DOCSLIB.ORG

Chapter 3: 1926–1932, Forestry Research Comes of Age in California

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Chapter 3: 1926–1932, Forestry Research Comes of Age in California The Search for Forest Facts: A History of the Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, 1926–2000 Chapter 3: 1926–1932, Forestry Research Comes of Age in California By the time the California Forest Experiment Station (CFES) was established in the latter half of 1926, forestry research in the United States had gone through many decades of change. In a lecture before a forestry school class at the University of California, Berkeley, S.B. Show, head of California’s District 5 Branch of Research, spelled out to the students the historical developments in forestry research in California, and the problems he foresaw for the future. Forestry Research in America According to Show, the earliest forestry research followed traditional lines, such Just after World War I, as forest growth investigations, tree studies, and so on. These were valuable there was a shift from academically, but had no practical value. The creation of forest reserves and then planting research national forests with many kinds of concerns made evident the almost complete and purely ecological lack of knowledge of necessary basic facts for administering them. Timber cut- studies toward ting, fire protection, grazing, and other forest management problems in these early solutions to more years under the General Land Office (GLO) and then the Forest Service after practical concerns. 1905 had to be organized and administered using judgment and hunches—not scientific research. Recognition of the need for reliable information led to making silvicultural investigations one of the chief duties of forest assistants. The men were inadequately trained for this special work, and investigations were still along traditional lines. Projects were poorly selected. This system, according to Show, gave some results of value, but was still uncertain and cumbersome. The need for specialists soon became evident. To answer this need, the Forest Service organized experiment stations, starting in 1908. This program was originally built around planting research and fundamental ecological studies to determine the causes of forest types. Research was generally regarded as something apart from administra- tion, which, in Show’s opinion, caused many of their forest management decisions to be based on conjecture. Then just after World War I, there was a shift from planting research and purely ecological studies toward solutions to more practical concerns. In the early 1920s, Forest Service administration began to fully recognize that research should be directed toward problems of immediate importance, such as how to handle cutting on timberlands so that new and superior crops would be obtained promptly; how to develop plans for managing forest properties involving a knowledge of sites, yields, rotations, etc.; how to develop tables and methods of measuring timber, both for general use and in research work itself; and how to 105 GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-233 protect old and young forests against fire, disease, and insects. In his concluding remarks, Show encouraged students in their pursuit of forestry, stating that both the Forest Service and industry were in need of more reliable information that currently was impossible to secure by existing research personnel (Show 1924b). California’s Forestry State of Affairs: 1926 In 1926, the situation in California was ripe for research, especially regarding problems in forest, forage, fire, and water management. The lumber industry at this time was at its peak of postwar prosperity. Prices were relatively high, many new mills were starting up, and the state’s lumber production was at its highest level to date. Prospects seemed bright for the early realization of what was then being called “industrial” forestry. In California’s pine region, the introduction of the caterpillar tractor meant that cheaper logs could be provided to industry with less damage to the forest than the donkey engine logging practices of the past1 (fig. 27). Nevertheless, the need for increased silvicultural research was urgent because of increased logging in the state’s pine forests. There were still some 11 million acres of uncut pine timber left in California, but the future rate of growth, and thus the profit of tree growing, depended on proper maintenance of these sites, something to which private lumber companies had given little or no thought. Forestry research was needed to give public and private sources the ability to increase stocking, and to control the composition of the forest that succeeded this cutting. On the other hand, in California’s redwood region, the timber industry was busy launching the largest program of industrial forest planting ever undertaken in the United States. In fact, by 1927, owners of redwood forests in California were planting more land in California than was being planted on the national forests of California, Oregon, Washington combined. However, this commercial reforestation to assure a future redwood (See “Scientific and Common Names” section) lumber supply had pro- ceeded on a slender foundation of knowledge. The need for silvicultural and forest management investigations in the redwood region was acute. For 2 years, Forest Service silvicultural research in that region had been especially wanting, mainly because of the absence of national forests there, and secondarily because the urgent need in the pine region, where national forests existed, took up Forest Service time, staff, and research dollars (Greeley 1927, USDA FS 1932b). 1 In 1923, Duncan Dunning made an intensive field study of these steam-powered machines, which pulled or yarded, felled, and limbed trees from the stump to the deck. His study described the excessive damage to residual trees and the future productivity of the site. Thereafter, Dunning, along with S.B. Show, passionately opposed the use of these high-speed logging machines (Conners 2006). 