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Quaternary International

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The effects of the Pumice eruption on the population of the Early 7 Campanian plain (Southern )

Claude Albore Livadiea,∗, Mark Pearceb, Matteo Delle Donned,e, Natascia Pizzanoc a Emeritus Research Director, CNRS, MMSH, Centre Camille Jullian, Archéologie Méditerranéenne et Africaine - UMR 7299 (AMU - CNRS) 5 rue du Château de l’Horloge, 13094 Aix en Provence, France b Professor of Mediterranean Prehistory, Department of Classics and Archaeology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK c Istituto per le Tecnologie Applicate ai Beni Culturali - CNR, Area della Ricerca 1, Montelibretti, Roma, Italy d Research Fellow, Department of Asian, African and Mediterranean Studies, University of “L'Orientale”, Piazza S. Domenico Maggiore, 12, 80134 Naples, Italy e ISMEO - International Association of Mediterranean and Oriental Studies, Corso Vittorio Emanuele II, 244, 00186 Rome, Italy

ABSTRACT

Palma , the type-site of the Early Bronze Age culture, was covered by the products of the Avellino Pumice eruption, and was thus preserved in a similar way to the Roman sites in Campania covered by the AD 79 eruption. The devastating effects of this led to the belief that it had killed a large part of the local population and/or caused large-scale emigration and landscape desertification. However, new sites have been found that were established shortly after the eruption and geoarchaeological studies of areas close to the Somma-Vesuvius volcano (, , /Oplontis, ) and also further away (the Benevento area, Irpinia and the Salerno area) have shown continuity of occupation after the Avellino Pumice eruption and during the later, Middle Bronze Age, AP1 and AP2 eruptions. Palynological analysis also shows great similarity between the environments before and after the Avellino Pumice eruption. The pottery evidence is typologically very similar before and after the eruption, which suggests that the people who resettled the Campanian plain after the eruption were closely related to those living there previously, whose material culture is that of the Palma Campania culture. Radiocarbon dates also suggest a rapid recolonisation of some sites. In this paper we shall show that although the pyroclastic products of the Avellino Pumice eruption certainly had a major impact on the landscape (soils, flora, water resources) and may have killed off a percentage of the population in some areas, this eruption was not the main cause of the socio-economic and political transformations that occurred in this area during the Middle Bronze Age, which we believe to have been mainly caused by the cumulative effect of the later AP1 and AP2 eruptions.

1. The effects of the Plinian Avellino Pumice eruption and infrastructures, particularly in those areas directly affected by huge pyroclastic flows. The volcanic products (pumice, ash and pyroclastic The Plinian eruption known as the Avellino Pumice eruption (1950- surge material) and post-depositional events (lahars, flooding, alluvial 1820 cal BC at 95.4%) devastated a large part of the Piana Campana, an fans, landslides, etc.) brought major environmental changes in these area which was densely inhabited by Early Bronze Age farmers and areas. However, we shall see that, even though the settlers left their herders (Fig. 1)(Albore Livadie, 1999). There had been increasing homes during the eruption and escaped, a range of evidence points to a forest clearance in the area since at least the late Neolithic (end of the relatively rapid resettlement of some areas affected by the eruption. fifth millennium BC), leading to the creation of an open landscape Where possible, the site of the settlement and the cultivated fields largely characterised by cereal cultivation (Marzocchella, 1998, 2002; abandoned during the volcanic event or a nearby area were resettled. Saccoccio et al., 2013). Certain areas were only very slightly affected or not at all by the cat- The Plinian Avellino Pumice event caused a severe and long-lasting astrophic event, like the area south of the volcano where the Palma environmental crisis in the areas most affected by the eruption. Many Campania culture continued without interruption, or the islands of the aspects of daily village life were gravely damaged if not completely Gulf of Naples, which were practically untouched. It seems that only a obliterated, as the eruptive products often sealed human settlements small temporal gap occurred between the abandonment of the

∗ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C. Albore Livadie), [email protected] (M. Pearce), [email protected] (M. Delle Donne), [email protected] (N. Pizzano). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.03.035 Received 1 February 2018; Accepted 23 March 2018 $YDLODEOHRQOLQH$SULO ‹(OVHYLHU/WGDQG,148$$OOULJKWVUHVHUYHG C. Albore Livadie et al. 4XDWHUQDU\,QWHUQDWLRQDO  ²

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of sites mentioned in the text, with the fallout pattern for the Avellino Pumice eruption, pyroclastic density currents in red; fallout isopachs in blue and green (after Di Vito et al., 2009). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.) settlements and their resettlement after the volcanic catastrophe; this is found below the tephra at Migliara and Campo Inferiore do not con- confirmed by radiocarbon dates and continuity in pottery forms and tradict this date and more recent work (Passariello et al., 2018), which decoration, which show similar cultural traditions. We may therefore also presents a new date on dog bone from -Croce del Papa, sup- suggest that the people who left the area affected by the eruption, ports the date proposed by Passariello et al. (2009). It should be noted, settling elsewhere for a while, returned to resettle the land of their however, that the modelled date proposed by Sevink et al. does not ancestors. overlap with the modelled date based for the sheep killed by the The Avellino Pumice eruption can be dated through a combination eruption, despite their claims that the two dates are consistent (Sevink of 14C dates and pottery seriation, especially from the sites of Nola and et al., 2011: 1045). We prefer the date of 1950-1820 cal BC (at 95.4%) San Paolo Belsito. for the eruption. Sevink et al. (2011) use a Bayesian model, based on stratigraphic It is widely believed that the Avellino Pumice eruption caused a priors, to propose what they claim is a ‘robust’ date for the Avellino significant interruption in human settlement in the Piana Campana, Pumice eruption. This is based on radiocarbon determinations on peat, especially since the economy was primarily based on local resources. wood and leaves from a former lake at the distal locations of Migliara On the basis of radiocarbon dates available at the time, it was pre- and Campo Inferiore, in the Agro Pontino, southern Lazio (Fig. 2). Their viously estimated that at least 230 years passed before the resettlement modelled date for the Avellino Pumice eruption is 2010-1958 cal BC (at of distal areas and more than 1000 years before proximal areas could be 95.4%) but close examination of their plot (Sevink et al., 2011; Fig. 7) resettled (Albore Livadie et al., 1998). and rerunning the model using OxCal 4.3 (Bronk Ramsey, 2009) sug- The areas most affected by the eruption are the northern and north gests that there is a poor fit, with a very low agreement index (i.e. eastern parts of the Piana Campana, stretching towards the statistical reliability). Passariello et al. (2009), on the other hand, ob- Beneventano, Irpinia and the Capitanata. Pyroclastic products related tained three dates from a sheep (not goat, as originally described) killed to the Avellino Pumice eruption reached the boundary of Daunia, in by the eruption at the proximal site of Nola-Croce del Papa which, when Puglia region, documenting that there was an east-northeast elliptical combined using the OxCal 4.3 ‘Combine’ command, give a modelled dispersal axis of fallout deposits (Fig. 1). Grey pumices, used as temper calibrated date of 1950-1820 cal BC (at 95.4%; Bronk Ramsey, 2009). in the Proto-Apennine (phase A) pottery at Coppa Nevigata, were As can be seen from Fig. 2, the calibrated dates for the organic material probably collected along the main waterways (Caldara and Simone,

