UCD Forestry Excursion to the Black Forest, Germany April 2 - 8, 2006

Paul Gardiner

Joe Codd Ellen O’Brien Sharron Daly Martin Quigley Simon Fortune Tara Ryan Barry McCann Vincent Upton Luke McGurdy

Individual reports were submitted as part of the 4th year of the Honours Degree Programme in Forestry, University College Dublin. Compiled and edited by Maarten Nieuwenhuis. Introduction to the Black Forest and forestry in Germany

Natural Conditions The Black Forest and surrounding area have a predominantly sub-Mediterranean to warm temperate climate, with 80% of all winds and storms coming from a western direction. This results in a mild, wet and humid climate. At regular intervals of 10, 20 or 30 years, the climate is strongly influenced from the east, resulting in dry, hot summers and extremely dry and cold (-35oC) winters.

The Black Forest has the potential to support approximately 620 tree species, but the intermittent continental influences from the east kill much of the cold sensitive vegetation.

The Black Forest was affected by the last ice age, resulting in the loss of many tree species and consequently few native species remain. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), oak (Quercus spp), beech (Fagus sylvatica), and elm (Ulmus glabra) all occur naturally in the area at varying altitudes and soil qualities. Beech occurs in both the uplands and lowlands, as long as the site is relatively fertile with a high level of humidity.

Black Forest History Before the invasion by the Romans, approximately 99% of the area was covered with natural beech forest. By the time of the invasion of the Germanic tribes approximately 40% of forests had been cleared. Monasteries (many of which owned forests) and cities then began to develop and by 1300 70% of forests had been cleared for agriculture with forests remaining only in areas where agriculture was not possible. Forests were used for the following five hundred years as a source of construction timber, fuel and as areas for animal rearing. Many forests at this time were managed using the coppice system. By the beginning of the 18th century, forest quality had also begun to deteriorate. During the 18th century many industries began to develop. Charcoal was used by many of these industries and therefore large quantities were required. No replanting was undertaken and natural regeneration was prevented due to

2 browsing animals. This resulted in a severe lack of forests by the end of the 18th century, with wind and water erosion commonplace.

The advent of Napoleonic rule resulted in great land reform in Germany – which up until this time had consisted of many small and fragmented territories. Land and forests were re-distributed among private owners (mainly farmers), with the remote forests remaining in the ownership of the state. Community forests were established around some cities. This has resulted in 50% private, 20% community and 30% state forest ownership in Germany (with these proportions varying from region to region), with all forests managed under the umbrella of the state (Lander) forest service. Individual farmers were given free plants for reforestation and were trained by state foresters in forest management skills, and so a strong tradition of forestry has existed since this time.

When Freiburg was founded in 1120, 3,500 ha of forest were already given to the city, and people were allowed to use this forest for firewood collection. Since then, further areas have been added, resulting in a forest of 8,000 ha, one of the largest community forests in Germany.

Bare land, cut-over areas, coppice forests and high forests remaining at the end of the 18th century went through a number of management programmes to transform them into mixed pioneer forests, even-aged pure conifer stands, broadleaved pure forests and mountainous mixed forests that are present in the Black Forest today. These programmes consisted of natural succession, afforestation, conversion/transformation and natural regeneration, respectively. With the changes in management, the function of the forests also changed (Table 1). Even-aged pure conifer stands still dominate the Black Forest area.

The reduction in timber prices and the uneconomic outlook for forestry in the 1960s led to an increase in the multi-functional aspects of forests. However, once again, wood energy is becoming popular, as a result of high energy prices. Forest cover is approaching almost 90% in some regions of the Black Forest as a consequence of the move away from agriculture in the remoter valleys.

3 Table 1 Forest function in Germany through the ages.

Function Yield Period Multi-functional Firewood, timber, fruits, resin, forest To the middle of pasture, game the 19th century Mono-functional Construction and industrial timber 1850 to 1970

Multi-functional Construction and industrial timber, 1970 - present landscape protection, recreation, water/nature protection, erosion control

Many positive developments have taken place with regard to German forests and forest management over the last two centuries. These are: • Abolishment of user rights (such as litter removal) in forests and the reform in property rights; • Improvement in forest infrastructure; • Development of seed supply and nursery enterprises; • Development of effective harvesting methods and forest training systems; and • Development of forest research organisations.

