Bridgewater Review

Volume 38 Issue 2 Article 9

11-2019

The Unity of : The before 100 B.C.E.

Jonathan Holmes

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Recommended Citation Holmes, Jonathan (2019). The Unity of Consciousness: The Binding Problem before 100 B.C.E.. Bridgewater Review, 38(2), 30-33. Available at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/br_rev/vol38/iss2/9

This item is available as part of Virtual Commons, the open-access institutional repository of Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. shapes, colours, motions, sizes, and The Unity of Consciousness: The distances … how do we specify what goes with what? (from Binding Problem before 100 B.C.E. Philosophical Transactions of the Jonathan Holmes Royal Society of London, 1988) Thus, the binding problem is pretty “We must not be too sure of the ignorance of our ancestors” important. Without such binding, I – Will Durant wouldn’t be writing this, as our species would not have survived very long hen I was in graduate school in the mid- or evolved in the first place. This is 1990s, one of my main interests was because without such binding, con- sciousness from moment to moment Wconsciousness. What exactly was it? How would be a chaotic jumble of sensory did it work? How exactly did a three-pound piece and perceptual features in an incom- of meat in my head produce a person with internal, prehensible collage of overlapping and incoherent conscious experience. qualitative, subjective states with a unified perceptual Figures one and two are attempts by and overall mental experience? This part about unified the author to illustrate this, though in simplified form. Figure one repre- mental experience is referred to as , and, sents a picture of a cat correctly bound since we don’t really know exactly how it works, it is together. Figure two is a rough idea called the binding problem. of what the image might look like if perceptual binding was not working In brief, the binding problem is the . A major researcher in the correctly in some fashion. question of how it is that the puts area, , makes the fol- Moreover, it is not restricted to exter- all the various simple features of objects lowing statement on the problem: nal stimuli. When we remember from the multiple senses together to The binding problem in percep- something, say the last lunch date we (a) create a perception of coherent tion deals with … how we achieve had, various features of that memory objects that are distinct from others, the experience of a coherent are stored all over the brain in various and then (b) to put all these coherent world of integrated objects, and areas. Somehow, they must all come objects into a conscious scene where avoid seeing a world of disem- together into a coherent subjective everything is unified in conscious bodied or wrongly combined experience. Some think of memory as

Figure 1: (Author’s Photo) Figure 2: (Author’s Photo)

30 Bridgewater Review a filing cabinet, where memories get topic, a recent advance, something that Despite such difficulties, and the fact filed away, they get stored, and when was not much considered before. This that it is a popular place to start philo- you want them you open up the correct is inaccurate and, also, where things sophical discussions on the unity of file and there is your memory just the get interesting. conscious experience, Descartes is a way things happened. Unfortunately, path too well trodden by those who a better analogy would be that memory Some Remarkably study . When one is like a jigsaw puzzle made of mil- Early History looks back further, issues surrounding lions of pieces all scattered about a large The general idea behind the binding the unity of conscious experience crop number of neural connections that problem, the unity of conscious experi- up again and again, and down though one has to put together in real time, ence, is far from a new question. One history for a long, long time. Therefore, moment to moment, with no picture famous person to consider is Descartes I’d like to share some thoughts on the on the box to go by. Even our train of in the 1600s. Descartes had ideas about binding problem from three periods thought, and whatever comes to mind how it all comes together for us, as if in history more than 1600 years before during it, must be bound together. there were some little ‘me’ inside our Descartes, to explore some hopefully Whenever I am reminded of this, I mind watching experience on a movie less familiar territory. am continually amazed that the whole system works at all. During graduate school I came across a series of papers by and Alcmaeon proposed that a Christof Koch on feature binding in the . Francis Crick is the primary distinction between Crick from Crick and Watson that won the Nobel Prize in 1962 for their animals and humans was that work on the helical structure of DNA. animals have sense perception, but Crick apparently had a seriously flexible mind, allowing him to switch from only humans have understanding. expertise in genetics to expertise in . At any rate, these papers … This has led some scholars to attracted significant as they proposed a measurable mechanism for propose that Alcmaeon was saying feature binding in the visual cortex – that is, how we put together various that humans can bring together simple features of visual stimuli to build up a conscious experience of something the various senses in a way that far more complex, like seeing a person animals cannot. or an object. Earlier work had certainly been done decades before, but these papers still stand as a landmark con- cerning the binding problem. In short, it was proposed that across screen in an area of the brain called Two words of warning, however. First, different areas fire in synchronous pat- the pineal gland. This setup is referred when going back into time this deeply, terns or wavelengths to bind visual to as the Cartesian Theater. It is quite sometimes all we have are fragments contents together. It is an idea akin to famous for being very intuitive, as well of sayings, or comments by others on an orchestra with all the separate instru- as for arriving at the beginnings of a the original sayings. In a sense, some- ments playing a coherent song, but more modern age that was ready to times it is akin to reconstructing a with no conductor. Much work has receive Descartes’ thoughts and build whole dinosaur from a tooth and two been done since then. Binding is vital upon his ideas. However, it is also quite leg bones. Second, even experts in the to our psychological functioning and it impossible, partly due to ignoring the field continue to be perplexed by some is still a very hot topic in neuroscience mind-body problem, but partly too in early philosophical sayings. Indeed, the and a variety of other areas – so much terms of infinite regress with the little Presocratic philosopher Heraclitus was so that some may think that it is a new ‘me’ – who’s watching the movie in referred to as ‘the obscure’ even in his their head, and so on to infinity? own time – what is one to make of this