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Fig. 2. Calibrated radiocarbon dates for samples below and above the Avellino Pumice tephra at the distal locations of Migliara and Campo Inferiore, in the Agro Pontino, southern Lazio (Sevink et al., 2011) compared with three calibrated dates from a sheep killed by the eruption at the proximal site of Nola-Croce del Papa, and the combined date (OxCal 4.3 ‘Combine’ command: Bronk Ramsey, 2009; Reimer et al., 2013); all calibrations at 95.4%.

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2012). The accumulation of small lenses of deposits in riverbeds in Puglia was a distal effect of the eruption at a distance of over 150 km from the volcano caldera (Levi and Cioni, 1998; Levi et al., 1999). At Pompeii, however, which is close to the Somma-Vesuvius volcano, only a few ash lenses may be related to the Avellino Pumice eruption, while the effects of later pyroclastic events appear to have been more sig- nificant. Rather than the result of the Avellino Pumice eruption, it is reasonable to suppose that the evidence found at Insulae V, 1 and V, 6 by Nillson and colleagues (Nillson and Robinson, 2005; Nilsson, 2008) and at the cemetery of Sant’Abbondio (Mastroroberto, 1998, 146, n. 18, Fig. 6.6) documents a later pyroclastic eruption which according to deep cores also impacted the coastal area and Civita Giuliana (Di Maio et al., 2018). The evidence from the Casa dei Postumii is also probably due to this later eruption. Pyroclastic surges also affected the areas located to the northwest of the volcano. In those areas, the network of roads and fields, which have been documented archaeologically, was obliterated and investigations have confirmed the massive effect of the volcanic eruption on local human settlement (Saccoccio et al., 2013). Archaeological excavations carried out in the area northwest of the Somma-Vesuvius volcano have clearly documented how the water supply network of wells, springs, rivers and channels was severely modified as a result of the Avellino Pumice eruption (Di Vito et al., 2009). Such effects of the induced hydrogeological crisis were also particularly significant in the Calore Beneventano hydrographic system; for example, the valley floor of the River Jenga, which drains the east side of the Taburno Camposauro Massif, was flooded by volcaniclastic material, which interrupted the watercourse and deeply impacted the human settlement at Santa Maria la Peccerella (Bisogno et al., 1998, p. 213, phase f, fig. a, p.214). At Nola, the Croce del Papa settlement area was initially covered by a white and mostly grey pumice fallout level more than 1.5 m thick (Albore Livadie and Vecchio, 2002; Albore Livadie et al., 2005). Within a few hours, a number of pyroclastic flows and surges followed by lahar streams reached the site (Fig. 3). The same process probably occurred at sites such as in the nearby plain. The eruption also affected the coastal area where evidence of a tsunami is recorded, causing major damage in the Gulf of Naples (Milia et al., 2009). Tsunamite deposits have been found during archae- Fig. 3. Nola-Croce del Papa settlement. Hut 3 with its fill. ological excavations in Naples harbour and evidence from the Duomo underground station indicates that the eruption interrupted a long se- quence of paralic sediments with few pottery sherds (Giampaola and Boenzi, 2013: 41). In the period following the eruption, there is sporadic resettlement of the coastal area, documented by the presence of postholes relating to enclosures or fences (Amato et al., 2009: 28). The Early Bronze Age settlement at was entirely covered by the Avellino Pumice tephra, which led to the area being abandoned until the Late Bronze Age (Nava et al., 2007). However, the situation differs at nearby Gricignano, where graves and an arable field system have been identified right on top of the eruption surge, demonstrating resettlement of the area after the eruption (Marzocchella, 1998, 2002). This is not an isolated example: the return of people to their destroyed settlements shortly after the eruption is documented at several sites, and is best known at Nola and San Paolo Belsito.

2. The resettlement of the landscape: Nola and San Paolo Belsito

Recent data allow us to reconsider the previous assumption that it took a long time before the Piana Campana was resettled. Surprisingly, there was a rapid resettlement, no more than a few decades after the Fig. 4. San Paolo Belsito. A hut built on the Avellino Pumice eruption deposits. Avellino Pumice event, even in proximal areas heavily impacted by the eruption. (Fig. 4). This resettlement is well documented at Nola-via (Albore Settlement pattern stability is documented both in proximal (the Livadie et al., 2001, Fig. 6, 125), and at San Paolo Belsito, where a hut western and southern slopes of the Somma-Vesuvius and the Piana del showing at least one reconstruction phase was found on a poorly humic ) and distal areas (Salerno area) after the Avellino eruptive event. level that formed after the eruption (Albore Livadie et al., 2007a)

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Fig. 5. Oplontis. Stratigraphy of the garden of “Villa A”. (Source: Geomed. S. r.l. ).

