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COMMON GROUND: THE SHARED INFLUENCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FUSION AND by JOSEPH BLUNK B.M.E., State University, 2014

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Colorado in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master in Jazz Performance and Pedagogy Department of 2020

Abstract

Blunk, Joseph Michael (M.M., Jazz Performance and Pedagogy)

Common Ground: The Shared Influences and Characteristics of and Progressive

Rock

Thesis directed by Dr. John Gunther

In the late through the , genres of music emerged: jazz fusion and progressive rock. Though typically thought of as two distinct styles, both share common influences and stylistic characteristics. This thesis examines the emergence of both genres, identifies stylistic traits and influences, and analyzes the artistic output of eight different groups:

Return to Forever, , ’s electric ensembles,

Lifetime, Yes, , , and . Through qualitative listenings of each group’s musical output, comparisons between genres or groups focus on instances of one genre crossing over into the other. Though many examples of crossing over are identified, the examples used do not necessitate the creation of a new genre label, nor do they demonstrate the need for both genres to be combined into one.

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Contents

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………… 1

Part One: The Emergence of Jazz………………………………………………………….. 3

Part Two: The Emergence of Progressive………………………………………………….. 10

Part Three: Musical Crossings Between Jazz Fusion and Progressive Rock…………….... 16

Part : Conclusion, Genre Boundaries and Commonalities……………………………. 40

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………….. 44

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Introduction

As the 1960s drew to a close, jazz in a period of flux. The movement, spurred on by like and , had made its mark on the scene.

Hard bop and jazz continued to provide another avenue of expression for jazz musicians.

However, continued to flounder as the decade drew on. Miles Davis and Herbie

Hancock provide two examples of well-known artists with middling sales. Each ’s selling a few tens of thousands upon initial , far below what record

12 companies desired. Clearly, a new direction was needed for jazz to remain viable. This new direction was found in the emergence of jazz fusion, which showed a new way forward for jazz musicians.

At the same time, was thriving. had completely captivated the

American public, though their end loomed around the corner. The movement was in full and young people anxiously clamored for exciting and experimental bands. This led to new groups like The experimenting with long jams fueled by

LSD; King Crimson combining , rock music, and jazz music along with of a dystopian future; and Soft Machine creating a new sound that wasn’t quite jazz and wasn’t quite rock. Despite appearing divorced from the jazz world, this new rock music, later referred to as progressive rock, shared both common roots and traits with the jazz fusion movement between

1969 and 1976.

This thesis aims to examine the shared roots and influences between jazz fusion and progressive rock. Each genre is first examined and defined, analyzing the characteristics,

1Lisa Dickey and , Possibilies (New York: Penguin Publishing Group, 2014), 181. 2George Grella Jr., (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 36.

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influences, and criteria for both. The music of the following groups is examined and compared:

Return to Forever, Mahavishnu Orchestra, Miles Davis, Tony Williams Lifetime, Yes, King

Crimson, Gentle Giant, and Soft Machine. Lastly, the very labels used to describe will be questioned and further defined to examine the need for a distinction between the two.

Before beginning this analysis in earnest, the author would like to acknowledge other areas not covered herein. Though the counterculture movement and some sociological factors will be discussed, racial makeup of the bands and audiences they played for will not be examined. This would undoubtedly make for an interesting survey, but for the sake of brevity, it has been omitted. Secondly, critical and commercial reception of these bands will not be examined deeply of a few passing remarks. Though this would perhaps further bolster some of the arguments made within, it would also bloat the content. Finally, several other bands would provide ample material for further survey, but have been omitted for brevity. Bands like

Weather Report, , , The , Dream, Caravan, Hatfield and The

North, The Dregs, , Focus, Camel, and Gong would all provide additional material to be examined and compared.

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Part One: The Emergence of Jazz Fusion

From its roots, jazz has always flirted with music and conventions of the mainstream.

Ragtime would rework marches or popular , swing bands incorporated of into their repertoire, and reharmonized Broadway hits as vehicles for

3 4 improvisation. However, many jazz musicians in the 1960s looked at rock music with disdain.

The community resisted integrating this new music. Just as purists rejected bebop, so

5 too did many jazz musicians resist the advent of jazz fusion music. However, experimentations slowly began as younger musicians showed their interest in rock, allowing elements of the popular genre to bleed into their playing.

The Beatles were one of the first notable rock bands to garner favor among jazz musicians. Among others, Tony Williams, , , and list

6 them as a primary influence. were an important for many jazz players at the time as well. Miles Davis listed them among his primary influences when creating

7 Bitches Brew. Herbie Hancock describes just how crucial Sly and the Family Stone was in his desire to create .

“It was that great funky groove by Sly and the Family Stone ringing in my ears as I chanted! I kept going, but the stayed right where it was, playing over and over as if it had been planted in my head. Then suddenly I saw an image of me sitting with Sly 8 Stone’s band, playing this funky music with him. And I loved it!”

3 , E arly Jazz: It’s Roots and Musical Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968) 182-184. 4 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 7. 5 Marn, Henry and Keith Waters. Jazz: The First 100 Years. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2015, 3 21-326. 6 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 7. 7 George Grella Jr., Bitches Brew (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 18. 8 Lisa Dickey and Herbie Hancock, Possibilies (New York: Penguin Publishing Group, 2014), 173.

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9 Hancock went on to name one of the songs from the “Sly” after . King

Crimson, discussed in dtail later, also played a role in the development of young jazz musicians.

Their more avant-garde rock is cited by and as an important influence.

10 ’s tight rhythmic concept influenced numerous jazz musicians at the time. Miles

11 Davis lists Brown’s music as one of the primary sources of inspiration for Bitches Brew. Even within the Black Arts Movement of the time, there were calls to unify the ideas of and

James Brown into one, further highlighting the desire to combine these seemingly distant

12 styles.

Outside music influences weren’t limited to rock either. Contemporary classical music played an important, though less significant role in shaping jazz fusion. Chick Corea featured and on his fusion albums right alongside electric and .1 3 His classical influence is further exemplified by his later projects such as the album The Mozart

Sessions album or even “The Continents,” a concerto for jazz and chamber orchestra.1 415

Mahavishnu Orchestra utilized multi-movement forms as well on tracks like “Dream” and

“Trilogy.”1 6 They later went on to record with a full orchestra on their Apocalypse album, which features a 19 minute long extended work.1 7 Even “Bitches Brew,” was originally intended as a five part suite, a form commonly associated with romantic and post-. The track

9 Herbie Hancock, Head Hunters, Columbia, 1973, CD. 10 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 25. 11 George Grella Jr., Bitches Brew (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 99. 12 Jay Keister, “Black Prog: Soul, , Intellect and the Progressive Side of of the 1970s,” American Music Research Center Journal: 5-22. 13 Return to Forever, R omanc Warrior, Columbia, 1976, CD. 14 Chick Corea and Bobby McFerrin, T he Mozart Sessions, Sony Classical Records, 1996, CD. 15 Chick Corea, T he Connents, Deutsche Grammophon, 2012, CD. 16 Mahavishnu Orchestra, The Lost Trident Sessions, Columbia/SME, 1999, CD. 17 Mahavishnu Orchestra, A pocalypse, Columbia, 1974, CD.