Species Composition Species composition varies in different parts of Germany but is largely dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). The overall species composition is shown in Table 2. There is now a move away from planting Norway spruce and Scots pine in an effort to increase other species, especially broadleaves.

Severe storms and fire also play a role in determining species composition. Between 1967 and 1999 approximately 330 million m3 of roundwood has been windthrown during intermittent storms. Between 1981 and 1990 5,500 ha of forest were damaged by forest fires. In general, mixed and broadleaf stands are more stable than pure conifer stands.

4 Table 2 Species composition of German forests. Species % of area Norway spruce 28 Scots pine 23 silver fir 2 Douglas fir 2 larch 3 beech 16 oak 9 broadleaf ‘hardwoods’ (ash, maple, sycamore) 7 broadleaf ‘softwoods’ (birch, alder, poplar) 10

Problems in German forestry A major problem existing in German forestry is a high proportion of conifer stands that are not suited to their site. Conifer volume production seems to be a priority over quality and many young stands are over stocked and unstable due to late thinning (due to high labour costs). This is clear from the excess of annual increment over annual cut (Table 3). Tree growth is also changing due to longer growing seasons brought about by global warming, and increased levels of nitrogen deposition.

Table 3 Annual cut and increment in German forests (1999). Annual increment Annual cut million m3 W. Germany 95 50 E. Germany 35 15 Total 130 65

Problems also exist regarding the sale of small and very large diameter timber, as the markets for these assortments is small. The general public opinion is that forestry is

5 not an industry, compared with say car and machine manufacturing; forests are regarded solely as a place for recreation and amenity.

The Black Forest: location and composition The Black Forest is located in the south-west of Germany. It is separated from the Vosges mountain range in France by the Rhine valley. The Black Forest bedrock is mainly granite, with small amounts of sandstone (a popular building stone in the city of Freiburg) and limestone on top. Parts of the granite massif have been transformed into gneiss due to severe tectonic pressure. The tectonic activity has also given rise to hot springs along the Rhine valley, traditionally used for spas, and now beginning to be exploited for thermal energy. The Rhine Valley is extremely fertile due to deposits of loess. The many city in the southern part of the Black Forest is Freiburg.

Freiburg

Figure 1 Black Forest, location map.

Schauinsland Schauinsland is the name of the Black Forest region to the southeast of Freiburg (Figure 2). The highest point is 1284 m. The forests in this area were used as a source of fuel for the lead, zinc and silver mines that operated in the area from the 1700s to 1956. Small communities developed in this area and domestic industries such as clock making developed. Tourism is now one of the major industries in the area, with many

6 traditional farmhouses converted to hotels. Feldberg, 1490 m high, is the highest point in the Black Forest and is located to the southeast of Schauinsland.

The average temperature of the Schauinsland area is 4oC with approximately 2,000 mm per annum precipitation, in the form of snow and rain. Crown snap is common due to heavy snow. Trees do not flourish on the western side of the mountain due to the harsh winter weather conditions, but rowan, birch, aspen, sycamore and willow are common in this area, along with some poor quality Norway spruce and silver fir. Spruce and beech are more common on the eastern side where more shelter is available. Excluding the most exposed areas on the top of the mountains, the average rate of growth rate for conifers in this region of the Black Forest is 15 m3 ha-1 yr-1.

Forest die-back became a problem in the area in the 1990s and as a result experimental and meteorological stations were set up to monitor the effects of stress

caused by severe cold and draught, and by harmful gases (SO2). Clones were used in phenological gardens to assess the reaction to stresses at different elevations.

At lower elevations, pasture beech becomes more common. Pasture beech is a mixture of open beech forest and cattle grazing. The cattle benefit from the shelter and the beech mast, and the homeowners from timber and firewood production. Cattle grazing in this area is now highly subsidised and the tradition is dying out. This has resulted in natural regeneration reducing the number of open spaces in the area and this may prove to be a problem for the tourism industry, as visitors expect a landscape consisting of a mixture of forests, open fields and farms (Figures 3 and 4).