This is evidenced at Pompeii (Nillson and Robinson, 2005; Nilsson, arable fields were cultivated even after the eruption. Ploughed fields at 2008), Oplontis (Torre Annunziata) (Di Maio, 2014)(Fig. 5), Boscor- Ponte Valentino in the Calore valley, east of Benevento, were found to eale, and Boscotrecase (Stefani et al., 2001; Fergola et al., 2001) where have been sealed by 10 cm of pumice but agricultural recovery in this

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Fig. 6. A. Nola-Croce del Papa settlement. Imprint of emmer (Triticum dicoccum) ear in volcanic ash. B. Nola-Croce del Papa settlement. Imprint of barley (Hordeum vulgare) ear in volcanic ash. more distal area was also almost immediate (Bisogno et al., 1998). are no reliable radiocarbon dates for Vivara-Punta di Mezzogiorno but Further south, at Battipaglia-Castelluccia, continuous occupation from the pottery, which shows parallels with the Palma Campania culture, the Early to the Recent Bronze Age was recorded, and does not seem to can be assigned to a period shortly after the eruption (Cazzella, 1999). have been affected by the eruption (Scarano, 2011). The Avellino Pu- ff mice eruption appears to have had no e ect on the settlement on Vivara 3.1. Nola-Croce del Papa or the other islands in the Gulf of Naples. ff The task of assessing the e ects of the Avellino Pumice eruption on The settlement of Croce del Papa was partially excavated in human presence in the Piana Campana is particularly hard. The only 2001–2002 by Claude Albore Livadie on behalf of the local heritage available data to date is provided by material culture remains (mainly authority, the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Napoli e Caserta. Three pottery) and the funerary record. Thus it is useful to focus on aspects huts were investigated as well as a small portion of an apsidal feature related to everyday life, such as farming and husbandry, in order to pertaining to another hut located 70 m from hut 4. Thanks to its unique evaluate the changes that may have occurred in the aftermath of the state of conservation, the area (a farmyard with various pens for do- eruption. mestic animals) provided clear information on the everyday activities performed there (Albore Livadie et al., 2005, 2011). 3. The economic and environmental context before the eruption The exceptional nature of the discovery is due to the dynamics of the eruption: a few hours after it began, when the site was already In this section we give a short account of findings at two sites at covered by more than one metre of pumice and fine ash sediment, Nola, Croce del Papa and Piazza d’Armi. These data can be compared which had settled on the roofs of the huts, the settlement was reached with our current understanding of the settlement pattern after the by pyroclastic flows that penetrated inside the huts, filling them and Avellino Pumice eruption – in particular the sites of Sant’Abbondio, creating a cast of the wood and wattle and daub structures. The flow -Strepparo and Capua-Cento Moggie (graves), Ariano Irpino-La completely filled the contents and the internal structures such as clay Starza, Vivara-Punta Capitello and Vivara-Punta di Mezzogiorno. There storage-bins and ovens. Perfectly preserved impressions of the organic

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been stored in a large pot, which was overturned when the pyroclastic flow entered the hut. In the same room there was a large storage bin, which unfortunately was not excavated (Fig. 8b). The archaeobotanical investigation focused on charred carpological remains, which are direct evidence that could be collected during the excavation, and also on indirect evidence like the plant impressions in the ashy mud resulting from the pyroclastic flow of the phreatomag- matic phase that characterised the last hours of the eruption (Fig. 6a and b) (Costantini et al., 2007). 330 l of soil samples were floated in order to extract the carpological remains. 13,509 charred seed and fruit remains were collected and largely identified: 13,372 cereals (98.98%), including caryopses and spikelets; 32 fruit remains (0.24%); 58 weed remains (0.43%); 47 in- determinate seeds (0.35%). Among the cereals there is a large pre- dominance of genus Triticum (wheat) (6194 remains, 46.32%), mainly Triticum dicoccum (emmer) and in smaller quantities Triticum cf. spelta (spelt) and Triticum cf. durum/aestivum (naked wheat), followed by Fig. 7. Nola-Croce del Papa settlement. Hut 4 during excavation. Hordeum (barley) (3527 remains, 26.38%), Triticum/Hordeum (1092 remains, 8.17%), as well as Panicum (millet) (19 remains, 0.14%) and materials were produced by the slow fossilisation process, so that for remains of Cerealia (2540 specimens, 18.99%). The fruit remains con- example the straw thatch of the huts was reproduced in detail, thanks to sist of Corylus avellana (hazelnut, 20 remains, 62.50%), Vitis sp. (grape, the particularly fine grain of the sediments. This has given us an ex- 3 remains, 9.38%), Prunus cf. spinosa (blackthorn, 3 remains, 9.38%), traordinarily detailed understanding of the archaeobotanical evidence Quercus sp. (acorn, 1 remains, 3.13%), Olea sp. (olive, 1 remain, 3.13%) and of the forms of the huts and their construction techniques as well as and Amygdalus cf. communis (almond, 4 remains, 12.50%). of the internal layout of the settlement. The site was then completely The archaeobotanical documentation included also 89 imprints, sealed by the deposition of a number of volcaniclastic/alluvial layers. mainly emmer and barley ears, spikelets and straw and one almond Hut 4 contained a large number of pieces of meat (Fig. 7), whereas fruit, recovered in a layer of volcanic ash. hut 3 contained a high number of ears of wheat, most of which were The faunal analysis showed a preponderance of sheep/goat (Ovis found in the main room with a hearth (Fig. 8a). The ears of wheat had aries L. and Capra hircus L, MNI 36), pigs (Sus scrofa L, MNI 26) and, to a

Fig. 8. A. Nola-Croce del Papa settlement. Hut 3. B. Nola-Croce del Papa settlement. Storage bin from hut 3.

