A p p e n d i x : B i o i n s p i r e d P a r a s i t e Details

Internal Parasites: Endoparasites

Biological endoparasites live inside a hosts’ body. In farms, biological parasites infect, hurt, and even kill animals, hurting a farming business. This book is look- ing for inspiration from biology to prevent or treat business “disease.” In business, there are many opportunities for inoculation and treatment.

Brain Jackers—Acanthocephala— Thorny-Headed Worms

Thorny-headed worms are rare in humans, and also cause disease in birds, amphibians, and reptiles. They are called thorny-headed because they use a bio- logical lancet to pierce and hold onto the stomach walls of the host (Wikipedia, 2013). Their lifecycle includes invertebrates, fish, lizards, birds, and mammals. In one stage of their lifecycle, they “brain jack” a small crustacean eaten by ducks. Just as inner-city drivers are subject to “car-jacking,” this parasite actually redi- rects the crustacean’s dominant behavior from staying away from light to actively seeking it—where ducks may be more likely to eat them, and where the parasite reproduces (Wikipedia, 2013). Alaskan Inuit have a zest for raw fish and that contributes to their increased incidence of Acanthocephala infection compared with other groups of people (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 506).

Prevention and Treatment for Acanthocephala Endoscopic and X-ray examinations detect Acanthocephala because their eggs are not passed through feces (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 25). Controlling the spread of rodents, as well as protecting and cooking food prevents infection. Surgery and medicine such as niclosamide and loperamide hydrochloride have been shown to be effective (Mehlhorn, 2008). 222 Appendix

Possible Organizational Implications of Acanthocephala “Brain jacking” is analogous to the most dangerous consultants, leaders, ven- dors, and employees who implant toxic ideas into senior leadership’s agenda, affecting their decision making deleteriously. That includes the use of snake oil that lacks evidence and often backfires. My favorite example of this is feed- back. Kluger and DeNisi (1996) published a meta-analysis showing that when people get feedback, they improve one-third of the time. Surprisingly, as much as one-third of the time the person actually worse than with no feedback at all! Regrettably, it is rare that leadership and organizational development consul- tants actually leverage research for the wares that they peddle—caveat emptor. A key insight here is that leaders who ignore evidence may be “brain jacked.” The lifecycle of the thorny-headed worm pointed medicine to drugs that exacerbated the weak part of the worm’s value chain. This parasite does suggest that leaders would do well to systematically think about evidence-based ways to break the lifecycle of parasite-like behavior, by systematically looking for their weak links, and remediating for value-destroying behaviors.

Delhi Belly—Amebae

If you have ever encountered Montezuma’s revenge, you have experienced the joy of Entamoeba histolytica. The ameba is responsible for diarrhea. It starts life in your body with a fecal infection of the food or hands in the form of a cyst (Microbiology and Immunology Online, 2009). The microbial cyst is an ameba that forms into a ball with a protective membrane. It lies in this dormant state until a healthy environment is available (Wikipedia, 2013). But most amebae harm no one. A few are parasites, and one or two are so vicious that they cause a significant amount of human misery, even death (Roberts & Janovy, 2009). Amebic cysts can survive the highly acidic stomach acids in people, where they migrate to the small intestine and move back to their normal state. They grow and multiply by fours, and some migrate into the large intestine while others attack the surrounding tissue. They reproduce by reencysting themselves and passing out of feces. As a parting gift, they give you gas—if you are lucky. Between 50 million to 500 million people are believed to be infected every year, and causes up to 100,000 deaths annually (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 113).

Prevention and Treatment for Amebae Amebic dysentery is treated with several types of pharmaceuticals, especially Metronidazole because of its low toxicity and effectiveness with infections both inside and outside the colon (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 111). Appendix 223

Possible Organizational Implications of Amebae Amebae have changed the fate of armies—the tiny 20 micron Entamoeba his- tolytica “has long been known as a handmaiden of war, often inflicting more casualties than bullets and bombs” through dysentery (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 108). Occasionally, careless plumbing has caused full-blown amebiasis epidem- ics (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 113). One Chiropractic clinic in 1980 caused an epidemic when they did not clean their enema machine, causing 10 patients to have their colon removed, and 7 patients died (Centers for Disease Control, 1981 cited in Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 113). This example shows that unskilled or unconscientious employees are parasitic. Similarly, leaders who tolerate ineffective or unsafe processes or behaviors can destroy the organization’s very existence. Organizations do not actually eat parasites. But inspirationally, the ameba’s example suggests that organizational parasites may perpetuate value destruction by entering the organization and infecting others with bad ideas, nefarious prac- tices, and actual damage. Parasitic actors may, in effect, similarly contaminate organizations. Just as preventing consumption is important biologically, so is pre- venting bad leadership, ineffective ideas, or malevolent and unskilled employees to enter the organization. This includes making sure employee capabilities are not mismatched with the job, or at least are selected for immaleable traits and intel- ligence. Similarly, acquisition of parasitic partners, employees, and joint ventures may be avoided by the conscientious use of science-based due diligence methods. And consider the amebic hibernation phase—when it lays dormant waiting for a better environment. Does this sound like it could also describe the behavior of employees who are burned out at yet-another-change, and consider it man- agement’s “flavor of the month”? Employees are unlikely to actually curl into a ball, but the behavioral reactions of resistance to change, spreading rumors and rationalization that can account for resistance are reminiscent of cyst behavior. Employees may treat new initiatives as a hostile work environment, and similarly wait it out until a new initiative comes along before changing their behavior. This highlights the role of a leader in creating an adaptive context consistent with Complexity Leadership theory discussed in Chapter 5 .

Kitty Toxicity—Apicomplexa

All Apicomplexa are parasites, and comprise over a thousand species “some of which are of major veterinary and medical importance” (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 123). One type, eimeria , causes a variety of intestinal diseases in farm ani- mals. One subspecies hurts unborn babies and appears to change our personality. Toxoplasma gondii, whose ultimate destination is the housecat, can live in humans as an intermediate host, and cause neurological defects in infants before they are even born (Roberts & Janovy, 2009). Undercooked beef, pork, and lamb are also sources for infection, but can be avoided by brief freezing and thorough cooking. 224 Appendix

It is because of this parasite that I was assigned kitty-litter duty twice prior to the birth of my children. Toxo may also be a contributing cause to heightened levels of schizophrenia and neuroticism ( Economist, 2010). Other studies suggest that it alters people’s dopamine levels, increases testosterone in men and increases the chance they get into accidents, act with jealousy and become dogmatic (House, 2010). Infection by Toxo is even associated with suicide and babies suffering from Down syndrome (Fleger, 2010). But these are just correlations, and do not necessarily suggest that Toxo causes these symptoms. Studies where rats are randomly assigned to Toxo and non-Toxo infection con- ditions show that Toxo is one of many parasites that manipulate the rat’s behav- ior to make them attracted to the smell of cats—thereby increasing the chance of being eaten (Fleger, 2010). Consequently, Toxo also causes a “Brain jacking” situation. A series of studies on biology researchers who became infected with Toxo attempted to control for confounds, and suggested that Toxo could even be responsible for personality changes in people, as measured by Cattel’s 16PF questionnaire (Fleger, 2010).

