar structures in communication?, and (4) What problems do you encounter and how do you solve them? In order to avoid a situation in which some questions would be left unanswered due to difficulty in precisely expressing intended meanings in the target language, the subjects could phrase their comments in English, Polish or a combination of both languages The analysis of the responses was qualitative in nature and involved pinpointing the GLS mentioned in the data, describing them adopting as a point of reference the division described above, and attempting to ap- praise their value in terms of assisting students in understanding and gaining better control of the grammar structures learnt.

3. Research findings What immediately catches the eye when analyzing the students’ responses is the lack of balance in the types of grammar learning strategies they reported using, which is in fact in line with the findings of much previous research (e.g. Droździał-Szelest, 1997; Pawlak, 2008, 2009a). The least frequently applied turned out to be metacognitive and affective GLS, with very few instances of actions and thoughts representing these two categories being identified in the data. The following excerpts illustrate some of them85: • Learning grammar is a major challenge for me and I am very nervous before grammar tests. However, I listen to music and it helps me relax and learn better (affective). • I seldom plan learning grammar in advance (metacognitive). • I practice new structures when I communicate with native speakers or sometimes when I talk to my friends to improve my English (metacognitive). • When a particular technique does not work for me, I try to look for a different one (metacognitive). While the infrequent use of affective strategies may not be overly surprising given the age, experience in learning English and proficiency level of the respondents, the fact that they attached so little importance to the processes of planning, organizing, monitoring and evaluating their learning of grammar undoubtedly does come as a surprise and it is a major cause for concern. After all, considering the fact that, being English Department students, the subjects were aware of the complexities of English

85 The responses given in Polish were translated into English by the present author while the responses in English were adjusted to some extent in terms of accuracy and clarity. In all cases, however, the students’ ideas remained unchanged.

331 grammar as well as the challenges involved in learning it, one would have expected that they would be willing to manifest more autonomy in this area by identifying their weaknesses, coming up with ways of addressing them, appraising the utility of the strategic devices they employed and, ultimately, managing and supervising the whole process of learning this subsystem. One possible explanation for the inadequate emphasis on metacognitive GLS could be the students’ preoccupation with passing the final examinations in English and their belief that the best way of achieving this objective would be sticking to the syllabus followed by their grammar teachers and practicing the structures covered in class or likely to appear on tests. It should be stressed, however, that although such an approach may indeed bring the expected payoffs in the short term, its effectiveness in the long run is questionable since much more is involved in the knowledge of grammar that skill in successfully doing controlled exercises one of kind or another. Logically, a much more proactive approach to learning grammar structures is needed if they are to be drawn upon accurately, meaningfully and appropriately in real-time communication, and to allow language users to precisely express their intentions and position themselves in the world (cf. Larsen-Freeman, 2003). Incidentally, the examples provided above also testify to the difficulty in unambiguously assigning GLS to specific groups since, for example, using structures in conversations with native speakers represents both the metacognitive strategy of looking for opportunities to practice grammatical features and the cognitive strategy of trying to use those features in communication. This comment applies in equal measure to many other examples discussed throughout the present section. In comparison with the two categories described above, instances of social GLS appeared much more frequently in the data, with the caveat that there was considerable individual variation in this respect. In other words, while some participants mentioned several examples of such strategies, many others did not report using them at all, which is likely to be the outcome of different personality types and learning style preferences, identified in the literature as important factors potentially impinging upon strategy use (cf. Takeuchi, Griffiths and Coyle 2007; Ellis, 2008). Representative examples of social GLS gleaned from the students’ responses are as follows: • We should use different grammar structures in the presence of teachers and other students, those who know the structures well, so they can correct our errors. • When I have the opportunity to talk with English people, I do it. This is very useful because they always correct me when I make errors and I feel more self-confident. • I practice together with my friends, often with the help of Internet communicators. We can check each other’s answers and correct our errors. Cleary, the contribution of such strategies can hardly be overestimated for a number of important reasons. For one thing, collaboration with others is believed to be a very useful technique enabling learners to discover how grammar functions (cf.

332 Swain, 2007; Ellis, 2002) and there are grounds to believe that it will be even more so in the case of advanced learners who have substantial awareness of and experience with the target language and different approaches to studying it. Secondly, although there are opposing opinions on the value of error correction (cf. Ellis, 2008), the participants’ readiness to receive it is laudable in the light of the fact that corrective feedback allows learners to notice gaps and holes in their competence and may provide a vital impetus for restructuring their interlanguages (cf. Schmidt, 1990). Last but not least, evident in many of the responses was the tendency to cooperate with others through the medium of new technologies which surely have their limitations but at the same time offer a number of advantages and solutions not only for learning grammar but also other aspects of foreign languages. Quite predictably, it was cognitive grammar learning strategies that proved to be most frequently mentioned by the respondents but the distribution of specific types of strategic devices within this broad category was also far from even. As was the case with many earlier studies (e.g. Droździał-Szelest, 1997; Pawlak, 2008, 2009b), most of them were representative of devices aimed at the development of explicit knowledge through deductive learning and the development of implicit knowledge through different types of production-based formal practice. This is evidenced by the following excerpts taken from the data: • I use only strategies such as memorizing rules and studying examples and doing exercises (a combination of deduction and formal practice). • Firstly I read when and how I should use grammar, look through rules, then I check in the Internet and review some exercises. I do exercises on my own once again from particular classes (a combination of deduction and formal practice representing the PPP sequence). • I learn best doing exercises with a specific structure formal( practice). • I memorize grammar rules and do some grammar exercises. I also study the examples which we did in the classroom to understand how particular rules work (a combination of deduction and formal practice). Only some students reported using GLS for production and reception of grammar in the course of communicative tasks or such that would help them make the most of error correction supplied during meaning and message conveyance, although it is strategies of this kind that are most likely to lead to the automatization of declarative knowledge and the development of procedural knowledge indispensible for successful employment of grammar structures in communication. Examples of such strategic devices follow: • Watching movies and playing computer games (receptive use of grammar for the purpose of communication). • I analyze my speech and often ask my friends from Britain to correct my errors as I speak and check my grammar (productive use of grammar rules in communication combined with attention to corrective feedback).

333 • I talk to native speakers, read books and watch movies (productive and receptive use of grammar for communication). • I try to use the new structures in my speech and writing (productive use of grammar for the purpose of communication). Yet another insightful observation is that only very few of the GLS which appeared in the data could be described as creative, with the participants mostly opting for well-tried but also rather conventional ways of dealing with this subsystem that can be found in popular coursebooks and grammar practice books. The examples supplied below reflect some of the less down-to-earth and mundane ways of learning grammar mentioned by the students. • Making drawings representing given structures (deduction). • Using Internet resources to learn grammar (potentially representing different categories of GLS). • Creating mind maps and writing structures on pieces of paper (meant to aid deduction). Although there is clearly a place for traditional modes of learning grammar represented by deduction and formal practice, it is undoubtedly disconcerting that the students seem to underestimate the value of employing the structures taught in communication. Also in this case, it may be hypothesized that such an approach is connected with the dominant instructional practices applied by their teachers as well as examination requirements, but such circumstances surely do not make it optimal. As emphasized above, the ability to use grammar structures in real-life communication requires adequate practice thereof in the course of tasks focusing on meaning and message conveyance, which is evidenced by the fact that some English Depart- ment students are often capable of accurately using complex structures on tests but make errors in the employment of basic ones (e.g. third person -s) in oral interviews. Equally disquieting is the limited repertoire of GLS, not because more creative strategies are necessarily more effective but rather because the awareness of a wide range of strategic devices makes it possible for students to choose those that are compatible with their learning styles, suitable for the task in hand and appropriate for dealing with a specific feature of grammar.

Conclusions and implications As can be seen from the foregoing discussion, the advanced Polish learners of English who participated in the study reported using a number of grammar learning strategies, but most of these were cognitive in nature, followed by social GLS, with metacognitive and affective strategies being few and far between. When it comes to the cognitive GLS, most of them represented attempts to develop explicit knowledge, primarily through deduction, and to engage in output-based formal practice through performance of rather traditional exercises. The use of strategies involved in production and comprehension of grammar in communicative activities as well as

334 those for dealing with corrective moves was infrequent, and, on the whole, the range of GLS mentioned was rather limited and the vast majority of the subjects were not very inventive with respect to the strategic devices they drew upon. What is especially disconcerting about these findings is blatantly insufficient emphasis on the application of grammar structures in communicative tasks, all the more so that this kind of practice is of vital significance if students are expected to ever move beyond explicit knowledge of rules which may be adequate for tests, but is grossly unsatisfactory if such rules are to be accessed in real time and accurately applied in spontaneous conversation. Since such a situation seems to be to a considerable degree an outcome of teachers’ instructional practices and evaluation procedures, it might be necessary to give more weight to communicative use of the targeted structures taught in grammar classes and final examinations. It is also advisable to devote some class time to training students in the use of grammar learning strategies, with the aim of presenting them with potential options they have at their disposal out of which they would be able to choose the ones which they deem the most suitable for their purposes. An approach of this kind is in all likelihood the most suited to the needs of advanced learners in view of the fact that they have deeply-seated preferences and ways of study, which is visible in the substantial variation in the types of GLS the subjects mentioned when answering the open-ended questions. When it comes to the directions of future research, it should be made clear that the present study as well as the other research projects referred to in this article are just the first steps in empirical investigations of grammar learning strategies. Even though the classification discussed above provides a valuable point of reference and the instrument designed on its basis looks promising, more research is indispensible that would seek to identify, describe and assess the actions and thoughts learners engage in when learning grammar as only in this way can the necessary modifications and refinements be made. The existing toolbox is also sufficient to explore the relationships between the use of GLS, attainment and a number of other variables, as well as verifying the effectiveness of training programs in this area. In other words, much further research is necessary before all or at least most pieces of the puzzle fall into place, thus providing a solid basis for advancing practicable pedagogical recommendations that would be appropriate for different learners and different instructional settings.

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Santrauka Gramatikos mokymosi strategijų nustatymas, aprašymas ir įvertinimas – dar viena galvosūkio dalis Mirosław Pawlak

Nors ir didžiulė pažanga jau yra pasiekta tiriant kalbų mokymosi strategijas nuo tada, kai J. Rubin (1975) pirmą kartą atkreipė dėmesį į požymius, būdingus sėkmin- gai besimokantiesiems kalbų, vis dar egzistuoja sritys, kurios nesulaukė pakankamo teoretikų ir tyrėjų dėmesio. Viena iš tokių sričių – tai užsienio kalbų gramatikos mokymosi strategijos. Tik maža studijų dalis yra susijusi su šia įdomia sritimi (Oxford, Rang Lee and Park, 2007; Pawlak, 2008, 2009a, 2010). Straipsnyje bandoma prisidėti

338 prie šios srities tobulinimo, pateikiant tyrimų projekto rezultatus. Projekto metu buvo siekiama nustatyti, kaip 200 pažengusių anglų kalbos besimokančių respon- dentų naudojo gramatikos mokymosi strategijas. Respondentai pateikė atsakymus į atviro tipo užduočių klausimus. Greta buvo panaudota Likerto skalė, tam kad būtų nustatytas gramatikos mokymosi strategijų panaudojimo dažnumas. Tyrimas leidžia pateikti preliminarias pedagogines įžvalgas ir pasiūlymus kaip toliau tirti gramatikos mokymosi strategijas.

339 Application of Distance Learning Tools in Full-time ESP Studies

Liudmila Pogožilskaja, Olga Ušinskienė Mykolas Romeris University, 20 Ateities St., LT-08303 Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected] International School of Law and Business, 58 Laisvės Ave., Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The article aims to analyse possibilities of integration of methods and principles used in distance learning (DL) into full-time ESP studies. Application of ICT in teaching has become quite common in most educational institutions and is practically indispensible to the teaching/learning process. Some higher education institutions of Lithuania have started using electronic teaching environments (such as Moodle) not only for DL, but also provide teachers with the possibility to create their subject’s electronic environment on the institution’s centralised distance learning website, which allows to supplement full-time studies with benefits of DL. The main advantage of DL is its flexibility, as students can choose the most convenient time, place and most importantly pace of learning. Teaching/learning is most effective when in-class work is combined with individual work. As teaching/learning languages requires social interaction and direct communication, DL has to be combined with direct contact. Accordingly, full-time studies could be enriched by benefits of DL. A qualitative research has been conducted to reveal how teachers can integrate DL technologies into full-time studies by using their subject’s electronic (Moodle) environment, the purposes and methods DL tools are used in and out of language classroom, what problems teachers encounter while managing their subject’s electronic (Moodle) environment. Key-words: Moodle, teaching/learning process, teaching/learning environment, teaching/ learning methods, IT application, ESP.

INTRODUCTION Application of ICT has become extremely popular in teaching/learning languages at tertiary level. Virtual Learning Environments are installed extensively in order to add web technology to the courses and to supplement traditional face-to-face courses (Cole, 2005). Some higher education institutions of Lithuania have adopted Moodle (or Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) and started using it not only for distance learning, but also have made attempts to integrate Moodle into full-time studies, e.g. since 2006 Mykolas Romeris University has completely

340 adapted 80 per cent of Bachelor’s Degree programmes for Distance Learning studies through Moodle. Since 2008 the university has encouraged its teachers to create their subject’s learning environments in Moodle system and use them with full-time students alongside distance and extramural students. This paper aims at examining the methods, principles and benefits of distance learning and possibilities of application thereof in full-time ESP studies at tertiary level. The aim of the research is to analyse positive aspects of distance learning and possibilities of its integration into full-time studies by means of a subject’s Moodle environment. Research methods used are a qualitative study conducted by means of a specially designed questionnaire to examine the purposes and methods distance learning tools are used in and out of language classroom and the problems teachers encounter while using distance learning tools for full-time studies. The informants in this study are teachers from Mykolas Romeris University teaching ESP to full-time students from departments of Law, Law and Management, Public Administration, Psychology, and Customs. The application of Moodle area in language education is the sphere which has not been widely explored yet and neither theoretical nor experiential research has been published, except just few conference presentations on the students’ perception of using Moodle and using Moodle for evaluation and assessment of ESP students (Kavaliauskiene, 2011). First, let’s discuss what Distance Learning (DL) is, what methods and basic principles of DL are and, most importantly, what benefits provided by DL and Moodle in particular could be used in full-time ESP studies. For many teachers and researchers DL is an exciting and continually developing field. It is a new form of learning, which has been successfully operating in many countries. Apparently, there are some definitions of Distance Learning. Distance learning can be defined as a system and a process that connects learners to distributed learning resources. Distance learning can take a variety of forms, all distance learning, however, is characterized by (a) distance of place and/or time between the instructor and the learner, between learners, and/or between learners and learning resources; and (b) interaction between the learner and the instructor, between learners and/or between learners and learning resources conducted through one or more media (http://www.unesco.org/education/educprog/lwf/doc/portfolio/ definitions.htm ) Distance learning is also a system of organizational, pedagogical and information technologies, in which open standards for interfaces, formats and protocols of information exchange towards mobility, stability and efficiency of the educational process are provided by architectural and structural solutions (Гончарик, 2002, 12.)

341 1. DL GUIDING PRINCIPLES 1. Students are at the centre of learning. Student-centred learning lies at the core of any effective course. Learning is most meaningful when students themselves are actively engaged in the process of creating of the understanding of interactive knowledge. 2. Learning is interactive. Students’ interaction allows enriching and widening of their knowledge. Learners should be treated as co-creators in the learning process and as individuals with ideas and issues that deserve attention and consideration. 3. Interactivity facilitates learning. Interactivity is a mode of learning that directly engages students in their learning process. Th 4. The teacher is a facilitator.The instructor should facilitate the work. Compu- ter-based technologies and technology enhanced learning environment can enable the students to interact more freely with each other and the instructor. The role of the teacher is therefore changing from subject aspect to learning facilitator, but also designer, tutor, organiser, motivator and assessor. 5. Learning can and should take place in a community. Learning in a community facilitates the sharing of ideas. When students work together towards a common goal, they enter a community of knowledge. This allows them to be a part of informal environment, in which skills and experience are constantly moving from an individual to another. 6. Instruction is objective oriented. The instructor should focus on the learning process in terms of what it is and what it should be. 7. Students learn in different ways. Each student should be allowed to learn at his own pace and according to his learning style. In the end they can all achieve the same results.

2. BASIC DIDACTIC COMPONENTS OF THE DISTANCE COURSE 1. E-learning materials: Any material for independent study, research and discussion can be used as e-learning material: Text; Illustration; Web-page; Presentation; Audio and video files. There are several possibilities for creating learning resources in the Moodle system: Explanation: The resource allows you to place a text and graphics on the main page of the course. It can help to explain the function of a theme, the week or the tool. Text page is for creating a simple text page without formatting. Visually text pages are not very attractive, but they can be used for some information or instructions layout. Reference to a file or web-page allows you to upload any type of electronic file into Moodle. But you must make sure that your students have the appropriate software

342 on their computers to view your material. In addition, there is one restriction – the file size should not exceed 2 MB. Reference to the catalogue allows to provide students access to the whole catalogue with the course materials at once. The book is a simple multi-page learning material of the distance course, and can be created by the tutor in any subject. 2. Lectures: It is the most interesting type of students’ activity in the distance course Moodle. The course material is presented in a flexible manner. It consists of a set of pages. Each page normally ends with a question to which a student must answer. 3. Glossaries: Glossary allows organizing the work with terms. There are two types of Glossary. In the first case, vocabulary entries can be created only by a teacher, in the second one – by a teacher and students. All terms listed in the glossary, are highlighted in all the course materials and are hyperlinked to relevant articles of the glossary. Cooperative glossary may serve as a pretext for promoting cooperation in the course. 4. Wiki: Moodle supports a very useful function of cooperative text revision, Wiki, which allows an instructor to involve students in the developing of a new educational content in simple format language in web browser, i.e. students can work together adding, expanding and changing the content using Wiki. Old document versions are never deleted and can be restored at any time. With the help of Wiki many types of group work can be implemented: group projects, brainstorming, collaborative creative work, etc. Wiki motivates students to perform the work diligently, because they know that it will be reviewed and criticized, not only by their teacher, but also by other members of the training team. 5. Questionnaires: This element allows using a number of adjusted questionnaires, which might be useful in assessing the quality and stimulating the learning process, and in collecting information about students. Teachers can use existing questionnaires or create new ones. 6. Surveys: The survey is designed for clarification of students’ opinions on any topic. The teacher formulates the question and gives a few answer options. The survey can also be used for voting, a quick poll (for example, on a convenient time for a chat or video conference), and also to find a collective opinion in the process of case study, etc. 7. Tasks: A task is an element of the course, similar in the nature of the regular work of the teacher. A teacher can set students a task, check its performance, and comment on the result. 8. Tests: Computer tests in the distance course can be used for self-checking and verification of theoretical knowledge and skills of students. In some cases, tests can be used as examination. Moodle allows the teacher to create tests using different types of questions: multiple choice, alternative question, short answer, numerical response, Essay, inserted replies.