 C. Albore Livadie et al. 4XDWHUQDU\,QWHUQDWLRQDO  ² lesser extent, cattle (Bos taurus L., 17 MNI). There were only a few dog Campania-Balle, Nola-Croce del Papa and -Alveo Zennillo). bones (Canis familiaris L., NMI 5). Birds, deer (Cervus elaphus L., NMI 9) The archaeobotanical and archaeozoological data also confirm the and probably also boars (Sus scrofa ferus) were hunted. A fenced area presence of all the usual plant and animal species. covered by a canopy, with several vegetable fibre containers, enclosed a A preliminary archaeobotanical analysis of some soil samples from pen where at the moment of the eruption 13 sub-adult sheep were kept the site documents the presence of the principal cereal species culti- (Ovis aries L., with or without horns); almost all were pregnant (struc- vated throughout the Italian Bronze Age, such as emmer (Triticum di- ture 8, contexts 44 and 18). Most were between 1 and 1.5 years old, coccum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare). As at Nola-Croce del Papa, it was while some were probably older (Pizzano, 2011, 2018). possible to reconstruct the cereal-growing techniques used by the in- The faunal remains provided much information concerning food habitants of the settlement. This is testified by the presence of entire or preservation and storage practices. Entire portions of disarticulated partially fragmented wheat caryopses as well as by spike remains that cattle and pig skeletons were found in the apses of the huts, which were show how the last step of cereal processing was carried out. The charred used as storage areas. These portions were often hung on a cord passing remains show that the diet was complemented by wild fruits, such as through a hole in the hut posts or beams, which suggests that the meat cornelian cherries (Cornus mas) and acorns (Quercus sp.) (Delle Donne, was preserved by drying and/or smoking. 2018). The most significant faunal assemblage examined (Natascia Pizzano, unpublished report in the archive of the Soprintendenza 3.2. Nola-Piazza d’Armi Archeologica di Napoli e Caserta), comes from the occupation surface beneath the Avellino Pumice eruption (context 12) at Piazza d’Armi. In 2008 a new settlement, Piazza d’Armi (the area of the former 644 bone remains were examined and the usual domestic species were sports ground), was discovered in the modern town centre a few hun- found. Cattle is the dominant species in all sectors of the excavation, dred metres from the Nola-Croce del Papa site. The botanical and faunal documented by whole disarticulated portions and/or bones with evidence is comparable to the data from the Nola-Croce del Papa set- butchery cut-marks; both adult and young sheep/goats were found in tlement, evidencing life before the Avellino Pumice eruption. almost all the investigated layers as were pigs of different ages and sex. The palaeosol at Piazza d’Armi was found only 3.5 m below ground A small bird and a red deer were also identified. A bone fragment from level, while at the nearby Croce del Papa settlement it is located at a pit (context 348) might be dog (Canis familaris L.). 6.20 m in depth. This suggests that the site was located on a low rise in We shall now provide a critical review of the data concerning the the ground which protected it from the direct effects of pyroclastic last phase of the Palma Campania culture, and especially the transition flows (Albore Livadie and Castaldo, 2009). to the Proto-Apennine period (beginning of the Middle Bronze Age), in A thick grey pumice layer covers a former ground surface, which is order to understand continuity and transformation within sites during particularly rich in potsherds and fragments of bone and charcoal. the recovery from the eruption. There were two large parallel cart tracks left by the repeated passage of vehicles. Similar cart tracks have been found at the site of Palma 4. After the event: elements of continuity Campania-Pirucchi (Albore Livadie, 1998, 2008). Beneath this context, an older occupation surface was discovered, Some sites attest resettlement after the eruption with elements of showing two different phases: a disused workshop area overlain by a continuity with the previous settlement. Cultural continuity can be structure which may be a dwelling. Series of postholes of different sizes, argued to demonstrate the continuity of human groups, with a very either aligned or showing no logical arrangement, relate to enclosures brief or no hiatus at all in the economic and social development of a and fences or to structures for stalling livestock (Fig. 9). settlement. The pottery from this context is still being studied and is typical of the typological repertoire of the Palma Campania culture: bowls with 4.1. Ariano Irpino-La Starza flat everted rims or a slightly convex profile, carinated cups/dippers with ribbon handle and rounded base, jars with fingertip-impressed The La Starza settlement at Ariano Irpino is located about 70 km NE ‘button’ decoration, lids of milk boiling pots, small jars with notched of the Somma-Vesuvius volcano. There is a group of different sized huts rims. The decoration, sequences of scratched or incised angular motifs built directly on a layer of fallen pumice. Excavation and palaeoenvir- and flat or fingertip-impressed cordons, has parallels in the ceramic onmental data show a fast recovery of vegetation after the eruption, repertoire of the sites located in the area of the plain, such as Palma with an open landscape (maple and hop hornbeam) dominated by holm oak (Coubray, 1999). Moreover, the typology of the pottery, which shows parallels with the material uncovered under the Avellino Pumice eruption in the Piana Campana, contradicts the hypothesis of a slow resettlement, i.e. after several generations, of the area as initially sug- gested by (Albore Livadie et al., 1998). A number of radiocarbon dates are available for the site and are reported in Table 1; they indicate that the site was rapidly settled. One of the oldest huts excavated (context 205) had an oval plan, oriented northeast-southwest, with an internal oval clay hearth, set into a floor of cobbles and potsherds laid flat. A second hut (context 203) had an elliptical plan and was also oriented northeast-southwest; it had a beaten clay floor. A clay hearth inside another hut (2C6) covered a pit containing the skeleton of a six-year-old child (Petrone, 1999). The settlement was defended by a limestone wall and ditch, which ran along the edge of the north terrace. A preliminary archaeobotanical study was carried out on plant re- mains recovered from the layers that overlie the Avellino Pumice eruption layers (Delle Donne, 2018). More than 100 plant remains were retrieved from the examined samples collected in all the areas where Fig. 9. Nola-Piazza d’Armi settlement. human activities were performed. 27% of plant remains may be

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Table 1 Radiocarbon dates for the sites under consideration.

Material Lab number Determination BP Cal BC at 95.4% confidence interval Source or comments

