Pet. Sci. DOI 10.1007/s12182-016-0137-y REVIEW A review of refinery complexity applications Mark J. Kaiser1 Received: 21 June 2016 Ó The Author(s) 2017. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract Refinery complexity quantifies the sophistication combinations of temperature, pressure, and catalyst to and capital intensity of a refinery and has found widespread perform their function. application in facility classification, cost estimation, sales All modern refineries have distillation units that perform price models, and other uses. Despite the ubiquity and separation, but not all refineries perform conversion and widespread use of refining complexity, however, surprisingly finishing operations. There are a dozen or so main process little material has been written on its applications. The pur- operations in modern refining (Table 1), and for each pose of this review is to describe the primary applications of process, several technologies have been developed over the refinery complexity and some recent extensions. A secondary past 150 years (Table 2). Different technologies involve purpose of this review is to provide a framework that unifies different trade-offs between operating and capital cost, complexity applications and suggests avenues for future reliability and maintenance requirements (Schobert 2002; research. Examples illustrate the applications considered. Parkash 2003; Raseev 2003; Meyers 2004; Gary et al. 2007; Riazi et al. 2013). Keywords Cost estimation Á Functional complexity Á Inverse problem Á Replacement cost Á Refinery 1.1 Separate, convert, finish classification Á Sales price models Crude oil consists of hundreds of different types of hydrocarbon molecules. Before processing, all refiners 1 Introduction physically separate crude oil into molecular weight ranges by boiling point using a distillation tower (Fig. 1). The A refinery is an industrial plant where crude oil and other longer the carbon chain, the higher the temperature the feedstocks are processed into petroleum products. The hydrocarbon compounds will boil. ‘‘Cuts’’ of similar boil- main principle of refining is to separate and improve the ing point compounds are processed to allow the conversion hydrocarbon compounds that constitute crude oil to pro- steps to operate efficiently. Processes downstream of dis- duce saleable products which satisfy regulatory require- tillation take these cuts, and using various chemical and ments. A refinery is comprised of three main sections— physical operations, improve and change the physical separation, conversion, and finishing—and each section properties of molecules which are subsequently blended for contains one or more process units that apply various fuels and other products (Speight 1998). The conversion units in a modern refinery include thermal cracking, catalytic cracking, hydrocracking and & Mark J. Kaiser coking. Thermal cracking was the first technology used to [email protected] increase gasoline production in 1913, but has been largely 1 Center for Energy Studies, Louisiana State University, replaced by more efficient processes. Conversion units are Energy Coast and Environment Building, Baton Rouge, expensive to build and operate and represent a major LA 70803, USA investment decision, but once installed significantly extend Edited by Xiu-Qin Zhu refinery flexibility and capability. 123 Pet. Sci. Table 1 Refining production process technologies. Source: OGJ Process operation Technology Coking Fluid coking, delayed coking, other Thermal process Thermal cracking, visbreaking Catalytic cracking Fluid, other Catalytic reforming Semiregenerative, cycle, continuous regeneration, other Catalytic hydrocracking Distillate upgrading, residual upgrading, lube oil, other Catalytic hydrotreating Pre-treatment of cat reformer feeds, other naphtha desulfurization, naphtha aromatics saturation, kerosene/jet desulfurization, diesel desulfurization, distillate aromatics saturation, other distillates, pre-treatment of cat cracker feeds, other heavy gas oil hydrotreating, residual hydrotreating, lube oil polishing, post-hydrotreating of FCC naphtha, other Alkylation Sulfuric acid, hydrofluoric acid Polymerization/dimerization Polymerization, dimerization Aromatics BTX, hydrodealkylation, cyclohexane, cumene Isomerization C4 feed, C5 feed, C5, and C6 feed Oxygenates MTBE, ETBE, TAME Hydrogen production Steam methane reforming, steam naphtha reforming, partial oxidation Hydrogen recovery Pressure swing adsorption, cryogenic, membrane, other Table 2 Evolution of refining technologies. Source: OSHA (2005) Year Process Purpose By-products 1862 Atmospheric distillation Produce kerosene Naphtha, tar, etc. 1870 Vacuum distillation Produce lubricants Asphalt, residual coker feedstocks 1913 Thermal cracking Increase