Beech forests originating from coppice are common at the higher elevations. Beech was coppiced due to the unavailability of oak and ash. Charcoal was manufactured in these areas as it was easier to transport to the lowlands and cities to sell as fuel. Around the beginning of the 19th century, 80-90% of all domestic fuel was charcoal.

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Figure 2 A view from Schauinsland towards Freiburg.

Figure 3 A mixture of forests and meadows is the traditional Black Forest landscape.

8 Forests in the extreme uplands are mainly used for protection, as harvesting is difficult due to steep slopes and the use of cable systems is not economic. The vegetation period increases at lower altitudes and commercial forestry becomes more realistic. Thinning is carried out with harvesters on slopes up to 35-40%.

Ecological niches are common. For instance, sycamore grows in many rocky areas unsuitable for beech. Irregular group shelterwood systems are used were harvesting takes place. Mixtures of Norway spruce and beech are most common in these systems. Natural regeneration is favoured in these areas, but where this has not taken place after a number of years, enrichment planting is used. The benefits of this form of forest management are that a continuous flow of varying diameter sizes from the forest exists at all times. This allows a wide range of domestic or market demands to be met. Roe deer are a hindrance to natural regeneration, however they usually favour more palatable species and therefore spruce and beech are often unharmed. Silver fir often occurs on steep slopes in place of Norway spruce. This species is very branchy and therefore requires pruning.

Figure 4. The Black Forest – forests on the higher slopes and agriculture in the valleys.

9 At 900 m altitude, forests become very productive. Crown thinning is used to prevent suppression of natural regeneration of beech, and large diameter trees are grown for veneer. Large trees are also required to provide a constant seed source, to aid in natural regeneration. Red core or red stain can be a problem in over-mature beech trees, as it turns grey on drying and makes the timber unsuitable for furniture making. Therefore trees are felled before reaching the over-mature stage, generally at between 120 and 150 years of age. The introduction of this type of forest management requires a number of decades before the stands have been fully transformed and the benefits of the management are realised.

Forest ownership in the Black Forest has traditionally been marked with border stones, each stone visible from the next. These stones are numbered, and the state forest service maintains the boundary on a regular basis.

Single Tree Selection Forests (Plenterwald) The group travelled to Ettenheim district (north of Freiburg) where we were met by a local forester who started out by presenting details of the surrounding area and forests. The forest ranges in altitude from 460-950 m, with heavy snow and rainfall, of between 1200-1500 mm annually. The average temperature in winter is 6.5oC and 13oC in the summer. The composition of the soil in this area is granite based up to 600 m in altitude, above it is sandstone based. Forests in the area are managed by four state-paid foresters who look after both public (state/community) and private forests. Forest management in this area is based on the single tree selection system (Plenterwald).

The selection system has advantages as all size/age classes are present all through the forest. This traditionally suited farmers, as they can harvest a variety of tree sizes from small forest areas. In contrast, to have a regular supply of timber for harvesting in a clearfell system, a minimum of 100 ha was required. According to the needs of the farmer, they use the large timber for construction on the farm, or sell it to the local sawmill industry. In the past, some of the large timber was sold to Holland as masts for shipbuilding.

10 It is necessary to carry out regular work in the forest in order to maintain the composition of small, middle and large sized trees, according to the inverse-J distributions, where diameter is plotted against number of trees. There have to be a number of openings in the canopy, so that small and medium sized trees can survive. If no work is carried out in the forest every few years, the canopy will close and suppress younger trees. It is very important to maintain the vertical structure in order to maintain the single stem utilisation system. Larger trees are harvested to give younger trees more light. Some medium sized trees are also removed, if there is a need to give the regeneration and smaller trees space within the stand. Where necessary, planting takes place to maintain the desired size and species distribution.

The felling of trees in this system is a tricky operation as all areas in the stands are covered by trees of various age classes; it is important to minimise damage to the smaller trees. It is therefore necessary to use well-trained operators. In the past farmers carried out the harvesting. They weren’t specially trained but were very experienced in harvesting trees in such a system. Today, mostly contractors who are trained carry out the harvesting operations.