Ariano Irpino-La Starza, AP2 eruption Animal bone DSH-154 3380 ± 23 1741–1623 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Ariano Irpino-La Starza, after eruption Charcoal DSH-77 3423 ± 25 1870–1643 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Charcoal DSH-76 3466 ± 20 1880–1697 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Charcoal DSA-338 3466 ± 43 1896–1665 Albore Livadie, 2007: 193, note 20 Charcoal DSH-78 3470 ± 24 1881–1698 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Nola-via Cimitile (=Masseria Rossa), after eruption Human bone DSH-143 3492 ± 23 1886–1747 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Nola-San Paolo Belsito, after eruption Animal bone DSH-156 3426 ± 48 1880–1627 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Charcoal DSH-142 3465 ± 19 1880–1697 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Animal bone DSH-153 3513 ± 20 1901–1758 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Nola-Croce del Papa, sheep killed by eruption Combined date for bone DSH-146, DSH-145, DSH-103 1943–1827 ‘Combine’ command, OxCal 4.3.2; Bronk Ramsey 2009 Animal bone DSH-146 3533 ± 22 1938–1772 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Animal bone DSH-145 3558 ± 20 1963–1781 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Animal bone DSH-103 3560 ± 20 1971–1782 Passariello et al., 2009: tab.3 Campo inferiore, above tephra Wood GrA-46210 3610 ± 30 2110–1889 Sevink et al., 2011: tab.1 Wood GrN-32454 3635 ± 40 2135–1896 Sevink et al., 2011: tab.1 Campo inferiore, below tephra Wood GrA-45003, 45006, 45256, 45257 3565 ± 20 2009–1828 Sevink et al., 2011: tab.1 Leaves GrA-45134, 45265, 45266 3585 ± 20 2016–1886 Sevink et al., 2011: tab.1 Wood GrA-45007, 45008, 45259, 45260 3690 ± 15 2136–2031 Sevink et al., 2011: tab.1 Wood GrA-45042, 45032, 45254, 45255 3715 ± 15 2195–2036 Sevink et al., 2011: tab.1 Migliara, above tephra Peat GrA-46206, 46208 3635 ± 25 2135–1896 Sevink et al., 2011: tab.1 Peat GrA-46203, 46205 3685 ± 25 2198–1953 Sevink et al., 2011: tab.1 Migliara, below tephra Peat GrA-46200, 46201 3565 ± 25 2026–1773 Sevink et al., 2011: tab.1 classified as cereals (mainly Triticum dicoccum and Hordeum vulgare), it was a fragment of an adult human skull (context 24–26/11/99), 34% as legumes (Vicia faba) and 39% as fruits (mainly Quercus sp. embedded in the grey pumice (Fig. 11). Radiocarbon determination acorns). The high degree of fragmentation and the presence of de- gave the following date: DSH-143: 3492 ± 23 BP, 1690–1400 cal BC formed seed and fruit remains suggests that most of the material ana- (95.4%). lysed was charred as a result of a short-term, direct exposure to a very A range of pottery mixed with reworked pumice was found in Trench intense fire. 8. Finds from contexts 20 and 21 included fragments of cups and/or Faunal analysis carried out on the very same stratigraphic layers at dippers with ribbon handles and umbilical bases, a sherd of a pedestal- the settlement of La Starza (Albarella, 1999; Ascierto, 2005-2006) bowl with a flat everted rim and a ribbon handle joining the rim to the documents a mixed diet characterised by a range of animals. Species point of maximum width of the pot, and fragments of large bowls, pots present were dog (NMI 3), sheep/goat (NMI 12), pig (NMI 8) and with an internal ledge, carinated vessels, flat everted rims, rounded-rim brachyceros cattle (NMI 8), that became very important as beasts of cups and jars with notches or fingertip impressions on the rim. burden for the cultivation of cereals and other products. Cattle, sheep The faunal assemblage was studied by Natascia Pizzano who iden- and goats, slaughtered as adults, were raised for meat and probably for tified cattle (Bos Taurus), sheep/goat (Ovis vel capra), pig (Sus scrofa) wool, milk and its derived products, as well as for labour in the case of and dog (Canis familiaris). Gaetano Di Pasquale identified two charcoal the cattle. Pigs were slaughtered at a young age. Domestic dog bones samples (trench 8, context 20 and context 28) as belonging to the group with butchery cut marks were found: like the cattle, adult dogs were of deciduous oaks (Quercus pubescens, Q. robur, Q. petraea and Q. cerris). slaughtered, probably when they had no further use other than food. He has commented (pers. comm.) that even though oak was not found Hunting seems to have been rare and is documented by the presence of in the preliminary anthracological analysis of the material from Nola- red deer (NMI 2), roe deer (NMI 2) and boar (NMI 1). Croce del Papa, it is highly likely to be present. The excavation suggests that the original hut plan was a structure with apsidal ending, typical of the horse-shoe shaped huts of the Palma 4.2. Nola-Via Cimitile Campania culture. The enclosure shows parallels with those found at Gricignano (Marzocchella, 1998), Afragola (Laforgia et al., 2009), Nola- At Nola, in Via Cimitile (about 700 m from Piazza d’Armi), two Piazza d’Armi and Nola-Croce del Papa. The hut probably had a max- small test trenches (7 and 8) were opened between October and imum width of 5 m, like hut 4 at Nola-Croce del Papa (Fig. 10). December 1999. Trench 7 uncovered a very small part of a hut with an enclosure, constructed on the pumice deposit of the Avellino Pumice eruption, at 4.3. Capua-Strepparo and Cento Moggie the top of which was the ash layer formed during the phreatomagmatic phase of the eruption. Only the floor of the apsidal part of the structure There were several phases of occupation in the area of Strepparo could be excavated, uncovering abundant ceramic material and char- and Cento Moggie in Capua, spanning from the Early Bronze Age to the coal (context 9). Charcoal from this occupation context (context 28) end of the Middle Bronze Age (Apennine phase: Minoia and Raposo, radiocarbon dated: DSH-138: 3492 ± 23 BP -1890-1740 cal BC 1996). This is the only locality so far known in the Caserta district (95.4%). A 10 cm deep pit had been excavated in the pumice and the where there is evidence for any continuity of occupation before and hardened ash overlying it, between the hut and the enclosure fence; in after the Avellino Pumice eruption, although there is a change of use

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Fig. 10. Individual calibration plots for the three dates for the sheep killed by the eruption at Nola-Croce del Papa and a plot for the combined date (OxCal 4.3 ‘Combine’ command; Bronk Ramsey, 2009) compared to Nola-Via Cimitile, Nola-San Paolo Belsito, Nola-Masseria Rossa and Ariano Irpino-La Starza in the hills, showing that resettlement at these locations was rapid, taking place very soon after the eruption; all calibrations at 95.4% (Reimer et al., 2013). from settlement to funerary area. Although no markers of the Avellino A small number of burials have been excavated in the nearby Pumice eruption were found, material within the hut and pits may be cemetery. The skeletons lay on either their right or left side, with dated to a time shortly before the eruption, as clearly attested by the slightly bent legs. The bodies were oriented east-west with the skull to presence of typical Palma Campania culture features (ribbon handle the west, or southeast-northwest with the head facing south. The grave cups, a cooking tray (spiana), hourglass-shaped supports, jars, etc.). assemblages have very close formal parallels with the grave goods Another structure, probably also a hut, was identified to the north of found at Sant’Abbondio and therefore might be dated to a very late this hut. Preliminary analysis suggests that this hut dates to the be- phase of the Early Bronze Age, close to the transition to the Middle ginning of the Middle Bronze Age. It contained hemispheric bowls and Bronze Age (Proto-Apennine phase). hourglass-shaped supports, which suggest parallels with the material Further, more detailed study will allow the possible con- uncovered at Vivara-Punta Capitello (Damiani et al., 1984). temporaneity of the burials and the probable hut to be assessed.