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18 “John McLaughlin” from the album was originally intended to be an additional movement.

Hints of Stravinsky can also certainly be heard within Bitches Brew. George Grella specifically highlights and John McLaughlin’s performances on “Pharaoh’s Dance” as an

19 example. George Clinton makes a note of the influence of classical music on his second album

20 with : Free Your Mind… and Your Ass Will Follow, though he gives no examples.

Though obviously not as crucial as rock music, classical music undoubtedly helped shape the jazz fusion movement.

However, the most important influence on the fusion of jazz and rock arguably came from . Jimi Hendrix’s guitar playing was heavily influenced by the , giving him credit among skeptical jazz musicians. Hendrix even listed among his

21 chief influences. Magazine when describing Hendrix wrote, “Nobody could doubt Hendrix was a musician, yet, to jazz musicians he was also a jazz performer.”

22 Though his style was perhaps unconventional to a contemporary at the time, his innovations quickly found their way into the playing of guitarists like Larry Corryell, John

23 McLaughlin, and Adrian Guillery among others. Miles Davis even cited Hendrix specifically

24 when asked about his implementation of a wah-wah pedal for his . Hendrix also played with many jazz artists including Tony Williams, , John McLaughlin, Roland Kirk,

25 , and Jeremy and the Satyrs. Before his untimely death, plans were underway for

18 George Grella Jr., Bitches Brew (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 85. 19 Ibid, 69. 20Jay Keister, “Black Prog: Soul, Funk, Intellect and the Progressive Side of Black Music of the 1970s,” American Music Research Center Journal: 5-22. 21 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 59-60. 22 Ibid, 102-110. 23 Ibid. 24 Kollibri terre Sonnenblume, “’Sivad’: When Miles Davis channeled Jimi Hendrix,” Macska Moksha Press, November 21, 2016, hps://macskamoksha.com/2016/11/miles-davis-channeled-jimi-hendrix. 25 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 102-110.

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Hendrix to record albums with Miles Davis and and serve as a featured soloist with

26 the Orchestra. According to Davis, Hendrix would be “one of the greats” if he

27 decided to become a jazz player.

Clearly, jazz musicians were experimenting with rock and the floodgates had been opened for rock and jazz to intermingle. With the breakup of The Beatles in 1970, record

28 companies saw an opportunity for jazz fusion to gain a foothold within the market. A genre

29 forecasted by TIME Magazine as “A Way Out of the Muddle” slowly began to emerge. Though prior experiments had occurred with musicians like , most would say the first definitive jazz fusion album can be found in ’ Out of Sight and Sound, led by

30 guitarist Larry Coryell. While the album is undoubtedly jazz and rock, it does little to marry the

31 two genres. Additional mixings of the genres came shortly after with bands like Colosseum’s

Those Who Are About to Die Salute You and and his “Jeremy and the Satyrs” band.

32 For the sake of brevity, four groups will be examined herein: Chick Corea’s Return to Forever,

John McLaughlin’s Mahavishnu Orchestra, Miles Davis’s Bitches Brew group, and Tony

Williams Lifetime.

Before concluding an analysis of the emergence of jazz fusion, an examination of the non-musical factors is crucial. Jazz fusion could not have come about without the social climate of the late 1960s and early 1970s. As the Vietnam War waged on and hippie culture rose and fell, musicians searched for a new creative outlet to express themselves. They sought a way to mix

26 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 102-110. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid, 7. 29 Ibid, 12. 30 Ibid, 30-34. 31 The Free Spirits, Out of Sight and Sound, ABC, 1967, CD. 32 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 41-44.

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their new interests as young members of society with their appreciation for the cultural contributions of previous generations. John Handy, another early pioneer of jazz fusion, said of his audience: “Kids who rock music and my music… are concerned about Vietnam and Civil

33 Rights.” Artists like Sun Ra showed their desire for civil change through their work. Sun Ra’s

Space is the Place provides an excellent example of this wherein he portrays an alien being sent

34 to liberate the black population and bring them to a utopian planet. Psychedelic drugs played a large part in the musical tastes of the hippie culture. Though jazz was certainly already well versed in hard drugs, psychedelics offered a new experience to musicians and listeners and

35 shaped the music created and consumed.

Like and post bop before it, jazz fusion continued to feature improvisation as a centerpiece. Many groups such as Miles Davis’s electric ensembles or Tony Williams Lifetime often featured extended improvised sections birthed out of open “jams.”3 6 37 The main difference between previous genres of jazz and jazz fusion, in regards to improvisation, is the heightened emphasis on ensemble arrangements. Where bebop and hard bop frequently emphasized extended solos over the head, bands like Return to Forever highlighted tight unison playing of the ensemble in addition to well-constructed solos.3 8 In live performance, jazz fusion bands rarely, if ever, replicated recorded solos. If anything, more improvisation took place as arrangements were more open to flexibility than they might have been in studio recordings.3 9

33 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 88.. 34 Jay Keister, “Black Prog: Soul, Funk, Intellect and the Progressive Side of Black Music of the 1970s,” American Music Research Center Journal: 5-22. 35 Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 18-23 36 Miles Davis, Bitches Brew, Columbia, 1970, CD. 37 Tony Williams Lifeme, Emergency!, Polydor, 1969, CD. 38 Return to Forever, Romanc Warrior, Columbia, 1976, CD. 39 John Covach, “Jazz-Rock? Rock-Jazz? Stylisc Crossover in Late-1970s American Progressive Rock,” in Expression in , ed. Walter Evere. (New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2008), 96-100.

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Though the majority of jazz fusion compositions featured no lyrics, the intent of artists could be seen in their titles, liner notes, live performances, and album artwork. Bitches Brew again serves as an excellent example. The album artwork, with its heavy psychedelic influences,

40 shows a meeting of black and white ideas. The liner notes further state that Bitches Brew is,

“trying to capture the image of young people digging each other and each other’s music across

41 racial and social lines.” The albums of Mahavishnu Orchestra show a desire for spiritual

42 fulfilment. Each album features a poem from John McLaughlin’s , Sri Chimnoy. This desire for spirituality was not unique to Mahavishnu Orchestra either. George Clinton frequently used and chanting to bring a character of spiritualism to his music and invite his

43 audiences to surrender themselves to the groove.

To summarize, jazz fusion emerged at the end of the 1960s as record companies sought to capitalize on the success of bands like The Beatles. Jazz musicians, some initially skeptical of rock music, began to integrate the newer genre into jazz compositions and performances.

Inspired not only by rock music, but also classical music and the social environment of the late

1960s and early 1970s, jazz musicians formed a new genre by bringing the two together. Listed below are the identified influences of jazz fusion music along with general characteristics of jazz fusion music. Due to the variety of the music, a catch-all definition is difficult to pin down, but the listed characteristics offer at least a decent approximation.

40 Miles Davis, Bitches Brew, Columbia, 1970, CD. 41 Ibid. 42 Mahavishnu Orchestra, , Columbia, 1973, CD. 43 Jay Keister, “Black Prog: Soul, Funk, Intellect and the Progressive Side of Black Music of the 1970s,” American Music Research Center Journal: 5-22.