106 The Search for Forest Facts: A History of the Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, 1926–2000 U.S. ForestU.S. Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station Figure 27—Early tractor with cleated tracks hauling logs. The use of tractors dramatically improved the efficiency of logging operations. Research needs in other forestry areas—range management, fire protection and prevention, and watershed protection and development—had long been acute in California prior to 1926 as well. California’s District 5 Office of Grazing had applied the Forest Service’s research findings at the Jornada and Great Basin Sta- tions to the state’s national forests, but accomplishments in grazing research on the forests had been mainly a byproduct, both in work and in thinking, of these find- ings. California needed technical personnel familiar with grazing research to grasp the regional grazing picture and to form a state management program. In the field of forest fire research, there was great pressure from Californians for improved pro- tection. The challenge was to provide adequate organization and equipment to meet the state’s needs. The statistical fire research contributed by Show and Edward Kotok in the early 1920s marked some progress, but there was no organized fire research underway in the state. Nor had research into forest watersheds fared any better, despite a widespread general public interest in water management. In south- ern California, widespread water development activities, such as the San Gabriel project for the city of Los Angeles and the Boulder Dam project, were designed to provide urban and agricultural water needs in that part of the state. There, con- cerned counties and municipalities desired erosion-streamflow studies by the Forest 107 GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-233 Service to help conserve and protect water and watersheds.2 In the northern half of the state, because water was more readily available, pressure for water management studies was less compelling, beyond a scattered number of advocates who were unorganized in their demands (USDA FS 1932b). All of the above—forest, range, fire, and water problems—as well as others, became, at least in part, subjects for research for the newly established CFES. This chapter will recount the history of CFES research on these issues during its first 5 years of service, but before exploring this account, some background history on national events that affected Forest Service research policy and organization in general is necessary. A National Forest Research Program: 1926 By 1926, Department of Agriculture agency representatives, such as the Forest Service, Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI), and Bureau of Entomology (BE), as well as state forestry departments, universities, and agricultural experiment stations, had given input to a special committee on forest research of the Society of Ameri- can Foresters (SAF).3 Their task was to answer one basic question: “Is forest re- search necessary?” Two years earlier, in November 1924, Chief Forester William B. Greeley had challenged the SAF with this question in a keynote address before the organization. During his speech, Greeley also asked other critical questions: “What is the outstanding importance and urgency of the forest problem in the United States?” and “What is the basic place of research in the solution of that problem?” Responding to Greeley’s challenges, the SAF appointed a three-man committee,4 2 In 1927, the Forest Service became extremely sensitive to the issue of forests and flood control because the Mississippi River flood disaster of that year called into question the adequacy of the Nation’s public program of forestry. The Forest Service realized that such floods could not be controlled solely through reforestation, but on the other hand, forests did aid in the regulation of streams because they held the soil in place and held back rain and snow water more effectively than any other form of vegetative cover (Greeley 1927). 3 The SAF is the national scientific and educational organization representing the forestry profession in the United States. Founded in 1900 by Gifford Pinchot, it is the largest profes- sional society for foresters in the world.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • HISTORY of the TOIYABE NATIONAL FOREST a Compilation
    HISTORY OF THE TOIYABE NATIONAL FOREST A Compilation Posting the Toiyabe National Forest Boundary, 1924 Table of Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3 Chronology ..................................................................................................................................... 4 Bridgeport and Carson Ranger District Centennial .................................................................... 126 Forest Histories ........................................................................................................................... 127 Toiyabe National Reserve: March 1, 1907 to Present ............................................................ 127 Toquima National Forest: April 15, 1907 – July 2, 1908 ....................................................... 128 Monitor National Forest: April 15, 1907 – July 2, 1908 ........................................................ 128 Vegas National Forest: December 12, 1907 – July 2, 1908 .................................................... 128 Mount Charleston Forest Reserve: November 5, 1906 – July 2, 1908 ................................... 128 Moapa National Forest: July 2, 1908 – 1915 .......................................................................... 128 Nevada National Forest: February 10, 1909 – August 9, 1957 .............................................. 128 Ruby Mountain Forest Reserve: March 3, 1908 – June 19, 1916 ..........................................