As with mosquitoes, horseflies, and most bloodsucking parasites, Kenneth Starr was spawned in stagnant water. James Carville Former advisor to Bill Clinton

Apicomplexa’ s pneumocystis carini and cryptosporidium can kill patients with weakened immune systems. One of the worst forms of Apicomplexa includes malaria and other malaria-like organisms. For centuries, it has outranked warfare in causing human suffering (John F. Kennedy, as cited in Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 147). In spite of organizations in 102 countries working to eradicate malaria, it remains one of the worst diseases in the world today in terms of morbidity and economic loss. Fortunately, in a few countries like the United States, malaria is extinct.

Prevention and Treatment for Apicomplexa A variety of diagnostics detect whether or not a subspecies of Apicomplexa is present. Various pharmaceutical treatments have been shown to be effective. For example, pyrimethamine and sulfonamide together block a pathway (bottleneck) required for the livelihood of a parasite that kills human babies called T. Gondii (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 138). The first antimalaria drug was quinine, discovered in the sixteenth century, but not all patients were permanently cured. Later, the discovery of the full life- cycle of the malaria parasite pointed to infections largely from epidemics of other people being infected, and when people are near stagnant water where mosquitos Appendix 225 breed (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 160). Killing mosquitos, and their habitats; introducing mosquito predators, and using insect nets have helped. Similarly, drugs (primaquine, mefloquine, pyrimethamine, progruanil, sulfonamides like sulfadoxine, tetracycline) have been shown to be effective. But some malaria para- sites have become resistant to drugs.

Possible Organizational Implications of Apicomplexa The poultry industry spends an USD$250M to $300M in medicated feed and vaccines to prevent and treat Apicomplexa, and chicken farmers in the United States alone still loose USD$80M in deceased Apicomplexa-infected birds (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 132). Apicomplexa’ s many species also infect cattle, sheep, pigs, rabbits, turkeys, and ducks, so $80M is a low estimate of the total economic harm. Because this parasite is especially toxic to those with weakened immune sys- tems, it suggests that in organizations, parasites may similarly have a more del- eterious impact on a weak or young organization, team, or process (e.g. start-ups, hypercompetitive environments, cash flow problems, disruptive innovations) than those that are strong (e.g. no debt, high margins, blocking patents). Further it sug- gests an organizational analogue to immunologists who systematically looks for and addresses organizational parasites, just as the ocean has regions called “clean- ing stations” where fish go to have other fish, such as shrimp, remove parasites. As with other parasites, the fact that different interventions block or treat path- ways to the parasite’s development suggests that many different “weak links” are fruitful for blocking an organizational parasite’s lifecycle. In the case of Enron— leaders created a culture of book cooking that infected the entire organization. Culture includes the core organizational values—the symbols of what behaviors are considered good and bad that leaders create, and role model and influences large numbers of people’s behaviors. Further, Enron’s symbiotic partner, Arthur Anderson was also to blame. It could have been that their rule-breaking culture attracted them to a similarly fraudulent Accounting Partner to systematically dupe stakeholders. Another possibility is that a small number of individuals in senior roles in Enron and Arthur Anderson indi- vidually colluded unethically, and hurt many other ethical stakeholders. By sup- porting self-policing and industry self-regulation of these sorts of parasitic actions, perhaps organizations can avoid these infections before they are fatal. In the context of the infamous scandals at Enron, Bernard F. Madoff Investment Securities LLC, and Satyam, multinational corporations face a sort of epidemic of malfeasance suggests the need for preventative and corrective invest- ments has never been greater. Perhaps with a wide array of support from indepen- dent, science-minded organizations such as Consumer Reports, the Academy of Management and the Society for Industrial-Organizational Psychology (SIOP), it may be possible to better prevent and treat organizational parasites. But in busi- ness the Florence Nightingales may not be enough. Organizations may have to live with the fact that they may always be in an epic battle with value destroyers 226 Appendix in their midst. But perhaps with an ongoing program of risk mitigation (e.g. research, and innovative experiments) we may “save the patient.”

Sourdough and Streptococcus—Bacteria

Pathogenic bacteria are vast—an entire genera, or classification comprising many types of organisms. Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that lack a nucleus and cause infectious disease. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the majority of bacteria are harmless or beneficial (Wikipedia, 2013). Deleterious bacteria include tuberculosis that kills 2 million people per year in Africa. Pneumonia is another caused by the bacteria streptococcus and pseudomonas. Other pathogens are transmitted through food, including shigella, campylobacter, and salmonella. Another form of pathogenic bacteria causes infections like tetanus, typhoid fever, diphtheria, syphilis, and leprosy.

Prevention and Treatment for Bacteria Antibiotics are the primary weapon. Bactericidal antibiotics kill bacteria, whereas bacteriostatics prevent bacterial growth. Bleach is one disinfectant used to kill bacteria. Similarly, most bacteria are killed when cooked to temperatures above 73 degrees Centigrade).

Possible Organizational Implications for Bacteria Except for the shipping industry that seeks to thwart pirates, generally organiza- tions do not seek to kill actors that play bacteria-like roles in destroying value. But firing, shuttering departments, and closing plants are leadership options of last resort. More importantly, the example of the environment—heat—exterminating bacteria suggests that the culture and climate leaders create surrounding undesir- able behavior may be an important way to eliminate or contain the impact of organizational parasites.

Eyelash Bearers—Ciliophora

Ciliophora are over 8,000 species of small multicellular organisms that live in intestines of everything from cockroaches, crustaceans, toads, and fish. They have very small hair-like projections that they use to row like oars, and eat— hence the nickname, “eyelash bearers.” Some mental health facilities and prisons unintentionally produce high infection rates of Ciliophora parasites through fecal consumption (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 177).

Prevention and Treatment for Ciliophora A variety of pharmaceuticals are effective against Ciliophora infections includ- ing carbarsone, diiodohydroxyquin, and tetracycline. Rhesus monkeys that are Appendix 227 infected with Ciliophora have discovered that eating a certain type of clay con- tains the same pharmaceutical properties as over-the-counter medicines used to treat human diarrhea (cited in Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 177).

Possible Organizational Implications for Ciliophora The monkey example suggests that businesses can partner with academics to innovate new methods to prevent and treat organizational parasites. This requires a leadership commitment to organizational experiments, the gold standard for research designs, and recommended by start-up experts (Blank & Dorf, 2012). There are situations where experimental controls are impossible or dangerous and academic partnerships may be especially fruitful to leverage risk mitigation in these areas. Similarly, the fact that organizations’ impoverished cleanliness values, skills, and/or processes themselves nurture biological parasite livelihoods suggest leader vigilance for tracking and addressing these gaps for avoiding organizational and biological parasites alike.