Up to around 1900, most timber was rafted down river. Trees were cut at the first sap flow when the bark was loose and stems hadn’t produced sugar. This occurred normally during the month of June. The stems were then debarked and the timber allowed to dry during the summer months, before it was pulled down to the nearest river. Today trees are only cut during the winter as this is outside the growing period and less damage occurs. The infrastructure (racks, roads) for the extraction of timber needs to be of a good standard. The farmer extracts the timber to the roadside using tractors, winches and grapples, where the purchaser then collects it. A disadvantage of the selection system is that there is a low concentration of harvest volume per hectare, and it consists of a variety of size and species assortments. The (roadside) price for the high quality timber can however reach €180 m-3.

Throughout Germany in the 1850s, cooperatives were established. These small co-ops are now working together to create larger economies of scale. In the region, the local co-op has joined with 72 other co-ops, resulting in 3500 owners with 7200 ha, to manage their harvesting and timber sales to the industry. This gives them a much

11 better chance of getting a good and reliable price for their timber. Some individual properties can be only 30 m in width (as a result of the repeated splitting of an estate as part of the inheritance process) and maybe 1 km in length, and are marked by boundary stones. On these stones the symbol of the house that owned the land was marked. The timber when felled was marked with the same symbol. Recently, in order to save money, the ordnance survey uses smaller markers dug into the earth.

Norway spruce is becoming dominant in the Plenterwald area. The proportion of silver fir is decreasing because the increasing deer population, as it is more prone to deer damage. In Germany you can only hunt on your own land if you own more than 75 ha. The hunting rights can be rented out and can bring in approximately €5/ha annually. It is estimated that four deer are shot per 100 ha per year.

Beech was used in the past as fuel for the glass industry in the area. Norway spruce has been introduced since at least 1500 due to its resin content, which was collected and sold for sealing ships’ timbers.

In the last forty years there has been a lot of road building in the area. All farmers have to pay €10/ha into a special fund that is used to maintain the roads built by the co-op every year.

Since the late 1800s foresters have tried to copy the Planterwald system in different parts of Germany, and across the world. It was only recently that they realised that this system is only suitable on special sites. Only about 1% of all forests in Germany are managed by the system, with additional small areas in Switzerland and the Czech Republic. Because of the high rainfall, small trees can get sufficient moisture underneath the canopy, but if there were 3-4 weeks of dry weather, these small trees would no get enough water and would die, while larger trees which deeper root systems would be able to access water deeper in the ground and survive. This system might therefore be suited to climates such as Ireland, Scotland and England.

12 Forestry and tourism The next day, the forestry tour went to the village of Hinterzarten. After travelling by coach through ‘Hell’s Valley’, which is known locally as ‘the entrance to the kingdom of heaven’, we arrived in the village. There we were introduced to Dr Muller, the regional forest manager, who conducted the morning’s activities. Due to unseasonably heavy snow we couldn’t venture as far into the forest as planned. Dr Muller decided to bring us around the village and he described how forestry and the local heritage and economy were very closely related.

Tourism is the main industry of the village. Although there are only 2,000 permanent inhabitants, up to 500,000 overnight visitors stay in the village each year. There is a very long history of tourism, with one particular hotel, which was built in 1446, still in operation and run by the same family. In the 1800s some locals left the village to sell locally produced cuckoo clocks. Some of these people married abroad and returned to invest the money they had made in hotels in Hinterzarten. Summer tourism used to be more important, but with the increase in popularity of winter sports, the winter months are now the busiest for the village’s hotels and guesthouses.

Hinterzarten is famous for ski jumping and it regularly hosts international events. Over €4 million has been invested in ski jumping in the village by the government and major sponsors such as Coca-Cola.

The forests surrounding the village consist of 80% Norway spruce. Dr Muller described the long-term goal of creating a more mixed forest. To achieve this goal, beech was heavily favoured. Therefore the regeneration of Norway spruce needs to be controlled to prevent it dominating the forest. Silver fir regeneration needs to be sprayed with repellent to prevent browsing by deer. While natural regeneration is the main method of creating mixed forests, some planting also occurs to ensure the right mixture of species. This planting is grant aided.