    [Show full text]
  • Archival Copy. for Current Version, See
    Archival copy. For current version, see: https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/4-h331 4-H 331 REPRINTED JULY 2005 $8.00 Archival copy. For current version, see: https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/4-h331 Oregon 4-H Forestry Member Manual Contents Lesson 1: Welcome to Oregon 4-H Forestry 1 Lesson 2: Forests in Oregon 4 Lesson 3 Looking Closer 7 Lesson 4 Succession 9 Lesson 5 Oregon's Most Common Trees 12 Lesson 6: How to Find a Tree's Family Tree 14 Lesson 7 Growing Every Which Way' 18 Lesson 8: From Seedlings to Spires 21 Lesson 9: Spreading the Seed 23 Lesson 10 The Dynamic Forest Ecosystem 26 Lesson 11 Silviculture Equals Forest Management 30 Lesson 12: Fire 33 Lesson 13: Wildlife and the Forest 36 Lesson 14 Harvesting 39 Lesson 15 Trees in Urban Ecosystems 43 Appendices Appendix A Answers to forestry puzzles 46 Appendix B Extension pubhcations The Wildlife Garden 48 Glossary of Tree Terms 49 Resources and Acknowledgments 52 Adapted for use in Oregon from Minnesota Extension Service 4-H youth forestry materials by Judy Dickerson, former 4-H youth development faculty. Josephine County; and Virginia Bourdeau, Extension specialist, 4-H youth development, Oregon State University. Archival copy. For current version, see: https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/4-h331 Lesson 1 Welcome to Oregon 4-H Forestry is a wonderful state. Forested land is found in every region. It's good to know about the types of Oregonplants and land use that dominate your home state. You are in charge of writing a The goals of the Oregon 4-H Forestry Project are to give recipe for a forest.
    [Show full text]
  • Wood from Midwestern Trees Purdue EXTENSION
    PURDUE EXTENSION FNR-270 Daniel L. Cassens Professor, Wood Products Eva Haviarova Assistant Professor, Wood Science Sally Weeks Dendrology Laboratory Manager Department of Forestry and Natural Resources Purdue University Indiana and the Midwestern land, but the remaining areas soon states are home to a diverse array reforested themselves with young of tree species. In total there are stands of trees, many of which have approximately 100 native tree been harvested and replaced by yet species and 150 shrub species. another generation of trees. This Indiana is a long state, and because continuous process testifies to the of that, species composition changes renewability of the wood resource significantly from north to south. and the ecosystem associated with it. A number of species such as bald Today, the wood manufacturing cypress (Taxodium distichum), cherry sector ranks first among all bark, and overcup oak (Quercus agricultural commodities in terms pagoda and Q. lyrata) respectively are of economic impact. Indiana forests native only to the Ohio Valley region provide jobs to nearly 50,000 and areas further south; whereas, individuals and add about $2.75 northern Indiana has several species billion dollars to the state’s economy. such as tamarack (Larix laricina), There are not as many lumber quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), categories as there are species of and jack pine (Pinus banksiana) that trees. Once trees from the same are more commonly associated with genus, or taxon, such as ash, white the upper Great Lake states. oak, or red oak are processed into In urban environments, native lumber, there is no way to separate species provide shade and diversity the woods of individual species.