343 9. Forums: Forums may perform various functions depending on the tasks. They can serve as a means of communication between students, between students and a teacher. In the news forum a teacher places information concerning the organization of work of students in a course, however students cannot leave their messages there. Forum can also be used as an individual task (question-answer); just after student has given his answer, he will be able to see the answers of others. 10. Blogs: Each user registered in Moodle can keep a blog. Blog is a web-based magazine and is used for self-expression and communication. It’s possible to set the settings to determine who the blog will be available to. In distance courses blogs are often used for students’ diarising in the learning process. Unfortunately, Moodle blogs are not very convenient for this purpose.

3. COMMUNICATION IN DISTANCE LEARNING COURSE According to Clarke, communication in DL can take numerous forms (Clarke, 2008): Blogs are often described as diaries but they differ significantly in that they are public documents your peers will read and comment on. Entries and comments may be used as e-portfolio evidence. Reflection: reflective writing and blogs are fundamentally linked together. Commenting on blogs: many courses ask that students read and comment on their peers’ blogs. In commenting on your colleagues, it is important to remember the normal rules of etiquette and always to be constructive, objective and helpful. Synchronous communication requires that participants take part simultaneously. There are three main synchronous communication methods: • Chat: that allows you to communicate using text messages in a real time, rather like a conversation. • Audio conferencing: the critical factor in the audio conference is that you do not have the benefit of nonverbal communications. • Video conferencing: this is probably similar to the audio conferencing but not as limited in the nonverbal communications. Finally, why should teachers use Moodle with full-time students? Most DL guiding principles are applicable in the modern classroom, which combines traditional methods with e-learning. Since Moodle offers a great variety of course components and communication tools there are at least ten reasons for choosing Moodle according to J. Stanford (2008): it is easy to use, it provides access to resources via the web, it enables interaction between learners and tutors, collaboration between learners, independent learning pathways, learner tracking, feedback on tasks, secure environment, automatic backup, detailed grade-book-based on work submitted by students. Besides, according to most recent research on application of Moodle for testing and evaluation, learning and testing English for Specific Purposes in the Moodle area is to be recommended (Kavaliauskiene G., 2011).

344 4. METHODOLOGY With the aim to analyse positive aspects of distance learning and possibilities of its integration into full-time studies through creating a subject’s Moodle environment a qualitative research has been conducted. The data acquired through the qualitative research does not provide precise figures or statistical data; however, it enables to outline general tendencies, ideas and approaches. The qualitative research is focused on case study, rather than figures and the like. This kind of data does not reveal quantity, frequency or intensity, but is focused on interpretation, construing, reflection and explanations, which provide the respondents’ motivation, approaches, perception and experience, (Bitinas B., 2008). The research focus is the application of distance learning tools in full-time studies. The objectives of the research are to reveal the purposes and methods distance learning tools are used in and out of language classroom and the problems teachers encounter while using distance learning tools for full-time studies. The informants of the research included teachers from Mykolas Romeris University teaching ESP to full-time students from departments of Law, Law and Management, Public Administration, Psychology, and Customs. The research sample was composed by criterion sampling method. The main criteria for informants were, first of all, to have created one’s subject’s Moodle electronic environment on the institution’s centralised distance learning website (http://moodle.mruni.eu) and, secondly, to use it extensively with full-time students of ESP for at least two academic years. The data of the research was acquired through the individual directed interview. The research was based on a questionnaire given to the informants to answer, including questions on what Moodle devices teachers apply in and out of language classroom in full-time studies, what benefits for the teaching/learning languages they see in using Moodle devices, and the most common problems the teachers encounter while using distance learning tools for full-time studies. The questionnaire was based on open question form. The informants were provided with the following questions: 1. What purposes do you use Moodle learning devices in the teaching/learning ESP with full-time students? 2. What benefits for the teaching/learning ESP do you see in using Moodle devices with full-time students? 3. What are the most common problems you encounter while using distance learning tools for full-time studies? The acquired results were analysed applying the qualitative analysis method, analysing the main concepts from informants’ statements and grouping the concepts.

345 5. RESEARCH RESULTS The research results reveal that in the language teaching/learning process teachers apply Moodle devices quite extensively for a great variety of purposes both for classroom interaction and outside the classroom. Sample answers: 1. What purposes do you use 2. What benefits for the tea- 3. What are the most common Moodle learning devices in ching/learning ESP do you see problems you encounter while the teaching/learning ESP with in using Moodle devices with using distance learning tools full-time students? full-time students? for full-time studies? … as training and grammar tool … teacher can create tasks … internet connection failures and testing tool… aiming to particular/individual issues; … quick feedbacks from students; …. easy to use interactive too … to provide students with an … students find Moodle devices … self- access centres for stu- easier access to the material; more attractive to use, dents as not everybody has … to foster learners’ auton- … they have all the learning PCs; omy; material on-line, … the Moodle platform doesn’t’ … to apply blended learning in … they use forums on -line to open due to technical problems ESP classes communicate with the teacher at MRU, students come unpre- as well as their group mates; pared; … the teacher doesn’t need to … limited types of tasks… have the hand-outs … to place the information: … easy access to material; … students do not find what course requirements, material- … material is presented in a they need (they need more texts analysis tasks, interactive systematised way instruction), vocabulary exercises, self-check ... technical problems, tests, references, links to online ... time-consuming and compli- dictionaries and resources; cated while creating interactive … I don’t use forum with full- tasks time students, rather I use e-mail

Summing up the most popular purposes of using Moodle devices in teaching/ learning ESP as pointed out by the informants are: • Placing the teaching materials and links in the Moodle environment. • Using the Moodle environment to design materials (e. g. text pages). • Placing important information regarding the study process, e.g. requirements, programme, changes in timetable, etc. • Assigning individual work to students in class. • Placing homework. • Creating interactive exercises for vocabulary consolidation. • Using interactive tests to evaluate students’ achievements. • To control students’ performance out of classroom.

346 • To ��apply blended learning in ESP classes Unfortunately, none of the informants uses wikis and blogs in Moodle to develop students’ collaborate and individual writing skills, the most likely reason being that their natural counterparts on the Web are more convenient and less complicated to use. The opinions of the informants on the benefits of the use of Moodle devices for full-time studies are very positive, the main advantages being easy access to resources round the clock, communication possibilities in and out of classroom, immediate feedback, individualization of the teaching/learning process, self-checks and assessment, etc. However, there are a number of problems the teachers encounter while using distance learning tools for full-time studies. Among the most common problems teachers point out is lack of technical skills, lack of awareness of all the possibilities the Moodle learning environment provides, and time-consumption.

CONCLUSIONS The obtained results let us draw the conclusion that teachers view the Moodle learning environment as a very attractive tool for teaching languages, which, if used skilfully and methodologically, can make the study process easier, more interesting, motivating and autonomous. Teachers enjoy using the Moodle learning environment in class, for interactive tasks, and out of class, for creating materials, placing the materials and homework assignments, communication with students through forums. Informants also believe that with the use of the Moodle learning environment they can distribute the workload more precisely and effectively .i e. students can work on their own speed. Besides, the Moodle learning environment gives teachers the opportunity to control students’ performance out of classroom. However, teachers could try to use more communication tools with full-time ESP students, especially for developing individual reflection and collaborative writing skills through wikis and blogs within the Moodle system. To sum up, it is possible to use Moodle not only with distance students, but also with full-time students both in-class and out of classroom. Moreover, integration of the Moodle learning environment into the language teaching/learning process can help teachers create and place materials in an easy and convenient way, encourage and motivate their full-time students, and develop students’ ESP skills more effectively. However, both teachers and students need more instruction on the possibilities of the Moodle environment to make its use most efficient and beneficiary to the teaching/learning process of ESP.

347 REFERENCES 1. Bitinas B., 2008. Kokybinių tyrimų metodologija. Socialinių mokslų kolegija. Klaipėda. 2. Clarke A., 2008. E-Learning skills (2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, P.246- 251 3. Cole, J. (2005). Using Moodle. O’Reilly. 4. K. Kavaliauskiene, 2011. Moodle in English for Specific Purposes at Mykolas Romeris University. Social Work. Vol. 10(1), p.112-119. 5. Stanford, J., 2008. In the Mood for Moodle. English Teaching Professional. 54: 58- 60.  Гончарик, Л ЛП,.П., 2002. Методология дистанционного обучения. Учебное пособие. Мн.: Академия при Президенте Республики Беларусь.

SANTRAUKA Distancinio mokymo taikymo galimybės dieninėse profesinės užsienio kalbos studijose Liudmila Pogožilskaja, Olga Ušinskienė

Straipsnyje analizuojamos galimybės, kaip integruoti distancinio mokymo tei- kiamus privalumus į dienines studijas. Informacinių ir kompiuterinių technologijų naudojimas mokymo tikslams daugelyje edukacinių institucijų tapo kasdienybe ir yra praktiškai neatsiejama mokymo/mokymosi proceso dalis. Vis daugiau Lietuvos aukštųjų mokyklų naudoja elektronines mokymo aplinkas (tokias kaip Moodle) ne tik nuotolinio mokymo/mokimosi tikslams, bet jau suteikia dėstytojui galimybę sukurti savo dalyko aplinką aukštosios mokyklos centralizuotai naudojamoje nuotolinių studijų svetainėje, kuri leidžia dienines studijas papildyti distancinio mokymo privalumais. Distancinis mokymas suteikia mokymo(si) procesui lankstumo ir leidžia besimokantiesiems pasirinkti jiems patogiausią mokymosi laiką ir vietą, suteikia besimokantiesiems galimybę pasirinkti mokymosi tempą. Distancinis mokymas yra efektyviausias, kai apjungia mokymą(si) klasėje ir individualų darbą. Kadangi kalbų mokymasis reikalauja socialinės sąveikos ir tiesioginės komunikacijos, kurios distancinis mokymas negali pilnai suteikti, jį būtina derinti su tiesioginiu kontaktu. Atitinkamai, dieninės studijos galėtų būti papildytos distancinio mokymo teikiamais privalumais. Šiuo tikslu buvo atliktas kokybinis tyrimas, kurio metu buvo siekiama ištirti, kaip dėstytojai gali integruoti distanciniam mokymui skirtas technologijas į dienines studijas, sukuriant savo dėstomo dalyko elektroninę Moodle aplinką, kokiais tikslais ir būdais šios technologijos naudojamos, su kokiomis problemomis dėstytojai susiduria valdant savo dalyko elektroninę Moodle aplinką. Tyrimo imtis sudaryta kriterinės atrankos būdu. Apklausoje dalyvavo Mykolo Romerio Universiteto užsienio kalbų katedros dėstytojai, sukūrę savo dėstomo dalyko elektroninę Moodle aplinką bei naudojantys ją dieninių studijų tikslams. Tyrimo duomenys gauti taikant

348 individualųjį kryptingąjį interviu. Rezultatų interpretavimui pasirinkta kokybinės turinio analizės strategija. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidžia, kad Moodle aplinka visų pirmą leidžia efektyviai naudoti jau plačiai žinomas ir kalbų mokymo/si tikslams naudojamas komunikacines technologijas, tokias kaip interneto dienoraščiai (blogs), ‚wiki‘, forumus. Be to, Moodle suteikia galimybę dėstytojui pačiam talpinti medžiagą į aplinką (tekstus, internetinius puslapius, nuorodas, t.t.), kurti interaktyvius prati- mus ir užduotis žodynui įtvirtinti, interaktyviai vertinti besimokančiųjų pasiekimus ir rezultatus, kontroliuoti mokymosi procesą. Pagrindinės problemos, su kuriomis dėstytojai susiduria pradedant valdyti savo dalyko elektroninę Moodle aplinką, yra laiko sąnaudos, techninių Moodle galimybių žinių stoka, techninių Moodle valdymo įgūdžių stoka.

349 Term Recognition of the Pre-service English Language Teachers: The Changing Competence

Ernesta Stankevič Vilnius Pedagogical University, 39 Studentų St., LT-08106 Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected]

ABSTRACT English teachers are a part of a speech community characterized by their own special language. Terminology is a constituent part of the special language. The knowledge of the specific terms allows other members of the linguistic community to identify a person as a representitive of a specific sphere (in this case a member of teacher community). The present article focuses on the attitude of the pre-service English language teachers towards terms in their present and future environments and the change of their term recognition competence throughout the study years. The results of the questionnaire and knowledge test performed by the 156 full time students of English philology at Vil- nius Pedagogical University show a generally favourable attitude to and an increasing knowledge of their subject terminology. Key-words: special language, terminology, competence.

INTRODUCTION The current study has grown out of the questions: what is an English teacher’s specialized professional language? What is the role of the specific terminology in this language? To what extend does a pre-service teacher learn it at university? In the literature overview the two main points are analysed: the characteristic features of the special language (teacher special language in particular) and the connection between a special language and terminology. One of the criteria of a competent English language teacher could be the knowledge and appropriate usage of the professional terminology. The use of terms allows for a conciseness and precision. For example, instead of describing classroom interaction as ‘a bit of classroom talk where the teacher tries to get some information from the student’, it is enough to use the term ‘teacher-elicit exchange’. Terminology is a constituent part of the specialized language, which is characterized by three variables: subject field, type of user, and type of situation in which communication takes place.

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In contrast,between recipients originators can be and other recipients experts of or specialized the general communication public, which . Originators passively receives who special contrast, recipients can be other experts or the general public, which passively receives special communicationproduce specializedwhile acquiring communication knowledge. must The issuehave knowledgewhether teachers of a specific are originators subject fieldor recepients ofcommunication the specialized while communication acquiring knowledge. is a vital one.The issueThere wh hasether been teachers noticed are a gaporiginators between or the recepients lexicon of the specializedwhich they havecommunication acquired through is a vital training one.. ThIn contrast,ere has been recipients noticed can a be gap other between experts the lexicon of termsor belonging the general to public, the sphere which of passively applied receives linguistics special and communication educational theory while knowledge acquiring acquired byof terms the pre-service belonging to teachers the sphere and of the applied terms lingu used isticsby practicing and educational teachers theory to refer knowledge to the worldacquired of knowledge. The issue whether teachers are originators or recepients of the specialized languageby the pre-service classrooms teachers (for example, and the Elliot, terms 1991). used Hoby wever, practicing teachers teachers are encouraged to refer to to the become world the of originatorslanguage classrooms of the langu (forage example, teaching Elliot, terminology 1991). Hoandwever, to find teachers terms forare articulatingencouraged ‘anto becomeidea’ from the withinoriginators the of ‘practical the langu context’age teaching (Elliot, terminology 1991). Although,and to find generally terms for communicationarticulating ‘an idea’ in special from languageswithin the is ‘practicalusually formal context’ and occurs (Elliot, in situations 1991). Although, governed generallyby professional communication or scientific351 in criteria, special it shouldlanguages not isbe usually wholly formal confined and to occurs academic in situations spheres governedbut arise fromby professional the teacher’s or scientificactivity in criteria, practical it should not be wholly confined to academic spheres but arise from the teacher’s activity in practical 265 265 communication is a vital one. There has been noticed a gap between the lexicon of terms belonging to the sphere of applied linguistics and educational theory knowledge acquired by the pre-service teachers and the terms used by practicing teachers to refer to the world of language classrooms (for example, Elliot, 1991). However, teachers are encouraged to become the originators of the language teaching terminology and to find terms for articulating ‘an idea’ from within the ‘practical context’ (Elliot, 1991). Although, generally communication in special languages is usually formal and occurs in situations governed by professional or scientific criteria, it should not be wholly confined to academic spheres but arise from the teacher’s activity in practical context. Scholars note that there is a need for a shared language in talking about language teaching but these terms and concepts need to be developed by and with teachers, if they are to have any relevance. Acording to Cabré (1998), special language is not a structurally monolithic subset, but rather permits the following variations depending on usage and the communicative situation: a. The degree of abstraction, which depends on the subject field, the recipients of the information, and the sender’s communicative purpose. b. The communicative purpose, which determines variations in text type. c. Geographic, historic, and social dialects. d. Personal style. Special languages share a number of pragmatic and language-based characteristics, thus allowing us to refer to them as a subset of the general language that presents a degree of unity.They intersect with the general purpose language, with which they not only share features but also maintain constant exchange of units and conventions. Special languages are specific in the terminologies they use. One of the greatest differences between the general language and special languages are found in the vocabulary. However, it is noted (Cabré,1998) that it is difficult to establish discreet divisions between the terminologies of allied fields, just as it is difficult to draw a line between terminologies and the common language lexicon. Thus, it can be assumed that the special language of English teachers combines language and teaching related terminology86.

1. METHODOLOGY Proceeding from what has been said about the special language and the role of terminology in it, the questionnaire was devised with the aim of determining whether the knowledge of terms and attitude towards studying terminology of the pre-service teachers’ changes during their studies. It was assumed that the fourth year students

86 Here the knowledge of and the attitude towards this terminology will be understood as components of terminology competence.

352 should recognize the terminology that belongs both to linguistic and educational spheres better than the rest of the students. The research was carried out in October, 2010. The participants of the research were 156 full time students of English philology at Vilnius Pedagogical University (see table 1).

Table 1: The participants of the research. Year of studies Number of students First 37 Second 44 Third 35 Fourth 40 Total 156

The participants were given a specially designed questionnaire (to determine students’ attitude towards terminology) and a multiple-choice type of test (in order to evaluate students’ term recognition competence). There was no time limit set for the participants. On average, it took about thirty minutes to complete the questionnaire and to do the tasks. The questionnaire had 14 statements which students had to evaluate choosing from ‘Agree’, ‘Partly agree’ and ‘Disagree’. The statements dealt with the three areas of terminology use: the importance of terminology knowledge in the activity of a qualified professional in general and in the teacher’s work in particular, as well as the position it occupies in an academic context. In order to evaluate students’ competence a term recognition test was developed. The participants were presented with 16 terms (alliteration, homonym, clause, epic, assimilation, oxymoron, ellipsis, inflectional language, connotation, modals, skill, method, curriculum, formative assessment, constructivism, theory of education) from the discipline of linguistics and education theory and had to choose for each term the most appropriate definition from the four suggested. The participants were warned that sometimes more than one definition was appropriate. It was done in order to encourage the participants to think well without guessing blindly. The list of sources used for the construction of the term recognition test is presented at the end of the article. Both the test and the questionnaire were presented in Lithuanian as there was no aim to test the English language knowledge of the students.

2. RESULTS The aim of the questionnaire was to reveal the opinion of the first – fourth year students, prospective teachers, about the importance of terminology knowledge for a qualified professional, especially for the foreign language teacher, and find out their attitude to terminology learning at university.