Obese Mosquitoes—Microsporidia and Myxozoa

Both parasites use coiled tubes to anchor themselves into their hosts (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 183). Microsporidia include over 1,200 species and infect a wide variety of animals. Myxozoa’s 1,300 species and 62 genera infect fish, insects, and a few infect humans who have compromised immune systems (Roberts & Janovy, 2009). This pest significantly harms the honey industry, stopping the ability of the queen bee to reproduce—a form of parasitic castration (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 185). Similarly, silkworm businesses are harmed by Microsporidia—so much that Louis Pasteur devoted a considerable amount of his research effort to combat this parasite, and is credited with saving the silk industry in the French colonies (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 185).

Treatment of Microsporidia and Myxozoa No effective treatment for fish-based parasites of these types is known; and the only thing that can be done by the fish industry is to destroy infected fish before they infect others.

Possible Organizational Implications of Microsporidia and Myxozoa In some cases, businesses must simply remove organizational actors such as firing bad leaders for lack of any hope of change. Louis Pasteur’s example gives hope for a science-based approach to thwart organizational parasites. Just as Pasteur’s effort paid off, so may more corporate financial support for targeted academic- industry partnerships. Similarly, it suggests that leaders should take existing sci- ence much more seriously in making decisions that promote value creation and prevent destruction. 228 Appendix

M i n i o n — M e s o z o a

Mesozoa are tiny marine parasites that do not possess a spine (invertebrates). Because they do not affect human health and economics, little is known of their physiology, prevention and treatment, offering few insights for organizational effectiveness.

Russian Dolls—Monogenoidea

This is a flatworm that infects fish, and has also a lifecycle that can include turtles, frogs, squid, and even hippopotami (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 295). One variety grows within other monogenoidea’s uteruses that in turn have other Monogenoidea living in their own uteruses, inspiring their nickname, “Russian dolls.”

Prevention and Treatment of Monogenoidea I was unable to uncover any evidence-based methods to thwart or treat Mono- genoidea in the literature.

Possible Organizational Implications of Monogenoidea As noted with other parasites, each phase of the parasite’s lifecycle may be a rich source of opportunities for diagnosing, and eradicating them in organizations.

R o u n d w o r m s — N e m a t o d e s

These worms are among the most abundant creatures in the world. Only a few nematodes actually cause disease to people, agriculture, and farm animals. But the worst produce horrific dehabilitation and disfigurement in people and ani- mals far more severely than other parasites (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 399). Helminthes are bigger than other parasites, and make their living in people’s lungs, intestines, liver, muscle, kidney, spleen, pancreas, or lungs. Two worms that commonly trouble humans are the guinea worm and hookworm. Guinea worm (Dracuncliasis) is 1 meter long, and 1–2 mm in diameter, and enters its host when the person drinks contaminated water (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 394). Guinea worms live and emerge from under the skin causing allergic skin reac- tions and skin necrosis. Treatment involves wrapping the worm around a stick as it emerges, and is very painful. The hookworm infects people who come into contact with eggs, in the dirt of tropical climates. It lives in the small intestine, causing rashes, and some experience upper respiratory irritation and nausea. Appendix 229

As with other parasites, they are transmitted through unsanitary treatment of human waste, and flourish in warm, humid climate (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 400). Young children suffer from the highest infections—a single child can be infected with 200–1,000 worms, and in severe cases the worms retard growth, cause anemia, and disfigure fingers, toes, and rectums. One of the most striking nematodes is the Wuchereria bancrofti that causes the horrible swelling of body, and is accordingly called elephantiasis (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 463).

Prevention and Treatment of Nematodes For some types, diagnosis is done by finding eggs in stool samples, while from others it is from a skin biopsy. Teaching children to wash their hands and dis- pose of feces in a sanitary way has been shown to prevent reinfection. Similarly, changing societal practices to avoid using human waste in gardens is another area for prevention by either processing the waste or using alternative methods for fertilization. Some nematodes are best removed through surgery, and many types of drugs have been found to interfere with the nematode’s neural function, such as pip- erazine, levamisole, and pyrantel that paralyze the worms. Other drugs inhibit the worm’s metabolism (albendazole, mebendazole, parbendazole, fenbendazole) (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 401). But not all nematodes have effective remedies. Trichinosis, for example, is hard to detect because of a low-grade infection, and is frequently misdiagnosed because symptoms are vague (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 408). The juvenile worm’s migration through human tissue causes bleeding, pneumonia, encepha- litis, deafness, brain damage, heart damage, and eye damage. They can infect muscles causing intense pain, difficulty breathing, and hallucinations. The only intervention possible is to make the patient more comfortable. Vermifuge drugs stun worms inside in such a way that leads to their eventual death. Vermicides, on the other, hand kill worms immediately. Some natural rem- edies include tobacco, wormwood, cloves, and plumeria but physicians typically prescribe drugs such as albendazole. Overuse of antiworming drugs has resulted in some resistance, which could affect humans in the future. Chemotherapy has also shown to be effective against helminthes (Mehlhorn, 2008).

Possible Organizational Implications of Nematodes Since this parasite is detected as it passes through the organism, it suggests the possibility of detecting organizational parasites by making exit assessments (inter- views, questionnaires) more rigorous to better understand particular people who themselves may not be parasitic, but are leaving to avoid others who are, such as an unethical leader. It is regrettably rare in my experience to find physical- science worthy measurements in these assessments, unlike the Rasch Measurement approach I recommend (Linacre, 1989, 1994). 230 Appendix

Similarly, not all organizational parasites have effective remedies further sup- porting the earlier suggestion that additional, pragmatic research may be appro- priate as part of an organization’s ERM infrastructure. This is urgent because Actuarial Scientists and Risk Managers have historically treated leadership, cul- ture, and employee risks in a cursory fashion (e.g. Moeller, 2007).

Flatworms—Platyhelminthes

There are two types—Aspidobothrea and Tremadotda. Commonly known as flatworms, they are typically planar in shape, hence the name “flat” worm. At least 27 families of flatworms are not parasitic; rather they live symbiotically with other organisms (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, pp. 201, 206). They can range from microscopic to over 60 meters in length. A few flatworms are parasitic and can infect a wide range of creatures from arthropods, mollusks, and fish. Interestingly, these parasites themselves can serve as hosts for other flatworms, a situation known as hyperparasitism where parasites infect other parasites (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 201).

Platyhelminthes—Aspidobothrea This type of flatworm infects mollusks, fish, and turtles. It has received less atten- tion by physicians and parasitologists because it has no known medical or eco- nomic importance.