gasoline Residual, bunker fuel 1916 Sweetening Reduce sulfur and odor Sulfur 1930 Thermal reforming Improve octane number Residual 1932 Hydrogenation Remove sulfur Sulfur 1932 Coking Produce gasoline basestocks Coke 1933 Solvent extraction Improve lubricant viscosity index Aromatics 1935 Solvent dewaxing Improve pour point Waxes 1935 Catalytic polymerization Improve gasoline yield and octane number Petrochemical feedstocks 1937 Catalytic cracking Higher octane gasoline Petrochemical feedstocks 1939 Visbreaking Reduce viscosity Increased distillate, tar 1940 Alkylation Increase gasoline octane and yield High-octane aviation gasoline 1940 Isomerization Produce alkylation feedstock Naphtha 1947 Fluid catalytic cracking Increase gasoline yield and octane Petrochemical feedstocks 1950 Deasphalting Increase cracking feedstock Asphalt 1952 Catalytic reforming Convert low-quality naphtha Aromatics 1954 Hydrodesulfurization Remove sulfur Sulfur 1956 Inhibitor sweetening Remove mercaptan Disulfides 1957 Catalytic isomerization Convert to molecules with high octane number Alkylation feedstocks 1960 Hydrocracking Improve quality and reduce sulfur Alkylation feedstocks 1974 Catalytic dewaxing Improve pour point Wax 1975 Residual hydrocracking Increase gasoline yield from residual Heavy residuals 123 Pet. Sci. Intermediate products Further processing Final products ＜90 °F ● Refinery fuel gas Propane, butane and lighter ● Propane ● NGLs 90-180 °F Light straight run gasoline ● Gasoline 180-370 °F ● Gasoline Naphtha ● Jet fuel ● Kerosene 370-500 °F ● Jet fuel Kerosene ● Diesel ● Fuel oil Atmospheric distillation 500-650 °F ● Gasoline Atmospheric gas oil ● Diesel ● Fuel oil ● Gasoline Vacuum gas oil ● Diesel ● Fuel oil Vacuum distillation ● Gasoline ● Diesel Residual ● Heavy fuel oil ● Asphalt ● Coke Fig. 1 Distillation separates crude oil into boiling point cuts for further processing and sales Products from the conversion steps frequently require The US is importing less oil as the country’s crude treatment to make them ready for sale. Treatment primarily production increases (Fig. 3), while exports of refined oil involves improving product specification and reducing sul- products have nearly quadrupled over the past decade fur levels to satisfy regulatory requirements. Hydrotreating (Fig. 4). In May 2015, US production of crude oil was 9.5 is the most common finishing process in refineries and use million barrels per day (MMbpd) and 2.8 MMbpd of hydrogen and catalyst to remove sulfur and other impurities refined petroleum products was exported (EIA 2015a, b). A from feedstock and refined products. Most treatment and ban on crude oil exports was enacted in 1973 after the Arab conversion processes employ catalyst to increase the speed oil embargo, and in late 2015 Congress approved lifting the of chemical reactions and enhance conversion rates. ban. 1.2 Production, imports, and exports 1.3 Refinery complexity The products of refining can be classified by form, as gases The primary fixed assets of a refinery are its process units, (e.g., methane, ethane, propane), liquids (e.g., gasoline, and the easiest way to describe the units is in terms of their kerosene, diesel), and solids (e.g., coke, asphalt), or by production capacity, technology application, and capital usage, as transportation fuels (e.g., gasoline, jet fuel, fuel expenditures for acquisition and construction. A refinery oil), non-fuel products (e.g., lubricants, solvents, waxes), represents a collection of integrated process units which are and petrochemical feedstock (e.g., ethylene, propylene, characterized by the number, size, and type of process benzene). Liquid fuel products are by far the largest cate- units, and the technologies applied. It is common to clas- gory of production and in the US, for example, contribute sify refineries broadly by the presence or absence of par- over 90% of total products (Fig. 2). In 2014, US refiners ticular units (e.g., cracking refineries contain cracking processed 5.8 billion barrels of crude oil and feedstocks, units, coking refineries contain cokers). The manner in and almost half of every barrel output was motor gasoline, which the units are integrated and the cost associated with followed by distillate fuel oil (30%) and jet fuels (10%). In the receipt and dispatch of feedstock and refined product, Europe and Asia, a larger proportion of diesel and fuel oils including storage capacity, are important but are usually are produced with smaller quantities of gasoline. considered secondary factors. 123 Pet. Sci. Distillate fuel oil (29.8 %) Diesel fuel Motor gasoline (45 %) Home heating oil Liquified petroleum Residual fuel oil (2.7 %) Industrial fuel gases (4.1 %) Bunker fuel Propane Boiler fuel Ethane Butane Jet fuels (9.5 %) Kerosene (0.1