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● Influences o Rock music (Jimi Hendrix, Sly and the Family Stone, James Brown) o Contemporary classical music (Stravinsky, Bartok) o Social environment (Hippie culture, Vietnam War, Civil Rights Movement) o ● Musical Characteristics o Improvised solos, not replicated in live performance o Rock drum beats, mostly using straight instead of swung eighths o Use of electronic instruments (, electric , and keyboards) o Use of amplification and effects (distortion, overdrive, wah-wah) o Simpler and slower harmonic progressions o Heavy emphasis on instrumental virtuosity o Heightened role of instruments within the ensemble

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Part Two: The Emergence of Progressive Rock If defining jazz fusion is difficult, doing the same for progressive rock may be next to impossible. Progressive rock from 1969-1976 is defined less by its musical characteristics and more by the bands that created it. King Crimson; Yes; ; Genesis; Emerson, Lake, and

Palmer; and Jethro Tull. These bands, among others, defined a new genre only later labeled as progressive rock. While the same listeners most certainly enjoyed symphonic progressive rock like Yes and more jazz oriented progressive rock like Soft Machine, labelling these bands as

“progressive rock” was only a retroactive decision made by record labels and the listening

44 public.

The major bands indicative of progressive rock were birthed from the scene of the late 1960s. The later albums of The Beatles were a catalyst for groups like Yes and

45 King Crimson who saw how the idea was being employed. To some, albums like Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band and Rubber Soul can already be considered progressive rock themselves due to their use of the concept album model, progressive lyrics and

46 , and use of odd instrumentation and studio techniques. Like jazz fusion, Jimi Hendrix had a strong influence on progressive rock musicians with his brand of psychedelic rock. Some would even define Jimi Hendrix’s music as progressive rock in itself, though this is certainly

47 dependent on who is being asked. Other psychedelic groups like Cream also had a profound effect. Again, like Hendrix and The Beatles, their music may also be classified as progressive by

44 Chris Anderton, “A Many-Headed Beast: Progressive Rock as European Meta-Genre,” Popular Music vol. 29, no. 3 (2010): 417–35. doi:10.1017/S0261143010000450. 45 Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 20-22. 46 Ibid. 47 Chris Anderton, “A Many-Headed Beast: Progressive Rock as European Meta-Genre,” Popular Music vol. 29, no. 3 (2010): 417–35. doi:10.1017/S0261143010000450.

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some scholars. Interestingly enough, Cream also featured and who

48 were arguably more well-known at the time for their jazz playing over their rock playing.

However, the influences on progressive rock were not limited to rock musicians.

Contemporary classical had a profound effect on these bands, especially in

49 compositional structure. Examples of this can be found in long form compositions like Yes’s

5051 “” or Emerson, Lake, and Palmer’s “Taarkus.” More blatant examples can

5253 be seen in ’s rendition of Braham’s pieces or Jethro Tull’s “Bouree.” Here, classical compositions were lifted note for note and reimagined or repurposed for the new idiom of progressive rock. , like many of his contemporary keyboardists, was

54 classically trained before turning to rock. This training provided the avenue for a classical influence within the new music.

Like many jazz fusion bands of the time, progressive rock bands frequently employed odd meters in their music. Though it isn’t a guaranteed indicator of progressive rock, nor is it essential to the style, most progressive rock bands, at one time or the other, employed odd meters for musical exploration. Macan posits that David Brubeck is the main source for this inspiration.

55 With his 1959 album, T ime Out!, Brubeck introduced the listening public and many young musicians to odd meters and mixed meters. For many budding musicians, a new and fascinating musical opportunity to explore. Macan proposes a sort of lineage for the emergence

48 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 19. 49 Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 30-46. 50 Yes, Close to the Edge, Atlanc, 1972, CD. 51 Emerson, Lake, and Palmer, Tarkus, Island, 1971, CD. 52 Yes, Fragile, Atlanc, 1971, CD. 53 Jethro Tull, Stand Up, Island, 1969, CD. 54 Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 45-46. 55 Ibid, 47-48.

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of odd meters into progressive rock. Before Brubeck, he suggests an origin within Eastern

European folk songs which then led to Western classical composers such as Stravinsky, Bartok, and Mussorgsky. Finally, this idea spread to Darius Millhaud, who served as a composition

56 teacher to Brubeck briefly. Based on Macan’s argument, Brubeck’s music was one of the key forces in odd meters spreading to progressive rock musicians who quickly utilized it within their compositions.

Also similar to jazz fusion was the tendency towards improvised solos. While many progressive rock groups featured improvised solos in studio recordings, these were almost always replicated note for note in live performance.5 7 Exceptions do exist such as The Dixie

Dregs, who would rework improvisations in live performances, but the majority of progressive rock bands who used improvisation did so only in the studio.5 8

Outside of these primary influences, there are several other lesser, but still important sources that inspired progressive rock musicians. The importance of electronic instruments was vital to the development of progressive rock. Outside of the typical electric guitar and , progressive rock musicians were at the forefront of new studio and keyboard technologies. Tape loops and electronic effects were prevalent within the genre. Even on In the

Court of the Crimson King , argued by some to be the first true progressive rock album, King

59 Crimson can be heard employing effects on vocals, guitar, , and drums. Gentle Giant, on their first album, Giant , can be heard using tape loops with what functions as a leitmotif

56 Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 47-48. 57 John Covach, “Jazz-Rock? Rock-Jazz? Stylisc Crossover in Late-1970s American Progressive Rock,” in Expression in Pop Music, ed. Walter Evere. (New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2008), 96-100. 58 Ibid. 59 King Crimson, In the Court of the Crimson King, Island, 1969, CD.

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60 throughout the album. In regards to keyboards, musicians like Keith Emerson and Rick

Wakeman constantly experimented with new . From earlier Hammond B3 organs to

Moog synthesizers to the advent of the , keyboard players were able to explore

61 numerous instrumental possibilities. Lastly, as with jazz fusion, the counterculture of the era played a large part in fostering the development of progressive rock. Chris Anderton in his article, “The Many Headed Beast: Progressive Rock as European Meta-Genre” discusses how hippie helped bring about progressive rock. The subculture “shared a common belief that rock could articulate its concerns; thus, through participation in the music, either as a

62 performer or audience [member], a common cultural and political bond could be established.”

Though most progressive rock groups were formed in , largely in Britain, the sense of international opposition to the Vietnam War and parental culture unified the music into a

63 coherent political statement made by young people. With this activism and protesting came underground music scenes emphasizing rock and psychedelia which later morphed into progressive rock.

As previously mentioned, progressive rock is difficult to define musically. Authors like

Edward Macan, Chris Anderton, Jerry Lucky, Jarl Ahlkvist, and Jay Keister and Jeremy Smith all share different, though perhaps converging, opinions of the genre. For the sake of brevity, a condensed version of all of these definitions will be used. However, as discussed earlier, this

60 Gentle Giant, Gentle Giant, Vergo, 1970, CD. 61 Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 33-34. 62 Chris Anderton, “A Many-Headed Beast: Progressive Rock as European Meta-Genre,” Popular Music vol. 29, no. 3 (2010): 417–35. doi:10.1017/S0261143010000450. 63 Ibid.