Platyhelminthes—Dignetic Trematoda Known as flukes, they are among the most common and widespread of all para- sitic worms. The river fluke (Fasciola) alone infects 700 million domestic animals and inflicts over USD$2B in damages (Mas-Coma, Valero, & Bargues, 2009). Flukes live in nearly every organ of vertebrates. Several infect both livestock and people, especially ducks. One called schistosomatoidea is among the most dreaded because it infects 120 million people in 74 countries, and can be fatal (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 250). Ancient Egyptians documented their human suffer- ing at the hands of the fluke in their surviving papyri; and fossilized fluke eggs have been found in mummies dating from 1200 BC. While the most important transmission vector is by consumption of infected human waste, and the density of snails that transmit the fluke (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 255), mothers can also pass the fluke on to their babies through breast milk often from infected housecats (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 248). Flukes infect people’s brains more than any other parasite (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 259). One type of dignean flatworm, also “brain jacks” ants’ behavior by forcing the ant to go to the top of vegetation in the evening, and make the ant “dance” in spasms (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 278). This increases the chances that the par- asite will be able to transmit its prodigy to the next host in the fluke lifecycle. Appendix 231

Prevention and Treatment of Flatworms Prevention requires people to remain clean. Farmers and children who wade in infected water are especially susceptible (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 255). Similarly, cultural and religious practices can promote increased transmission, including religions that require the manual cleaning of private parts after going to the bathroom (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 255). Avoiding eating raw watercress is another important way to prevent infection (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 271). One interesting strategy taken by some victims is to live near a volcanic opening with high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide and/or heat to kill off the parasites (Tobler, Schlupp, Garcia de Leon, Glaubrecht, & Plath, 2007). Successful prevention efforts have included education about sanitation, and the introduction of predators and competitors of the snails that transmit the para- site (e.g. crayfish) (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 261). Work on vaccinations to inoculate people against this parasite are underway and have demonstrated par- tial protection in some species (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 261). For all of the destruction and study of this parasite, no easy, cheap, and useful diagnosis technique is available. Treatment is a major world health problem, and the most effective drugs historically have been very toxic to people (organic triva- lent antimonials). The current drugs recommended include praziquantel, rafox- anide, and triclabendazole, but are not all effective against every kind of fluke.

Possible Organizational Implications of Flatworms Historically, this parasite had a role in wars. Napoleon’s army in Egypt were likely infected from the reported blood in their urine is a key symptom of flatworm infection. It has been estimated that Europeans have been infected with a Dignean (Echinostomatiform) for at least 5,000 years (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 269). Members of this same order cause massive losses in the reduction of domestic milk and meat production in farming (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 269). Some government projects intended to improve food production in developing countries have had an unintended consequence of promoting snail growth that transmit this parasite. For example, a US$10M irrigation project in Zimbabwe had to be abandoned after 10 years because of an infestation (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 257). The failure of governments to prevent and treat this parasite fur- ther suggests that no one organizational stakeholder may be sufficient in address- ing the apparent pandemic of leadership and other parasitic behaviors in recent years. And this one inspires the idea of organizational hyper parasites—where para- sites may recruit sister organizational parasites that further exploit a business’ value chain. It suggests that some of the cures for organizational parasites will be extremely painful, and unpleasant. Firing a leader previously thought to be a CEO successor is not unlike when biological organisms cleanse near an uncom- fortably hot, hydrogen-sulfide stinging environment. 232 Appendix

Mad Cow—Prions

Prions are molecules that, unlike viruses, do not contain DNA or RNA. They cause kuru and Creutzfeldt-Jakob Degenerative (CJD) brain disease in people and a disease called scrapie in sheep. They replicate by changing a host protein into a contorted, misfolded shape. Like an evil origami master, this starts a chain reac- tion where each prion protein folds many host proteins into more prions, which in turn create more (Carter & Saunders, 2007, p. 327).

Prevention and Treatment for Prions There is currently no cure for CJD—it is always fatal. One treatment, pentosan polysulfate, slows disease progression, but does not stop it (Wikipedia, 2013). New treatments are still being pursued, including one originally designed for malaria. There is also hope from studying people who survived Kuru’s disease that they may have inherited a genetic variant of prion protein, presenting new possibilities for treatment.

Possible Organizational Implications of Prions Like a prion, employee-parasites might have a more diverse career path than oth- ers, changing their stripes enabling them to traverse industries, geographies, and disciplines. Parasitic consultants might “reinvent” themselves like rock stars and politicians.

Tapeworms—Cestodes

This parasite lives in human and animal intestines. Hippocrates and Aristotle were among the earliest students of tapeworms (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 313). They can cause abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, weakness, and even anemia. People get infected when they eat raw or undercooked fish, so infections are high- est in countries where raw fish is a cultural norm. Chinese are especially suscep- tible because they eat a wide variety of undercooked amphibians, reptiles, beef, and birds. Traditional Chinese medicine also plays a role in parasite transmission because of the tradition of eating raw snake as an all-purpose cure (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 345). Communities that do not treat sewage before draining it into lakes are another source of parasitic outbreak from infected fish (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 344).

Prevention and Treatment of Tapeworms Avoiding raw or undercooked food is important. Tests can detect parasites eggs in feces and effective treatments included fresh pumpkin seeds, and juice Appendix 233 from ferns. Recommended drugs include niclosamide (yomesan) and praziqu- antel. Some forms of tapeworm can only be removed surgically (sparganosis) (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 345). The drug praziquantel is frequently recommended across a variety of parasites as appropriate treatment, but there is evidence that it might actually promote the growth of the Alveolar hydatid, punctuating the importance of appropriate diagnosis, so infection is not worsened, and the appropriate drug (in this case albendazole) may be prescribed (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 355).

Possible Organizational Implications of Tapeworms This parasite teaches us that accurate and precise diagnoses are important. Misdiagnosis might actually cause more problems than the damage the parasite causes. In this way, it further suggests that organizations systematically perform rigorous evaluations of the efficacy of risk management practices to ensure that they actually work—and do not backfire. This is not just a conjecture—there is significant evidence that some organizational interventions such as leadership feedback to subordinates actually backfires a third of the time (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996).

Swine Flu and HIV—Viruses

While sometimes viruses are not considered parasites, they also live off their hosts, fitting the definition. There is controversy as to whether viruses are living (Carter & Saunders, 2007). Viruses cause hepatitis B, measles, influenza, small pox, and HIV, so are of great threat to people’s lives. They are also the most abundant type of biological entity on earth, but are extremely small—only 20 to 400 nanometers in length (Carter & Saunders, 2007; Wikipedia, 2013). They can only reproduce in the cells of another organism. They begin by attaching a piece of themselves to a cell, entering the cell, transcribing their genes into messenger RNA, translate their own virus mRNA into virus proteins, replicating, assem- bling into new pieces of a virus called “virions,” and having the “virions” exit the cell to continue the life cycle (Carter & Saunders, 2007). They infect all types of organisms from plants and animals, to bacteria and archaea (single-celled organisms with neither a nucleus nor organelle). All viruses have (1) genes, (2) protein coat that protects the genes, and (3) some have an envelope of fat that protects them when they are outside a cell. One theory, the “regressive” or “degeneracy” hypothesis about the origin of viruses is that small cells may have parasitized larger cells, and genes not required by their parasitism were lost. Viruses can be catastrophic in agriculture and healthcare, but they can also be useful in other contexts. They provide information to epidemiologists about salmonella outbreaks, provide enzymes useful in molecular biology, and serve as 234 Appendix insecticides (baculovirus) (Carter & Saunders, 2007). Importantly, they are being used as a vehicle for curing cancer by using a genetically modified herpes simplex virus to power experimental vaccines.