353 the importance of terminology knowledge in the activity of a qualified professional in general and in the teacher’s work in particular, as well as the position it occupies in an academic context. In order to evaluate students’ competence a term recognition test was developed. The participants were presented with 16 terms (alliteration, homonym, clause, epic, assimilation, oxymoron, ellipsis, inflectional language, connotation, modals, skill, method, curriculum, formative assessment, constructivism, theory of education) from the discipline of linguistics and education theory and had to choose for each term the most appropriate definition from the four suggested. The participants were warned that sometimes more than one definition was appropriate. It was done in order to encourage the participants to think well without guessing blindly. The list of sources used for the construction of the term recognition test is presented at the end of the article. Both the test and the questionnaire were presented in Lithuanian as there was no aim to test the English language knowledge of the students.

2. RESULTS

The aim of the questionnaire was to reveal the opinion of the first – fourth year students, prospective teachers, about the importance of terminology knowledge for a qualified professional, especially for the foreign language teacher, and find out their attitude to terminology learning at university.The reactions to the statements connected with the professional activity and The reactions to the statements connected with the professional activity and terminology terminologyknowledge knowledge in general in show general that show students that rec studentsognize recognize the importance the importance of such knowledge.of For suchexample, knowledge the majority. For example, of first the – fourthmajority year of studentsfirst – fourth (78%, year 91%, students 74% and (78%, 82,5%, 91%, respectively) 74%recognized and 82, 5that%, respectively)qualified speci recognizedalists should that know qualified their professional specialists termsshould (see know figure their 3). professional terms (see figure 3).

100% 91 F irstyear 78 82,5 80% 74 60% S econdyear

40% 22 26 15 Thirdyear 20% 9 0 2,5 0 0 0% F ourthyear Agree P artly D isagree agree

FigureFigure 3: Responses 3: Responses to the to thestatement statement “Qualified “Qualified specia specialistslists should should know know their their professional terms” There were no significant differeprofessionalnces in terms” opinions of the students of different years about the necessity of the term knowledge for the general education of a professional. 76% of the first, 93% ofThere the second, were 85,5%no significant of the third differences and 85% ofin the opinions fourth ofyear the students students agreed of different or partly years agreed (24%, about6,8%, the 8,5 necessity and 15%, of respec the termtively) knowledge with this for statement. the general Similarl educationy (see figureof a professional 4), almost .equal number 76of% the of thefirst first,– fourth 93% year of thestudent second,s agreed 85,5 %or ofpartly the agreedthird and with 8 5the% ofstatement the fourth that yearthe knowledge of studentsterms is agreeda characteristic or partly of agreed a competent (24%, 6professional,8%, 8,5 and (54%+40,5%; 15%, respectively) 45,5%+54,5%; with this 54%+40% and statement47,5%+50%,. Similarly respectively). (see figure 4), almost equal number of the first – fourth year students agreed or partly agreed with the statement that the knowledge of terms is a characteristic of a competent professional (54%+40,5%; 45,5%+54,5%; 54%+40% and 47,5%+50%, respectively).

60% 54 54 54,5 50 F irstyear 47,5 267 50% 45,5 40,5 40 40% S econdyear 30% 20% 5,5 6 Thirdyear 10% 0 2,5 0% F ourthyear Agree P artly D isagree agree

FigureFigure 4: Responses 4: Responses to the to statement the statement “The “The knowledge knowledge of terms of terms is a characteristic is a characteristic of a of a competent professional” competent professional” Students also acknowledged that the practical activity of specialists is connected with Studentsthe knowledge also acknowledged of their subject that field the terminologypractical activity (see figure of specialists 5). More is than connected half of the first (51%), with secondthe knowledge (59%), third of their (63%) subject and fieldfourth terminology (52,5%) year (see students figure 5 disa). Moregreed than with half the of statement that the practical activity of specialists has nothing to do with the knowledge of the subject field terminology. It is interesting to note, however, that quite a number of students partly agreed with 354this statement (30% of the first year, 38,7% of the second, 31% of the third and 42,5 percent of the fourth year students). Almost 19% of the first year students unreservedly supported this statement. A similarity between the first and the fourth year students’ reactions can be noticed, as 49% of the first year and 45% of the fourth year students agreed or partly agreed that there is no relationship between the terminology knowledge and the actual work of a specialist (41% of the second year and 37% of the third year students think likewise).

63 70% 59 F irstyear 60% 51 52,5 50% 42,5 38,7 S econdyear 40% 30 31 30% 19 20% Thirdyear 6 10% 2,3 2,5 0% F ourthyear Agree P artly D isagree agree

Figure 5. Responses to the statement “Practical activity of specialists has nothing to do with their knowledge of the subject field terminology”.

The respondents were also asked whether the English language teachers should know linguistic, educational theory and other disciplines related terms, as well as whether it is at all necessary for a teacher to know terms. The majority of the first – fourth year students fully or partially recognized the need for English teachers to know various terms connected with the study of language (62%+22%; 61,3%+36,3%; 74%+23% and 62,5%+27,5%, respectively). Also the majority of the respondents fully or partially recognized the need for the language teachers to know the terms of educational theory (84%+13,5% first year; 91%+9% second year; 66%+34% third year and 77,5%+20% fourth year students) and they also agreed or partly agreed with the statement that the English language teachers should not only know the terms in Lithuanian but should also be able to translate them into English (75,6%+21,6% first year; 75%+23% second year; 54%+37% third 268 60% 54 54 54,5 50 F irstyear 47,5 50% 45,5 40,5 40 40% S econdyear 30% 20% 5,5 6 Thirdyear 10% 0 2,5 0% F ourthyear Agree P artly D isagree agree Figure 4: Responses to the statement “The knowledge of terms is a characteristic of a competent professional” the first 5( 1%), second (59%), third (63%) and fourth (52,5%) year students disagreed with the statementStudents that also the acknowledged practical activity that ofthe specialists practical activityhas nothing of specialists to do with is theconnected with knowledgethe knowledge of the of subjecttheir subject field terminologyfield terminology. It is interesting (see figure to 5). note, More however, than half that of quite the first (51%), second (59%), third (63%) and fourth (52,5%) year students disagreed with the statement that the a number of students partly agreed with this statement (30% of the first year, 38,7% practical activity of specialists has nothing to do with the knowledge of the subject field ofterminology. the second, It 31% is interesting of the third to andnote, 42, however,5 percent that of thequite fourth a number year students)of students. Almost partly agreed with 19%this statement of the first (30% year of thestudents first year, unreservedly 38,7% of thesupported second, 31%this statementof the third. A and similarity 42,5 percent of the betweenfourth year the students). first and Almostthe fourth 19% year of thestudents’ first y earreactions students can unreservedly be noticed, supportedas 49% of thethis statement. firstA similarity year and between 45% of the fourthfirst and year the studentsfourth year agreed students’ or partly reactions agreed can that be therenoticed, is no as 49% of the relationshipfirst year and between 45% of thethe terminologyfourth year students knowledge agreed and or the partly actual agreed work that of athere specialist is no relationship (41%between of thethe terminologysecond year knowledgeand 37% of a ndthe the third actual year work students of a specialis think likewise)t (41% of. the second year and 37% of the third year students think likewise).

63 70% 59 F irstyear 60% 51 52,5 50% 42,5 38,7 S econdyear 40% 30 31 30% 19 20% Thirdyear 6 10% 2,3 2,5 0% F ourthyear Agree P artly D isagree agree

FigureFigure 5 5:. ResponsesResponses to the statementstatement “Practical“Practical activity activity of of specialists specialists has has nothing nothing to todo do with their knowledge of the subject field terminology”. with their knowledge of the subject field terminology”. The respondents were also asked whether the English language teachers should know linguistic,The respondents educational were theory also andasked ot herwhether disciplines the English related language terms, teachers as well should as whether know it is at all linguistic,necessary educational for a teacher theory to know and teotherrms. disciplines The majority related of the terms, first as– well fourth as whether year students it fully or ispartially at all necessary recognized for the a teacherneed for to English know termsteachers. The to knowmajority various of the terms first –conne fourthcted year with the study studentsof language fully (62%+22%; or partially 61,3%+36,3%;recognized the 74%+23%need for English and 62,5%+27,5%, teachers to know respectively). various Also the termsmajority connected of the respondents with the study fully of or language partially (rec62%+22%;ognized the 61,3%+3 need for6,3%; the 74%+23%language teachers and to know the terms of educational theory (84%+13,5% first year; 91%+9% second year; 66%+34% third year 6and2,5 %+27,77,5%+20%5%, respectively) fourth year . students)Also the andmajority they also of theagreed respondents or partly agreedfully or with partially the statement that recognizedthe English thelanguage need for teachers the language should notteachers only knowto know the the terms terms in Lithuanianof educational but shouldtheory also be able (84%+13,to translate5% them first into year; English 91%+9% (75,6%+21,6% second year; fi 66rst%+34% year; 75%+23% third year secondand 77, year;5%+20% 54%+37% third fourth year students) and they also agreed or partly268 agreed with the statement that the English language teachers should not only know the terms in Lithuanian but should also be able to translate them into English (75,6%+21,6% first year; 57 %+23% second year; 54%+37% third year and 82,5%+15% fourth year students) or even that English teachers, similarly to translators, should know terms of different other spheres, besides their professional one (22%+46% first year; 43,2%+27,2% second year; 49%+37% third year and 42,5%+45% fourth year students agreed or partly agreed with this). More than half of the respondents saw a clear connection between the practical activity of a teacher and the knowledge of the professional terminology. 54% of the first year, 63,5% of the second year, 60% of the third year and 62,5% of the fourth year students

355 year and 82,5%+15% fourth year students) or even that English teachers, similarly to translators, should know terms of different other spheres, besides their professional one (22%+46% first year; 43,2%+27,2% second year; 49%+37% third year and 42,5%+45% fourth year students agreed or partly agreed with this). More than half of the respondents saw a clear connection between the practicalyear activityand 82,5%+15% of a teacher fourth and theyear knowledge students) orof eventhe professional that English term teachers,inology. similarly 54% of to the translators, first year, should 63,5% know of the terms second of different year, 60% other of spheres, the third besi yeardes andtheir 62,5% professional of the one fourth (22%+46% year students first year; disagreeddisagreed43,2%+27,2% with with the the second statement statement year; that that 49%+37% there there is is no thirdno nnecessityecessity year and forfor 42,5%+45% teachers to fourth know yearterms terms students as as they agreed are or practitionerstheypartly are practitioners agreed and carry with out and this). pr acticalcarry More outwork than practical (see half figure of work the 6). respondents(see figure6 sa).w a clear connection between the practical activity of a teacher and the knowledge of the professional terminology. 54% of the first year, 63,5% of the second year, 60% of the third year and 62,5% of the fourth year students 70% 63,5 60 62,5 F irstyear disagreed60% with the statement that there54 is no necessity for teachers to know terms as they are practitioners and carry out practical work (see figure 6). 50% 38 32 32,5 S econdyear 40% 31,5 30% 63,5 62,5 F irstyear 20% 70%8 8,5 60 Thirdyear 10% 60% 4,5 5 54 0% 50% 38 32 32,5 F ourthS econdyear year 40% 31,5 30%Agree P artly D isagree 20% 8 8,5 agree Thirdyear 10% 4,5 5 0% Figure 6: Responses to the statement “There is no necessity for teachersF ourth to yearknow terms as Figure 6: Responses to theAgree statement “ThereP artly is noD isagreenecessity for teachers to know terms as they are they are practitioners and carry out practical work”. practitioners and carry out practical work”.agree

However,However, there there can can be be a acertain certain discrepancy discrepancy noticednoticed between thethe knowledgeknowledge of of variety of termsvarietyFigure that of pre-service terms6: Responses that teachers pre-service to the t houghtstatement teachers are “Therenecessary thought is no arein necessitythe necessary practical for in teacherswork the practical of toan knowEnglish work terms language as they are teacherof anpractitioners Englishand the languageterminology and carry teacher outknowledge practical and the they work”. terminology thought should knowledge be acquired they thought during the should studies. More thanbe acquiredhalf of the during first –the fourth studies ye.ar More students than eitherhalf of agreed the first or partly– fourth agreed year studentswith the eitherstatement that ‘pre-serviceagreed or partlyHowever,language agreed teachersthere with can havethe be statement ato certain get acquainted discrepancythat ‘pre-service only noticed with language th betweene terms teachers thatthe knowledgeare have connected to of varietywith of the foreign language teaching methods’ (24,3%+43,2%; 18%+41%; 17%+43% and 12,5%+55%, get termsacquainted that pre-service only with theteachers terms t houghtthat are are connected necessary with in the foreignpractical language work of teach an English- language respectively).teacher and In general,the terminology the majority knowledge also agreed they orthought partly shouldagreed bethat acquired too much during attention the studies. is given More to ing terminologythan methods’ half of (24,3%+43,2%; teachingthe first – at fourth the 18%+41%; university year students 17%+43% (32,5%+43,2% either and agreed 12, first5 %+or partly55 year;%, respectively)agreed 18%+43% with second.the In statement year; that 26%+31%general,‘pre-service the third majority yearlanguage and also 17,5%+47,5%teachers agreed orhave partly to fourth get agreed acquainted year that students). too only much Howevewith attention ther, terms still is the thatgiven ma are jorityto connected of the with pre-serviceterminologythe foreign teachers teaching language noticed at teachi thethe universitycongnnection methods’ (32,between (24,3%+43,2%;5%+43,2% the terms first 18%+that year; they41%; 18%+43% learn 17%+43% at the second university and 12,5%+55%, and theyear; futurerespectively). 26%+31% professional thirdIn general, year activity. and the 17, Themajority5%+47, first, also 5 sec% agreedfourthond and oryear partly third students) yearagreed student. However, that toos disagreed much still the attention with theis given statementmajorityto terminology that of the‘Terms pre-service teaching are necessary teachers at the while universitynoticed you thestudy, (32,5%+43,2% connection later they between can first be year; forgotten’the terms 18%+43% (seethat figure second 7). year; Interestingly, only 42,5% of the fourth year students did not support this statement. they26%+31% learn at the third university year and and 17,5%+47,5% the future professional fourth year students).activity. The Howeve first,r, second still the and ma jority of the pre-service teachers noticed the connection between the terms that they learn at the university and third year students disagreed with the statement that ‘Terms are necessary while you the80% future professional activity. The66 first, second F and irst thirdyear year students disagreed with the study,statement later they that can ‘Terms be forgotten’ are necessary (see56,7 figure while 7)you. Interestingly, study, later only they 42, can5% beof forgotten’the fourth (see figure 7). 60% 47,5 51,5 yearInterestingly, students did only not 42,5% support of thethis fourth statement year42,5 .students didS econd not supporyeart this statement. 40% 31,5 21,6 21,6 17 20 14 10 20% 80% 66 ThirdFyear irstyear 56,7 0% 60% 47,5 51,5 42,5 F ourthS econdyear year 40%Agree P artly 31,5D isagree 21,6 21,6 17 agree20 20% 14 10 Thirdyear Figure 7: Responses0% to the statement “Terms are necessary while you study, later they can be F ourthyear forgotten”. Agree P artly D isagree agree 269 FigureFigure 7: 7:Responses Responses to the to statement the statement “Terms “Terms are necessary are necessary while you while study, you later study, they later they can be forgotten”. can be forgotten”. 269 356 The answers obtained from the first – fourth year students for the specially devised term recognition test were divided into three categories: correct answers – when all the correct definitions for the term from the four given were chosen, partly correct answers – where there was only one definition for the given term chosen (even The answers obtained from the first – fourth year students for the specially devised term thoughrecognition there was test more were than divided one correct into three definition categories: possible) correct and an incorrectswers – whenanswers all the correct – whendefinitions there forwas the chosen term fromnot a the single four correct given were answer chosen, or one partly correct correct and answers one incor – where- there was rectonly definitions one definition were formarked the for given the termterm . chosenThe results (even presented though there in figure was more 8 show than a one correct steadydefinition progression possible) in andthe incorrectterm knowledge answers from– when the there first was to thechosen last notyear a singleof studies correct. answer or Theone number correct andof the one correct incorrect answers definitions grows were steadily marked from for the the firstterm. year The (5 3%)results through presented in figure 8 theshow second a steady (33%) progression and the third in the(34) te rmyears knowledge up to the from fourth the yearfirst (39%)to the of last studies year of. studies. The number of the correct answers grows steadily from the first year (53%) through the second (33%) Consequently, the percentage of the incorrect answers diminishes from the first to and the third (34) years up to the fourth year (39%) of studies. Consequently, the percentage of the theincorrect fourth year answers of studies diminishes (53%, from 47%, the 4 5first% and to th42%,e fourth respectively) year of studies. Interestingly, (53%, 47%, the 45% and 42%, numbersrespectively). of partly Interestingly, correct answers the numb thaters the of firstpartly yearcorrect and answers the fourth that theyear first students year and the fourth providedyear students are similar provided – 18% are andsimilar 19%, – 18%respectively, and 19% however,, respectively, there however,is a marked there 10% is a marked 10% differencedifference in inthe thenumber number of correct of correct answers answers these th twoese twogroups groups give and give 11% and difference 11% difference in the in thenumber number of incorrect of incorrect answers. answers .

F irstyear 60% 53 47 50% 45 42 34 39 S econd 40% 29 33 year 30% 20 21 19 20% 18 Thirdyear 10% 0% F ourthyear CORRECT PARTLY INC OR R E C T ANSWERS CORRECT ANSWERS ANSWERS

Figure 8: Results ofFigure the term 8: Results recognition of the test. term recognition test. CONCLUSIONS

CONCLUSIONS1. The analysis of the pre-service teachers’ responses to the questionnaire statements revealed that pre-service teachers recognize the importance of the terminology knowledge and the 1. The analysis of the pre-service teachers’ responses to the questionnaire state- variety of terms that teachers have to know, however, they seem to be reluctant to learn mentsthem at revealed university. that Although pre-service students teachers recognize recognize that competentthe importance professionals of the have to know terminologytheir subject knowledgefield terminology, and the it varietyseems thatof terms they dothat not teachers see a very have clear to know, connection between however,this knowledge they seem and to practical be reluctant activity. to Thislearn seem them to at be university especially. Although true of the fourth year studentsstudents recognizewho might that not competentnecessarily professionalsbe thinking about have the to knowEnglish their language subject teacher’s career fieldafter theyterminology, graduate. it seems that they do not see a very clear connection between this knowledge and practical activity. This seem to be especially true 2. Term recognition test results show that there can be observed a steady increase in term ofrecognition the fourth competence year students from who the might first to not the necessarily fourth year be of thinkingstudies. about the TheEnglish second language conclusion teacher’s seems career to cont afterradict they the graduate results obtained. by Aliǌkaitơ and Mickienơ (2008)2. Termwho recognitionstudied the termtest results recognition show thatcompetence there can of be 79observed Lithuanian a steady and increase English Bachelor and Masterin degree term recognition philology students competence and foundfrom the that first it did to the not fourth change year markedly of studies enough. from the beginning to the end of their studies. However, acknowledging the limitations of the present research, it should be admitted that a more extensive study is necessary, where students could be given more varied tasks based not only on term recognition (but also, for 357 example, on term definition or interpretation). Assuming that terminology is the formal reflection of the conceptual organization of a special subject and a necessary medium of expression and professional communication, the subject field specialists, i.e. the in-service English language teachers should

270 The second conclusion seems to contradict the results obtained by Aliūkaitė and Mickienė (2008) who studied the term recognition competence of 79 Lithuanian and English Bachelor and Master degree philology students and found that it did not change markedly enough from the beginning to the end of their studies. However, acknowledging the limitations of the present research, it should be admitted that a more extensive study is necessary, where students could be given more varied tasks based not only on term recognition (but also, for example, on term definition or interpretation). Assuming that terminology is the formal reflection of the conceptual organization of a special subject and a necessary medium of expression and professional communication, the subject field specialists, .i e. the in-service English language teachers should also be involved in the study of their attitude towards and knowledge of the professional terminology.