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their side and oriented north-south with the head facing west, towards sunset; other are oriented east-west. There are also graves with burials in a supine position. Grave goods are relatively poor, although some of the graves with weapons have richer assemblages, including bronze weapons (dagger blades), pottery (cups, pedestal-vases), bronze per- sonal items (pins and awls) and flint artefacts (daggers and arrows). Children (less than 5–6 years) are buried in large pots (enchytrismos) and there is also the burial of a two or three-year-old child inside a tuff sarcophagus (T.22/93), which may have had a lid. A layer of tephra covering the funerary area was interpreted as documenting the Avellino Pumice eruption (Mastroroberto, 1998, 146, n. 18, Fig. 6) but it is more likely this layer can be correlated with the one uncovered during the Swedish excavations in the Regio I in Pompeii (see above) and docu- ments a later pyroclastic eruption. The Sant’Abbondio cemetery, the groups of burials at Capua- Strepparo and Cento Moggie, Gricignano and San Paolo Belsito as well Fig. 11. Nola-Via Cimitile/Masseria Rossa. Hut and part of the enclosure. as the cemeteries of Oliva Torricella, Picarielli, and Ostaglio in the Salerno area provide some of the rare funerary evidence for the Early Bronze Age in Campania. Unfortunately, it is rather difficult to discuss 4.4. Pompeii-Sant Abbondio ’ the evidence in depth because little documentation is available (Albore Livadie and Marzocchella, 1999), but some considerations are possible. A small settlement belonging to the Palma Campania culture was The practice of offering pots and food with the burial (funerary excavated at Pompeii between 1993 and 1997, on the small volcanic feasting?) is recurrent, as is the breaking of pots. It is generally believed hill of Sant Abbondio which controls the lower course of the Sarno ’ that through time there was a gradual shift from a marked crouching of river. There was a double line of east-west oriented postholes in the lava the legs to the supine position. The majority of the burials are trench substratum. The lack of palaeo-surfaces suggests that the structure had graves, but tumuli are recorded, at both Gricignano and San Paolo only a single, very brief phase of use (Mastroroberto, 1998). The area Belsito. Enchytrismos burials seem to characterise children under the age then became a cemetery; most of the tombs date to the beginning of the of 5–6 years. After this age, they were buried in the same way as adults. Middle Bronze Age (Proto-Apennine phase), but some burials show late Graves may be lined with stones and cobbles (in particular in the ce- Early Bronze Age features. Generally, the burials are trench graves, meteries from the Salerno area) and may have different orientations. sometimes with a step at the side. The bodies are crouched, lying on Mastroroberto's (1998, p. 139, n. 9) suggestion that grave orientation

Fig. 12. San Paolo Belsito. Pollen diagram (source: Vivent and Albore Livadie et al., 2001: 249, Fig. 3a).