    [Show full text]
  • Forest Service News
    OldSmokeys Newsletter Newsletter of the Pacific Northwest Forest Service Retirees—Summer 2017 President’s Message—Tom Mulder I appreciate the opportunity to share reflections on my first month as OldSmokeys president. It is an immense honor to connect with you and represent you as the newest president of our wonderful organization. Let’s start by thanking past presidents Jim Rice and Ron Boehm for graciously teaching me the ropes, and by celebrating Kent Connaughton’s election as the future president. What a team! Current News: Regional Forester Jim Peña and the Region 6 troops hosted a WO field review the week of June 6, and several of us proudly represented the OldSmokeys as co-hosts of a midweek evening social. You may remember field reviews from back in the day. It was a grand opportunity to see old friends from the RO and WO, meet new friends participating in the review, and talk with pride about the OldSmokeys. The evening focus was filled with conversations about strong partnerships, including OldSmokeys, as Beth Pendleton filled in for the Chief before his pending arrival. I had the privilege of talking to the entire room of reviewers and reviewees about you, about future retirees, about our partnership with the Forest Service in the Pacific Northwest, and about our wonderful OldSmokey grants and our Elmer Moyer Memorial Emergency Fund which supports Forest Service families in times of need. I took the time to conduct some OldSmokey braggin’ on your behalf. What fun! Recent Reflections: I want to relate an interesting conversation with a friend.
    [Show full text]
  • The Knothole, November 24, 1969
    SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry Digital Commons @ ESF The Knothole College Archives 11-24-1969 The Knothole, November 24, 1969 SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry Student Body Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.esf.edu/knothole Part of the Communication Commons, Creative Writing Commons, and the Environmental Studies Commons Recommended Citation SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry Student Body, "The Knothole, November 24, 1969" (1969). The Knothole. 179. https://digitalcommons.esf.edu/knothole/179 This Newspaper is brought to you for free and open access by the College Archives at Digital Commons @ ESF. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Knothole by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ ESF. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. FOREST FIRES THE KNOTHOLE Forest fires in the United States alone, Published: Every Monday by Alpha Xi Sigma destroy enough timber annually to build 25, Deadline: Monday A.M. one week before 000 homes, furnish baseball bats to every publication player in the nation from Little leagues to Major Leagues; and print all the comic books, Articles: Please sign name and so indi­ magazines and newspapers in the nation! cate if you do not wish to have Everyone has a stake in forest fire pre­ name printed. We welcome all vention. Aside from the aesthetic values articles, gossip, notices, sug­ of the woods involved, the appreciable loss gestions, and new staff members. of tinfer by forest fires is one of the con­ Editors: John Boreman Marlene Halinar tributing factors in the high cost of lum­ Norman Booth Janine Newmiller ber.
    [Show full text]
  • In Ashley County, Arkansas
    . .".. Five Years of Change in an Old-Growth Pine-Hardwood Remnant in Ashley County, Arkansas USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, P.O. Box 3516 UAM; Monticello, AR 71656 Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract.-The Levi Wilcoxon Demonstration Forest near Hamburg, Arkansas is an industrially-owned remnant of old-growth pine and hardwodds. Some of the loblolly (Pinus taeda L.) and shortleaf (Pinus echinata Mill.) pine in this stand are over 200 years old, and numerous individuals exceed 90 cm in diameter and 30 m in height. A 2000 survey of a portion of this tract found that 27 tree species contributed an average of 387.5 live stemsiha and 31.8 m2/haof basal area. An inventory of the same plots in 2006 yielded noticeable declines in density (now down to 342.5 stemslha) and basal area (now 28.2 m2/ha). Much of this loss came in the aftermath of a windstorm in May 2003, which felled a number of overstory pines. Loblolly pine decreased from 49.6 stemslha and 13.2 m2/ha in 2000 to 42.1 trees/ha and 11.2 m2/ha in 2006, while shortleaf pine declined from 21.7 treeslha and 5.0 mz/ha to 14.6 trees/ha and 3.5 m2/ha. Further pine mortality came from smaller-scale windthrow, lightning, and bark beetle infestations. Some hardwoods were also toppled by storms or crushed by falling trees, but most appear to have succumbed to drought, competition, and salvage logging. However, hardwood basal area remained virtually unchanged over this period, signifying adequate diameter growth and midstory recruitment.