Prevention and Treatment for Viruses Immune systems, from skin to antibodies, lymphocytes, monophages, mac- rocytes, and antigens provide a myriad of defenses against viruses. Killer cells are specialized to seeking out and destroy specific threats including viruses. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses. A few antiviral drugs have been developed, as have vaccines (Murphy, Gibbs, Horzinek, & Studdert, 1999). But because a virus reprograms its host’s cells to reproduce, there are few known targets for the drugs to interact with.

Possible Organizational Implications of Viruses One important lesson from the virus is that context and perspective matters. Where one virus is destructive, in one context, it might just be the insecticide needed in another. The US government systematically used smallpox to kill Native American Indian tribes, clearly good from the early US government’s perspective, and genocide from the tribal view (Flight, 2011). And the US gov- ernment did not stop their weaponized virus program until 1969 (Flight, 2011). In a business context, viruses teach us that organizational parasites might enter our organizations to leverage business resources to create more like themselves— effectively hijacking the value creation process to accelerate destruction.

External Parasites: Ectoparasites

Ticks, Chiggers, and Scabies—Arachnids

Ticks and mites directly cause disease, and also transmitting other diseases. Millions of dollars are spent on trying to control these pests, and the diseases they spread. They typically eat host blood, causing inflammatory lesions at attach- ment sites. One of my least favorite trips to the dermatologist at the UW-Madison was to cure a case of scabies when I lived in a dormitory with a few thousand other men. While they are not deadly, they are uncomfortable because they burrow into the skin, and are transmitted from skin-to-skin contact, or sharing clothing.

Prevention and Treatment for Arachnids Sulfur-based soap has been used successfully since AD 25 to treat scabies; and Permethrin, Lindane, and other lotions are also effective. Some mammals can Appendix 235 develop immunity to ticks, suggesting that vaccinations in the future may bear fruit.

Possible Organizational Implications of Arachnids Simple solutions may also work well in organizations. Similarly, vectors-things that transmit organizational parasites such as parasitic suppliers may be a venue to detect and thwart organizational parasites.

Insects and Crustaceans—Arthropods

There are thousands of insect parasites from spiders and beetles to crustaceans. Nearly all arthropod parasites are small and have a hard exoskeleton (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 125; Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 513). Arthropods are involved in nearly every type of parasitic relationship possible from being definitive and intermediate hosts for other parasites: transmitting other parasites to other hosts, and parasit- izing people and domestic animals. Arthropods reduce livestock’s feed efficiency, growth rate, and hinder wool and milk production (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 125). They also open up the host to secondary infections. Arthropods have even been a major factor in the victory or defeat of military operations where humans have taken inappropriate credit/blame for such conquests (Zinsser, 1938/1996). Crustaceans can be free living, symbiotic, and parasitic. The Anchor worm damages a fishes’ scales and firmly drills into muscle tissue. This damage causes inflammation, ulcers, and secondary infections from bacteria and fungi parasites. Its effect is toxic enough that it kills small fish.

Prevention and Treatment of Arthropods Antiarthropod treatments account for 14 percent of the global USD$17B market in animal health (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 126). Some arthropods have formed a resis- tance, so new research is needed.

Possible Organizational Implications of Arthropods Evidence-based consultants have a promising future in inventing methods that prevent and treat organizational parasites. In particular, Arthropod’s example suggests that better delivery systems for assessment and treatment may bear fruit in managing organizational parasites. Perhaps those similar to the Infosys Leadership Institute’s Computer-Adaptive Rasch Measurement multisource sur- veys around citizenship behavior could take a more prominent role in assessment and development (Linacre, 1989, 1994; Barney, 2010). Further it suggests that small organizations are more at risk than large organizations to perish because of an organizational type parasite. 236 Appendix

A b s o r b o t r o p h s — F u n g i

The fungus kingdom includes microorganisms like yeasts, molds, and mushrooms that are either parasites or saprophytes (e.g. live off living/dead organic matter). Many species of fungi produce metabolites that are used in pharmacologically active drugs, like penicillin. Yeast is a fungus good for both making bread and for brewing alcohol. Some compounds have been shown to inhibit viruses and cancer cells (Wikipedia, 2013). The blue in blue cheese such as stilton or Roquefort are made with a type of penicillin fungus. Fungi can be either internal or external parasites to people. Inedible mush- rooms like Amanita phallodes accounts for the majority of fatal mushroom poi- sonings worldwide, perhaps because it looks similar to edible button mushrooms. Beauveria bassiana has been used to eliminate or suppress the growth of harmful pathogens like insects, mites, weeds, and other fungi that damage crops. Harmful fungi are highly diverse. Some affect the outer layers of the skin, nails, and hair. Others are subcutaneous, infecting the deeper layers of the skin. Some are red, scaly, and itchy, whereas others can produce symptoms similar to dry skin and eczema. Infections of the scalp or beard can lead to hair loss. Systemic fungal infections may result from breathing in the spores from soil, rotting vegetation. Healthy people can breathe in fungi and get infections, occa- sionally becoming serious. Immune suppressed people can become infected and reinfected repeatedly. Pigeon droppings are one source of opportunistic fungal infections (Cryptococci) (WebMD, 2009). Some fungi have lay names that make them sound like a helminthes (worm). Ringworm of the groin, body, and scalp (Tinea cruris, corporis, and capitis) are actually three types of fungal infections. They leave symptoms that look ring-like that inspired the colloquial name. Microsporidia are one of the oldest groups of single-celled organisms (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 817). Uniquely, they inject them- selves into the host cell using a tube (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 818).

Prevention and Treatment for Fungi Fungi are discovered by abdominal pain, weight loss, diarrhea, and spores in feces that they cause. They can be fatal to babies (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 821). Preventative measures to avoid fungi from growing on the skin include keeping skin clean and dry and washing clothes in very hot water. Antifungal foot powder is also help- ful. Oral medicine includes dequalinium chloride or topical/internal antiseptic. Various zoophilic fungal infections require specialty treatments, once identified.

Possible Organizational Implications of Fungi One organization’s parasite might be another’s symbiote, like the Taliban and Al Qaeda relationship. This reinforces lessons from other parasites that one must Appendix 237 look at the context of the relationship, and from the point of view of the leaders and shareholders, are the relationships mutually beneficial or benefiting one at the expense of another stakeholder.

Bed Bugs and Toe Biters—Hemiptera Bugs

Cimicidae Cimex lectularius is a big name for a tiny pest. Of the over 55,000 species, only 100 species of bugs are parasites of mammals and birds. There are over 75 different species of bed bugs that feed on the blood of humans and other warm-blooded hosts (Wikipedia, 2013). They are transmitted through clothing and bedding, and are primarily active at night. They have been found in Egyptian tombs but have been living on people since our ancestor’s cave dwelling days (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 583).

Prevention and Treatment for Bed Bugs Insecticides eradicated bed bugs from developing countries like the United States, but they have proliferated again recently. Fabric steamers kill the bed bugs and their eggs. Similarly, storing bedding at least four days below –19 degrees Centigrade (zero Fahrenheit) is effective, as is exposure to carbon dioxide. Interestingly, natural enemies include several species of insets that eat bed bugs including cockroaches, ants, spiders, mites, centipedes, and the “masked bedbug hunter.” But because these bother people as well, they solutions are not practical for bedbug removal.