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thesis will largely focus on symphonic progressive rock from 1969-1976 so some definitions attempting to incorporate more recent music will not be as relevant.

Ahlkvist6 4 ● Challenging to the listener, inventiveness, lack of predictability ● Instrumental and compositional virtuosity ● Lyrical content ● Genre characteristics are defined by the listener

Cutler6 5 ● Exploration of electronic instruments ● Reforging of folk aspects of music making (unification of composition and performance, collective group work, expressive improvisation, and a direct connection with listeners) ● Political progressiveness

Keister and Smith6 6 ● Embracing of the abject ● Progressive message-critical of militarism, social conformity

Lucky 67 ● Long, structured sometimes multi-movement compositions ● Blend of acoustic and electric instruments ● Mix of loud and soft passages ● Extended instrumental sections/solos ● Use of styles other than American blues/rock

Macan6 8 ● Largely a product of hippie subculture ● Marked by influences of Western classical music (form, tone color, meter, instrumentation, instrumental virtuosity)

64 Jarl Ahlkvist, “What Makes Rock Music “Prog”? Fan Evaluaon and the Struggle to Define Progressive Rock,” Popular Music Society vol. 34, issue 5 (2011) doi: 10.1080/03007766.2010.537893. 65 Ibid. 66 Jay Keister and Jeremy Smith,. "Musical Ambion, Cultural Accreditaon and the Nasty Side of Progressive Rock," Popular Music vol. 27, no. 3 (2008): 433-455. 67 Chris Anderton, “A Many-Headed Beast: Progressive Rock as European Meta-Genre,” Popular Music vol. 29, no. 3 (2010): 417–35. doi:10.1017/S0261143010000450. 68 Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 3-56.

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These five definitions barely begin to explore the different opinions of what defines progressive rock. However, even with only five definitions similarities already begin to emerge.

With this brief survey, progressive rock can be defined as “a combination of rock and Western classical music using acoustic and electronic instruments, emphasizing instrumental and compositional virtuosity while delivering a political or spiritual message.”

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Part Three: Musical Crossings Between Jazz Fusion and Progressive Rock

As is probably already apparent, there are many similarities between jazz fusion and progressive rock, with both styles birthed from similar influences and circumstances. Though many similarities exist outside of the music itself, this section will focus solely on musical commonalities between the two genres. First, jazz fusion artists Return to Forever, Mahavishnu

Orchestra, Miles Davis, and Tony Williams Lifetime will be examined. Following that, progressive rock artists Yes, Gentle Giant, King Crimson, and Soft Machine are surveyed.

Examples with a considerable number of selections are prefaced with a table summarizing the similarities between the surveyed music and the opposite style. Because most comparisons are qualitative rather than quantitative, transcription will not be used. For the sake of brevity, some irrelevant tracks have been ignored from certain examples.

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Example 1: by Return to Forever

Track title Most similar to... Highlighted characteristics

“Medieval Overture” King Crimson Virtuosic unison passages

“Sorceress” by Gentle Giant

“Romantic Warrior” Yes Mix of electric and acoustic instruments, use of 5/8 time with fast unison runs

“Majestic Dance” Free Hand by Gentle Giant, Use of non-standard specifically “Mobile,” “Time instruments such as marimba to Kill,” and “Playing the and triangle Game”

“The Magician” In the Court of the Crimson Fast unison passages, King by King Crimson, progressive rock-esque guitar Gentle Giant, Jethro Tull solo, tongue-in-cheek fanfares

“Duel of the Jester and the Yes, King Crimson Heavy use of synthesizer Tyrant Part 1 and 2”

Jazz fusion and progressive rock can sometimes sound so similar that it becomes difficult to differentiate one from the other. In his article, “Jazz-Rock? Rock-Jazz? Stylistic Crossover in

Late-1970s American Progressive Rock,” John Covach highlights a few examples of songs that

69 seem to cross the barrier between the genre distinctions. The first example given is Chick

Corea’s “Medieval Overture” from Romantic Warrior. Though “Medieval Overture” is the only song mentioned in Covach’s article, the remainder of the album further suggests a progressive rock influence. Amusingly enough, while Covach views the album as jazz fusion sometimes venturing into progressive rock, Stuart Nicholson in Jazz Rock: A History, argues that the entire

69 John Covach, “Jazz-Rock? Rock-Jazz? Stylisc Crossover in Late-1970s American Progressive Rock,” in Expression in Pop Music, ed. Walter Evere. (New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2008), 96-100.

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70 album is progressive rock. While the album may still be jazz fusion, it’s certainly easy to understand Nicholson’s view of the album. Within “Medieval Overture,” there are several sections reminiscent of King Crimson’s earlier work with heavy bass and unison runs. Examples can be heard at the following sections: 0:08-0:48 (the countermelody on top of Corea’s synthesizer playing), 1:11-1:36 (tightly arranged hits with piercing synthesizer), 2:04-2:50 (a gradual, angular accelerando bolstered with heavy synthesizer bass), 2:50-3:58 (a fully realized

71 based off of the 2:04-2:50 section with tight hits and a virtuosic bass solo.)

Next on the album is “Sorceress.” This track is arguably the furthest from progressive rock on the album, leaning much closer to a funk groove than heavy rock. Other than a brief synthesizer gesture from 2:43-3:15 similar to some of Gentle Giant’s Fr eehand album, there isn’t

7273 much to point to that specifically indicates progressive rock.

The title track, “Romantic Warrior,” comes next and comes close to sounding like a Yes track at points. The opening is completely acoustic (with the exception of some synthesizer swells) with on acoustic guitar, on upright bass, and

74 playing mostly and chimes. The lush textures and cascades heard at

75 1:39 sound similar to something Rick Wakeman might play on an earlier Yes album. The closing, starting at 9:14, features fast unison runs in 5/8, further drawing the track towards a

70 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 202. 71 Return to Forever, Romanc Warrior, Columbia, 1976, CD. 72 Ibid. 73 Gentle Giant, Free Hand, Chrysalis, 1975, CD. 74 Return to Forever, Romanc Warrior, Columbia, 1976, CD. 75 Ibid.

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76 “Yes” sound. The mix of acoustic and electric instruments also draws the album closer to

77 Macan’s definition of progressive rock.

“Majestic Dance” draws the album towards Gentle Giant’s Fr ee Hand album. The cruising groove heard at 0:15-0:53 bears a striking similarity in orchestration to Gentle Giant

7879 tracks like “Mobile” and “Time to Kill.” The synthesizer and marimba melody at 0:57 also brings the track close to Gentle Giant’s “Playing the Game” track, from The Power and the

80 Glory. The track also mixes plenty of non-standard instruments such as marimba and triangle,

81 hinting at an influence from Western classical music.