REFERENCES 1. Aliūkaitė, D., Mickienė, I. 2008. Terminų atpažinimas: (ne)kintanti kompetencija // Specialybės kalba: terminija ir studijos. Mokslinių straipsnių rinkinys. Vilnius: Mykolo Riomerio universitetas. 2. Cabré, M.T. 1998. Terminology. Theory, Methods and Applications.John Benjamins Publishing Company: Amsterdam/Philadelphia. 3. Elliot, J. 1991. Action Research for Educational Change. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. 4. Stern, H.H. 1996. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford University Press.

SOURCES 1. Gaigalienė, M., Linkaitytė, G. 2007. Vertinimas, refleksija, grįžtamojo ryšio metodai. // Aukštosios mokyklos dėstytojų pedagoginių kompetencijų bei gebėjimo taikyti šiuolaikines studijų technologijas tobulinimo inovatyvi modulinė programa. 1 knyga// M. Barkauskaitė, V. Gudžinskienė. Vilnius. 2. Hargreaves, A. 1999. Keičiasi mokytojai, keičiasi laikai. Vilnius: Tyto alba. 3. Gaivenis, K., Keinys, S. 1990. Kalbotyros terminų žodynas. Kaunas: Šviesa. 4. Krasnovas, A. 1995. Literatūros terminų žodynas. I sąsiuvinys. Romanas. Vilnius: Baltos lankos. 5. Kvašytė, R. 2005. Mokomasis terminologijos žodynėlis. ŠUL. 6. Laužackas, R. 2005. Profesinio rengimo terminų aiškinamasis žodynas. Kaunas. 7. Martišauskienė, E., Dukynaitė, R. 2007. Šiuolaikinės studijų teorijos// Aukštosios mokyklos dėstytojų pedagoginių kompetencijų bei gebėjimo taikyti šiuolaikines studijų technologijas tobulinimas. Mokomoji medžiaga. 2 knyga // M. Barkauskaitė, V. Gudžinskienė. Vilnius. P. 30-63. 8. Profesinio rengimo terminų aiškinamasis anglų – lietuvių kalbų žodynėlis praktikams. Profesinio mokymo reformos programa. 1998. Vilnius: Phare.

358 SANTRAUKA Būsimų anglų kalbos mokytojų terminų atpažinimas: kintanti kompetencija Ernesta Stankevič

Savo srities terminų išmanymas leidžia žmogų identifikuoti kaip tam tikros kal- binės bendruomenės narį. Anglų kalbos mokytojai priklauso kalbinei bendruomenei, kuri pasižymi specifine dalykine kalba. Specialioji terminologija yra šios kalbos dalis. Straipsnio tikslas buvo nustatyti koks yra būsimųjų anglų kalbos mokytojų požiūris į terminų išmanymą profesinėje veikloje apskritai ir mokytojo konkrečiai, bei jų ter- minų atpažinimo kompetencijos kaitą nuo pirmo iki ketvirto kurso. Buvo apklausti 156, I – IV kurso anglų filologijos, Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto studentai. Pa- aiškėjo, kad studentai pripažįsta įvairių terminų svarbą profesinėje mokytojo veikloje, tačiau jų požiūris į terminų mokymąsi universitete nėra teigiamas. Testo rezultatai parodė, kad aukštesniųjų kursų studentai geriau žino terminus nei žemesniųjų, t.y. jų dalykinės kalbos žinios auga.

359 Vertinimo įtaka mokinių mokymosi motyvacijai mokantis antrosios užsienio kalbos

Loreta Šernienė Alytaus „Volungės“ pagrindinė mokykla, Volungės g. 2, Alytus, Lietuva, [email protected]

Santrauka Šiandien ypač vertinamas gebėjimas mokėti keletą kalbų, todėl labai svarbu atsakyti į klausimą, kaip galima padėti mokiniams išmokti antrosios užsienio kalbos, atsižvel- giant į atnaujintų bendrųjų programų tikslus, reikalaujančius ugdyti mokinių kalbinius komunikacinius gebėjimus. Mokymosi procese vienu iš pagrindinių pagalbininkų turėtų būti vertinimas. 2004 m. buvo patvirtinta Mokinių pasiekimų ir pažangos vertinimo samprata, bet vertinimas vis dar išlieka ugdymo proceso silpnąja grandimi, kadangi daugeliu atvejų taikomos mokinių pažangos ir pasiekimų vertinimo metodikos nekelia mokinių mokymosi motyvacijos ir tuo pačiu nepadeda mokytis. Straipsnyje pateikiamo tyrimo tikslas – ištirti vertinimo įtaką mokinių motyvuotam antrosios užsienio kalbos mokymui/si. Tyrimo uždaviniai – apibrėžti vertinimo ciklą ugdymo procese, išanalizuoti vertinimo būdus ir priemones, įtakojančius mokinių mokymosi pažangą ir keliančius mokymo/si motyvaciją. Tyrimo objektas - vertinimo ciklas, įtakojantis mokinių užsienio kalbos mokymąsi ir motyvaciją 5-10 klasėse. Tyri- mo metodai - stebėjimas, formuojamojo ir kaupiamojo (suminio) vertinimo taikymas, mokinių ir tėvų apklausa. Raktiniai žodžiai: antroji užsienio kalba, vertinimas, mokymosi motyvacija.

Šiuolaikinė visuomenė jau yra suvokusi užsienio kalbų mokėjimo svarbą, ir tai turi įtakos užsienio kalbų mokymuisi keliamiems reikalavimams. Šiandien ypač vertinamas gebėjimas mokėti keletą kalbų. Labai svarbu atsakyti į klausimą, kaip galima padėti mokiniams išmokti II-osios užsienio kalbos, atsižvelgiant į atnaujintų bendrųjų programų tikslus, reikalaujančius ugdyti mokinių kalbinius komunikacinius gebėjimus. Mokymosi procese vienu iš pagrindinių pagalbininkų motyvacijai kelti turėtų būti vertinimas. Jau nuo 2001 metų atkreiptas dėmesys į vertinimo problemą bendrojo lavinimo mokykloje. Eilė respublikos mokyklų įsijungė į projekto „Vertinimas ugdymo procese“ veiklą. Šio projekto rezultatas – parengtas dokumentas Mokinių

360 pasiekimų ir pažangos vertinimo samprata (Žin., 2004, Nr. 35-1150), toliau – Verti- nimo samprata. Šis dokumentas įtvirtina šiuolaikišką vertinimo supratimą Lietuvos bendrojo lavinimo mokykloje. Praėjo šešeri metai po jo patvirtinimo, o visgi mokyklose egzistuoja vertinimo problema. Vertinimas išlieka ugdymo proceso silpnąja grandimi, kadangi daugeliu atvejų taikomos mokinių pažangos ir pasiekimų vertinimo metodikos nekelia mokinių mokymosi motyvacijos ir tuo pačiu nepadeda mokytis. Ir dažniausiai tik vienintelis įvertinimui skirtas pažymys (10) galimai motyvuoja mokinius. O vertinti ir įver- tinti kalbos mokėjimą yra ypatingai sudėtinga. Todėl neišvengiamai iškyla poreikis keisti požiūrį į mokymąsi ir vertinimą, diegti naujas vertinimo metodikas ir skatinti mokinių aktyvų ir sąmoningą dalyvavimą ugdymo procese. Būtina keisti vertinimo kultūrą užsienio kalbų pamokose. Vertinimas turi tapti mokymo mokytis pagrindu. Minėto projekto veikloje mūsų mokykloje buvo siekta ištirti vertinimo įtaką mokinių motyvuotam II-osios užsienio kalbos mokymui/si. Tyrimo tikslai: ištirti vertinimo įtaką mokinių motyvuotam II-osios užsienio kalbos mokymui/si. Tyrimo uždaviniai: apibrėžti vertinimo ciklą ugdymo procese, išanalizuoti vertinimo būdus ir priemones, įtakojančius mokinių mokymosi pažangą ir keliančius mokymo/si motyvaciją. Tyrimo objektas: vertinimo ciklas, įtakojantis mokinių užsienio kalbos mokymąsi ir motyvaciją 5-10 klasėse. Tyrimo metodai: stebėjimas, formuojamojo ir kaupiamojo (suminio) vertinimo taikymas, mokinių ir tėvų apklausa.

1. Tyrimo aprašymas Tyrimui buvo pasirinkta viena klasė, kuri pradėjo mokytis antros užsienio (rusų) kalbos nuo 6–os klasės. Tyrimas truko penkerius mokslo metus. Keičiantis mokykloje vertinimo praktikai į vertinimą pažvelgta kaip į procesą. Vertinimas tapo ugdymo proceso planavimo dalimi. Tai suteikė realią galimybę efektyviau įgyvendinti Verti- nimo sampratoje iškeltus svarbiausius vertinimo uždavinius. Pirmiausiai susitarta dėl visiems vienodai suprantamų sąvokų reikšmių, nes dar iki šiol vertinimo ir įvertinimo sąvokos daugeliu atvejų sutapatinamos. Nors: • Vertinimas yra nuolatinis informacijos apie mokinio mokymosi pažangą ir pasiekimus kaupimo, interpretavimo ir apibendrinimo procesas; • Įvertinimas – tai vertinimo proceso rezultatas, konkretus sprendimas apie mokinio pasiekimus ir padarytą pažangą; • Įsivertinimas – paties mokinio daromi sprendimai apie daromą pažangą ir pasiekimus. Jeigu vertinimas yra procesas, tai jis, kaip ir kiekvienas procesas, turi savo tikslus. Planuojant vertinimo procesą buvo pasirinktos tokios vertinimo metodikos, kurios padėtų mokiniams mokytis; pasitikrinti žinias ir gebėjimus ir skatintų mokymosi

361 motyvaciją. Juk vertinimo tikslai ir yra: padėti išmatuoti besimokančiųjų mokymosi pažangą; diagnozuoti besimokančiųjų mokymosi motyvaciją; disciplinuoti ugdymo procesą; bei įvertinti mokymo/si metodų tinkamumą. Taigi, vertinimo ciklas prasideda nuo planavimo. Buvo nuolat apmąstoma, ko ir kaip mokyti ir ko ir kaip mokysis mokiniai. Tik tada prasideda mokymas ir mokymasis, o kartu ir vertinimas kaip mokymo ir mokymosi dalis. Šiame etape pats svarbiausias yra formuojamasis vertinimas, kuris ir teikia pagalbą besimokančiajam. Viso mokymosi proceso metu buvo fiksuojamos mokinių sėkmės ir nesėkmės (kaupiamasis vertinimas), su besimokančiaisiais aptariami jų poreikiai, daroma ir/ar nedaroma pažanga. Pačių mokinių suvokimas, ko jie mokosi (pamokos uždavinys buvo formuluojamas mokiniams suprantama kalba), kokiais būdais to galima išmokti, yra geriausias grįžtamosios informacijos suteikimo rezultatas. Mokiniai buvo informuojami nuolatos, buvo pasitelktos formuojamojo vertinimo metodikos, tokios kaip komentarai žodžiu ar raštu, Europos Kalbų Aplanko biografijos dalis, kurioje aprašyti ugdomi kalbos gebėjimai. Tik laiku gavę grįžtamąją informaciją, ir mokytojas, ir mokinys gali vertinti ugdymo procesą ir gautus rezultatus, o taip pat ir savalaikiai koreguoti tolimesnę veiklą. Tokiu būdu vertinimu buvo naudojamasi numatant kitus žingsnius, planuojant tolimesnį mokymą bei mokymąsi. Taigi, vertinimo procesą sudaro planavimas, vertinimas mokant/is, pasiekimų apibendrinimas ir mokinių bei jų tėvų informavimas. Tam, kad vertinimas būtų teisingas, patikimas ir pagrįstas planuojant ir taikant vertinimo metodikas, buvo siekiama: • numatyti vertinimo tikslus; • vertinimą integruoti į ugdymo procesą (numatyti darbo ir vertinimo formas bei metodus, kurie suteiktų grįžtamąją informaciją); • apibrėžti ir pagrįsti vertinimo kriterijus; • vertinimo metodus aptarti su mokiniais, kad jie būtų jiems aiškūs ir suprantami; • parinkti įvykdomas užduotis; • vertinti naudojant įvairius metodus. Mokinių pažangos ir pasiekimų vertinimas susideda iš dviejų dalių – vertinimo ugdymo procese ir vertinimo baigus temą, kursą, modulį. Pirmuoju atveju svarbiausias yra formuojamasis vertinimas. Jo tikslas – teikti mokytojui ir mokiniui grįžtamąją informaciją apie mokymosi pažangą. Formuojamasis vertinimo nesietinas su pažy- miu – jis ne kontroliuoja, o padeda mokiniui matyti savo pažangą mokantis kalbos. Ugdymo procese svarbus ir diagnostinis vertinimas, padedantis nustatyti mokinių stipriąsias puses ir mokymosi spragas. Diagnostinis vertinimas dažniausiai buvo taikomas prieš pradedant naują temą. Pasitaikė atvejų, kad prireikė diagnostinio vertinimo suteikiamos informacijos ir temos eigoje ar net baigus temą. Diagnostinis vertinimas parodo, ką mokiniai jau žino, moka ir geba, taip pat kokių esama spragų. Diagnostinis vertinimas buvo planuojamas mokslo metų pradžioje sudarant ilguosius (teminius) ugdymo planus. Buvo numatoma, kada ir kokias diagnostinio vertinimo formos bus taikomos. Pvz.: prieš pradedant temą „Būdvardžių laipsniai“ diagnostinio vertinimo

362 pagalba patikrinama, kaip mokiniai išmano nelyginamojo laipsnio būdvardžius. Atsižvelgus į šio vertinimo rezultatus galima planuoti tolesnę ugdomąją veiklą. Pabaigus temą mokymosi rezultatus padeda apibendrinti apibendrinamasis vertinimas. Jis fiksuojamas pažymiu dešimtbalėje sistemoje. Buvo pastebėta, kad kryptingai organizuojamas vertinimo procesas besimokančiajam: • suteikia informaciją apie jo pažangą, silpnąsias ir stipriąsias mokymosi puses (jam pačiam, jo tėvams); • skatina mokymosi motyvaciją, nukreiptą ne į pažymį, kaip mokymosi tikslą, bet į gebėjimų sklaidą; • suteikia pagalbą ir paramą mokymosi metu; • ugdo asmenybę, orientuotą į nuolatinį mokymąsi. Kad mokinys pajustų vertinimo prasmę, jis renka ir fiksuoja savo pasiekimus, su mokytojo pagalba ieško ir renkasi optimalius ir labiausiai jam tinkančius mokymosi būdus; mokosi išsikelti tikslus, nusakančius pasiekimų ir pažangos prasmę ateities veiklai. Formuojamasis vertinimas padeda numatyti mokymosi perspektyvą, pastiprinti daromą pažangą, skatina mokinius mokytis analizuoti savo pasiekimus ar mokymosi spragas. Tai vertinimas, kuris sudaro galimybes mokiniams ir mokytojams geranoriškai bendradarbiauti ugdymo proceso metu. Mokiniai nebijo klausti, aptarti su mokytoju gaunamą pažymį remiantis vertinimo kriterijais. Vertinimo kriterijai aptariami prieš atliekant numatytą užduotį. Viso ugdymo proceso metu taikomas formuojamasis vertinimas, kuris nesiejamas su pažymiu. Nuolat buvo ieškoma už ką pagirti mokinį, jei ne už pasiekimus, tai bent už pastangas. Taip mokiniai įgaudavo pasitikėjimą savo jėgomis ir norą mokytis bei siekti daugiau. Motyvaciją kelia jau vien parodymas mokiniui, kad jį pastebi. Mokinys pajunta, kas jis yra mokytojui svarbus. Nieko nėra baisiau, jei mokinys galvoja, jog jo mokytojas nepastebi. Tada jokios vertinimo metodikos jau nebepadės. Mažesnę pažangą darantiems mokiniams kelti motyvaciją padeda pastangų vertinimas. Buvo nutarta taikyti suminį vertinimą ugdymo proceso metu: buvo fiksuojamos mokinių dedamos pastangos, atliekant vieną ar kitą užduotį. Ne kiekvienas mokinys gali pats greitai pamatyti savo pažangą, ne kiekvienas gali gauti siekiamą įvertinimą, nors nuosekliai dirba. O kai ilgą laiko tarpą nesi įvertinamas teigiamai, motyvacija ne tik neauga, ji ryškiai krenta ir ją atstatyti yra labai sudėtinga. Projekto eigoje buvo padaryta išvada, kad čia veiksmingas yra kaupiamasis vertinimas. Šio vertinimo paskirtis ir yra fiksuoti pastangas, o temos (mėnesio, ciklo) gale gautus rezultatus konvertuoti į pažymį, kuris yra visiems vienodai suprantamas ir priimtinas. Kaupiamojo vertinimo (vertinant mokinių pastangas: namų darbų atlikimą ir mokinių aktyvumą pamokoje) formos gali būti įvairios. Tai simbolių sistema, atviri vertinimo lapai ir kt. Taikant kaupiamąjį vertinimą aiškėja mokinių individualūs siekiai, nes kiekvieno ne tik pastangos, bet ir gebėjimai yra jei jau ne išmatuojami, tai bent pastebimi ir išryškinami. Tačiau vertinimas nebus efektyvus, jei mokiniai nebus supažindinti su vertinimo kriterijais. Kiekvienas mokinys turi žinoti, kas bus vertinama jo darbe,