As silver fir needs light and warmth to produce height growth, group cutting is used to encourage this species in the mixture. Single tree selection cutting is also used to release larger silver fir saplings. Public pressure not to fell excessive numbers of trees can sometimes hamper the efforts to change the make-up of the forest. Most felling is

13 therefore carried out in winter as the public don’t notice the impact as much (because of snow cover) and, as a result, there are fewer complaints. Recently the region’s forestry staff was reduced by 20% due to administrative restructuring. This makes the job of managing the forests and introducing mixtures a lot more difficult, because not as much attention can be paid to the process as before.

Farm forestry After our tour of Hinterzarten, we went with Dr Muller to meet Mr Wintertaller, the district forest ranger, and Mr Steiner on his farm. Mr Winteraller is the ranger responsible for 1,700 ha of forest, which comprises 1,100 ha of private forest, 350 ha of state forest, 110 ha of community forest and 140 ha of church forest. Many farm owners in the region use forestry to supplement their income. There is a good relationship between the ranger and local farm foresters. They meet with the ranger to discuss plans and seek advice on forestry practice. The advice is free, while any work done is costed at approximately one of third of the commercial price. The ranger also organises forest grants and subsidies for the farmers. Mr Wintertaller oversees a new initiative to create a modern forest road network in the region. Farmers receive 85% funding from the state for road building, and if the road can be used by hikers and tourists, they can receive an additional 5-8% funding.

Mr Steiner, the owner of the farm we visited, is concentrating more and more on forestry because it is more profitable then his traditional dairy farming enterprise. He owns approximately 75 ha of forests, consisting predominately of silver fir with some sycamore and ash. He cuts 10 m3/ha annually and extracts the timber himself with a modern winch system attached to his tractor. As all the silver fir is regenerated naturally, the deer population needs to be controlled through hunting. Mr Steiner is allowed to do this himself because his forest estate is over 60 ha, which gives him hunting rights on his own land. Mr Steiner explained that along with forestry, local farmers are looking for other sources of income. Some have created guest accommodation for tourists on their farms.

14 Timber processing After having lunch in the local guesthouse, we travelled to a large sawmill in the area. The sawmill (Holzwerk Rötenbach GmbH) specialises in softwood that is transported from the surrounding forests. The sawmill operates five days a weeks and a normal working day is eight hours. There are 65 people employed.

The timber may be transported from as far as 100 km as the mill needs a constant supply of timber to keep it operating to its potential, along with meeting orders. Machines in the sawmill are highly productive and can process 150,000 m3 of timber annually. The sawmill’s objective is to buy full lengths of timber, as the stems can then be cut into log lengths at the mill, depending on the orders that have to be filled. The predominant species processed is Norway spruce, with a small amount of Douglas fir. Most of the timber is processed to fill advance orders, with 90% of the lumber being exported. Contractors who have their own trucks transport the timber to the sawmill. Twenty four trucks enter the sawmill daily, carrying 720-800 m3 of timber. The weight of each truckload is about 32 tonnes (Figure 5).

Figure 5. The trailer of a tree-length timber truck is piggy-backed for the return journey.

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The first stage of the log processing is debarking, which is controlled by one man. A butt reducer is used to remove excessive butt swell. A circular saw cuts the butt end square. A scanner then accurately measures the diameter of the debarked logs along the stem. After the stem is scanned, the computer suggests how to cut the various log lengths so as to fill the orders, while maximising the value and minimising the amounts of waste. The operator can overrule the suggestion made by the computer. The scanning system recognises the sweep in the stem but cannot detect knots. The logs are sorted into 66 length and diameter categories, with a different box for each assortment. The computer’s set of options for the range of assortments is regularly updated to suit the inventory and market requirements. Eighty percent of timber is cut to order, to reduce the storage cost of finished products.

One person controls the sawing line, with the aid of a computer. The computer and machines are programmed to carry out the various sawing patterns and the settings can be changed easily. The machines have a tenth of millimetre sawing accuracy. There are ten machines on the processing line. Figure 6 shows the various operations that take place.

There are six people working on the sawing line. They keep the line fed with logs and stack the different timber lengths coming off the line. Eighty percent of the timber is for the building trade. All by-products are sold: bark to the garden industry, sawdust for animal bedding, and wood chips for wood burners. All of these by-products are very important, as they contribute significantly to the overall profit of the sawmill.

There is a full time metal worker/saw doctor employed in the sawmill to maintain the machines and kept the saw blades in good operating order. This involves replacing the teeth on the blades on a continual basis in order to give a clean cut. Each blade costs €250 so it is important to get the maximum use out of them.