    [Show full text]
  • Pinetum1939.Pdf
    THE OLD NORTH STATE Here’s to the land of the long leaf pine, The summer land, where the sun doth shine: Where the weak grow strong, and the strong grow great Here’s to down home, the Old North State. Here’s to the land of the cotton bloom white, Where the scuppernong perfumes the breezes at night; Where soft Southern moss and jessamine mate, 'Neath the murmuring pines of the "Old North State." Here’s to the land where the galax grows. Where the rhododendron roseate glows; Where soars Mt. Mitchell's summit great. In the land of the sky, in "The Old North State." Here’s to the land where maidens are fairest. Where friends are truest, and cold hearts are rarest; The near land, the dear land, whatever our fate. The blest land, the best land, the "Old North State." Pl-NE—TUM 1939 Journal of Forestry N.(L State CoHege CD 1. RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA DEDICATION TO Mrs. J. V. Hofmann, Mrs. G. K. Slocum, Mrs. Lenthall Wyman, and Mrs. W. D. Miller, wives of our much loved Forestry School faculty, we, the staff of the 1939 Pl-NE-TUM, dedicate this sixth edition. Thanks to you for the big bright smile your husbands greet us with each morning at eight o’clock. Your sincere under- standing, cooperation, and interest in us is felt by our contact with your husbands. May this dedication be only a small token of our appreciation of you. [ 2] FOREWORD AGAIN this year the Pl-NE-TUM is an annual by and for the students, alumni, and friends of the N.
    [Show full text]
  • A Glossary of Common Forestry Terms
    W 428 A Glossary of Common Forestry Terms A Glossary of Common Forestry Terms David Mercker, Extension Forester University of Tennessee acre artificial regeneration A land area of 43,560 square feet. An acre can take any shape. If square in shape, it would measure Revegetating an area by planting seedlings or approximately 209 feet per side. broadcasting seeds rather than allowing for natural regeneration. advance reproduction aspect Young trees that are already established in the understory before a timber harvest. The compass direction that a forest slope faces. afforestation bareroot seedlings Establishing a new forest onto land that was formerly Small seedlings that are nursery grown and then lifted not forested; for instance, converting row crop land without having the soil attached. into a forest plantation. AGE CLASS (Cohort) The intervals into which the range of tree ages are grouped, originating from a natural event or human- induced activity. even-aged A stand in which little difference in age class exists among the majority of the trees, normally no more than 20 percent of the final rotation age. uneven-aged A stand with significant differences in tree age classes, usually three or more, and can be basal area (BA) either uniformly mixed or mixed in small groups. A measurement used to help estimate forest stocking. Basal area is the cross-sectional surface area (in two-aged square feet) of a standing tree’s bole measured at breast height (4.5 feet above ground). The basal area A stand having two distinct age classes, each of a tree 14 inches in diameter at breast height (DBH) having originated from separate events is approximately 1 square foot, while an 8-inch DBH or disturbances.
    [Show full text]
  • Administrative Facilities of the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest, 1891-1950
    United States Department of Agriculture Privies, Pastures, Forest Service Intermountain and Portables Region Humboldt- Administrative Facilities of the Toiyabe Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest, 1891-1950 National Forest December 2001 Volume Two: Inventory and Evaluation Forest Service Report No. TY-01-1370 Cover: Currant Creek Ranger Station, Nevada National Forest, c.1911. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audio tape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410 or call (202) 720- 5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. Privies, Pastures, and Portables Administrative Facilities of the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest, 1891-1950 Volume Two: Inventory and Evaluation Forest Service Report No. TY-01-1370 By Richa Wilson Regional Architectural Historian USDA Forest Service Intermountain Region Facilities Group 324 25th Street Ogden, UT 84401 801-625-5704 [email protected] TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ......................................................................................................................................................................1
    [Show full text]
  • Florida Forest Service James R. Karels, State Forester
    Florida Forest Service James R. Karels, State Forester The forest needs of Florida’s citizens are much greater than many realize, often impacting our lives in ways that we may not always see. It is estimated that the average person utilizes 40 products a day that are derived from the forest. This not only includes the obvious products such as lumber and paper, but items such as toothpaste, ice cream, film, cellophane, tape, adhesives, and enhancements for many of the foods we eat and drink. There are well over 5,000 different products that come from forests. Of course, there are many other benefits we derive from forests, such as clean air, clean water, recreation and an enhanced environment. Currently the forest industry is the leading agricultural industry in Florida and second only to tourism in total impact on the state’s economy. The timber industry also provides numerous jobs, outdoor recreation opportunities for millions of visitors each year. Forestry is about balancing the ecological, social and economic needs of our state. Educating our citizens about proper forest management practices will help ensure that forests will be healthy and that the forest industry remains a viable commodity for future generations. The purpose of this book is to reach out to our youth to teach them good forestry practices. Jim Karels State Forester, Florida Forest Service Table of Contents For the Teacher, Sunshine State Standards . ii Part One: Introduction . 1 Introduction . 3 History of Florida’s Forests . 4 Forest Communities . 7 Succession . 8 The Tree . 8 Dendrology . 10 Part Two: Forest Management .