“The Magician” shows a likeness to several progressive rock bands, mainly King

82 Crimson, Gentle Giant, and Jethro Tull. The twisted unison line at 0:25, punctuated by high

8384 pitched synthesizer hits, sound strikingly like In the Court of the Crimson King. This is

85 further exemplified by the lush and dark melody presented immediately after at 0:50. At 1:29, a minstrel-like melody bears a slight likeness to the more tongue-in-cheek music of Gentle Giant

86 and Jethro Tull. A regal fanfare played at 3:22 sounds almost as if it were lifted directly from

87 Jethro Tull’s library, especially with the synthesizer as the lead line. Finally, at 3:51, a

76 Return to Forever, Romanc Warrior, Columbia, 1976, CD. 77 Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 3-56. 78 Return to Forever, Romanc Warrior, Columbia, 1976, CD. 79 Gentle Giant, Free Hand, Chrysalis, 1975, CD. 80 Ibid. 81 Return to Forever, Romanc Warrior, Columbia, 1976, CD. 82 Ibid. 83 Ibid. 84 King Crimson, In the Court of the Crimson King, Island, 1969, CD. 85 Return to Forever, Romanc Warrior, Columbia, 1976, CD. 86 Ibid. 87 Ibid.

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soaring guitar melody supported by heavy synthesizer again bears resemblance to King

88 Crimson’s debut album.

To close the album, “Duel of the Jester and the Tyrant Part 1 and 2” features brief allusions to Yes and King Crimson. The melodic interlude at 0:55 hints at an influence from Yes,

89 but only slightly. However, the heavy synthesizer and guitar playing at 0:16 and again at 9:56

90 would sound right at home on a King Crimson album.

While it’s difficult to identify specific musical characteristics that indicate one style over the other, the album certainly suggests a progressive rock leaning with intricately arranged,

91 rhythmically dense compositions. Delivering a political or spiritual message is perhaps the only aspect of progressive rock not found within the performance. Perhaps the closest example is

Corea’s dedication of the album to L. Ron Hubbard, the founder of the Church of ,

92 though there are certainly hints at an almost tone poem structure in some of the compositions.

Even if this forms only a tenuous link to progressive rock, the use of odd meters, emphasis on instrumental and compositional virtuosity, implementation of many electric instruments, and

93 Western classical influence all bring the album much closer to the opposing genre.

88 Return to Forever, Romanc Warrior, Columbia, 1976, CD. 89 Ibid. 90 Ibid. 91 Ibid. 92 Return to Forever, Romanc Warrior, Columbia, 1976, CD. 93 Ibid.

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Example 2: by Mahavishnu Orchestra

Track title Most similar to... Highlighted characteristics

“The Dance of Maya” 20/8

“Noonward Race” Led Zeppelin Fast, virtuosic solos

“Vital Transformation” Led Zeppelin Fast, virtuosic solos

“A Lotus on Irish Streams” Yes Completely acoustic performance

The next composition discussed by Covach is Mahavishnu Orchestra’s “The Dance of

94 Maya” from The Inner Mounting Flame. In general, Mahavishnu Orchestra certainly leans farther into progressive rock than many of their jazz fusion contemporaries. With a lack of horn players - at least until the second iteration of the band - and an emphasis on electronic instruments, it can sometimes be difficult to define the genre for certain songs. Within “The

Dance of Maya,” Mahavishnu Orchestra performs in a 20/8 time signature with an open embrace of dissonant and angular melodies. John McLaughlin emphasizes octatonic and pentatonic scales

95 both in composition and improvisation, as noted in his score for the song. Covach even

96 describes the song as “Ravi Shankar meets .”

The remainder of The Inner Mounting Flame continues to blur the line between jazz fusion and progressive rock. Tracks like “Noonward Race” and “Vital Transformation” demonstrate the overwhelming instrumental and compositional virtuosity of the group with

94 John Covach, “Jazz-Rock? Rock-Jazz? Stylisc Crossover in Late-1970s American Progressive Rock,” in Expression in Pop Music, ed. Walter Evere. (New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2008), 96-100. 95 McLaughlin, John. “The Dance of Maya.” John McLaughlin and the Mahavishnu Orchestra. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred, 2007. 96 John Covach, “Jazz-Rock? Rock-Jazz? Stylisc Crossover in Late-1970s American Progressive Rock,” in Expression in Pop Music, ed. Walter Evere. (New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2008), 96-100.

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97 blistering solos from John McLaughlin, , Jans Hammer, and .

Further demonstrating a fit for Macan’s definition of progressive rock, “A Lotus on Irish

98 Streams” is a completely acoustic performance from the group. This album structure is almost entirely replicated on their later release, Bir ds of Fire with more herculean feats shown on tracks

99 like “Open Country Joy” and “Miles Beyond.” Another acoustic number can be found on

100 “Thousand Island Park.”

Example 3: The Lost Trident Sessions by Mahavishnu Orchestra

Track title Most similar to... Highlighted characteristics

“Dream” Yes, Cream, early Gentle Long-form composition, use Giant, King Crimson of 15/8 time signature

“Trilogy” Yes, Octopus by Gentle Long-form composition, Giant, Cream virtuosic unison melodies, blues-inspired motif in 4/4 - 6/4 - 4/4 time

“Sister Andrea” Free Hand and Interview by Gentle Giant, King Crimson

“I Wonder” King Crimson Use of 13/8, melancholy and virtuosic

“Stepping Tones” Possible use of passacaglia

“John’s Song” King Crimson Virtuosic unison passages

While Covach offers “The Dance of Maya” as an example of Mahavishnu Orchestra’s progressive rock leanings, it is the opinion of the author that the best example can be found on

97 Mahavishnu Orchestra, The Inner Mounng Flame, Columbia, 1971, CD. 98 Ibid. 99 Mahavishnu Orchestra, Birds of Fire, Columbia, 1973, CD. 100 Ibid.

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The Lost Trident Sessions. The tracks found on the album recorded in 1973 went unreleased until

101 1990, though several can be found on the live album Between Nothingness and Eternity. The

102 first track, “Dream” has sections that could easily be confused as playing by Yes. Excerpts like the pensive opening from 0:00-2:22 give a free spacey feel mixed with guitar runs similar to

Steve Howe’s playing. Cobham’s groove accompanied by Laird’s thumping bass line at 2:42 quickly leads to an ascending drive to what could be considered the chorus. This gesture, from

2:22-3:51 sounds remarkably similar to the ethereal sound of Yes as the melodies climb higher and higher before finally releasing at 3:51. The extremely heavy, bluesy groove at 5:12 would fit

103 in well with some of Cream’s recordings or even earlier Gentle Giant records. The time change at 8:48 (remaining in 15/8 but switching the beat from quarter note to dotted quarter note) displays some of the most virtuosic playing and arranging from the band with a similar to

Yes. Finally, at 9:28 the wailing guitar briefly ventures towards ’s guitar tone with

King Crimson.

Following “Dream,” “Trilogy” also parallels many of the characteristics of progressive rock. With a three part structure, the track brings together three separate compositions by

104 McLaughlin. The opening again comes close to sounding like Yes along with the ascending chorus at 0:42. The use of a soundscape at 2:09, complete with bird calls, seems similar to many progressive rock bands at the time. At 2:57, the emerging groove captures a serene feel and also

105 suggests an influence from Yes, perhaps even some of Gentle Giant’s playing on Octopus. The bluesy lick at 5:03 is somewhat like the music of Cream, though perhaps a bit more metrically

101 Mahavishnu Orchestra, The Lost Trident Sessions, Columbia/SME, 1999, CD. 102 Ibid. 103 Ibid. 104 Ibid. 105 Ibid.

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complex with its use of a bar of 6/4 between alternating bars of 4/4. 8:11 marks the last progressive rock section of the song with an ascending melody played by McLaughlin,

Goodman, and Hammer sounding like the work of Yes.