A small proportion of the lumber is dried in the kilns before it leaves the mills. The kilns have the capacity to hold 700 m3 of timber. It normally takes a day and half to dry the timber to its desired moisture content. As this company exports a lot of timber, it is required to heat treat most of this timber. In one year’s time, EU regulations will

16 require that all timber that is to be exported must be heat-treated, increasing the importance of the kilns to the mill.

Chipper Canter V40 Cant turning device DV1 Chipper Canter V25

Profiler Unit F1 Saw Unit S1 Cant turning device DV2

Profiler Unit F1 Saw Unit S2 Horizontal Split Double Arbor Saw HK Circular Saw MHV Figure 6. Operations on the sawing line.

The Kaiserstuhl – landscape conservation The next morning was spent in the Kaiserstuhl conservation area, situated in the upper Rhine valley to the west of Freiburg. The Kaiserstuhl consists of 2,000 ha of small hills covered with a mixture of vineyards, meadows, and forest (Figure 7). The area has been cultivated for over a thousand years and is still used for wine production. In more recent times its ecological importance has been recognised and some parts are managed solely for the conservation of biodiversity.

17 The climate of the area is classified as warm temperate to cool Mediterranean. With an average annual temperature of 11o C, it is one of the warmest regions in Germany. The area is dry with annual precipitation of 650 mm. The geology is composed of volcanic and sedimentary rocks, both of which possess a high calcareous component. Overlying these rocks and their resulting soils is a layer of highly fertile loess soil. The highest point in the Kaiserstuhl is 550 m. These conditions make the area ideal for the production of wine.

As this area has been managed for such a long period, mature meadow based ecosystems have developed which are rich in wild flowers; 36 orchid species have been identified within the area, and it supports large numbers of insects. Grape production is based primarily on the lower slopes of the hills, where terraces have been cut into the steep slopes. The most recent terraces date from the 1970s. Forests have been created above the vineyards, consisting of a mixture of coppice and high forest. These forests are composed of a range of species, including pine, Douglas fir, oak, and beech. The functions of these forests are to act as buffers that protect the sensitive vines from frost and also to reduce the erosive effects of strong winds upon the terraces. Timber harvested from the forests would not be of sufficient quality for commercial lumber output, and is instead used as firewood or in the vineyards.

Figure 7. The landscape of the Kaiserstuhl.

18 A brief stop was made in Neuf-Brisach on the French side of the Rhine. Neuf-Brisach is a Vauban designed fortress town which was constructed in the early 18th century and is still inhabited today. During the reign of Louis XIV, the border between Germany and France was strengthened by the construction of a number of fortified towns to house the French army and their families. This site highlights the tense historic relationship between France and Germany along their shared boundaries.

The afternoon was spent examining coppice with standards in France. To this day, approximately 50% of the forests in France are still managed by coppice or coppice- with-standards systems. The coppice system has been used since Roman times when fuel production was their most important function. The high fertility and pH of the soil on the site is well suited to the growth of oak, but because of high establishment costs associated with oak, hornbeam is now the most common species found. Oak, beech and field maple were also present, but to a lesser extent. However, in times past, oak dominated many of these forests, as its use for grazing and acorn production for pig feed was very important.

Coppice-with-standards differs from normal coppice, as a number of shoots (or standards) are maintained over successive rotations. Rotation lengths are commonly between 20-30 years, so trees of 25, 50, 75 and 100 years can all be present at the end of a rotation. This results in the production of a wider assortment of timber sizes compared with normal coppice, thus increasing their potential uses. As expected, productive capacity of the coppice stools reduces over time and, when senescence begins, regeneration is sought either by seed or through natural regeneration. Similar to many areas in Ireland, a huge deer problem, especially with roe deer, hampers regeneration, especially of oak.

The coppice with standards system became increasingly important under Louis XIV in the 17th century, as a result of increasing demand for timber. This increasing demand was caused by the introduction of the mercantilist system, which aimed to export high quality finished products, while importing cheap goods. This required the creation of a large industrial sector, which in turn needed large quantities of timber. Coppice and coppice-with-standards are rare in modern Germany, mainly due to the high costs, particularly of labour, associated with these systems. However, such

19 systems have a major advantage in terms of habitat protection and may increase in popularity again as the demands placed upon forests change.