363 kokį svorį turi kiekviena vertinimo kriterijaus dalis. Tuomet jis galės tikslingai ruoštis, mokytis, atsižvelgdamas į savo galimybes, į savo mokymosi stilių. Toks vertinimas atitiks visus jam keliamus tikslus ir bus naudingas mokiniui. O jei naudingas mokiniui, vadinasi, einama motyvacijos kėlimo linkme. Net Geoff Petty savo leidinyje „Šiuolai- kinis mokymas“ didelį dėmesį skiria priežasčių, skatinančių norą mokytis, analizei bei apžvalgai. Pasak autoriaus, „Sunkiausias mokytojo uždavinys – įkvėpti mokiniams norą mokytis“ (Petty, 2007, 56) . Geoff Petty kaip pirmą priežastį skatinančią mo- tyvaciją įvardija „Mokausi, nes man tai naudinga“ (Petty, 2007, 57). Akivaizdu, kad naudos sau suvokimą gali sąlygoti tik gerai organizuojamas vertinimas, o ne vien mokymo būdai ar metodikos. Projekto eigoje buvo pastebėta, kad formuojamojo vertinimo taikymas ugdymo procese ugdo mokinių savigarbą. Mokiniui suteikiant grįžtamąją informaciją buvo akcentuojama, ką jis turėtų padaryti siekdamas pagerinti savo darbą (vengtina palyginimų su kitais mokiniais). Komentarai pagerina mokinių mokymąsi, kai jie pozityvūs. Komentuojant mokinių pasiekimus pirmiausiai buvo pabrėžiama, kas padaryta gerai, ir ką reikėtų dar patobulinti. Juk veiksmingo grįžtamojo ryšio pagrindinė idėja – tobulinti, o ne taisyti. Mokytojas laisvas rinktis formuojamojo vertinimo metodus. Projekto eigoje buvo stebima, ar vertinimas padeda mokiniui ugdytis gebėjimus ir žadina dar didesnį norą mokytis. Jei taip, vertinimas tinkamas. Esame nuolatinėje kaitoje. Šiuolaikiniam žmogui svarbu išsiugdyti įsivertinimo gebėjimų (kad suprastų pagrindinius mokymosi tikslus ir ką jiems reikia padaryti siekiant sėkmės). Įsivertinimo gebėjimus ugdyti/is padeda Europos Kalbų Aplanko (toliau EKA) taikymas ugdymo procese. Buvo nutarta taikyti EKA mokymosi procese. Buvo stengtasi mokiniams išaiškinti EKA naudą mokantis. Kad galėtum įsivertinti teisingai, reikia nueiti gana ilgą kelią: įgyti žinių, jas suprasti, išmokti jas pritaikyti, analizuoti ir suvesti į visumą, ir tik tada gali į(si)vertinti. Tada gali nusistatyti, kur esi ir vėl eiti tą kelią iš pradžių, kad padarytum pažangą. EKA padeda mokiniams išmatuoti daromą pažangą ir skatina kiekvieną kartą eiti tolyn, gilyn. Buvo pastebėta, kad mokiniai ne tik noriai priėmė EKA, bet ir noriai su juo dirbo. Mokytojui EKA – tai galimybė pamatyti, ar pavyko pasiekti tiek, kiek planavo, tai yra taikyti EKA diagnostiniam vertinimui. Mokiniams užpildžius Aplankus, išryškėja spragos ne tik jų pasiekimuose, bet ir, jei yra, mokytojo planavime ir/ar ugdymo procese. Pvz.: Kai mokiniai suvedė pirmuosius rezultatus, paaiškėjo, kad žemiausią lygį dauguma jų yra pasiekę iš rašymo. Žinant tai, galima realiai ir tikslingai planuoti tolimesnį ugdymo procesą, suteikiant prioritetus šiai kalbinės veiklos rūšiai. Tyrimo eigoje buvo pastebėta, kad visi vertinimo tipai, jei taikomi tikslingai ir apgalvotai, yra naudingi mokiniams. Tačiau ta nauda skiriasi, priklausomai nuo kiekvieno vertinimo tipo tikslo. • Formuojamasis: nauda visiems mokiniams, ypač vidutinę ir nedidelę pažangą darantiems (mokiniams mokytis padedama nedelsiant)

364 • Diagnostinis: nauda tiems, kurie nesimoko gerai (jei mokoma atsižvelgiant į jų poreikius) • Apibendrinamasis: visiems naudinga žinoti, kaip sekasi (akivaizdžiam pa- siekimų gerėjimui įtakos neturi).

2. Praktinė tyrimo reikšmė Nauja vertinimo kultūra ugdymo procese yra reikšminga. Tai buvo nustatyta po- kalbių su mokiniais metu, tai buvo pabrėžta ir tėvų apklausos (žodžiu ir raštu) metu. Vertinimas padeda mokiniui matyti, ką jis geba gerai ir ką reikia dar tobulinti; kaip sąmoningai planuoti savo mokymąsi, padeda mokytis ir įsivertinti; suteikia pasitikė- jimo savimi ir mokytoju. Aptariant tyrimo rezultatus buvo pasidžiaugta pirmaisiais pozityviais poslinkiais. Atlikta mokinių ir jų tėvų apklausa atspindėjo penkerių metų darbo rezultatus. Tėvų užpildytose anketose atsispindi tėvų nuomonė apie naujas vertinimo metodikas ir jų įtaką mokiniams. Iš 27 tėvų užpildytų anketų net 23-jose teigiami mokytojų ir mokinių bendro darbo įvertinimai. Norisi pacituoti keletą tėvų išsakytų pastebėjimų: „Sūnus nori aktyviau dalyvauti pamokose. Manau, kad vis labiau supranta mokymosi svarbą.“ „Šis vertinimas pratina vaikus prie savarankiš- kumo“, „Ne tik dukrai, bet ir man yra daug lengviau orientuotis, ką reikia mokėti ir ką dar reikės išmokti. Dukra tapo daug savarankiškesnė, įvertina savo pasiekimus ir analizuoja savo spragas“. Akivaizdu, kad naujos vertinimo ir įsivertinimo formos pažangesnės už tradicinį pažymių rašymą. Šios klasės mokiniai lengviau priėmė sprendimus dėl savo tolimesnio mokymosi. Jiems sekėsi mokytis, nei vienas šios klasės mokinys pusmečiuose nebuvo įvertintas neigiamai. Visi mokiniai išmoko įsivertinti savo pasiekimus, pamatyti savo daromą pažangą. Šios klasės mokiniai skyrėsi nuo kitų klasių mokinių savarankiš- kumu bei sąmoninga atsakomybe už savo mokymąsi. Įpratę prie formuojamojo vertinimo korektiškų komentarų, jie mokėjo įsivertinti savo stipriąsias vietas, drąsiai tarėsi su mokytojais dėl tobulintinų sričių bei mokymosi būdų. Šioje klasėje mokiniai nežinojo, kas yra pažymio baimė. Mokiniai tapo atviresni, nuoširdžiai bendradarbiavo su klasėje dėstančiais mokytojais. Užsienio kalbų pamokų metu visi jie naudojosi EKA. Manome, kad įsivertinimo gebėjimai kėlė motyvaciją, nes jie patys suprato, kad eina pirmyn. O suvokimas, kad tau sekasi, kad tu gali – motyvacijos variklis. Tai buvo viena iš pagrindinių priežasčių, kad 20 šios klasės mokinių pasirinko mokytis II-ąją užsienio kalbą ir 11-oje klasėje. Patirtis dar kartą parodė, kad švietimo srityje visų naujovių įdiegime yra labai svarbus kiekvieno mokytojo indėlis. Nors galutinė sėkmė priklauso nuo visų į(si)vertinimo procese dalyvaujančiųjų, mokytojo vaidmuo išlieka labai svarbus. Mokytojas keldamas mokinių motyvaciją gali pasiekti, kad mokiniai aktyviai įsijungtų į ugdymo procesą, noriai mokytųsi II-osios užsienio kalbos ir ją rinktųsi mokytis vidurinėje mokykloje.

365 Literatūros sąrašas 1. Bendrieji Europos kalbų mokymosi, mokymo ir vertinimo Metmenys. 2008. Vilnius. 2. Europos kalbų aplankas. 2006. Kaunas: Šviesa. 3. Petty, G. 2008. Įrodymais pagrįstas mokymas. Praktinis vadovas. Vilnius: Tyto Alba. 4. Petty, G. 2006. Šiuolaikinis mokymas. Praktinis vadovas. Vilnius: Tyto Alba. 5. Vertinimas ugdymo procese. Knyga mokytojui. 2006.Vilnius 6. Weeden, P., Winter, J., Broadfoot , P. 2005. Vertinimas. Ką tai reiškia mokykloms? Vilnius: Garnelis. 7. Marzano R., J. 2005. Naujoji ugdymo tikslų taksonomija. Vilnius: Žara.

SUMMARY The Influence of Assessment over Secondary School Students’ Motivation in Learning a Second Foreign Language Loreta Šernienė

Ability to know several foreign languages is appreciated nowadays very much, and it is very important to answer the question how to help students learn a second foreign language, according to the updated curriculum objectives that require students to develop language communication skills. In a process of learning, one of the most important tools should be students’ assessment. In a year of 2004, secondary school students‘ achievement and progress assessment concept was confirmed. This document establishes the concept of a modern assessment. However, secondary school students’ assessment still remains a weak side in the educational process, because in many cases methods that are used to evaluate progress and achievements do not raise the motivation to learn. The article examines the influence of assessment in motivated second foreign language teaching/learning, defines the assessment cycle in the educational process, analyzes assessment methods and tools that influence students’ progress and raise teaching/learning motivation. Study object is the evaluation cycle, influencing secondary school students’ foreign language learning, and motivation in the forms from 5 to10. Study methods of the research are monitoring, formative and cumulative (overall) assessment, student and parent survey.

366 Dvikalbis ugdymas Lietuvoje: už ar prieš?

Loreta Vilkienė Vilniaus universitetas, Universiteto g. 5, 01513 Vilnius, Lietuva, [email protected]

SANTRAUKA Šiame straipsnyje analizuojama, kokie yra Lietuvos didžiųjų miestų (Vilniaus, Kauno ir Klaipėdos) gyventojų poreikiai ir nuostatos dvikalbio ugdymo klausimais: į kokią mokyklą – vienakalbę ar dvikalbę – jie norėtų leisti savo vaikus, kodėl rinktųsi dvikalbę mokyklą, kokiomis kalbomis turėtų būti mokoma dvikalbėje mokykloje. Atsa- kymų į pastaruosius klausimus ieškoma atlikus projekto „Kalbų vartojimas ir tautinė tapatybė Lietuvos miestuose“ (2007–2009 m. rėmė Valstybinis mokslo ir studijų fondas) kiekybinių apklausų duomenų analizę. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė, kad didelės dalies aptariamų miestų gyventojų nuostatos dvikalbio ugdymo atžvilgiu yra teigiamos, tačiau dvikalbio ugdymo poreikiai yra skirtingi: tie lietuviai miestų gyventojai, kurie rinktųsi dvikalbę mokyklą, norėtų, kad jų vaikai būtų ugdomi gimtąja ir anglų kalbomis, o tautinių mažumų asmenys pirmenybę teiktų tautinio identiteto ir valstybinei lietuvių kalbai. Didelė dalis Lietuvos didžiųjų miestų gyventojų teigiamai nusiteikusi dvikalbio ugdymo požiūriu, nes mano, kad tai užtikrins geresnes vaikų karjeros bei studijų (ir užsienyje) galimybes. Raktiniai žodžiai: didieji Lietuvos miestai, dvikalbis ugdymas, IDKM, nuostatos, poreikiai.

ĮVADAS Pasaulis yra daugiakalbis. Ir ne vien tuo požiūriu, kad čia sugyvena keli tūkstančiai kalbų. Daugiakalbis jis ir todėl, kad turbūt daugumoje valstybių vienokiame ar kito- kiame kontekste vartojamos kelios kalbos, be to, „galima numanyti, kad pusė pasaulio populiacijos yra dvikalbė“ (Grosjean, 1999, 1). Kitaip tariant, tenkindami kasdienius savo poreikius žmonės vis dažniau pasitelkia ne vien gimtąją, bet ir dar vieną ar kelias svetimąsias kalbas. Jomis, pavyzdžiui, naršoma internete, komunikuojama darbe, žiūrima TV ar pan. Patenkinti savo komunikacijos poreikius viena – gimtąją – kalba, ypač jei ta kalba yra rečiau vartojama, darosi vis sunkiau. Tad kalbų mokymosi poreikis yra labai išaugęs. Tačiau, pasak mokslininkų (Craen, 2001, 209), „daugumoje šalių užsienio kalbų mokymas ir mokymasis išgyvena krizę. Pastangos mokyti ir mokytis kalbų gerokai didesnės nei rezultatai“. Todėl ieškoma naujų mokymo(si) būdų, mo-

367 dernių komunikacinės kompetencijos ugdymo(si) krypčių. Viena tokių – dvikalbio ugdymo idėja, kuri šiuo metu „laikoma viena pačių moderniausių, suteikiant jai naują kokybę, naują teorinį bei praktinį įprasminimą. Europoje šiuo metu intensy- viai kuriamos dvikalbio ugdymo programos bei mokomosios priemonės, dvikalbiai vaikų darželiai ir mokyklos, kurių pagrindinis tikslas – labai gerai išmokyti dviejų ar daugiau kalbų“ (Skripkienė, 1). Lietuvoje taip pat aktyviai skatinamas dvikalbis ugdymas, o konkrečiai – integruotas dalyko ir užsienio kalbos mokymas(is) (toliau – IDKM). Kaip teigiama „Dalyko ir užsienio kalbos integruoto mokymosi gairėse“, pasitelkus tokią metodiką siekiama skatinti naujų mokymosi metodų taikymą „sudarant sąlygas geriau tenkinti mokinių mokymosi poreikius ir prisidėti prie jų konkurencingumo darbo rinkoje didinimo“ (DUKIMG, 2010, 2). Tačiau reikia pripažinti, kad šios metodikos diegimas sukėlė ir diskusijų: ar nebus grėsmės lietuvių kalbai. Griežti interneto komentuotojų pasisakymai IDKM atžvilgiu gali sudaryti įspūdį, kad iš esmės visuomenė priešinasi dvikalbiam ugdymui. Tačiau kyla klausimas, ar interneto komentarai atskleidžia ben- drą visuomenės nuomonės tendenciją? Taigi šio straipsnio tikslas ir yra – atsakyti į klausimą, kokie yra Lietuvos didžiųjų miestų (Vilniaus, Kauno ir Klaipėdos) gyventojų poreikiai ir nuostatos dvikalbio ugdymo klausimais. Ieškant atsakymo į probleminį klausimą keliami tokie uždaviniai: – aptarti IDKM sampratą; – atsakyti į klausimus: į kokią mokyklą – vienakalbę ar dvikalbę – didžiųjų Lietuvos miestų gyventojai būtų linkę leisti savo vaikus; kokiomis kalbomis turėtų būti mokoma dvikalbėje mokykloje; kokios priežastys lemtų dvikalbės mokyklos pasirinkimą. Tiriamoji medžiaga – projekto „Kalbų vartojimas ir tautinė tapatybė Lietuvos miestuose“ (2007–2009 m.; rėmė Valstybinis mokslo ir studijų fondas) kiekybinių apklausų duomenys. Kiekybinius interviu atliko UAB „TNS Gallup“ apklausėjai, VU, LKI, VDU darbuotojai ir studentai. Apklausa reprezentuoja 15–74 metų Vilniaus, Kauno ir Klaipėdos miestų gyventojus. Sudarant tiriamųjų imtį visuose trijuose miestuose buvo taikomos tautybės kvotos. Kitaip tariant, atsižvelgus į Statistikos departamento skelbiamus duomenis apie tiriamųjų miestų tautinę sudėtį, Vilniaus mieste apklausta 900 respondentų, iš jų: 58% lietuvių, 19% lenkų, 14% rusų, 10% kitų tautybių asmenų; Kaune apklausti 524 respondentai, iš jų: 78% lietuvių, 19% rusų ir 3% kitų tautybių asmenų; Klaipėdoje apklausta 600 respondentų, iš jų: 71% lietuvių, 21% rusų ir 7% kitų tautybių asmenų. Tad galima teigti, kad apklausos duomenys yra reprezentatyvūs. Kiekybinių apklausų duomenys apdoroti SPSS programa ir tada analizuoti. Taigi darbe taikytas kiekybinis metodas.