Possible Organizational Implications of Bed Bugs Multiple portfolios of interventions may be required to eradicate organizational parasites. But we must be aware of unintended deleterious consequences of mul- tiple remedies.

F l e a s — S i p h o n a p t e r a

Fleas transmit the dreaded Black Death (plague, or yersinia pestis) that has killed millions of people since the dawn of civilization (Lehane, 1969). The flea-plague is perhaps the most serious threat to people of all parasite-vector relationships in nature. Fleas kill people in two ways. In the fourteenth-century European pan- demic, the plague killed 25 million people or 25 percent of Europe—the worst biology-based disaster that has ever befallen humanity (Roberts & Janovy, 2009). The last pandemic started in China, spread to Hong Kong and then Bombay and Calcutta in 1898 and killed over 548,000 people in India alone. During World War II, the Japanese used this parasite as a bioweapon transmitted through rice eaten by rats that became infected and killed people (Drisdelle, 2011, p. 165). 238 Appendix

Even in the modern era, between 1900 and 1972, there were 992 cases in the United States, of which 720 were fatal.

The combined effects of Nero and Kubla Khan of Napoleon and Hitler, all the Popes, all the Pharaohs, and all the incumbents of the Ottoman throne are as a puff of smoke against the typhoon blast of fleas’ ravages through the ages. Brendan Lehane

With such a catastrophic impact, it is ironic that all 2,500 species of fleas are infinitesimal—less than a few millimeters long at their longest. The human flea (pulex irritans) also infects pigs, dogs, coyotes, squirrels, and owls.

Prevention and Treatment of Fleas Keeping people’s houses clean and free from debris, and rats—the food and transmission sources of fleas—is key. Pet owners should have their animals wear flea collars (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 537). Some insecticides are also useful (e.g. diflubenzuron). Some light traps with yellow-green filters collect as many as 86 percent of live fleas in a room, as far as 8 meters away (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 599).

Possible Organizational Implications of Fleas Tiny organizational parasites may be vectors of much bigger diseases in the form of unethical cultures, or bad information lacking scientific rigor.

F l i e s — D i p t e r a

From a medical perspective, diptera are among the most disfiguring, and debili- tating parasites of them all. About 120,000 species in 140 families include moth flies, sand flies, trickling filter flies, mosquitos, gnats, midges, and black flies. They can transmit encephalitis, and yellow and dengue fever. Twenty-three spe- cies of flies belong to Diptera, and exclusively live on blood. They are also vectors for other diseases (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 1515).

Prevention and Treatment of Flies Removing brush and other debris where flies live and breed has been shown to reduce bites. Similarly, insecticides are effective. Traps using cloth, ox urine, and insecticide have been among the most effective approaches (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 1515). Appendix 239

I cannot persuade myself that a beneficent and omnipotent God would have designedly created the Ichneumonidae [parasitic wasp] with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of Caterpillars. Charles Darwin

Possible Organizational Implications of Flies Organizational “brush clearing” might involve assessing supplier management processes proactively verify that they can sustain their performance. Any audit that detects fraudulent books, unethical behaviors, or dysfunctional leadership can be detected and remediated before such flies need swatting. Similar to com- puter science approaches to catching black-hat hackers, business “honey pot” traps may present opportunities for unscrupulous stakeholders to leave obvious tracks—attracting them to elicit bad behaviors in a safe “sandbox” so they can be managed before they undermine legitimate value chains.

Wasps, Bees, Ants—Hymenoptera

Most hymenopterans parasitize other insects, and are natural part of pest man- agement programs. They include ants, bees, and wasps. Some parasitic wasps seem tailor-made for their hosts such as the cockroach—parasites have actually influenced the evolution of their hosts to be fruitful feeding grounds for the para- site (Copeland, 2003). Many hymenoptera are parasites as juveniles—eating their way inside a host as larvae, but later kill it in adulthood.

Prevention and Treatment of Hymenoptera Hymenoptera are commercially used to infect a limited range of hosts (so they do not disrupt other species) to minimize other parasites (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 636).

Possible Organizational Implications of Hymenoptera Redirecting other organizational parasites to “infect” some other business pests could be considered.

L i c e — P h t h i r a p t e r a

About 4,400 species of lice have been troubling hosts for 10,000 years (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, pp. 569–570). Lice have no wings; some have no eyes, and all have no class. They are highly adapted to parasitism and cannot live without chewing 240 Appendix or sucking on their hosts. Worse, some species can transmit diseases. Nematode hyperparasites spread typhus, trench, and relapse fevers. Trench causes a fever, headache, pain in the legs, dizziness, and eye pain. Lice can transmit relapsing fever that kills up to 50 percent of undernourished human victims (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, 578).

L i c e — H e a d Lice (Pediculus humanus ) live in people’s hair, and are transmitted by head-to- head contact, or infected bedding. The itching causes people to scratch and can create sores that become infected. They are only life threatening when they carry a disease organism. Years of infestation cause darkened, thickened skin called “Vagabond’s Disease.”

L i c e — B o d y The body louse, Pediculus humanus corporis, looks like a head louse, but is a differ- ent species. Body lice attach their eggs to clothes, not hair. Their presence causes intense itching, and transmits diseases such as typhus and relapsing fever.

L i c e — C r a b Gorillas and humans are the only two species known to suffer from “Crabs.” Phthirus pubis lives in the pubic area, and sometimes armpits, beards, eyebrows, eyelashes, and mustaches. It is typically transmitted through sexual activity or sharing towels or bedding. They feast exclusively on blood.

Prevention and Treatment for Lice Good personal hygiene, and frequent combing and picking helps thwart head lice, as does regular laundering and dry-cleaning of woolen garments. Domesticated pets can avoid them with insecticidal dusts and dips, but some lice have become resistant. Some species of birds identify ants that produce toxic substances but do not sting, and encourage them to crawl onto their feathers. Worker ants have been shown to anoint feathers with the toxic fluids, with toxic effect on lice (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 579). Tetracycline, also used treat teenage acne, has been shown to be effective against Trench fever. No single method assures complete eradication of the head parasite but medicated shampoo treatments, combs, hot air, and silicone-based lotions are effective when used in combination. Body louse can be eradicated by boiling all clothes and pajamas or using chemicals like 1 percent permethrin solutions. Crabs can be killed by Permethrin cream or Lindane shampoo and shaving hair from the affected areas. Hot air, such as that from a hair dryer has also been shown to kill head lice and nits, even Appendix 241 when slightly cooler than typical hair drying temperature (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 579).