Harvesting On Friday the group met with Mr Church, the Forest Manager for the Ettingen District. The average temperature is 8-9 oC and the average rainfall 1200 mm annually, with the altitude ranging between 160 and 700 m. The commercial forests in the region make up 10,000 ha of which 4,300 ha are private, the largest being 200 ha in size. The forests in the area are made up of 48% broadleaf (beech, oak, ash and maple) and 52% conifer (spruce, fir and pine).

From these forests 80,000 m3 of timber are harvested each year. Broadleaves are all sold during the winter months, except for firewood, which can be sold all year round. Five full-time forest workers are employed year-round; these workers travel between all the forests, carrying out work assigned to them by the forest rangers. When harvesting, workers receive information about the volume they are to harvest and its location. They are even told in which direction each tree is to be felled; this is done for two reasons. The first is to minimise the damage to the undergrowth (i.e. the natural regeneration). The second is to fell the trees in such a way that the skidders that are used to extract the timber can reach the logs without leaving the extraction paths, and so minimise soil disturbance. The instructions that the workers receive tell them what assortments to cut from the stems so as to maximize the value of the logs. This will depend on the demand in the market for the individual assortments at that time. Currently in Germany, certified timber does not command an additional price.

The method by which the firewood is sold is customers (local residents in most cases) are brought into the forest and shown the timber. It is then up to them to extract the timber and cut it into firewood.

A demonstration of how to fell, delimb and crosscut stems into the desired assortments was given in a thinning operation. The stand they were working in was a 50-year-old beech stand. The first tree felled was of bad quality. Two low quality sawlogs of 5 m length were cut, with the remainder of the stem going to the

20 particleboard industry. Workers cut the trees into the assortments in the strand and write the dimensions on the end of the logs and leave them in the forest. A contractor with a tractor and winch then comes and skids the logs out. Mr Church explained that this year the market for beech timber is depressed and, as a result, a lot of the wood is being cut for firewood. When the trees are cut into assortments, the remaining parts of the stems are left for the local residents to buy and collect. It is an important task of the forest rangers to ensure that the firewood cutters stay on the specified extraction routes and trails, as the soils here are loamy and protection against compaction is very important.

A question was asked why not use machinery here to fell the timber. A number of reasons was given. One is that farmers and local residents collect the small diameter material for firewood. If machines were used, this type of timber would have to be used for a brash mat and would be driven into the ground. Another reason is that it is important to keep the five workers occupied during the year, providing them with enough work for a full time job. It was explained that it was very important to balance the social, political, environmental and economic issues when making decisions in forestry. The difference in the harvesting cost between the manual method and the mechanised method was said to be anywhere between €3 m-3 and €13 m-3 depending on the site conditions and the dimensions of the trees.

Health and safety were also important issues discussed by Mr Church. He explained how all the roads surrounding the area of harvesting are closed, and the location of the nearest doctor is made known to the workers. The workers are fully trained (having completed a three-year programme) and are required to wear all the protective clothing, which is paid for by the community. The chainsaws the workers use are their own, as it was discovered that when the community bought the saws, the workers did not look after them very well. However, the fuel and oil that are consumed is paid for by the community. Bio fuels are used as they supposedly reduce the risk of canker to the remaining trees, and to reduce pollution. The method by which the workers are paid depends on the type of site they are working on. They can either be paid on a weekly basis or on the amount of timber they cut.

Beech management

21 The forest we visited was located in the foothills of the Black Forest. The area consists of large hills that originated from huge landslides that happened during a tectonic shift separating the Vosges Mountains and the Black Forest. The foothills belong to this geologically very diverse region. Its altitude ranges from 190 to 640 m above sea level. The climate is warm, with an Atlantic character. The long-term mean temperature lies between 9 and 10 °C, rather warm in comparison to the average of Germany. Rainfall can reach a level of up to 1000 mm annually. The natural regional forest type is broadleaved forest, rich in beech. Former forest management in this type of forest was characterised by promoting oak by applying coppice-with-standards. In the late 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, conifers were introduced. Thus beech has decreased in proportion to its initial/natural occurrence.