“Sister Andrea,” the third track, is certainly more straight ahead than the previous two, though the groove established at 0:04 is somewhat similar to Gentle Giant’s music on albums

106 like Fr ee Hand or Interview . The dark, mysterious texture at 1:19 briefly alludes to King

Crimson. Outside of these two moments, the track stays within a more typical jazz fusion context.

The following track, “I Wonder,” may be the most progressive rock song from the album.

With an opening line 13/8 played on a custom with strings, the dark tone established

107 instantly hints at the sounds of King Crimson. The haunting, melancholy guitar solo at 0:32

108 sounds incredibly like the playing of Robert Fripp. At 1:59, the keyboard/ melody again

109 sounds like the music of King Crimson, capturing a morose perspective.

“Stepping Tones” offers relatively little melodically, though it may be considered a passacaglia given the repeating bass line throughout the composition. This could arguably indicate a classical influence, bringing it at least closer towards progressive rock.

“John’s Song,” the final track on the album, gives much more to be considered. While the track seems to indicate a sort of twisted, acid-fueled, free jazz, there are certain moments that move towards progressive rock. The tightly arranged unison patterns at 1:53, 2:50, and 3:53 all sound like they could fit in equally well on a jazz fusion or progressive rock album. The groove

106 Mahavishnu Orchestra, The Lost Trident Sessions, Columbia/SME, 1999, CD. 107 Ibid. 108 Ibid. 109 Ibid.

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at 4:01 and following violin solo at 4:10 portray a haunting, forlorn landscape similar to that of

110 King Crimson before the album closes with one final unison passage at 5:25. While

Mahavishnu Orchestra continued to produce albums into the 1980s, the original line up of the group disbanded after The Lost Trident Sessions were recorded in 1973 and moved in a more commercial direction.

Example 4: Bitches Brew by Miles Davis

By the 1970s, Miles Davis had already innovated jazz twice with Birth of the and

111 Kind of , launching and respectively. However, in the 1960s, Davis had hit a slump. His last few albums had failed to sell enough copies to satisfy Columbia

112 records. With , , and , Davis began

113 experimenting with mixing rock and jazz together. However, it was his next album, Bitches

Brew, where Davis fully embraced the mix of jazz and rock.

While Davis’s music is arguably the furthest from progressive rock of jazz artists described here, it certainly provides an opportunity to examine how malleable the definition of progressive rock can be. For example, one of Lucky’s characteristics of progressive rock is

114 “long, extended, sometimes multi movement compositions.” Of the six tracks on the original

Bitches Brew album, only one (“John McLaughlin”) is under ten minutes, and two (“Bitches

115 Brew” and “Pharaoh’s Dance”) are over twenty minutes in length. Further suggesting a step

110 Mahavishnu Orchestra, The Lost Trident Sessions, Columbia/SME, 1999, CD. 111 Henry Marn and Keith Waters. Jazz: The First 100 Years (Boston: Cengage Learning, 2015), 223-259. 112 George Grella Jr., Bitches Brew (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 36. 113 Ibid, 50. 114 Chris Anderton, “A Many-Headed Beast: Progressive Rock as European Meta-Genre,” Popular Music vol. 29, no. 3 (2010): 417–35. doi:10.1017/S0261143010000450. 115 Miles Davis, Bitches Brew, Columbia, 1970, CD.

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towards progressive rock is the original structure of “Bitches Brew.” As previously mentioned, the composition was originally intended as a five-movement suite before revised it

116 in editing and moved “John McLaughlin” to a separate track on the second LP.

Teo Macero may in fact be one of the more progressive elements of the album. Though

Macero had used similar editing techniques on previous albums by Davis, his role as editor on

Bitches Brew is arguably just as important if not more important than that of the musicians.

The extended instrumental vamp sections, album art, and liner notes show Davis’s and

Macero’s affinity for of the time. Davis had even planned to record an album

117 with Jimi Hendrix, who he spoke quite highly of. Outside of Hendrix, Davis labels Sly and the

118 Family Stone, James Brown, the Fifth Dimension, and the Electric Flag as primary influences.

George Grella argues that in addition to Sly and the Family Stone, “ for the Victims of

Hiroshima” is the second greatest influence on the album, though he offers little elaboration on

119 this claim. Though Bitches Brew is probably the furthest from progressive rock among the four examples examined here, it undoubtedly shares many traits with the dominant progressive rock artists of the era. This is primarily demonstrated by the spiritual/political message of the album, the influence of classical music and use of extended forms, and the mixing of acoustic and electric instruments.

116 George Grella Jr., Bitches Brew (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 85. 117 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 104-105. 118 George Grella Jr., Bitches Brew (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 18. 119 Ibid, 99.

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Example 5: Emer gency! by Tony Williams Lifetime

Track title Most similar to... Highlighted characteristics

“Emergency” Yes McLaughlin’s guitar mirroring the playing of (Yes)

“Beyond Games” Jimi Hendrix Use of vocals, sexual lyrical content, psychedelic-style guitar playing

“Where” Yes (Williams’ vocals), Jimi Spiritual lyric Hendrix

“Via the Spectrum Road” Jimi Hendrix Use of odd meter (11/8),

To conclude the examination of jazz fusion artists crossing into progressive rock, Tony

Williams Lifetime offers a profound case. Of the four jazz fusion artists considered, Lifetime is the only group to use vocals, excluding the second iteration of Mahavishnu Orchestra. Williams formed Lifetime in 1969 while on his way out from Miles Davis’s group, joined by John

120 McLaughlin on guitar and Larry Young on organ.

Nicholson argues that Emergency!, the first album released by Lifetime, was the first album to truly embrace a mix of rock and jazz, citing the use of volume as a musical tool for

121 intensity along with the album's vocals and driving energy. The powerful trio all show the influence Jimi Hendrix’s playing had on their music, especially McLaughlin with his use of

122 sometimes overwhelming distortion and feedback. Christopher Meeder even points out the similarities between Williams’ drumming and that of from Jimi Hendrix’s

120 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 137-138. 121 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 140-141. 122 Tony Williams Lifeme, Emergency!, Polydor, 1969, CD.

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123 group. While the album consists almost entirely of electronic instruments, pulling it away from

Macan’s definition of progressive rock, the use of odd meters juxtaposed with straight-ahead rock beats certainly epitomizes the progressive rock style.

The title track shows McLaughlin using a similar sound to Steve Howe of Yes, likely due

124 to their common influence of Jimi Hendrix. The second track, “Beyond Games,” offers a slow groove with a psychedelic warping. The timbre change, along with the addition of vocals at 0:44,

125 brings the track closer to progressive rock, though still decidedly in a jazz fusion context. The sexual message of the song certainly aligns with late psychedelia and some early progressive

126 127 rock. The melody at 2:00 is reminiscent of some of Jimi Hendrix’s later work as well.