November 2019 31 millennia later? So, just a quick caution, modern brain around, but the term In discussing the human soul or mind, there is some wiggle room concerning originally meant ‘breath,’ and a kind they referred to it, or sometimes a what exactly these folks were talking of vital force that allowed for life and part of it, as the hegemonikon- or the about, particularly the further back one psychological functioning. I might ‘governing part.’ The hegemonikon- digs into their writings and systems. refer to it as more of a pseudo-physical- was thought to be a centralized com- Nonetheless, though the choices I’ve immaterial breath-like fluid-like thing munication mechanism that received made may perhaps be obscure or even (I realize that’s a bit vague). At any rate, information from all parts of the organ- incommensurable in their details and pneuma was a single theoretical entity ism, made sense of it, and provided for connections within entire philosophi- which the Stoics used to explain the coherent psychological functioning cal systems, the selections I’ve made functioning of everything from rocks and understanding. Here is where the are very clear examples concerning the to the soul or mind (the current distinc- binding problem comes into play. The binding problem. tion between the soul and the mind Stoics claimed that it spoke a language had not quite fully arrived on the scene common to all the senses, and that Stoicism yet). In essence, there was a continuum it was involved in all mental events. The relevant Stoic thinkers lived during of pneuma tension corresponding to In essence, it allowed for sensory and a period in time roughly 300 to 100 a continuum of degree of unified psychological integration and organi- B.C.E. I will not go into the over- functioning. The lowest degree of zation, a requirement for reason and all system of Stoics nor the folks that tension simply referred to holding understanding. This ability is at the follow. Rather, I will try to remain things together, like rocks. A cou- heart of mental binding. restrained to what is directly important ple levels up was for the soul, which to the binding problem. Nonetheless, provided for perception and action, Aristotle Aristotle (roughly 382-322 B.C.E.) dis- cussed across several works how, at least in part, the unity of the soul or mind … memory is like a jigsaw puzzle was achieved. In short, for Aristotle made of millions of pieces all there was apparently a ‘common sense’ or single sense where all scattered about a large number came together. Two quotes from two works of Aristotle are of note here: of neural connections that one But the various senses inciden- tally perceive each other’s proper has to put together in real time objects, not as so many separate moment to moment with no senses, but as forming a single sense... (from De Anima) picture on the box to go by. Now every sense has both a special function of its own ... but there is Even our train of thought, and also a common faculty associated whatever comes to mind during with them all, whereby one is conscious [the word conscious is it, must be bound together. probably a somewhat anachronistic translation for the original termi- nology] that one sees and hears … for it is not by sight that one is some background may be required to such as in animals, and the final level aware that one sees; and one judges provide context – when this is needed, served for intelligence, understand- and is capable of judging that sweet I will try to be brief! ing, and rational thought in humans. is different from white not by taste, Interestingly, this is actually the bind- nor by sight, nor by a combination The key to the Stoic world view was ing problem right here, in terms of the of the two, but by some part which their theory of pneuma. Pneuma degree of pneuma tension, but more for is common to all the sense organs is tough to wrap one’s much more physical and mental things overall than ... (from Parva Naturalia) just for psychological functioning.

32 Bridgewater Review Thus, the common sense allowed for they are incapacitated if it is moved or problem I have ever encountered. It judgments between the senses, neces- displaced; for it obstructs the passages is sweet, simple, and really gets to the sarily bringing them together in some through which the senses work.” It is point. He states, “One vision is pro- way to help provide a unified psycho- a bit unclear how one’s brain becomes duced by both [eyes],” or alternatively, logical experience. Again, this is the “displaced,” though it does not sound “One vision of two eyes is born.” In binding problem. comfortable. Nonetheless, such work fact, when introducing the binding problem to students in my classes, I will often start with this quote, as it is so Binding is vital to our straightforward and to the point, even if, ironically, it was written roughly psychological functioning and twenty-five hundred years ago. it is still a very hot topic in Epilogue It seems that the concept of the binding neuroscience and a variety of problem, something vital for psycho- logical functioning that is still a very other areas – so much so that some hot topic in neuroscience, has some very, very deep roots. Every discipline may think that it is a new topic, of course has its own unique history that is ‘bound’ together with the cul- a recent advance, something that ture and history of everything else. It is was not much considered before. humbling, fascinating, frustrating, and beautiful, that we can go back thou- sands of years and see modern ‘new’ ideas, current hot topics and the fash- led him to conclude that the various ionable research of our times, presented The Presocratics sensory modalities were unified in so long ago, and to see how they are the brain – this is the binding problem ‘bound’ to our modern concepts across The time of the Presocratics started again, more or less, specifically in terms vast swaths of time via the progression with Thales (roughly 636-546 B.C.E.) of, “Where does it all come together?” of intellectual history. and ended around the time of Socrates and Plato about three hundred years Additionally, Alcmaeon proposed that later. During this time period, two peo- a primary distinction between animals ple are particularly worth mentioning. and humans was that animals have sense perception, but only humans have The first is Alcmaeon (roughly 510- understanding. The interesting part 440 B.C.E.), one of the first physicians here for this paper is that the term used on record to have moved away from for understanding at one point in time archaic, mystical, or religious medi- roughly meant ‘to bring together.’ This cal thought toward more biogenic and has led some scholars to propose that naturalistic ideas about human func- Alcmaeon was saying that humans can tioning. Interestingly, he was earlier bring together the various senses in a Jonathan Holmes is Associate Professor in than Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.E.), way that animals cannot. This idea is the Department of . who is often considered the ‘father’ of tantalizing, as it suggests again a bind- more rational and modern medicine. ing together of psychological experi- Alcmaeon is said to have done a num- ence from differing modalities into ber of non-human dissections excising something unified. eyes and noting their connections to the It is our second person however, brain. One fragment attributed to him Empedocles (roughly 495-435 B.C.E.), states that, “All the senses are somehow who provides perhaps the simplest, connected to the brain. That is why most elegant framing of the binding

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