The growth of beech has some very typical characteristics. Compared to other broadleaved species or conifers accompanying beech in mixed stands, it has a late start of rapid height growth with regard to age (which gives a chance to the other species in the mixture). It also has a capacity to expand its crown, even at a late age, and last a high volume increment (under proper management) which foresters have only recently become aware of.

Normally beech is established as a mixed stand. Common mixture species (at the age of harvesting the final crop trees) are oak, Norway spruce and Douglas fir, depending on site conditions, climate and biological constraints. These managed mixed forests consist of around 70% beech and 30% other species. Natural regeneration is the preferred way of establishing stands. Shelterwood systems, group systems, and single tree selection systems (using a target diameter) are used to get sufficient regeneration. The time from initiating the first regeneration to reaching a fully stocked beech stand depends upon climate, soil, altitude, and damages caused by pests, and ranges from 10 up to 40 or 50 years. Pure beech regeneration is not recommended. Enrichment planting with conifers or other broadleaved species is one way to get higher (and earlier) revenues from mixed beech stands. Normally no formative pruning is carried out and respacing is only done in exceptional cases (Figure 8). At the thinning stage (Figure 9), three criteria have to be considered in the selection of the final crop trees (in order of their importance): 1. Vitality

22 2. Quality 3. Distribution

During this thinning stage, the aim is to reach the desired dimension (target diameter) of the final crop trees as quickly as possible. The thinnings will therefore only involve dominant or co-dominant trees that are completing with the final crop trees. Thinning intensity depends on the vigour of beech trees and the mixture of species in the stand. The more productive the beech is, the more often thinnings have to be carried out.

Figure 8 Young beech stand. Notice stocking density and straightness of stems.

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Figure 9 Beech stand at the thinning stage.

Calculating the volume to be removed is easy, see the following example: 1. Select 100 final crop trees per ha; 2. Three neighboring trees for each final crop tree are to be removed in two operations, c. 300 trees per ha; 3. The volume of one single tree to be removed: 0,35 m³ (based on a mean dbh of trees to be removed of 20 cm); 4. Volume removed therefore: 105 m³/ ha in two operations.

In these forests a combination of shelterwood and group systems is most often used. The objective is to maximize value increment, considering the dimensions of trees, the current diameter increment, and, in particular, the risk of red stain in the heartwood and the stimulation of the growth of understorey trees of good quality. Selected trees are harvested all over the stand. Target diameter felling is used. The definition of target diameter felling is: single tree harvesting; decisions on harvesting are taken based on individual trees; final diameter is the most important criterion whether to harvest a tree or not. The target diameter in this stand was a dbh of 60 cm

24 (Figure 10). Once the canopy is opened up and crowns of trees don’t touch any more, seeding starts. A few years later natural regeneration comes up over the whole area. In local places where there is more regeneration, gaps are then made to give more light to the young trees. Trees are regularly removed as they reach the target diameter, and step-by-step more light will reach the understorey, until finally the overstorey will have been removed completely.

Figure 10 Beech stand approaching the target diameter.

Conclusion The tour was very worthwhile and informative as it gave us a great insight into German forestry and forest culture. Irish and German forestry have nowadays a great deal in common at management level, for example the concepts of sustainable forest management (SFM), biodiversity, sustained yield, etc. But one thing Ireland has not yet in common with Germany is a forest culture. A culture that respects its forests and environment, a culture that encourages people to take their vacation in forests and to

25 make them an integral part of every-day life. Also a culture where a forestry education is seen as a very good preparation for life and where student numbers in forestry are continuing to stay very high. Ireland should be trying to develop such a forest culture, by further opening up the forests and forest land, and by communicating to the public that the forest is not just there to benefit the forest owner financially, but also to enjoy and respect by the whole community. The forestry sector should also encourage more students to study forestry.

Acknowlegements The students would like to thank the Forestry staff in the UCD School of Biology and Environmental Science for organising the trip to Freiburg and the staff in the Albert- Ludwig University (especially Professor Jürgen Huss) for organising and hosting the programme. In addition, the financial contributions by Coillte Teoranta and COFORD (without which the tour would not be possible) are gratefully acknowledged.

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