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Cosmic Dust Emission As a Tracer of Star Formation in Galaxies

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Cosmic Dust Emission As a Tracer of Star Formation in Galaxies No Smoke Without Fire: Cosmic Dust Emission as a Tracer of Star Formation in Galaxies Nathan Bourne Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 2013 “In wonder all philosophy began, in wonder it ends, and admiration fill up the interspace; but the first wonder is the offspring of ignorance, the last is the parent of adoration.” – Samuel Taylor Coleridge “All you really need to know for the moment is that the universe is a lot more complicated than you might think, even if you start from a position of thinking it’s pretty damn complicated in the first place.” – Douglas Noel Adams Supervisors: Dr. Loretta Dunne Dr. Omar Almaini Prof. Michael Merrifield Examiners: Prof. Seb Oliver Prof. Christopher Conselice Abstract Studies of the history of the Universe are for a large part concerned with mapping the evolution of galaxies over cosmic time. Beginning from the seeds of density pertur- bations in the early Universe, and building up through gravitational and astrophysical interactions to form the wide diversity seen in the present day, galaxies allow us to observe the distribution of luminous (and dark) matter over a wide range of look-back times. A key process in galaxy evolution is the formation of stars, an activity which is readily observed by indirect means, although the detailed mechanism is not fully understood. One of the most successful methods for tracing star formation is to observe the emis- sion from dust in galaxies. These tiny particles of carbon- and silicon-based solids resemble smoke, pervading the interstellar medium in many (if not all) galaxies, and blocking the short-wavelength radiation from hot, newly-formed stars. They re-radiate this energy as far-infrared radiation (λ 10 1000 µm), which can be detected from ∼ − sources throughout the Universe by telescopes such as the Spitzer and Herschel space observatories. The spectral form of this radiation varies from one galaxy to another, depending on many factors such as the activity within the galaxy, the amount of dust, and the sources heating the dust. Hence, with careful interpretation, we can use these observations to trace the star-forming activity and dust mass in different types of galax- ies from early times through to the present day. In this thesis I describe three projects, each of which utilises multi-wavelength datasets from large surveys to probe the dust emission from samples of galaxies at different cosmic epochs, and explore the relationship between dust emission and other galaxy properties. The first project samples the most massive galaxies at a range of redshifts spanning the peak era of star formation, and investigates the correlation between far- ii Abstract infrared and radio emission. I use a ‘stacking’ methodology to avoid bias towards the brightest star-forming galaxies, and show that the far-infrared and radio tracers of star formation agree up to high redshifts in typical massive galaxies. In the second project I apply the stacking method to a large sample of low-redshift galaxies selected from a major optical survey spanning the last four billion years of evolution. I make use of the largest ever sub-millimetre imaging survey to produce a detailed and unbiased census of the dust mass in ordinary galaxies as a function of optical brightness, colour and look-back time. I show that the luminosity and temperature of dust is a strong function of galaxy mass and colour, while the dust masses of all galaxy types have decreased rapidly over the time span probed. The final project focuses on a small sample of nearby galaxies and utilises data obtained and reduced by myself to probe the molecular-gas content of galaxies selected to have large dust masses. This study addresses questions about how well the cold dust, traced by the sub-millimetre wave- bands of Herschel, is correlated with the cold gas, which provides the fuel for ongoing star formation. The thesis demonstrates the utility of statistical techniques for large surveys, and also contains aspects of data reduction and extensive discussion of the astrophysical inter- pretation of results. Through these various analyses I show that dust emission can provide a valuable window on the growth of galaxies through star formation. The work contained herein represents significant progress in the field of observational ex- tragalactic astronomy, including work recently published in the scientific literature in two collaborative research papers led by myself, in addition to a third paper that I am currently preparing. Acknowledgements I have a great many people to thank for their part in creating this thesis. First of all, my deep appreciation and gratitude go to my wife Emma, for her support, understanding, and wonderful cooking – and also for undertaking the proof-reading. I also wish to thank my parents and my family (in which I include Emma’s family) for their support, encouragement, and the inspiration to study astronomy and follow my