“Where” is another track featuring vocals from Williams. The message here is even more

128 progressive with a spiritual, introspective attitude. Williams' light vocal style sounds somewhat similar to with Yes, though the similarity may only be coincidental considering

Yes had barely formed when Emer gency! was released. The groove used at 1:34 sounds of a

129 dark, twisted Hendrix motif.

Of the remaining tracks on the album, “Via the Spectrum Road” provides what may be the closest flirtation with progressive rock, at least within Lifetime’s debut album. Featuring light vocals from Williams, similar to many progressive rock vocalists at the time, the song follows a

130 pattern of alternating between odd time signatures and more traditional rock drumming. The

123 Meeder, Christopher. Jazz: The Basics (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2008), 217-218. 124 Tony Williams Lifeme, Emergency!, Polydor, 1969, CD. 125 Ibid. 126 Ibid. 127 Ibid. 128 Ibid. 129 Ibid. 130 Ibid.

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131 main verse uses an 11/8 groove with bluesy acoustic guitar provided by McLaughlin. Again, the influence from Hendrix is incredibly apparent between the vocals and guitar styles. Full band jams at sections like 3:16 seem to harken forward to what certain progressive rock bands would later experiment with. Though perhaps not the tightly arranged playing common with progressive rock bands, the communication between band members here creates a similar

132 effect.

Example 6: T urn it Over by Tony Williams Lifetime

With the groups second album, T urn it Over, Lifetime moves towards a more traditional

133 rock direction, further distancing themselves from the jazz tradition. Jack Bruce, former Cream

134 member, is a notable addition to the group both on bass and vocals. The tracks “This Night

This Song” and “” show Williams’ continued experimentations with vocals, though

135 perhaps not as successful here.

The standout track is Vuelta Abajo. With a twisted melody at 0:12 alternating with a

136 unison rhythm across the band, the influence from Hendrix is unavoidable. However, this track

137 also seems at least slightly similar to earlier Gentle Giant tracks such as “Why Not.”

Williams draws the group further towards progressive rock in his discussion of the meaning behind the album: “There was a lot going on socially at the time and it was a reaction to

131 Tony Williams Lifeme, Emergency!, Polydor, 1969, CD. 132 Ibid. 133 Meeder, Christopher. Jazz: The Basics (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2008), 217-218. 134 Tony Williams Lifeme, , Polydor, 1970, CD. 135 Ibid. 136 Ibid. 137 Ibid.

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138 that. There was a lot of tension and anxiety… it was aggressively antagonistic.” Clearly, the music had a political intention, noted in Macan, Lucky, and Cutler’s definitions of progressive

139 rock.

Example 7: “Soundchaser” by Yes

While jazz fusion groups took many steps towards progressive rock, ventures from the opposite genre are harder to come by. One example can be found in Yes’s “Sound Chaser” off of their 1974 album. Relayer marked the debut of Yes’s new keyboardist,

140 who had previously performed with jazz fusion band Refugee. Moraz brought a jazz flavor to the group not yet seen in their library. Joined by Jon Anderson (vocals), Steve Howe (),

Chris Squire (bass), and (drums), Moraz’s contributions to “Sound Chaser” show

Yes taking their closest steps towards jazz in their early years.

Even in the opening seconds of the track, Moraz’s synthesizer gesture would sound right

141 at home on a Return to Forever album. This is quickly interrupted by heavy clashing

142 synthesizer chords with bombastic drums, leading to a bluesy bass break from Squire. The communication and interaction between Moraz and White starting at 0:26 mirrors that of

143 McLaughlin and Cobham on Mahavishnu Orchestra tracks like “Awaken.” The following verses and choruses from 1:00-2:14 are rooted firmly in progressive rock, the only jazz fusion

138 Stuart Nicholson, Jazz Rock: A History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998), 142. 139 Chris Anderton, “A Many-Headed Beast: Progressive Rock as European Meta-Genre,” Popular Music vol. 29, no. 3 (2010): 417–35. doi:10.1017/S0261143010000450. 140 Moraz, Patrick. “Biography,” accessed February, 19 2019, hps://www.patrickmoraz.net/biography. 141 Yes, Relayer, Atlanc, 1974, CD. 142 Ibid. 143 Ibid.

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144 influence perhaps coming in some of the harmonic choices. Squire’s bass break at 2:14 uses the same bluesy melody as before, though his isolated tone comes close to that of Stanley

145 Clarke’s on several Return to Forever albums. The following guitar is also decidedly progressive rock focused and the track stays in the rock realm until 6:12 where the opening

146 sequence returns once more. At 6:52 the abrupt shifts seem similar to what a listener

147 might hear on a Tony Williams Lifetime album. The final jazz fusion flirtation on the track comes at 7:44 with Moraz’s synthesizer which sounds so close to what Jans Hammer might play

148 with Mahavishnu Orchestra or some of Chick Corea’s playing with Return to Forever.

Example 8: by King Crimson

Track title Most similar to... Highlighted characteristics

“Pictures of a City” John McLaughlin, free jazz Blues saxophone lines, blues ,

“ and Cascade” ’ jazz-influenced flute solo

“Cat Food” Frenzied piano playing, use of octaves in guitar soloing

“Groon” Tony Williams Lifetime, McLaughlin-like guitar Mahavishnu Orchestra, free playing, head-solos-head jazz form

Considered by many to be responsible for the first true progressive rock album, King

Crimson experimented with jazz styles early on. Their most popular track, “21s t Century

144 Yes, Relayer, Atlanc, 1974, CD. 145 Ibid. 146 Ibid. 147 Ibid. 148 Ibid.

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Schizoid Man,” features an acid-fueled jam in 3, complete with saxophone melody and an

149 extended guitar solo. However, it wouldn’t be until their second album, In the Wake of

Poseidon, where King Crimson would fully dive into their jazz influences. With the addition of keyboardist , the group added more jazz into their sound.

The new jazz influence is clear within the opening seconds of “Pictures of a City” where the bluesy saxophone lines alternate with full band scalar ascents before the band launches into a

150 slinking, menacing blues verse at 0:16. A vocal chorus with heavy distortion is heard at 1:33 before the blues verse returns at 1:33. At 2:49, an ascending gesture builds into a bluesy guitar breakdown. The band joins back in at 3:17 before Fripp launches into a McLaughlin-like up tempo blues solo at 3:27. In the midst of a later open section, 5:57 briefly alludes to an almost

151 “free jazz” atmosphere before a final chorus and soundscape conclude the track.

“Cadence and Cascade” features melodic material, but the flute solo starting at

152 2:23 undoubtedly shows Mel Collins’ fondness for jazz music.

153 “Cat Food” also sounds of jazz fusion within the opening gesture. Between the subdued bass and drum groove and the eclectic, unrestrained piano playing, the track starts off sounding more jazz than rock. The vocals at 0:10 bring the group’s rock influences back into perspective before more frenzied piano playing interrupts at 0:29. A guitar solo at 2:45 may be some of Fripp’s jazziest playing within the album, with prominent use of octaves and a relatively clean tone. Tippett’s playing throughout seems to suggest free-jazz influence, though it’s difficult to pinpoint specific sections within the track.