    [Show full text]
  • For Immediate Release ACM FOREST TECHNOLOGY to HOST
    For Immediate Release ACM FOREST TECHNOLOGY TO HOST REGIONAL WOODSMEN CONTEST CUMBERLAND, Md. -- Student forest technicians from six colleges in the region will bring their skills to Allegany College of Maryland to compete with each other and the home team in the upcoming Mid-Atlantic Woodsmen Meet. In addition, forestry students from three four-year schools will join the half-dozen colleges in the STIHL TIMBERSPORTS MidAtlantic Collegiate Qualifier, a preliminary Both events, which feature such classic lumberjack skills as climbing, rolling, tossing, sawing, chopping and felling, will be held Saturday, April 11, on ACM’s Cumberland campus. Admission is free and open to the public. Sports broadcaster ESPNU will film the STIHL TIMBERSPORTS competition, which features college lumberjacks competing in four of the disciplines in which professionals test logging skills for the national championship. One collegiate winner will emerge from this qualifier to compete with peers from four other regions in the collegiate championship, which will be held in New York’s Central Park in honor of the event’s 30th anniversary. The competition begins at 8 a.m. in archery and dendrology, the study of trees. Contestants and other school representatives are given an official welcome at 9:30 a.m. Activities such as team log roll, orienteering, bolt split, speed chop, pulpwood toss and tree fell follow. The Mid-Atlantic Woodsmen Meet continues until noon, when student foresters from all nine colleges and universities convene for the STIHL TIMBERSPORTS MidAtlantic Collegiate Qualifier. Starting at 1:30 p.m. with axe throw and pole climb, additional woodsmen events to follow include cross-cut saw, single buck, chain saw, choker setting and speed chop.
    [Show full text]
  • Eastern Hemlock Information
    http://www.cnr.vt.edu/DENDRO/DENDROLOGY/syllabus/factsheet.cfm?ID=116 USDAFS Silvics of North America Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. Eastern Hemlock Pinaceae -- Pine family R. M. Godman and Kenneth Lancaster Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), also called Canada hemlock or hemlock spruce, is a slow- growing long-lived tree which unlike many trees grows well in shade. It may take 250 to 300 years to reach maturity and may live for 800 years or more. A tree measuring 76 inches in diameter at breast height (dbh) and 175 feet tall is among the largest recorded. Hemlock bark was once the source of tannin for the leather industry; now the wood is important to the pulp and paper industry. Many species of wildlife benefit from the excellent habitat that a dense stand of hemlock provides. This tree also ranks high for ornamental planting. Habitat Native Range The northern limit of eastern hemlock extends from outliers in northeastern Minnesota and the western one-third of Wisconsin eastward through northern Michigan, south-central Ontario, extreme southern Quebec, through New Brunswick, and all of Nova Scotia. Within the United States the species is found throughout New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and the middle Atlantic States, extending westward from central New Jersey to the Appalachian Mountains, then southward into northern Georgia and Alabama. Outliers also appear in extreme southern Michigan and western Ohio, with scattered islands in southern Indiana and east of the Appalachians in the middle Atlantic States. The native range of eastern hemlock. The range completely overlaps that of Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana), a closely related species limited to the slopes of the Appalachians from Virginia and West Virginia into Georgia.
    [Show full text]