1. IDKM SAMPRATA Kas laikoma dvikalbiu ugdymu? Pasak J. C. Richardso ir R. Schidto (2002, 52), dvikalbiu laikomas toks ugdymo procesas, kai mokykloje dalyko (ne kalbos) turinio

368 mokoma ne mokinio gimtąja, o svetimąja kalba. Dvikalbio mokymo metodikų yra įvairių. Viena jų – minėtoji dalyko ir užsienio kalbos integruoto mokymo(si) metodika. „Šio metodo nereikia suprasti tik kaip užsienio kalbos kompetencijų gerinimo perteikiant kurio nors kito mokomojo dalyko turinį. Tai kur kas daugiau – kalbos ir dalyko mokoma integruotai, t. y. jie siejami vienas su kitu ir traktuojami kaip visuma. Mokantis šiuo būdu susilieja mokinio, kaip besimokančio kalbos, ir mokinio, besimo- kančio dalyko, vaidmenys“ (Žadeikaitė, 2006, 3). Kitaip tariant, kalba tampa ne vien mokymosi objektu, bet ir instrumentu realioje komunikavimo situacijoje. Palaikančiųjų IDKM teigiama, kad taikant šią metodiką ugdomas mokinio dau- giakalbiškumo poreikis ir teigiamos nuostatos kalbų mokėjimo atžvilgiu, atveriamas platesnis dalyko kultūrinis kontekstas (plačiau žr. Darn, 2006). Be to, vartodamas tiks- linę kalbą tikroviškoje situacijoje, mokinys kryptingiau tos kalbos mokosi ir geriau ją išmoksta. Pavyzdžiui, sukaupiamas platesnis žodynas, išlavinami klausymo ir skaitymo gebėjimai (plačiau žr. Craen, Allain, Ceuleers, 2008). Tačiau negalima nepastebėti ir sunkumų. Pavyzdžiui, IDKM eksperimente dalyvavę Šiaulių Didždvario gimnazijos mokiniai (beje, taip pat pabrėžę ir IDKM teikiamą galimybę tikslingiau ugdytis anglų kalbos kompetenciją) pastebėjo tokias problemas: „ne visi mokiniai vienodai moka anglų kalbą“, „prasta mokytojo anglų kalba, mokiniai gali įsiminti klaidas“, o vertinant dalyką pasitaiko baudimo „už anglų kalbos klaidas“ (ŠN, 2010, 10). Taigi negalima manyti, kad įvedus IDKM svetimosios kalbos kompetenciją iš(si)ugdyti ar dalyko turinį išmokti nebebus jokių sunkumų. Mokslininkai, tiriantys įvairius IDKM aspektus, taip pat pastebėjo, kad taip organizuojant ugdymo procesą: • gerėja ir gimtosios kalbos rezultatai: greičiau ir kokybiškiau atliekamos įvairios, pavyzdžiui, skaitymo, užduotys, veiksmingiau dalyvaujama komunikacijos procese, susiformuoja stipresnis kalbos jausmas (Craen, Allain, Ceuleers, 2008). Tačiau yra ir abejojančių, ar dvikalbis ugdymas neatveria gimtosios kalbos mokėjimo spragų. Palaikantieji IDKM tokius svarstymus atremia teigdami, kad kelios valandos, skirtos mokytis svetimąja kalba, negali neigiamai paveikti gimtosios kalbos mokėjimo (Craen, 2001, 218). • stiprėja mokinių motyvacija, įvairinami mokymo metodai (Darn, 2006; Craen, Allain, Ceuleers, 2008). Mokiniai aiškiau suvokia svetimos kalbos mokymosi tikslą. Pavyzdžiui, minėtieji Šiaulių Didždvario gimnazijos mokiniai teigė, kad taip mokytis „labai įdomu, todėl atidžiau klausomasi“, „įvairesnės pamokos, kitokios nei visos, smagu, nėra rutinos“ (ŠN, 2010, 10). Tačiau yra ir manančių, kad „mokymasis negimtąja kalba daug labiau var- gina, reikalauja atidumo, pastangų analizuojant formaliąją kalbinės raiškos pusę, drauge silpnina dėmesį dalyko turiniui“ (Skripkienė, 2). Taigi negalima manyti, kad IDKM savaime yra sėkmingo mokymosi receptas. • gerėja arba lieka tokie patys dalyko, kurio mokomasi svetimąja kalba, rezultatai. Tačiau mokiniai, vertindami IDKM, pateikia ir tokių minčių: „ne visada viską suprantu“, „sunku suprasti terminus“, per pamokas skiriamas „didesnis

369 dėmesys kalbai nei dalykui“ (ŠN, 2010, 10). Tokie pasisakymai atskleidžia silpnąsias IDKM puses ir turėtų paskatinti mokytojus ir edukologus nuolat analizuoti kylančias problemas ir ieškoti būdų joms spręsti. • kryptingiau rengiamasi studijoms ir darbui; tarptautiniam kalbos egzaminui (Darn, 2006). Šis aspektas išryškinamas ir Lietuvos švietimo politikų, tei- giant, kad IDKM – vienas būdų ne tik patenkinti mokinių kalbų mokėjimo poreikius, bet ir didinti konkurencingumą rinkoje (plačiau žr. DUKIMG, 2010). Iš to, kas buvo pasakyta apie IDKM, aišku, kad, neabejotinai, ši metodika turi stiprybių. Tačiau reikia pridurti, kad pakanka ir problemų, neatsakytų klausimų, pavyzdžiui: ar dvikalbis ugdymas tinkamas vaikams, kurie turi kalbų (ir gimtosios) mokymosi sunkumų; ar mokytojai pasirengę įgyvendinti IDKM; ar parengtos mokymosi priemonės; ar visuomenė nori dvikalbio ugdymo? Toliau šiame straipsnyje ieškoma atsakymo būtent į pastarąjį klausimą.

2. DIDŽIŲJŲ MIESTŲ GYVENTOJŲ POREIKIŲ IR NUOSTATŲ TYRIMAS 2.1. Mokyklos pasirinkimas Kaip jau buvo minėta, Europoje gręžiamasi į dvikalbį ugdymą. Lietuvoje taip pat diegiamas integruotas dalyko ir užsienio kalbos mokymas. Tačiau kyla klausimas, ar toks ugdymas yra švietimo politikų „nuleidžiamas iš viršaus“, ar iš tikrųjų egzistuoja visuomenės dvikalbio ugdymo poreikis. Atsakymo į šį klausimą buvo ieškota atliekant mokslinio projekto „Kalbų vartojimas ir tautinė tapatybė Lietuvos miestuose“ kiekybines apklausas. Respondentams buvo pateiktas klausimas: „Ar savo vaikus esate / būtumėte linkę leisti į mokyklą, kurioje mokoma viena kalba, ar į mokyklą, kurioje mokoma dviem kalbomis?“. Atsakymai apibendrinti 1 lentelėje.

1 lentelė. Mokyklos pasirinkimas Vienakalbė Dvikalbė mokykla Sunku pasakyti mokykla Vilniaus lietuviai 53% 40% 8% Vilniaus rusai 30% 58% 12% Vilniaus lenkai 38% 51% 12% Vilniaus kitos tautybės 30% 51% 18% Kauno lietuviai 53% 31% 16% Kauno rusai 52% 43% 5% Kauno kitos tautybės 53% 40% 7% Klaipėdos lietuviai 40% 53% 7% Klaipėdos rusai 36% 56% 8% Klaipėdos kitos tautybės 24% 66% 10%

370 Iš 1 lentelės matyti, kad dvikalbio ugdymo pageidautų daugiau nei pusė Vilniaus rusų (58%), lenkų (51%) ir kitų tautybių (51%) asmenų. Vilniaus lietuviai taip pat aktyviai (40%), bet šiek tiek atsargiau pasisako už dvikalbį ugdymą. Klaipėdoje visų išskirtų gyventojų grupių dauguma: 53% lietuvių, 56% rusų, 66% kitų tautybių – no- rėtų savo vaikus leisti į dvikalbio ugdymo mokyklas. Kiek mažesnis dvikalbio ugdymo poreikis juntamas Kaune: čia trečdalis gyventojų lietuvių (31%) ir kiek daugiau rusų (43%) bei kitų tautybių (40%) žmonių pageidautų dvikalbio ugdymo. Pastebėtina tendencija, kad labiau daugiataučiuose87 miestuose (Vilniuje ir Klaipėdoje) dvikalbio ugdymo poreikis yra didesni. Kaunas – lietuviškiausias miestas – išsiskiria nuosaikesniu požiūriu į dvikalbį ugdymą. Kiek atsargiau į dvikalbį ugdymą žvelgia visų miestų lietuviai, o kitų tautybių didžiųjų miestų gyventojai aktyviau rinktųsi dvikalbio ugdymo įstaigas. Taigi apibendrinant galima teigti, kad nemažos dalies didžiųjų Lietuvos miestų gyventojų nuostatos dvikalbio ugdymo atžvilgiu yra teigiamos. Galima spėti, kad atsargesnį lietuvių požiūrį į dvikalbį ugdymą lemia bijojimas „kalbų interferencijos ar net asimiliavimosi. Tačiau šie dalykai nebūdingi tikrajai dvikalbystei. Kalbos „susimaišo“ tada, kai nė vienos iš jų gerai nemokame, o asimiliacijos pavojus kyla, kai vieną kalbą siekiame pakeisti kita, kai viena kalba „nusilpsta“, praranda visas jos vartojimo sferas. Dvikalbis ugdymas – garantija, jog taip neatsitiks“ (Skripkienė, 1). Tad internete vyraujančios neigiamas nuostatos IDKM atžvilgiu neatskleidžia bendros visuomenės nuomonės tendencijos.

2.2. Dvikalbės mokyklos instrukcijų kalbos Kaip teigia A. Mazolevskienė ir S. Montvilaitė (2010), „demokratinėse Vakarų valstybėse dvikalbystės problema sprendžiama labai įvairiai, tačiau bet kokiu atveju dėmesio centre yra žmogus, jo poreikiai“. Kokie gi mūsų valstybės piliečių poreikiai? Kaip jau rašyta 2 skyrelyje, iš esmės trijuose didžiuosiuose Lietuvos miestuose dvikalbio ugdymo poreikis egzistuoja. Tačiau natūralus ir klausimas, ar vieninga visuomenės nuomonė, kokiomis kalboms turėtų būti vykdomas dvikalbis ugdymas. Jau minėto mokslinio projekto metu respondentams buvo pateiktas klausimas „Kokiomis kalbomis turėtų būti mokoma mokykloje, į kurią norėtumėte leisti savo vaikus?“ Apklausiamieji turėjo nurodyti dvi kalbas. Rezultatai apibendrinti 2 ir 3 lentelėse.

87 Statistikos departamento duomenimis, pagal 2001 m. surašymą, Vilniuje gyvena: 57,8% lietuvių, 18,7% lenkų, 14% rusų, 9,5% kitų tautybių; Kaune: 92,9% lietuvių, 4,4% rusų, 0,4% lenkų ir 2,3% kitų tautybių; Klaipėdoje: 71,3% lietuvių, 21,3% rusų, 0,4% lenkų ir 7% kitų tautybių žmonių (SDPS, 2002, 3).

371 2 lentelė. Vilniaus ir Klaipėdos gyventojų mokomųjų kalbų poreikis dvikalbėje mokykloje Lietuvių kalba Rusų kalba Lenkų kalba Anglų kalba Vilniaus lietuviai 97% 10% 1% 84% Vilniaus rusai 89% 73% 1% 37% Vilniaus lenkai 91% 32% 43% 34% Vilniaus kitos tautybės 86% 56% 3% 42% Klaipėdos lietuviai 99% 7% 92% Klaipėdos rusai 80% 72% 42% Klaipėdos kitos tautybės 59% 67% 74%

3 lentelė. Kauno gyventojų mokomųjų kalbų poreikis dvikalbėje mokykloje Lietuvių ir Lietuvių ir Lietuvių ir Rusų ir anglų anglų kalbos rusų kalbos lenkų kalbos kalba Kauno lietuviai 91% 4% 2% Kauno rusai 56% 33% 5% Kauno kitos tautybės 33% 50% 17%

Iš 2 ir 3 lentelių matyti, kad mokomųjų kalbų dvikalbėje mokykloje poreikis nėra vienalytis. Visuose trijuose miestuose daugiau nei 90% lietuvių, kurie rinktųsi dvi- kalbį ugdymą, norėtų, kad jis vyktų lietuvių ir anglų kalbomis. Kad vaikai dvikalbėse mokyklose įgytų būtent šių kalbų kompetenciją pasisakė ir dauguma Kauno rusų, Klaipėdos kitų tautybių gyventojų. Tačiau Vilniaus rusai, lenkai, kitos tautybės, taip pat Kauno kitos tautybės ir Klaipėdos rusai pageidautų, kad dvikalbėje mokykloje būtų mokoma tautinio identiteto, t. y. rusų ar lenkų, kalba ir valstybine lietuvių kalba. Valstybinę kalbą, kaip instrukcijų kalbą, rinktųsi ir Vilniaus kitos tautybės, kurios pageidautų rusų kalbos kaip antrosios mokomosios kalbos. Matyti, kad poreikiai aiškiai susiję su reikiamybe komunikuoti valstybine kalba. Tie respondentai, kurių gimtoji kalba nėra lietuvių, pirmenybę teiktų gimtosios ir valstybinės kalbos kompetencijos ugdymui. Lietuviai ir, pavyzdžiui, Kauno rusai (apklausų duomenys rodo, kad Kaune, lietuviškiausiame iš trijų didžiųjų miestų, visi nelietuvių tautybės asmenys teigia moką lietuviškai) norėtų, kad antroji kalba būtų labiausiai paplitusi tarptautinio bendravimo – anglų – kalba. Taigi akivaizdžiai matyti, kad dvikalbio ugdymo poreikiai mokomųjų kalbų aspektu yra nevienodi. Tad išlieka aktualus klausimas, „kaip patenkinti <...> švietimo poreikių įvairovę. Demokratinėje visuomenėje edukacinė pasiūla turi tenkinti visų vaikų poreikius“ (Gudynas, 2). Tad turbūt IDKM metodiką reikėtų diegti labai lanksčiai, atsižvelgus į bendruomenės kalbų poreikius.

2.3. Dvikalbio ugdymo pasirinkimo priežastys Jau iš 2 skyrelio paaiškėjo, kad didelės dalies tiriamų miestų gyventojų nuostatos dvikalbio ugdymo atžvilgiu yra teigiamos. Iš 3 skyrelio duomenų galima spėti, kad respondentai savo vaikus leistų į dvikalbę mokyklą, nes norėtų garantuoti aukštą dvie-

372 jų reikalingiausių kalbų (lietuvių ir anglų arba gimtosios (rusų, lenkų) ir valstybinės lietuvių) komunikacinės kompetencijos lygį. Minėtos kiekybinės apklausos metu taip pat buvo pateiktas klausimas „Kodėl jūs norite / norėtumėte, kad jūsų vaikai lankytų dvikalbę mokyklą?“. Respondentai galėjo rinktis iš pateiktų atsakymų variantų arba įrašyti savo priežastį. Atsakymai į šį klausimą apibendrinti 4 lentelėje.

4 lentelė. Dvikalbio ugdymo pasirinkimo priežastys Kad vaikai Kad vaikai Kad vaikai Kita Sunku gerai mokėtų ateityje galėtų ateityje turėtų pasakyti abiejų tėvų studijuoti geresnes karje- kalbas užsienyje ros galimybes Vilniaus lietuviai 4% 41% 69% 13% 4% Vilniaus rusai 20% 28% 69% 14% 3% Vilniaus lenkai 23% 22% 61% 7% 7% Vilniaus kitos tautybės 25% 29% 59% 20% 2% Kauno lietuviai 3% 56% 67% 5% 4% Kauno rusai 21% 37% 58% 9% 5% Kauno kitos tautybės 50% 33% 17% Klaipėdos lietuviai 6% 62% 77% 5% 7% Klaipėdos rusai 18% 50% 68% 11% 5% Klaipėdos kitos tautybės 15% 56% 63% 15% 4%

Kaip matyti iš 4 lentelės, dominuojanti dvikalbės mokyklos pasirinkimo priežastis – geresnės karjeros galimybės. Šis motyvas, kaip vienas iš esminių skatinant Lietuvoje diegti IDKM, yra akcentuojamas ir „Dalyko ir užsienio kalbos integruoto mokymosi gairėse“ (2010, 2). Vadinasi, švietimo ideologų siūloma svetimųjų kalbų mokymo kryptis iš esmės atitinka visuomenės poreikius. Didžiųjų Lietuvos miestų gyventojai lietuviai, taip pat Klaipėdos kitų tautybių gyventojai itin pabrėžia, kad dvikalbis ugdymas laiduotų geresnes galimybes studijuoti užsienyje. Kaip jau buvo minėta, IDKM teoretikų taip pat akcentuojamas geresnis pasirengimas studijoms ir tarptautiniam kalbos egzaminui. Taigi karjera ir studijos užsienyje – dvi dominuojančios dvikalbio ugdymo pasirinkimo priežastys. Tačiau pastebėtina ir tai, kad tautinių mažumų grupės respondentams svarbu dvikalbio ugdymo priežastis – tėvų kalbų išsaugojimas, mokė- jimas. Galima spėti, kad šios etninės grupės respondentai dažniau yra iš mišrių šeimų, tad natūraliai kyla poreikis išlaikyti kelias vaiko paveldėtąsias kalbas. Pastebėtina, kad nemaža dalis respondentų rinkosi galimybę įrašyti savo priežastį. Tačiau ta priežastis dažnai buvo ne nauja, o tiesiog kitaip suformuluota karjeros, studijų užsienyje ar paveldėtosios kalbos išlaikymo mintis, pavyzdžiui: „kad mokėtų valstybinę kalbą ir šeimos kalbą“, „kad mokėtų senelių kalbą“, „kad susikalbėtų už- sienyje“ ir pan. Kita vertus, įrašymo galimybę pasirinkę respondentai dažnai išsakė apskritai palankias nuostatas kalbų mokėjimo atžvilgiu, pavyzdžiui, „kalba – ne našta, tai turtas“, „kad mokėtų daugiau kalbų ir pan.

373 IŠVADOS Atlikus trijų didžiųjų Lietuvos miestų: Vilniaus, Kauno ir Klaipėdos – gyventojų kiekybinės apklausos duomenų tyrimą galima daryti tokias išvadas: 1. Didelės dalies šių miestų gyventojų nuostatos dvikalbio ugdymo atžvilgiu yra teigiamos. Dvikalbio ugdymo pageidautų daugiau nei pusė visų grupių Klaipėdos gyventojų, taip pat ne lietuvių Vilniaus gyventojų. Kiek atsargiau į dvikalbį ugdymą žvelgia Vilniaus lietuviai ir visų grupių Kauno gyventojai. Tačiau ir šiuo atveju pasisakančiųjų už dvikalbį ugdymą yra daugiau nei trečdalis. 2. Dvikalbio ugdymo poreikiai yra skirtingi: lietuviai miestų gyventojai norėtų, kad jų vaikai būtų ugdomi gimtąja ir anglų kalbomis, o tautinių mažumų asmenys greta tautinio identiteto kalbos būtų linkę rinktis lietuvių kalbą. Tad lieka neatsakytas klausimas, ar bus sudaryta galimybė tokiai pasirinkčiai? 3. Lietuvos didžiųjų miestų gyventojai teigiamai nusiteikę dvikalbio ugdymo požiūriu, nes mano, kad tai užtikrins geresnes vaikų karjeros bei studijų (ir užsienyje) galimybes. Tokie IDKM pranašumai yra akcentuojami ir metodikos kūrėjų, taigi atrodytų, kad ir šiuo požiūriu konfrontacijos tarp visuomenės ir švietimo politikos nėra. Nepaisant to, kad tiek mokslininkų, tiek švietimo politikų, tiek didelės dalies vi- suomenės nuostata dvikalbio ugdymo požiūriu yra pozityvi, išlieka opūs mokytojų ir ugdymo priemonių rengimo, mokinių gebėjimų vertinimo, kalboms menkiau gabių mokinių ugdymo ir kt. klausimai. Taigi IDKM diegimo procesas turi būti nuolat stebimas ir atidžiai analizuojamas.