Possible Organizational Implications of Lice Typhus is caused by lice-transmitted bacteria and has had an enormous impact on human history (Zinsser, 1938/1996). Mortality rates of typhus epidemics trans- mitted by lice have approached 100 percent. In 1528, the French army was deci- mated by typhus. Typhus took their force from 25,000 down to 4,000 in the siege of Naples, leading to its defeat and the dominance of Spain for over 100 years. Between 1917 and 1921 there were at least 25 million cases of typhus in Soviet Russia, with 2 to 3 million deaths (Zinsser, 1938/1996). People get infected with typhus by breathing in dried lice feces, or getting them in the eye. Trench fever is not fatal, but has changed human history. In World Wars I and II, European epidemics occurred from fecal contamination from lice vectors. In this case, the biological parasite had organizational implications for the mili- tary and other businesses whose talent became infected. Inspirationally speaking, lice teach us that organizational parasites may actively resist their eradication. Further, lice prevention points toward research that may proactively discourage organizational parasitism.

T o n g u e W o r m s — P e n t a s t o m i d a

Over 100 species of pentastomids live in the respiratory system of snakes, lizards, amphibians, crocodiles, birds, dogs, cats, and some people (Roberts & Janovy, 2009, p. 561). All attach themselves to their hosts with hooks that are controlled with powerful muscles that grip and rip the hosts’ tissues. They eat tissue fluids and blood cells of the host. Females can produce millions of eggs that are swal- lowed and pass out through feces. In humans, there are two types. In visceral pentastomiasis, people eat para- sites’ eggs that develop in lungs, eyes, and the spleen. Commonly, they infect people in Africa, Malaysia, the Philippines, Java, and China. Pentastomida cause large amounts of inflammation, and are sometimes detected with X-rays. They can be fatal in lab experiments (Roberts & Janovy, 209, p. 567). Second, nasopharyngeal pentastomiasis juveniles lodge themselves in people’s noses and cause “Marrara Syndrome.” It is linked to eating raw or undercooked sheep, goat cattle, or camel organs such as liver. Symptoms include a prickling sensation deep in the throat shortly (a few minutes to half-hour) after eating, and subsequent sneezing, coughing, and headaches along with various discharges. Complications can cause swelling, paralysis, and even asphyxiation and death. Cultures that eat raw organs, especially liver and lymph nodes of domesticated herbivores are especially at risk. 242 Appendix

Possible Organizational Implications of Tongue Worms Some parasites may remove value from organizations by depleting or damaging resources, while others may recruit out (“steal”) scarce talent.

Vampire Bats—Desmodontinae and Vampire Fish—Trichomycteridae

Both types of vampires live in central and south America. Vampire bats scratch people and animals and drink up to 100 percent of their body weight in the hosts’ blood. They prefer attacking the softer parts of their victims, including eyes, ears, and genitals (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 1549). They are also a vector for transmitting rabies, hepatitis B, and trypanosome infections. Vampire fish similarly scratch other fish, birds, and mammals in the Amazon River—or they actually enter the body of the other organism through an ori- fice (Mehlhorn, 2008, p. 1550) and then drink blood. They cause sepsis in their hosts.

Prevention and Treatment of Vampire Bats and Vampire Fish Avoiding regions where vampire bats and fish live is obviously one way to avoid them, as is dressing in such a way as to avoid getting scratched or bitten. Vampire fish often must be removed with surgery.

Possible Organizational Implications of Vampire Bats and Vampire Fish In the business environment—other than, say an Al Qaeda meeting, it is not always obvious what locations might be hazardous to your business’ health. At least, any sign that a meeting, or organization is filled with malfeasance, an orga- nization can choose to withdraw membership or partnership. N o t e s

I n t r o d u c t i o n

1 . Steve Blank’s fantastic Stanford class is free https://www.udacity.com/course /ep245

2 Business Models of Value Creation

1 . Special thanks to Pete Ramstad suggesting this perspective to me ten years ago.

3 Intangibles, Tangibles, and Value Creation

1 . In Madison, Wisconsin, the Beltline is a local term for Highway 12 between I-90 on the east, and the city of Middleton on the west. 2 . Tragically, there is still slavery in the world. See http://www.freetheslaves.net for details. 3 . Psychologists and Sociologists traditionally call this “interrater reliability,” and have useful methods to measure and improve the degree to which independent observers agree. I recommend using the Many-Facet Rasch Model pioneered by Linacre, http://www.winsteps.com; and Bond & Fox (2007).

7 Value Creation in Perspective

1 . Native Alaskan/Inuit, American Indian and African-American malfeasance notwithstanding. B i b l i o g r a p h y

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Bioinspiration Definitions, 98, 100–6 Business, 16, 33–5 Examples, Service, 90–2 Complexity Theory, 5 and Financial Measures, 101 Computer Science, 5 Flow, 14, 210 Emergence, 185 Foundations, 96 Evolution, 9 Goal Setting, 98,121–3 Immunology, 77 Inspiration, 1, 14 Innoculation Theory, 5, 15 and Instrumental Leadership, Levels of Analysis, 10 151–60, 172–4 Microsoft, 21 Interdisciplinary, 45–6, 97 Oscillation, 168 Levels of Analysis, 41–2 Parasites, 5–6, 10, 22, 23, Mental Models, 172–4 25–44, 221–42 and Other Frameworks, 71 and Risk, 79 Overview, 81–92 and Social Science, 15 Prescription, 162 Biomimicry Product, 93–6, 199–205 Ants, 20 Propositions, 97, 106–20 Bats, 20 and Rasch Measurement, 23, 161 Chinese, 9 and Real Options, 58, 64–5 Elephant, 21 and Resource-Based View, 51, 73–4 Engineering, 18–23 as Scaffolding, 68, 73, 97, 161 Lotus, 21 Simulation, 164 Photosynthesis, 21 and Six Sigma, 2 Shark, 20 Steps, 199–205 Silk, 20 and Terrorism, 3 Burger King, 67–8, 210 Validity, 205–7 Value-in-Use, 13, 190–2 Cue See Model and Voice, 170 and Administrative Leadership, 161 and Balanced Scorecard, 158–60 Economics and Complexity Theory, 18 Austrian, 51 and Computational Organizational Capitalism, 211–216 Theory, 48, 164 and Cue See, 46 and Culture/Climate, 170 and DNA, 176, 216 286 Index