 C. Albore Livadie et al. 4XDWHUQDU\,QWHUQDWLRQDO  ² depends on the gender of the deceased needs verifying. sp.) and grapevine (Vitis sp.) were found. At Nola-Piazza d’Armi cor- nelian cherry stones (Cornus mas L.) were also attested. 5. Radiocarbon chronology Archaeobotanical data for the phase before the eruption from Nola- Croce del Papa and Nola-Piazza d’Armi and for the phase following the Calibrated radiocarbon dates from sites resettled after the from Ariano Irpino-La Starza (Costantini et al., 2007; Coubray, Pumice eruption provide strong confirmation of the short interval that 1999; Delle Donne, 2018), together with data for other sites in the re- elapsed before people returned to their former homes. Fig. 10 shows gion (Afragola, Pratola Serra, Pompeii) can help us understand agri- individual calibration plots for the three dates for the sheep killed by cultural techniques and crop management. It seems that agricultural the eruption at Nola-Croce del Papa and a plot for the combined date production was not very different before and after the eruption, but we (calculated using the OxCal 4.3 ‘Combine’ command; Bronk Ramsey, need to consider the different archaeobotanical strategies adopted at 2009) compared to sites to the northeast of the volcano, at Nola-Via the different sites; even though it was noted that cereals became less Cimitile, Nola-San Paolo Belsito and Nola-Masseria Rossa in the Piana common at Pratola Serra after the eruption and wild fruits increased Campana, and at Ariano Irpino-La Starza in the hills, showing that re- (Ciaraldi, 1999, 1998–2000). When the landscape was resettled, the settlement at these locations was rapid, taking place very soon after the cultivation of cereals began again and the wild resources present were eruption. exploited as much as possible. Little can be said about environmental recovery at La Starza (Coubray, 1999), but Albarella (1999) notes that 6. Discussion husbandry continued to be based on the same animal species, even if hunting may have become more significant as compared to the previous There are very few differences in the environmental data for before period. and after the eruption (Fig. 12). A programme of pollen sampling at Pottery from the layers following the eruption is typologically si- sites predating the eruption (, Gricignano, Palma Campania, San milar to the previous period. We find cups with ribbon handles and Paolo Belsito, Schiava di Tufino and ) indicated a very open wide concave bowls typical of the Palma Campania culture, but there landscape with pastures, water meadows and small woods of Quercus are some differences, indicative of the short time span before resettle- sp. (oak) and Alnus (elm) or Corylus (hazel) (Vivent and Albore Livadie, ment. 2001, Fig. 5a and b). Intensive exploitation of the plain is attested by For example, incised and fretted decoration was abandoned. Less Dominique Vivent's study at the excavations at the Gricignano US Navy complex forms with more linear profiles and more rigid shapes seem to base that showed the predominance of Non Arboreal Pollen (NAP). In be attested (Soriano and Albore Livadie, 2017). their discussion of Vivent's data, Saccoccio et al. (2013) commented There do not seem to be great changes in funerary ritual, though that tree pollen values are generally lower before the Avellino Pumice there is a gradual shift from crouched inhumation with flexed arms and eruption, whereas in the plain they increase after the eruption, prob- legs to supine inhumation. There is also a shift in the composition of the ably due to the relocation of settlements to more easily defendable lo- grave furniture as bronze artefacts and weapons become more common. cations. They add that after the later AP1 episode, the arboreal pollen The Sant’Abbondio graveyard, still unpublished 20 years after its dis- increases, reaching 28% and confirming a relative abandonment of the covery, might also provide valuable information concerning social plain, matched by an increased settlement of the hills (Saccoccio et al., change. Burials 8 and 22 clearly stand out from the others because of 2013: 90). their rich assemblages (bronze weapons and pots). Albore Livadie and Before the eruption, cereal cultivation was characterised by emmer Marzocchella (1999) have argued that after the Avellino Pumice (Triticum dicoccum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Archaeobotanical eruption there begin to be clearer indications of a stratified society, as investigation at Nola-Croce del Papa has provided us with exceptionally indicated by the burial of a young man with a dagger in a large trench detailed information concerning prehistoric agricultural practices, grave at Gricignano. mainly regarding cereal threshing and storage. It has been possible to The continuity of settlement attested at the site of Sant’Abbondio, investigate day-to-day practices, performed inside the houses or in the not far from ancient mouth of the river Sarno, is a clear indicator of areas nearby. According to the data, emmer and barley, after harvesting maritime trade, which probably also involved sites such as Naples- and a first processing, were stored as ears, without stems, in large Piazzale Tecchio (Albore Livadie et al., 2007b) and the island of Vivara. ceramic bins which were sited in the main room of the hut; cereals were As has been seen, the radiocarbon evidence confirms that resettle- then threshed, maybe in quantities needed for daily use, on a large ment was relatively rapid after the eruption. fenced threshing floor, as attested by the large number of chaff remains, in particular glume bases and forks, retrieved from soil samples col- 6.1. Final remarks lected in this area. The presence of millet (Panicum sp.) at Nola-Croce del Papa and at Oliva Torricella (in the Salerno area) (Delle Donne, At the symposium in honour of Luigi Bernabò Brea, Albore Livadie 2011) attests the early cultivation of this minor cereal, then docu- and Marzocchella (2003) remarked on the scarcity of settlements (no mented in other areas, as shown by the evidence from Middle Bronze more than 30) during the period following the eruption as compared to Age layers of Capua, Strepparo and Cento Moggie (Castiglioni and those belonging to the period A before the eruption and the Apennine Rottoli, 1996). phase. They considered this discontinuity to attest to a real demo- Cereal cultivation seems to be complemented by the systematic and graphic drop caused by the devastating effects of the volcanic event on efficient cultivation of legumes, with a clear predominance of the broad the population and more in general on the environment. bean (Vicia faba L.) which was recognised at the Early Bronze Age site Even if only a few settlements may be dated to the phase im- of Oliva Torricella (Delle Donne, 2011), in the Proto-Apennine levels at mediately following the eruption (to the list published in 2003 we can Ariano Irpino-La Starza and at Vivara (Costantini et al., 2001), where it only add the sites of Naples-Piazzale Tecchio and Pompeii), it is clear was associated with Pisum sp., Lens sp. and Lathyrus sp. that they are often located close to previously settled areas (Nola, San The gathering of wild fruits is well attested in the carpological re- Paolo Belsito, Pompeii, etc.). It should be added that like the AD 79 cord of Campanian sites such as Afragola (Laforgia et al., 2009; Laforgia eruption that preserved Roman Pompeii, the pyroclastic material of the et al., 2015), Capua (Castiglioni and Rottoli, 1996), Pratola Serra Avellino Pumice preserved the underlying settlements it covered, while (Ciaraldi, 1999, 1998–2000), Pompeii-Swedish excavation (Nillson and later sites do not have the same preservation conditions. This is likely to Robinson, 2005; Nilsson, 2008), Nola-Piazza d’Armi and Nola-Croce del have skewed the statistics regarding post-eruption sites. Papa. Here almonds (Amygdalus communis), blackthorn sloes (Prunus At Pompeii, there is evidence for layers which may be assigned to spinosa), acorns (Quercus sp.), hazelnuts (Corylus avellana), olives (Olea the Palma Campania culture (perhaps three well-defined strata under

 C. Albore Livadie et al. 4XDWHUQDU\,QWHUQDWLRQDO  ² the volcanic ash) (Nillson and Robinson, 2005; Boman and Nilsson, the sub-Plinian AP1 and AP2 eruptions, whose impact, although less 2006/2007; Nilsson, 2008). Three further layers were uncovered above than the Avellino Pumice episode, was still significant (Figs. 13 and 14). the ash, underlining settlement continuity at site. At Oplontis, Torre Annunziata, the stratigraphy recorded within the garden of the so-called Villa A, known as Poppaea's Villa (Di Maio, 7. Conclusions 2014: 703–706), attests pedomarkers of deep ploughing (about 10 cm) on top of a palaeosol. The furrows and ridges of this ploughing are The Avellino Pumice eruption certainly had a dramatic impact on similar to those investigated at Boscoreale and Boscotrecase, which can the people living in the Campania region, especially in certain areas. be ascribed to an undefined moment between the Neolithic and Early Nonetheless, there is now evidence of the recovery of many sites after Bronze Age (layer 5b) on the basis of tephrostratigraphy. An undated the catastrophe. These sites, fewer in number and perhaps occupying pyroclastic layer (6), fully preserved only inside the furrows, seals these less territory compared to the period before the eruption, do not show ploughed fields under a 10 cm thick layer (Di Maio, 2014, 706, Tav.4.1, significant changes as regards their way of life and agricultural and Fig. 4.14) (Fig. 5). The recovery of agricultural practices thus seems to husbandry practices. It seems likely that it was the same Palma be have been immediate and led to the discovery of a new ‘productive’ Campania culture groups that returned to the territory where they be- horizon which essentially reworked pyroclastic sands and gravels in an longed, as suggested by the archaeological, palaeobotanical, and ar- ashy and slightly humic matrix, but was not as fertile as the soil that chaeozoological evidence. Despite the effects of the Plinian Avellino was cultivated before the eruption. The presence of some pumice that Pumice eruption, the inhabitants were able to resettle the area close to originated during the Avellino Pumice eruption, reworked and em- the volcano a short time after the event, but a few generations later, two bedded in this horizon (7), allows us to ascribe the ploughed palaeo- sub-Plinian events, the AP1 and AP2 eruptions, critically affected the surface to the end of the Early Bronze Age and the Palma Campania human populations living in the eastern Piana Campana. culture. Two further pyroclastic layers (8 and 10) are again followed by It seems that the period when the second Middle Bronze Age the immediate reprise of prehistoric agricultural practices. At San eruption (AP2) took place is the least well documented in archae- Marzano sul Sarno and in the area of Castel San Giorgio, continuity in ological terms. Radiocarbon dating (DSH-154: 3380 ± 23 BP: Albore human occupation is also widely attested by traces of ploughing under Livadie et al., 2007a; Passariello et al., 2009) indicates that AP2 oc- curred at 1750-1620 cal. BC (at 95.4%) during Middle Bronze Age 1/2

Fig. 13. Map showing the location of sites mentioned in the text, with the fallout pattern for the AP1 eruption (after Di Vito et al., 2013).