Literatūros sąrašas 1. Craen, Van de P. 2001. Content- and language-integrated learning, culture of education and learning. In: Bax, M.; Zwart, J. (Eds.) Reflections on Language and Language Learning: in honour of Arthur van Essen. John Benjamins Publishing. P. 209-220. 2. Craen, Van de P., Allain, L., Ceuleers, E. 2008. Boosting Individual and Societal Multilingualism in Language Sensitive Area. Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Available at: http://www.kke.ee/index_bin.php?action=REF&fname=785_CLIL%20200 8%20Presentation%20-%20Vandecraen_Allain_Ceuleers_ENG.pdf. Darn, S. 2006. Content and Language Integrated Learning. http://www.teachingenglish.org. uk/think/articles/content-language-integrated-learning. Žiūrėta 2010-10-07. 3. DUKIMG. 2010��. Dalyko ir užsienio kalbos integruoto mokymo(si) gairės. In:�� Švietimo naujienos. 2010 m. Nr. 7 (296), priedas. Vilnius: ŠAC. Prieiga: http:// www.smm.lt/ ugdymas/docs/sudp/IDKM_projektas.pdf. 4 Grosjean, F. ��1999. ��Individual bilingualism// Spolsky, B. ��(Ed.) Concise Encyclopedia of Educational Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier. Available at: http://www.bilingualfamiliesconnect. com/Individual%20Bilingualism_ Francois%20Grosjean.pdf

374 5. Gudynas, P. Dvikalbis mokymas kaip atsakas į tautinių mažumų moksleivių ugdymosi poreikių kaitą. Prieiga: www.pedagogika.lt/puslapis/bps/pgdvik1.doc 6. Mazolevskienė, A., Montvilaitė, S. 2010. Ankstyvojo amžiaus dvikalbių vaikų ugdymo realijos: Lietuvos patirtis pasauliniame kontekste. Prieiga: http://www. ikimokyklinis.lt/ straipsnis/4899. 7. Richards, J. C., Schmidt, R. 2002. Dictionary of Langute Teaching & Applied Linguistics. London: Longman. 8 9. SDPS��. 2002��. ��Statistikos departamento pranešimas spaudai N��r. ��5/02. 2001 m. surašymas: Lietuvos tautinė sudėtis vienalytiškiausia. Prieiga: http://www.stat.gov. lt/uploads/ docs/2002_10_17. 9. Skripkienė, R. Dvikalbis ugdymas Lietuvoje: prielaidos, siekiai ir galimybės. Prieiga: www.pedagogika.lt/puslapis/bps/rsdvik1.doc. Žiūrėta 2010-09-15. 10 Š N.� 2010��. Integruoto�� dalyko ir užsienio kalbos mokymas. //�� Švietimo naujienos. 2010’7/296. Vilnius: ŠAC. 11. Žadeikaitė, L. 2006. Integruotas dalyko ir užsienio kalbos mokymas – svarbi sudedamoji Lietuvos kalbų mokymo politikos įgyvendinimo dalis. // Integruotas dalyko ir užsienio kalbos mokymas. Vilnius: ŠAC. P. 3.

SUMMARY Bilingual Education in Lithuania: the Pros and Cons? Loreta Vilkienė

This article analyzes the needs and attitudes of the habitants of the biggest Lithua- nian cities (Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda) towards bilingual education, such as, what school (monolingual or bilingual) would they choose for their children, why would they prefer bilingual school, which languages should be chosen for the instruction in the bilingual school. These questions are answered after the research of the data received during quantitative surveys of the Project “Usage of the Languages and Na- tional Identity in Lithuanian Cities“(2007-2009; supported by State Studies Founda- tion). The results revealed that the majority of the habitants of these cities look with favor on the bilingual education, but their needs are different. Lithuanians would like their children to be educated in Lithuanian and English, while national minorities would prefer the Lithuanian language together with their national languages. The habitants of the biggest Lithuanian cities approve the bilingual education because they believe that this would guarantee better carrier and study opportunities (not only in Lithuania but also in foreign countries) for their children.

375 Towards a Successful Integration of Language, Technology, and Acculturation with Undergraduate EFL Students

Bartosz Wolski Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz, Poland, Nowy Swiat, 28-30, 62-800 Kalisz, Poland, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The article sums up an experimental run of 2 semester work with Web-based projects prepared by undergraduate students of English at Adam Mickiewicz University in Kalisz, Poland and State School of Higher Professional Education in Konin, Poland in 2009 and 2010. The projects were an attempt to combine and integrate the teaching of English (at the academic level), acculturation (American Studies), and technology (the Web as a platform for the projects). The findings, observations, considerations, and implications presented will have a qualitative character and come from both instructor’s observations and interviews with participants of the projects. The areas of interest include the following issues: the advantages/disadvantages of integrating the three above mentioned domains, the group dynamics (work load, work share, etc.), the language aspect (the difficulties in writing academic style papers), and the technological dimension, i.e. the extent of difficulty in producing a Web enhanced project. Key-words: Web-based projects, EFL, acculturation.

Introduction That modern pedagogy requires an interdisciplinary approach and a fair amount of creativity is an assertion that does not require much comment. With the rise of the theory of digital nativism and the growing popularity of constructivist teaching and with the gradual fall of the traditional knowledge transfer-oriented instruction, our classes are more likely to adopt pedagogical novelty or non-typical classroom solutions. Further, our audiences – students - seem to be ready to take more and more active roles in their educational endeavors, as they have now become more interested in discovering, examining, experiencing, and apprenticing, rather than passively observing, absorbing and, finally, giving back on a test. The world of EFL (English as Foreign Language) is no exception here for that matter. Since English

376 philology studies offer an array of subjects related to the English language, the possibilities of integrating, mixing, and curriculum crossing are endless. What, however, needs careful attention is what elements can/should be integrated and how the integration should be approached so that our pedagogical aims are met and our students benefit from the modes of instruction we offer to them. The following paper offers an insight into an attempt at integrative teaching of language, culture and, to a lesser extent, ICT (Internet and communication technologies) in the context of Polish tertiary education under the general umbrella term of Project-based learning (PjBL). To be more precise, the parts to follow will describe and recapitulate an experimental run of 2-semester work with Web-based group projects, performed with undergraduate students of English at two Polish higher education institutions, integrating three different domains, .i e. English (EFL at the academic level), acculturation (American Studies), and ICT (WWW as a platform for projects’ artifacts and elements Web-authoring as a prerequisite for projects’ completion). The actual discussion of the study, the results, and conclusions will however be preceded by some theoretical considerations, the introduction of which will serve to explain the author’s choice of PBL from two perspectives: (1) theoretical, based on a literature survey, showing the benefits of this mode of instruction and (2) personal, based on author’s own observations of how PjBL fits the needs and wants of the particular student cohort described in this article. PjBL is not a new invention and has been around for over 20 years. Interestingly, though, defining it is still a challenging task because, as Tretten and Zachariou (1997) noted, too many different practices are placed under the category of PjBL. An interesting approach to defining the concept was chosen by Thomas (2000), who, in his extensive summary of PjBL research, instead of a general definition, offers a selection of criteria which a project must possess to be considered PjBL. These are centrality, driving question, constructive investigations, autonomy, and realism. Similarly, the Web site authored by the Buck Institute for Education (www. bie.org) and devoted to PjBL-related instruction defines PjBL through a number of features that a project (or, to be more precise, instruction centered around a project) needs to possess. These features, termed “7 Essentials”, include Driving Question or Challenge, Need to Know, Inquiry & Innovation, 21st Century Skills, Student Voice & Choice, Feedback & Revision, and Publicly Presented Product. These two typologies (Thomas, 2000 and Buck Institute, 2010) will be discussed and juxtaposed in detail in the following pages. As I will attempt to show, they will, to a certain extent, overlap but will also supplement each other and, if considered together, they seem to offer a comprehensive insight into both the theoretical and practical aspects of PjBL. The list of criteria offered by Thomas (2000) begins with The conceptcentrality of that can be understood as making a project an essential (central) part of a curriculum, which suggests that students “learn the central concepts of the discipline via the project” (Thomas, 2001). The criterion of the driving question (the term used

377 originally by Blumenfeld et al., 1991) connotes the necessity of having a meaningful research question that is central to the discipline studied to make the project part of the PjBL. David (2008, 80) observes that from a practical standpoint the driving question may be: a problem to solve, a phenomenon to investigate, a model to design, or a decision to make. The third criterion given by Thomas (2000) assumes engaging students in constructive investigations which are to lead to a construction of knowledge and/or new skill formation (cf. Diehl et al., 1999 or Solomon and Schrum, 2007, who claim that PjBL assuredly derives from the constructivist paradigm). Autonomy, mentioned by Thomas (2000) as the fourth criterion, is understood as allowing for very far-reaching student-centeredness while working on the project. Finally, the concept of realism, the fifth criterion provided by Thomas (2000), again ties PjBL to constructivism. Firstly, projects should ensure a maximum of authenticity by situating students’ cognition in a realistic context, i.e. around a real problem to be solved, a real model to be produced, or a real decision to be made. Further, it is widely accepted (cf. Thomas 2000; Grant, 2002; David, 2008) that projects under the umbrella term of PjBL should reflect a real-life-like situation that students might actually encounter later on in their career or, at least, allow for them to acquire and practice skills that will be expected of them in their future employment. David (2008) observes that “advocates assert that project-based learning helps prepare students for the thinking and collaboration skills required in the workplace”. Obviously, Thomas’ (2000) five criteria that determine PjBL are not the only attempts at defining the concept. An interesting approach to defining PjBL is offered by Buck Institute for Education. Their Web site subtitled Project Based Learning for the 21st Century features a collection of characteristics referred to as “7 Essentials” of a project in a PjBL paradigm. As I intend to show, the 7 Essentials will have certain overlaps with Thomas’ (2000) criteria yet, in many cases, they will nicely complement the previously-mentioned characteristics. The first feature that Buck Institute (2010) mentions is the Driving Question or Challenge , around which the project is supposed to be centered. There is an obvious overlap with the above-mentioned Thomas’driving question but what needs to be emphasized is that Buck Institute (2010) proposes the necessity to organize the project around an open-ended enquiry much in the vein of constructivist approaches where learning outcome cannot be predicted and it is the heuristics itself that is the essence of learning. The next feature, described as the Need to Know, concerns both exploring the nature of the project’s topic and the necessary know-how. As Buck Institute (2010) explains, unlike in traditional project-work settings where background information is delivered to learners and then applied in the form of a project, “PBL begins with the vision of an end product or presentation which requires learning specific knowledge and concepts, thus creating a context and reason to learn and understand the information and concepts”. This “reverse” approach adds another, practical, dimension to Thomas’ (2000) constructive investigations by positioning PjBL in a radical wing of

378 constructivism, in which virtually all knowledge must be constructed and/or added onto the existing experience. Likewise, the next feature, referred to as Inquiry & In- novation, bears similarity to the above constructive investigations in that it emphasizes the concept of investigation, or inquiring, into the topic of the project, which will result in a new creation, “an idea, an interpretation, a new way of displaying what they have learned” (Buck Institute, 2010). Yet another one of the 7 Essentials of PjBL is what might be considered an ap- purtenance of Thomas’ (2000)realism is the 21st Century Skills. Here, Buck Institute emphasizes the need for projects to evoke and practice skills and competencies required in students’ future lives. These are88, among others, “critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration, and various forms of communication”. In a similar vein, Buck Institute’s (2010) Student Voice & Choice may be seen as an augmentation of Thomas’ (2000) feature ofautonomy. Whereas Thomas (2000) placed emphasis on generally understood student-centeredness, Buck Institute (2010) tends to offer a more in-depth look and specifically accentuates such aspect of student oriented instruction as the need to work independently, to take responsibility for the choices one has made and to be able to voice the outcome of one’s learning. Importantly, all the above aspects of Student Voice & Choice are to have a consequential outcome, i.e. they are to help “to increase students’ educational engagement” (Buck Institute, 2010). The last two of the 7 Essentials do not seem to have their counterparts in the typology of criteria offered by Thomas (2000). To begin with, Buck Institute (2010) lays stress on the significance ofFeedback & Revision by suggesting the use of peer critique which may contribute to the increased quality of the final product (outcome of the project). Finally, the typology ends with Publicly Presented Product. This seem to be an interesting addition to the classic idea of project-based instruction which supposes the creation of artifacts (see e.g. Blumenfeld et.al, 1991) that is a final product . In the case of the Buck Institutes’ typology, as can be seen, the concept is expanded to include not only the creation of “personally-meaningful artifacts that are representations of [students’] learning”(Grant, 2002) but also a public display of such artifacts for “public scrutiny and critique” (Buck Institute, 2010), as if adding to the notion of real-worldness or what Thomas (2000) called realism. The above discussion of features and aspects of PjBI shows that, if approached appropriately, this mode of instruction can be a perfect realization of learning and teaching in a modern classroom under the constructivist paradigm. Additionally, in the context of the study presented in this article there are two more very important considerations that contributed to the choice of PjBL as the mode of instruction. First, the projects described below were part of an ill-structured subject of studies

88 Actually, next to the skills listed here, Buck Institute Web site offers a very extensive overview of various competencies required in the 21st century. The full Framework can be found at:http:// www.bie.org/about/ 21st_century_skills

379 (social studies) taught in a foreign language, which called for an interdisciplinary approach to instruction. Looking at the features and criteria described above, it can be easily deduced that interdisciplinarity, where researching information must go into different directions and yet findings be convergent in the final artifact, can easily be fueled by the premises of PjBL. Secondly, the body of research related to the effectiveness of PjBL (Tretten and Zachariou 1995; Bartscher, Gould, & Nutter, 1995; Marx, Blumenfeld, Krajcik, and Soloway, 1997; Peck, Peck, Sentz, and Zasa 1998) is a sufficient incentive to try to implement it in the classrooms. Finally, beside the strictly pedagogical considerations listed above, there was also some personal rationale for attempting PjBL activities. My own experience and long- standing observations of students dealing with their educational challenges shows that there are (1) certain lacking ingredients in their make-up as educated individuals and (2) certain needs that need to be fulfilled in order for them to be successful in their educational endeavors. As for the lacking ingredients, it might be observed that students often do not posses (or have underdeveloped) competencies that might be clustered under the term of “life skills”; these include: collaboration competencies (debating ideas, sharing workload, managing time and responsibilities, decision making), material synthesis, collecting and analyzing data, and analytical thinking. Bearing this in mind, it can easily be deduced from the theoretical discussion presented above that PjBL may work as at least a partial remedy for the lacking skills. In terms of the needs that the particular cohort of students I teach has (see [2] above), the rationale for implementing PjBL derived from the fact that the project work I designed (see Object of the research) allows students to get more exposition to and practice academic writing and use the school’s complicated citation style. Ad- ditionally, the use of ICT, which was incorporated in the project work, is not to be underestimated when talking about students’ needs. It is now widely accepted that in view of the digital nativism model (see e.g. Prensky, 2001; Palfrey and Gasser, 2008; Tapscott, 2009) students tend to be considerably more engaged in their educational duties if modern technology is involved. All the above considerations functioned for me as a sufficient indicator of the viability of implementation of PjBL as a mode of instruction for the purpose of teaching a course that in itself had a considerable degree of interdisciplinarity. In other words, the above theoretical discussion seems to evidence the usability (and effectiveness) of PjBL where one may incorporate the latest educational trends such as autonomy of learning, the teaching of life skills and real-worldness of instruction, collaboration and the creation of learning community, or the use of the omnipres- ent technology.

1. Aim of the research The aim of the research was to experiment with interdisciplinary projects in order investigate the opinions of students on an array of aspects related to the very idea

380 of the project in a PjBL setting, its implementation, and the outcomes. Additionally, the experimental run of projects described in the pages to follow may also serve as a platform for future investigation into the effectiveness of PjBL against other approaches to interdisciplinary and ill-structures domains.

2. Object of the research The projects in question were part of a Modern American Society course (part of the English philology curriculum) taught to a cohort of undergraduate, sophomore students of English at two Polish tertiary education institutions, namely Adam Mickie- wicz University in Kalisz, Poland and State School of Higher Professional Education in Konin, Poland in 2009 and 2010. The principle idea behind the project was to conduct a group research of a topic of social significance in the realm of American Studies and produce (1) a formally written research paper and (2) a hypermedia Web site (a hypertextualized and media-augmented version of the paper). At the pedagogical level, the above required an interdisciplinary approach and involved the integration of three domains: Acculturation (Social Problems of the US), Language (academic style English), and ICT (Web-authoring). There were 2 spring semesters devoted to the projects (2009 and 2010) with the first semester (2009) treated as an experimental run allowing the instructor to improve procedures and project supervision. Therefore, the results presented below come from the second run (2010), during which 15 projects were produced by 55 students in both schools (2-5 students per group). The following procedure was applied in the process of project production (Table 1):

Table 1: Project procedure Stage Description Stage 1 Procedure explanation Students are exposed to the idea of the project and presented with a detailed 4-page document explaining the rationale, procedures and outcome of the project. The document deals with the following issues at length: 1. Group formation 2. Selecting and researching a topic (with the emphasis that topics are to be student- generated) 3. Citation style/plagiarism issues 4. Designing the research paper (division into chapters and sub-chapters; gathering Internet and traditional sources) 5. Creating an outline of the research paper 6. Writing sample chapters (each group member) 7. Writing the paper 8. Hypertextualization (additional hypermedia material selection) 9. Creating the Web site (artifact�) →

381 ← Stage Description Stage 2 Project realization Students (groups) are offered an individualized path to accomplishing the final product; yet, in most cases 4 group appointments are scheduled with the following agenda: 1. ��Appointment 1: students presented to and/or negotiate the topic of their research paper with the supervisor. 2. Appointment 2: students produce an outline and present their preliminary bibli- ography. 3. Appointment 3: students hand in sample chapters for the supervisor to comment on: style of academic writing, the use of citation style, language problems, topical issues. 4. Appointment 4: students hand in final versions of their research papers; they are offered assistance with ICT, hypertextualization, and Web-authoring. 5. Additional appointments are offered to students depending on their needs and advancement into the projects. Stage 3 Artifact production Students produce final artifact, .i e. the hypermedia Web site based on the academic style research paper. At this stage, students are given assistance mainly by email. Stage 4 Assessment The supervisor evaluates the Web sites and sends out comments/grades. Questionnaire is distributed after this stage.

3. Methods There were four methods of data collection implemented in the course of this research, all of which position the study within the qualitative paradigm of research design (Creswell, 1994). They are as follows: 1. Questionnaire with open-ended questions 2. Interviews with group members (see Stage 2 in Table 1) 3. Various students’ comments (e.g. email exchange) 4. Observations/project assessment. The tool that allowed for most of the discussion of results in the next section is the questionnaire which was administered two months after the projects had been handed so as to avoid emotional reactions to assessor’s comments, criticisms, and/or grades. Thirty eight students responded to the questions in the questionnaire by offering their free commentary on the following issues (for details see Appendix 1: The questionnaire): 1. Integration of language, cultural studies and technology in the form of a project 2. Language aspect 3. Group dynamics 4. The technology aspect 5. The cultural (acculturation) aspect

382 6. An��y other aspects of the process Further, students were interviewed in the process of project production during appointments with the supervisor (see Stage 2 in Table 1). At this stage, they were asked their commentary on the process of project preparation with special emphasis on language and acculturation. Finally, many of the findings discussed in the next section are based on project supervisor’s own observations of 1) students’ engagement and conscientiousness evoked in the process as well as their insecurities about the completion of the task and 2) the quality of the artifacts produced.