dreams. I am indebted to my supervisors, Loretta, Omar and Mike, as well as Steve Maddox who acted as my informal supervisor for a large portion of the work in the thesis. This would never have been possible without their advice and guidance, and I am especially grateful to Loretta and Steve for continuing this support throughout their emigration to New Zealand; I have no idea how they managed it. I cannot possibly list the many others for whose direct help and collaboration I am indebted – Rob Ivison, Edo Ibar, Emma Rigby, Dan Smith, Kate Rowlands, Carlos Hoyos, Simon Dye, Baerbel Koribal- ski, George Bendo, Matt Smith, Haley Gomez, Stephen Serjeant, Steve Eales, Joaquin Gonz´alez-Nuevo, Enzo Pascale – to name just a few. All of the work presented here is the product of collaborations, and I therefore gratefully acknowledge all of my col- leagues and co-authors for providing data and all kinds of support that have made this work possible. Many thanks also go to my examiners for the time and effort they spent on assessing the thesis. I would also like to acknowledge the astronomy community at large, for the indirect support which is always forthcoming, but often taken for granted. The availability of data, open-source software and codes, and general and technical advice in the public domain is overwhelming; and all free of charge. This only happens because individuals are willing to make available the products of their own hard work for the greater benefit of the community, and the value of this open attitude cannot be overstated. There have iv Acknowledgements been many times when I needed to ask for help from others who have never met me or worked with me, and I cannot think of a single time when anyone has not been keen to offer their time and expertise. In particular, I have made extensive use of the following public databases and software libraries: the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database, the Strasbourg Astronomical Data Center (CDS), the HyperLEDA database, arXiv.org (hosted by Cornell University Library), The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS), the Starlink software packages (provided by the Joint Astronomy Centre, Hawaii), the Topcat catalogue tool, the NASA IDL library and David Fanning’s Coyote IDL Library. I believe that the last four years in Nottingham have been the happiest of my life, and this is entirely due to the amazing friends that I have made here, both past and present. I do not need to list all of your names because you know who you are, but I will mention the significant contributions that Daniele and Fernando’s Coffee Club, and Cafe Alice (with all her regulars), have made to my quality of life and the quality of the work in this document. The astronomy department at the University is an incredible place to work as a result of the people here, and I hope to stay in contact with the friends I have made here, wherever we all end up. Finally, I know that some people will not be happy unless I include a particularly relevant quote: “Dust... anybody, no?” – Margerie Dawes Contents List of Figures ix List of Tables xiii Glossary xiv No Smoke Without Fire: Cosmic Dust Emission as a Tracer of Star Formation in Galaxies 1 Introduction 3 1.1 TheOriginofGalaxiesintheUniverse . 3 1.1.1 TheNatureoftheUniverse. 3 1.1.2 TheEraofGalaxies ...................... 6 1.1.3 TheRichDiversityofGalaxies. 11 1.2 ObservingStarFormationinGalaxies . 15 1.2.1 Direct Observations: Unobscured Star Formation . ... 15 1.2.2 Indirect Tracers: Radio, X-ray and Infrared . .. 17 1.3 TheImportanceofDust. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 19 1.3.1 WhatisDust?.......................... 19 1.3.2 ReprocessingofStarlight. 21 1.3.3 ThermalFar-InfraredDustEmission . 23 1.3.4 Mid-InfraredDustandPAHEmission . 26 1.4 Observing Galaxy Evolution in the Far-Infrared and Sub-Millimetre . 27 1.5 AimsandMotivationfortheThesis . 32 2 The Far-Infrared–Radio Correlation 37 2.1 Introduction............................... 37 2.1.1 Background........................... 37 2.1.2 ResearchProjectAims . 40 vi Contents 2.2 Data................................... 41 2.2.1 TheSample........................... 41 2.2.2 BinningandStacking. 43 2.3 StackingMethodology . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 45 2.3.1 StackingintotheVLAandGMRTRadioImages . 45 2.3.2 Stacking into the Spitzer FIDELImages. 46 2.3.3 AnalysisofRandomErrorsinStacking . 47 2.3.4 Background Subtraction and Clustering Analysis . ... 52 2.4 SEDsand k–Corrections ........................ 57 2.4.1 Radio k–Correction....................... 57 2.4.2 Infrared k–Correction ..................... 58 2.4.3 LimitationsoftheSEDmodels. 61 2.5 ResultsandDiscussion . 62 2.5.1 EvolutionofRadioPropertiesoftheSample . 62 2.5.2 The Observed and k–corrected FIR–Radio Correlation . 65 2.5.3 InfraredSpectralEnergyDistributions . .. 66 2.5.4 EvolutionofSpecificStar-FormationRates . 70 2.5.5 EvolutionoftheFIR–RadioCorrelation . 72 2.6 Conclusions............................... 77 3 The Sub-mm SEDs of Ordinary Galaxies at Low Redshift 79 3.1 Introduction..............................
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