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Fig. 14. Map showing the location of sites mentioned in the text, with the fallout pattern for the AP2 eruption (after Di Vito et al., 2013). when a new archaeological culture, the Proto-Apennine, is attested. It is (AP1 and AP2). Consequently, we must redate the climax of the crisis to may be suggested that the material culture change also reflects the a few generations after the traditional transition between the end of the presence of new human groups in the area, which was previously Early Bronze Age and the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age 1/2. characterised by the Palma Campania culture. The indirect effects of a It is possible to offer further considerations concerning the settle- Plinian eruption, in addition to not one but two sub-Plinian episodes, ment pattern that characterised the Middle Bronze Age, which likely might have had serious consequences for the survival of the local po- indicates a situation of greater insecurity (hilltop settlements with de- pulation, even years after the first catastrophe (most recently, Di Maio fensive infrastructures). But due to the lack of extensive excavations in et al., 2012: 41). The effects on the climate of an eruption have been the region, it is difficult to fully assess the incidence of strategically clearly shown by recent studies (Zanchetta et al., 2012). During the located sites in this period. The fortified sites of Ariano Irpino-La Starza eruption, enormous amounts of sulphur dioxide are released. The di- (Albore Livadie, 1992) and Buccino-Tufariello (Holloway et al., 1975) oxide is oxidised becoming sulphuric acid in the troposphere and in the seem so far to be exceptional. Indeed, Albore Livadie and Marzocchella stratosphere. It is likely that the droplets that are formed would interact (2003, 130, n. 29) have already expressed doubts concerning the usual with the sunlight, causing a drop in temperature. interpretation of the wall surrounding Buccino-Tufariello as a defensive Nilsson (2009) suggested that an initial decrease in human popu- structure and Holloway himself suggested an alternative hypothesis: lation after the Avellino Pumice eruption, and as a consequence of the that the walls were necessary to support structures above them number of settlements, might be due to problems exploiting the land- (Holloway et al., 1975, 33). The lack of adequate data suggests that scape for agriculture and husbandry, but also, we argue, in restoring the interpretation can go no further at present. communication network, the irrigation and drainage network (streams, springs and wells), the agrarian infrastructure and visual and cultural References landmarks. But the real crisis in human activity in the area of the volcano is not Albarella, U., 1999. The animal economy after the eruption of Avellino pumice: the case only due to the effects of the Avellino eruption. A more intense and of the La Starza (Avellino, ). In: Albore Livadie, C. (Ed.), L’eruzione vesuviana delle Pomici di Avellino e la facies di Palma Campania (Bronzo antico), long-lasting period of environmental crisis was caused by the coupled “ ” Atti del Seminario internazionale, pp. 317–330 15-17 Luglio 1994, CUEBC, effects of the Avellino Pumice and the following prehistoric eruptions (Territorio storico e ambiente, 2), Bari. Albore Livadie, C., 1992. Nuovi scavi alla Starza di Ariano Irpino. In: Cocchi Genick, D.

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Distal Effects of Volcanic Eruptions on Pre-Industrial Societies

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Editorial Full text access Distal Effects of Volcanic Eruptions on Pre-industrial societies J. Sevink, M.A. Di Vito, P.M. van Leusen, M.H. Field Pages 129-134

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Research article Full text access Tephra in caves: Distal deposits of the Minoan eruption and the Campanian super-eruption Hendrik J. Bruins, Jörg Keller, Andreas Klügel, Hanan J. Kisch, ... Johannes van der Plicht Pages 135-147

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Research article Full text access The Campanian agrarian systems of the late Copper-Early Bronze Age (ca. 4550-3850 cal BP): A long-lasting agrarian management tradition before the Pomici di Avellino eruption Alessandro Vanzetti, Amodio Marzocchella, F. Saccoccio Pages 148-160

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Research article Full text access The early and Middle Bronze Age (1/2) in South and central Tyrrhenian Italy and their connections with the Avellino eruption: An overview Luca Alessandri Pages 161-185

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Research article Full text access Tephrostratigraphy of paleoclimatic archives in central Mediterranean during the Bronze Age Giovanni Zanchetta, Monica Bini, Mauro A. Di Vito, Roberto Sulpizio, Laura Sadori Pages 186-194

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Research article Full text access The Santorini eruption. An archaeological investigation of its distal impacts on Minoan Crete Jan Driessen Pages 195-204

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Research article Full text access The effects of the Avellino Pumice eruption on the population of the Early Bronze age Campanian plain (Southern Italy) Claude Albore Livadie, Mark Pearce, Matteo Delle Donne, Natascia Pizzano Pages 205-220

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Research article Full text access A Bronze Age palaeoenvironmental reconstruction from the Fondi basin, southern Lazio, central Italy Marieke Doorenbosch, Michael H. Field Pages 221-230

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Research article Full text access Dynamics and effects of the Vesuvius Pomici di Avellino Plinian eruption and related phenomena on the Bronze Age landscape of Campania region (Southern Italy) Mauro A. Di Vito, P. Talamo, S. de Vita, I. Rucco, ... M. Cesarano Pages 231-244

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Research article Full text access Distal deposits of the Avellino eruption as a marker for the detailed reconstruction of the Early Bronze Age depositional environment in the Agro Pontino and Fondi Basin (Lazio, Italy) Wouter van Gorp, Jan Sevink Pages 245-257

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Research article Full text access Social responses to volcanic eruptions: A review of key concepts Robin Torrence Pages 258-265

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Research article Open access Doing palaeo-social volcanology: Developing a framework for systematically investigating the impacts of past volcanic eruptions on human societies using archaeological datasets Felix Riede Pages 266-277

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Research article Full text access Using palaeoecological techniques to understand the impacts of past volcanic eruptions Richard J. Payne, Joanne Egan Pages 278-289

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