4. Results of the research The research findings will be discussed in two parts; firstly, a selection of general observations from the standpoint of the instructor will be given, based on some of the students’ comments and observations made by the researcher. Secondly, an analysis of student comments and questionnaire responses will be attempted. This twofold way of presenting the results will, hopefully, give a broader picture of the PjBL endeavor described in this paper. On the one hand, an instructor perspective will allow to see the upsides and downsides of the project work for educators; on the other hand, the presentation of students’ opinions are to give an insight into their (dis)satisfaction with project work, which should have a great share in contributing ideas to whether PjBL activities at an academic level are worth implementing and inquiring into. To begin with, from the researcher’s standpoint, the 15 projects89 turned in by the students gave rather favorable outcomes in that the integration of the three elements (acculturation, language, and technology) appears effective. Judging by the final artifacts, the students managed to balance the three elements in such a way that none of them could be considered disregarded. In other words, the projects are well-written and well-structured compendia of information on certain selected topics related to American Studies. As regards the actual student-generated topics for the projects, a comment suggests itself that many of the topics targeted cultural or socio-cultural rather than social range of issues. This seems to show that an instructor needs to carefully approach the topic negotiation process so as not to compromise merit over students’ first-hand choices, and yet without losing students’ enthusiasm

89 The following URL’s are hyperlinks to a selection of the projects described in this article: https://sites.google.com/site/violenceinselectedamwesterns/ https://sites.google.com/site/usconstitutionalculture/ http://sites.google.com/site/affirmativeactionproject/ https://sites.google.com/site/problemsininnercityinamerica/ http://sites.google.com/site/hispanicsinamerica/home https://sites.google.com/site/childrenobesityinamerica/home http://sites.google.com/site/aboutamericanindians/ https://sites.google.com/site/wos2010uam/ http://sites.google.com/site/hippiesofusa/home

383 and engagement instantly with the project topic selection. Notwithstanding, with regard to the way students approached their topics, what needs to be noticed is that virtually all projects were syntheses of secondary source material without too much creative input on the part of the students, which, admittedly, may have been caused by inadequate guidance rather than students’ lack of creativity. More importantly, though, on a general level, it needs to be emphasized that the PjBL activity brought a considerable amount of engagement and students, for the most part, projected the feeling of success with their projects. In terms of the procedures which were used as a framework for the projects (see Table 1), the participants reported a fair amount of appreciation of detailed instructions on how to go about doing the projects. Further, they projected a positive attitude towards group consultations, where the teacher addresses their project, not projects in general. This suggests that the approach towards procedures, .i e. the individualization of the process of project preparation and individual feedback, was an apposite choice. Further, while working on and, subsequently, evaluating the projects, a great deal of attention was paid towards language issues, namely, the competent use of English, an appropriate level of academic formality, the suitable style and register as well as the use of the schools’ citation style. In all these respects, except for some minor shortcomings, the results were more than satisfactory from the standpoint of the instructor. This seems to result from that the frequent appointments with the students and an overall control of their project preparation process and each group’s advancement, which allowed the instructor to give the groups instantaneous (and continuous) feedback on their written submissions and eliminate potential language problems. Besides, yet another aspect that needs mentioning while discussing language issues is plagiarism, which is closely related to the use of the citation style required by schools’ authorities with all research papers. Admittedly, as was expected before committing to the realization of the projects, there was an amount of copy- ing/pasting or, more frequently, over-relying on sources, which was eliminated, if only feasible, whenever and wherever encountered. Sheer and deliberate plagiarism was not detected though. With regard to the ICT element of the projects, the very Web sites appear to be well-prepared aesthetically, well-structured and well-organized navigation-wise. The only reservation that one might have is a certain weakness to the use of hypertextualization which could be far more extensive; on examining the final versions of the projects, it was discovered that the students did not seem to have devoted enough time and attention to finding additional hypermedia content on the WWW to link to from their Web sites. Generally, though, if looked at from the perspective of the instructor, it seems that turning the actual research papers into hypermedia Web sites could not have been an inconveniency. Interestingly, as will be shown later, this particular aspect of the project preparation was extremely problematic in the opinion of the students.

384 As for the opinions of the students on the general idea of implementing PjBL in the classroom, the questionnaires and interviews revealed positive attitudes towards this as a mode of instruction. Overall, there were 32 students expressing their appreciation for project work in the questionnaire. Additionally, fifteen students observed that writing an extensive research paper was a good way to practice before approaching their BA diploma papers in the senior year. As one respondent put it: “[writing] the text gave me a sense of what I will be expected to write when it comes to my BA thesis”. In a similar vein, another respondent praised the project for being “a great exercise when I think of this year’s [BA] papers”, which adds a serious amount of practicality and usability of this PjBL activity. With regard to other general findings gathered by means of the questionnaire, what needs commenting on is students’ recognition of the autonomy/independence the project gives and their appreciation for having a principal say in selecting the topic for the project. There were altogether over 40 voices appreciative of both the autonomy and topic negotiation aspects and this, generally, corresponds with the findings based on the researcher’s observations that I discussed previously and may form the basis for a claim that student-centered instruction is highly sought-for by the students themselves. One of the most intriguing aspects of the research was students’ response to the question of group dynamics. Since it was not addressed in the interviews with student groups, the only source of information on in-groups collaboration and creating a learning community is the questionnaire. Nineteen respondents expressed the opinion that in the process of project preparation work was shared (more or less) equally/each group member was involved; two of the respondents reported the exact opposite and one of them recapitulated the dissatisfaction with within-the-group collaboration in the following words: “I think next time I will choose my group colleagues more carefully”. The other response was a suggestion that it might be a viable option to reconsider group project and allow for individual projects with those students who are not keen on cooperative endeavors. Even though this was a single opinion, it raises some important questions as to whether group project are suitable for all types of learners. There is no denying the fact that there are individuals who work best unaccompanied due to their learning styles or introvert dispositions and, thus, following the rigid group project agenda may result in de-motivation and de-engagement on the part of some students. As already mentioned above, the evaluation of the artifacts did not reveal any serious language (correctness, style, register, etc.) or citation style problems. This does not however mean that from the students’ perspective the language element of the projects was unproblematic. As the questionnaire responses unveil, there was a noteworthy groups of students (26) reporting serious difficulty dealing the citation style and commenting that it tends to be “time-consuming”, “annoying”, “student-unfriendly”, or “troublesome”. Less problematic, yet still reported by 7 students was some difficulty with formality of language. Also, interviews with the students reveal that producing an academic style research paper was to a certain extent challenging, which, as the students reported, was

385 due to the lack of sufficient exposure to formal academic English prior to the project. If the students’ opinions on the language side of the project revealed some anxieties, a radical change in the attitudes toward the project can be observed in the case of students’ comments on to the issue of ICT incorporation. To as many as 27 students, Web authoring was the most difficult/problematic element to the entire process. As one student straightforwardly put it, “Technology was the most time consuming part of our task”. As a matter of fact, this is perhaps the most unanticipated of all the findings. The preoccupation of today’s digital natives with modern technology might suggest that such competencies as authoring a Web site (on a predefined online blueprint such as Google sites) would be largely uncomplicated a task to accomplish. Yet, students’ voices prove completely otherwise. In order to show the scale of the problem for the research participants the following collection of comments was chosen, which tersely exemplifies the particular difficulties students had to tackle:

1. “Creating a hypermedia Web site was (…) irritating and time-consuming”. 2. [creating a hypermedia Web site] “(…) was quite time consuming and I am not sure if it was worth it. I don’t see the point”. 3. “The Web site was not so easy to create in my opinion. Fortunately, it was not my part in creating the project”. 4. “Not every group had a person who was able to create a Web site (which was graded), so I think that the look of the site shouldn’t be taken into account” [while grading]. 5. “There was a big problem connected with creating the actual Web site because in my group there was no person who was able to do it. Members of my group proposed to give this work to someone else and then give him/her a certain sum of money but I decided to do it on my own (…) I was very successful (…).”

Even a superficial look at the above comments shows that the task of placing the research paper online in the form of a hypermedia Web site was burdensome to students due to of its time-consumption and the lack of ICT skills (see especially comments 1 and 2). Comments 3, 4, and 5 contain an implication that the difficulty could be overcome by ensuring the presence of a computer-capable person in each of the groups. What is, however, the most worrisome from the standpoint of a researcher and instructor, is comment 2, where the student actually expressed a serious uncertainty about the validity of adding the ICT element to the projects. Even if this was merely an individual voice, the issue needs to be approached carefully and, perhaps, a great deal of care should be taken to explain to students the necessity of being able to tackle such ICT tasks as their future careers are more than likely to be quite commonplace. Finally, the part of the questionnaire that concerned the acculturation element reveals the students’ overall positive attitude towards creating the projects within the realm of social/cultural studies. Most significantly, the students’ responses attest their

386 involvement and interest on American culture/society. Among the comments offered by the respondents one could read that the cultural/social topics for the projects were: “Interesting”, “a pleasure”, and “fun to write”. On a humorous note, there were instances of students complaining that they were not able to “write about British culture” and that the instructor should most definitely “extend it to British culture/society-related topics”, which, as much as it might be interesting, was not feasible with the Modern American Society course.

Conclusion The attempt at implementing a full semester work with a PjBL agenda, as described above, was, first of all, a rewarding and thought-provoking instructional experience. It needs to be emphasized that the process of individualizing instruction to fit the needs, pace, and skills of particular students (in this case groups of students) met with a great deal of appreciation on their part. Also, it may be concluded that, even though there were inevitable problems to be met, students did not reject the general idea of taking on an interdisciplinary challenge. In other words, as shown in the previous section, it was mainly technical (e.g. the Web site) and formal (citation style) aspects of the project that caused problems and it may safely be concluded that the actual integration of the three elements present in the projects can be considered successful and is worth pursuing further. Additionally, what should not pass unnoticed is the general engagement of the students and, on the completion of the projects, their own feeling of being successful. As the discussion of results has shown, the project preparation was not free of complications, perhaps the biggest one being the use of ICT in the process of projects’ preparation. What could be inferred from it carries some serious instruction design related implications. Perhaps our belief that students will be engaged by the use of technology is a groundless assumption. If so, some critical questions arise: should we ask our students whether they are in favor of using technology or should we incorporate it regardless for their own good? Even though this article will not bring straightforward answers to these questions, a concluding remark can be offered that, all digital native hypotheses notwithstanding, students do not appear as “digital” as they are often described to be. If creating a Web site using a predefined blueprint and a tutorial is for a great many of students a frustrating experience, perhaps the ICT incorporation should be minimized or students additionally trained to successfully deal with the challenge. Yet, we need to remember that additional training in ICT competencies would need to be undertaken at the expense of our class time. Further, a point needs to be made on the effectiveness of students being free to share workload within the group. Since there were rare instances of unwillingness to cooperate and in most cases the collaborative spirit seems to have prevailed, it appears to be a reasonable choice for the instructor not to interfere in groups’ internal dynamics and offer greater autonomy in this respect. It might be however necessary

387 to introduce some form of assessment of the work off each group member, perhaps through such tools as in-group assessment questionnaires. On a very general level, both the instructor/researcher and the students involved in the process projected a positive outlook on the PjBL endeavor. Moreover, implementing such a mode of instruction gave the instructor a chance to experiment with and come to appreciate something new and the students were given a diversional course of instruction that brought considerably more engagement, and hence motivation, compared to traditional lectures and teacher-centered classes. A succinct comment was offered by one of the participants of the research who appreciated the interdisciplinary approach to the projects: “It is very important. Learning English is not only grammar…”

APPENDIX The Questionnaire

The following questions refer to the Web-based projects we did last year in the WOSW class. As you remember, the project was about researching a social/cultural aspect of the life in the US, writing up an academic style research paper, and, eventually, creating a hypermedia Web site. The idea behind this questionnaire/interview is to get students’ insight into the effectiveness of it. PLEASE WRITE ABOUT YOUR THOUGHTS, CONSIDERATIONS, OPINIONS, ETC. IN ANY WAY YOU CONSIDER FIT

1. Integration of language, cultural studies and technology in the form of a project: is it worth it? Waste of time? Good/bad idea? Write your general comments: 1.1. Was the integration of the three elements in any way problematic? 1.2. Which aspect (language, culture, or technology) was the most difficult to deal with? 2. Language aspect: share your thoughts on the experience you had while producing the actual text of the research paper? Think of all aspects: formality, stylesheet, difficulties of all kinds, etc. 3. Group dynamics: share your thoughts on the way you felt about the group work! Was there enough time? Enough people in the group? Did you share work load? Did some people have to work more/less? How did you deal with work organization? Should the teacher have organized work for you? 4. The technology aspect: share your observations on producing the Web site for the project: were there any problems creating the actual Web site? How was your experience with it? 5. The cultural aspect:share your opinions on how you feel about writing on an Ameri- can culture/society-related topic? 6. If you have any other comments, write them down here:

388 References 1. ��Bartscher, K., Gould, B., & �N��utter, S. ��1995. Increasing student motivation through project-based learning. Master‘s Research Project, Saint Xavier and IRI Skylight. (ED 392 549). 2. Blumenfeld, P. C, Soloway, E., Marx, R.W., Krajcik, J.S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. 1991. Motivating Project-Based Learning: Sustaining the Doing, Supporting the Learning. In: Educational Psychologist, Vol. 26, No. 3. (1991), P. 369-398. 3. What is PBL? 2010. Buck Institute. Available at: http://www.bie.org/about/what_ is_pbl 4. Creswell, J.W. 1994. Research Design. Qualitative & Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. 5. Davin, J.L. 2008. Project-Based Learning. Educational Leadership. Vol. 65, No. 5. (2008), P. 80-82. Available at: http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational_ leadership/feb08/vol65/ num05/Project-Based_ 6. Diehl, W., Grobe, T., Lopez, H., & Cabral, C. 1999. Project-based learning: A strategy for teaching and learning. Center for Youth Development and Education, Corporation for Business, Work, and Learning. Boston, MA. 7. Grant, M.M. 2002. Getting A Grip On Project-Based Learning: Theory, Cases And Recommendations. Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal Volume 5, Issue 1, Winter 2002. Available at: http://www.ncsu.edu/ meridian/win2002/514/index.html 8. Marx, R. W., Blumenfeld, P. C., Krajcik, J. S., & Soloway, E. 1997. Enacting project- based science. The Elementary School Journal, 97(4), P. 341-358. 9. Palfrey, J., Gasser, U. 2008. Born Digital. Understanding the first generation of Digital Natives. New York, NY: Basic Books. 10. Peck, J. K., Peck, W., Sentz, J., & Zasa, R. 1998. Students’ perceptions of literacy learning in a project based curriculum. In: E. G. Stutevant, & J. Dugan (Eds.). Literacy and community: The twentieth yearbook: A peer reviewed publication of the College Reading Association, P. 94-100. Carrollton, GA: Beacon. 11. Prensky, M. 2001. Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. Available: http://www. marcprensky. com.writing/Prensky%20%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Im migrants\%20-%20Part1. pdf 12. Solomon, G., Shrum, L. 2007.Web 2.0. New tools, new schools. Eugene, Oregon, Washington, DC: ISTE. 13. Tapscott, D. 2009. Grown up digital. How the Net Generation is changing the world. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 14. Thomas, .J W. 2000. A review of research on project-based learning. Available at: http://www.bobpearlman. org/BestPractices/PBL_Research.pdf 15. Tretten, R. & Zachariou, P. 1995. Learning about project-based learning: Self-assessment preliminary report of results. San Rafael, CA: The Autodesk Foundation. 16. Tretten, R. & Zachariou, P. 1997. Learning about project-based learning: Assessment of project-based learning in Tinkertech schools. San Rafael, CA: The Autodesk Foundation.

389 SANTRAUKA Sėkmingas kalbos, technologijų ir akultūros integravimas mokant studentus anglų kaip užsienio kalbos Bartosz Wolski

Straipsnyje apibendrinamas eksperimentinis 2 semestrų darbas, paremtas interne- tiniais projektais, kuriuos rengė studentai (2009 ir 2010 metais), studijuojantys anglų kalbą Adomo Mickevičiaus universitete Kališe (Lenkija) ir Valstybinėje profesinio ugdymo aukštojoje mokykloje Konine (Lenkija). Projektų pagalba buvo bandoma sujungti ir integruoti anglų kalbos mokymą (akademiniu lygmeniu), akultūraciją (Amerikos šalityra) ir technologijas (internetas kaip projekto platforma). Straipsnyje aprašyti rezultatai, pastebėjimai, svarstymai ir išvados yra kokybinio pobūdžio, gauti apibendrinus instruktoriaus pastebėjimus, o taip pat išanalizavus interviu su projekto dalyviais. Tyrimas apima šiuos dalykus: trijų anksčiau minėtų sričių integravimo privalumai ir trūkumai, grupės dinamika (darbo krūvis, darbo pasidalinimas, ir t.t.), kalbos aspektas (akademinių darbų rašymo sunkumai) ir technologinis matmuo (sunkumo lygis rengiant internetu paremtus projektus).

390 391 Kalba ir kontekstai. Mokslo darbai. 2011 m. IV (1) tomas. – Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla, 2011. – 392 p.

Mokslo darbų rinkinyje kalba nagrinėjama skirtinguose kontekstuose naujais ir tradiciniais aspektais. Autorių tikslas – pažvelgti į kalbą kaip besikeičiančią ir daugiaplanę sistemą, jos ypatumus įvairioje aplinkoje bei skirtingomis sąlygomis. Leidinyje analizuojama daugelis kalbos funkcionavimo ir mokymo aspektų, todėl įvairių kalbos lygmenų dialogas bei sąveika vyksta kiekviename iš leidinyje pateiktų darbų. Svarstomos ne tik teorinės problemos, keliančios diskusijas šiuolaikinėje lingvistikoje, bet ir pristatomos konkrečios įžvalgos ir rezultatai, paremti empirine medžiaga. Straipsnių autoriai ir leidinio sudarytojai siekia, kad per įvairių požiū- rių ir metodologų sintezę, peržengiant siauros specializacijos ribas, įvairių sričių mokslininkai susitiktų naujoje transdisciplininėje humanitarinio ir edukologinio supratimo erdvėje. Leidinys skirtas mokslininkams, dėstytojams, mokytojams, studentams ir besi- domintiems kalba ir jos mokymu.

Redagavo E. Račienė, L. Selmistraitis, D. Verikaitė Maketavo Donaldas Petrauskas Viršelio autorė Vaida Mažeikaitė

SL 605. 49 sp. l. Tir. 70 egz. Užsak. Nr. 011-110 Išleido ir spausdino VPU leidykla, T. Ševčenkos g. 31, LT-03111 Vilnius Tel. +370 5 233 3593, el. p. [email protected] www.leidykla.vpu.lt

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