Economics—Continued Enron, 2 and Evolution, 176 Financial, 77 Opportunity Costs, 118 and Flow, 68–70 and other disciplines,2 Freddie Mac/Fannie Mae, 78 Schumpeterian, 53 Global Crossing, 2 and Social Exchange Theory, 146 and Kleptoparasites, 29 Transaction Cost, 50 Leadership, 128, 129, 131–2, 135, Utility, 14 145, 146, 154, 164, 172 Emergent Effects Lehman Brothers, 3, 69, 78 Asset Interactions, 78 LIBOR, 4 Business Operating System, 185 Lucent Technologies, 2 Complexity Theory, 17–18, 46, 87, Measurement, 72, 203 158, 160 –1 Operational, 72, 74–6, 78–9, 186 and Constraints, 186, 189 Optimization, 44 Cross-level, 72, 88, 138, 178, 185 and Options, 28, 58–65, 112, 186, 200 Disasters, 210 and Profit, 106, 107 and Leadership, 149, 159, 161, 173, Société Générale, 40 177, 192 Strategic, 72, 76 and Markets, 167 Teams, 128, 159 Mental Models, 161–4, 173 VUCA, 4 Nano & Picolevel 84–6 Xerox, 113 Oscillation, 168–9 and Performance, 68, 74, 84–5, Freedom, 211 87–9, 116, 163, 183 Bald Eagle, 30 and Process Targets, 84 Capitalism, 24, 211–6 and Real Options, 62, 184, 186 Country, 217 and Six Sigma, 202 Creativity, 132, 134, 188 and Strategic Advantage, 62, Economic, 211, 216 115, 190, 196 Free State Project, 219 Enterprise Risk Management, 68, 72, 76 Google, 75 AIG, 78 and Happiness, 212 Antifragile, 115 Iceland, 217 Arthur Andersen, 78 Personal, 211 Barings Bank, 78 Self-Leadership, 211 Bernard Madoff, 3 and Wealth, 210, 216 and Bioinspiration, 79 Black Swans, 28 History British East India Company, 3 China, 218 and Complexity Theory, 17 Communism, 218 Consultants, 44 Hong Kong, 217 COSO, 76 Iceland, 217–18 Creativity, 131–2, 215 North Korea, 145 and Discounted Cash Flow (DCF), 58 Somalia, 217 Employees, 44, 56 US, 3–4, 52, 78, 213, 214, 218 Index 287

Infosys, 1, 6, 12, 33, 39, 42, 64, 69, 83, Emergent, 161, 185 127, 130, 142, 155, 159, 160, 169, Environmental Scanning, 186 178, 186–8, 202, 204, 205, 207, 235 Followers, 129–30 Ineffective, 79, 114, 116, 139 Leadership and Instrumental Leadership, 84, 172 Administrative, 161 Levels of Analysis, 10, 89, 127, 138 Authentic, 140–6 Oscillating, 169, 183 Complexity, 17–18, 43, 160–1 Overview, 162 Disasters, 2 and Parasites, 170 Evolutionary, 23, 47 Personal, 144, 145 Individualized, 149–50 Meta, 164–65 Instrumental, 40, 47, 151–70, 172–4, Team/Shared, 18, 42, 43, 81, 84, 100, Leader-Member Exchange (LMX), 132, 147, 165, 166, 170, 173 148–9 Transmission, 178 and Memory, 178–81 Strategy, 155, 156, 161, 164 Mental Models, 162–70 Models Integrated, 176–98 Objectivism Oscillating, 168–70, 183 Atlas Shrugged, 5 Servant, 157 and Charismatic Leadership, 151 Team, 35, 38, 167–70 and Instrumental Leadership, 151 Transactional, 134–5 Looters & Moochers, 209 Transformational/Charismatic, 128–40 Morals, 142 Parasites, 126, 209 Measurement Philosophy, 46 Backbone, 161 and Value, 13, 53 Computer-Adaptive, 39, 41 Georg Rasch, 23 Parasite Many-Facet Rasch Model, 39, 92, Academia, 4 143, 144, 145 Ayn Rand, 5 Multisource (360 Degree Survey), Bioinspiration, 5–6, 10, 21 39, 92, 143, 144, 145 and Physical Cleaning Station,33 Science, 23 Corporate, 75–6, 78 Rasch Measurement, 23, 34, 35, Definition, 27 39, 41, 46, 72, 79, 106, 110, 112, Ectoparasite, 234 140–1, 144, 145, 149, 156, 182, Endoparasite, 221–34 186, 202, 219 Government, 3 Risk, 72 History, 25 Mental Models Immunology, 36,37 Accuracy, 105 Kleptoparasites, 29 Balanced Scorecard, 159 and Mental Models, 170 Business, 64, 74, 154 Oscillation, 35 and Creativity, 131 Pirates, 209 Development, 174–5 Terrorist, 3, 23 Dynamic Systems, 164–5, 210 Ubiquity, 25 288 Index

Persuasion Experiments (DoE), 34, 58, 108 Cialdini, Robert, 3, 5, 9, 24, 27, Failure, 43 40, 121, 126–7, 132–5, 138, 139, Goal Cascade, 87 143–4, 146–9, 157, 173, 175, Governance, 65 179–83, 192, 212 Industrial Engineering, 54 Inoculation, 3, 6, 15, 22, 221 and Leadership, 141, 156 Lean/Toyota Production System, 64 Quotes Metric, 122 Aristotle, 9 Monte Carlo, 166 Barney, Jay, 107 Motorola, 1,2, 64 Bennis, Warren, 4 Operations, 54, 200, 203 Bowman, Archibald, 64 Optimization, 141 Box, George, 76, 207 Poke-Yoke, 38 Campbell, Norman, 10 Process Capability, 74 Carville, James, 224 Process Targets, 84 Darwin, Charles, 239 Process Variation, 88 Deming, W. Edwards, 11 and ProMES, 108–9 Feynman, Richard, 199 Quality, 122 Hackman, J. Richard, 125 Quality Function Deployment/ Jefferson, Thomas, 210 House of Quality, 108–9, 121 Lehane, Brendan, 238 Simulation, 164, 166 Locke, John, 211 Special Cause, 119 Lord, Robert, 125 Statistical Process Control, 38, 41, Murthy, N.R.N, 1, 39, 45, 128, 46, 108, 186 155, 178, 209 Stocks & Flows, 87–8 Poincaré, Jules Henri, 87 Supply Chain, 56 Romer, Paul, 67 Sutter Health, 1 Schopenhauer, 219 Strategy Taylor, Henry, 145 Industrial-Organization, 49 Von Hayek, Frederick, 211 Human Relations, 49 Von Mises, Ludwig, 70 Transaction Cost Economics, 50 Resource Based Theory, 50, 73–4 Six Sigma, 43 Systems Analytical Target Cascading, 108–9 Biological, 16 Business Operating System, 38 Complexity, 5, 16–18, 137 Business Process Management, 38 Computer, 21 Common Cause, 119 Ecosystems, 33 Constraints, 203 Engineering, 45, 54–6, 87–8, 98, Critical-to-Quality Flowdown, 121 108, 121 Deployment Options, 65 General, 16 DFSS / DLSS, 38, 64, 186 History, 16 Discrete Event Simulation, 166 Immune, 36–7, 42, 77, 224–5, 227, 234 DMAIC, 64, 186 Market, 218 and Emergent Effects, 202 Open, 9 Index 289

Organizational, 16 Subjective expected, 13, 57, 191 Social, 15 Value in use, 53, 57, 191 Stocks & Flows, 77, 83, 87–8 Von Hayek, 70 Supply Chain, 56 Von Mises, 70

Utility, 53 Value Accounting, 77 Defined, 13, 70 Analysis, 78, 111, 113, 117, 207 Discounted Cash Flow (DCF), 58 in Markets, 52 Intangibles, 211 Objective, 57 Real Options, 58, 61–5 as Quality, 14, 51 and Utility, 53 and Resource-Based View, 73–74 Valuation Methods Compared, 71 Schumpeter, 53 Wealth, 209, 216–217