149 King Crimson, In the Court of the Crimson King, Island, 1969, CD. 150 King Crimson, In the Wake of Poseidon, Island, 1970, CD. 151 Ibid. 152 Ibid. 153 Ibid.

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154 The final jazz-influenced track off of the album is found in “Groon,” a B-side single.

Though Tippett is absent from the track, the tight playing in the opening is incredibly similar to

Tony Williams Lifetime. Fripp’s playing here sounds close to McLaughlin’s approach with

Lifetime, especially in his solo beginning at 1:17. At 2:58, the band again enters a sort of “free jazz” realm before concluding the track with the same opening material. Interestingly enough, this reuse of the opening material essentially gives the track a head-solos-head formula similar to

155 bebop.

Example 9: Islands by King Crimson

Tippett would have further influence over the sound of King Crimson, along with Mel

Collins on the 1971 Islands album. Here, the jazz influence is so great that some consider the

156 album a jazz fusion album even though King Crimson is classified as a progressive rock band.

With songs like “Formentera Lady,” “Sailor’s Tale,” and “The Letters” featuring extended saxophone solos and jazz oriented grooves, it’s easy to see where Collins and Tippett injected a

157 jazz flavor into the otherwise progressive rock group.

There are several moments where an open, almost free jazz sound is achieved such as

158 0:39 on “Formentera Lady,” 1:28 on “Sailor’s Tale,” or 1:53 on “The Letters.” “Sailor’s Tale” is particularly remarkable for its likeness to early jazz fusion bands like The Flock and Dreams.

159 The listener could easily mistake the track for an early experimentation with jazz fusion.

154 King Crimson, In the Wake of Poseidon, Island, 1970, CD. 155 Ibid. 156 Prog Archives, “Islands: King Crimson,” accessed February 21, 2020, hp://www.progarchives.com/album.asp?id=1906. 157 King Crimson, Islands, Island, 1971, CD. 158 Ibid. 159 Ibid.

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Though King Crimson continued to experiment with jazz, Islands is arguably the closest they came to a jazz fusion album.

Example 10: Fr ee Hand by Gentle Giant

Track title Most similar to... Highlighted characteristics

“Just the Same” Use of saxophone, breakdown at 1:06, synthesizer solo

“”

“Free Hand” Head Hunters, Return to Funk influence in bass and Forever keyboard, alternating 3/4 and 4/4 time, instrumental interlude

“His Last Voyage” Swung eighths, blues oriented guitar playing

Gentle Giant is considered by some to be one of the most underappreciated progressive rock bands. Never afraid to push the envelope, the group combined their influences from rock, blues, folk, classical, and jazz into a unique sound rarely replicated. Though the classical influence is more obvious in their music, a jazz appreciation can be found within. Considering that three of the founding members were brothers fathered by a jazz trumpet player, it seems

160 obvious they would be influenced by jazz.

On their 1975 album, Fr ee Hand, Gentle Giant took their closest step towards a jazz fusion sound. Band members (guitars), Kerry Minnear (keyboards),

(vocals, reeds), (bass), and (drums) still stayed within the confines

160Gentle Giant, “Ray Shulman interview by Thomas Wictor,” edited March 17, 2009. hps://www.blazemonger.com/GG/Ray_Shulman_interview_by_Thomas_Wictor.

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of progressive rock for a large part of the album, but steps were taken towards a jazzier sound on certain tracks. The first two tracks on the album, “Just the Same” and “On Reflection” make a few nods towards jazz, though they are questionable. These come in a breakdown at 1:06, a synthesizer solo at 3:14 on “Just the Same,” and a brief guitar break at 4:26 on “On

161 Reflection.”

If these are experimentations with a jazz sound, the following title track makes a confident step towards jazz fusion. The keyboard break at 0:32 gives the foundation for most of

162 the A sections, the first one being at 0:40. The funky interlude at 0:58 and again at 1:27

163 highlights Ray Shulman’s jazz-influenced bass playing in particular. This is followed by a heavily syncopated line played by guitar and bass in unison that would fit in well on a Head

Hunters’ album. At 3:36, an instrumental interlude interrupts the verse-chorus structure of the

164 track, creating perhaps the most jazz fusion section of the album. With textures similar to some of Return to Forever and melodies alternating between 3/4 and 4/4, the band flexes their jazz

165 abilities before returning to the final verses and chorus.

“His Last Voyage” offers the only other jazz venture within the album. At 2:56, the group

166 settles into a laid back, swung eighth jam before Green takes a bluesy guitar solo at 3:47.

161 Gentle Giant, Free Hand, Chrysalis, 1975, CD. 162 Ibid. 163 Ibid. 164 Ibid. 165 Ibid. 166 Ibid.

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Example 11: Additional Music by Gentle Giant

Though Fr ee Hand is probably the most jazz-influenced album from Gentle Giant, there are certainly other nods to their jazz influence within their library. “Why Not” off of the debut

167 self-titled album features a bluesy shuffle to close out the track. Earlier in the album, “Isn’t it

Quiet and Cold” combines the band’s folk and jazz influences to create a song not quite fit for

168 either genre.

Later in their discography, “Proclamation” from The Power and the Glory shows an

169 extremely funk-inspired keyboard line. The melodies and textures found 2:07 onward show an

170 appreciation for funk and . At 3:28, the dark and extremely dissonant vocals would fit in on Tony Williams Lifetime’s earlier albums if the vocal parts were replaced with Larry

171 Young’s organ playing.

A final nod to their jazz influence can be seen on one of their live albums, Playing the

172 Fool , where because of an issue with Minnear’s keyboards, the group had to stall for time. In a rare acoustic set, the group plays a short rendition of “” complete with a

173 cello solo from Minnear. Though still more tenuous than the jazz fusion ventures of Yes or

King Crimson, Gentle Giant certainly ventures into the realm of jazz fusion on several occasions.

167 Gentle Giant, Gentle Giant, Vergo, 1970, CD. 168 Ibid. 169 Gentle Giant, The Power and the Glory, Capitol, 1974, CD. 170 Ibid. 171 Ibid. 172 Gentle Giant, , Chrysalis, 1977, CD. 173 Ibid.

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Example 12: Music of the Scene: Soft Machine

Track title Most similar to... Highlighted characteristics

“Save Yourself” Tony Williams Lifetime (from The Soft Machine) (Larry Young’s organ playing)

“Lullabye Letter” Tony Williams Lifetime (from The Soft Machine) (Larry Young’s organ playing)

“Facelift” Free jazz, Tony Williams Use of , extended (from Thir d) Lifetime horn and organ solos

“Slightly All The Time” Tony Williams Lifetime, Extended horn and organ (from Thir d) Mahavishnu Orchestra solos, jazz oriented “Dream”, Return to Forever, drumming, use of odd meter John Coltrane, Chicago, (9/4)

As progressive rock bands of the late 60s and early 70s gained more prominence, a tangent of bands could be found in what was later dubbed “The Canterbury Scene.” Groups like

Soft Machine, Caravan, Gong, , and Matching Mold were creating a new offshoot of progressive rock with an increased focus on jazz. Musicians in these groups were influenced not only by rock performers, but also by jazz musicians like , John

Coltrane, Theloniuous Monk, and .1 74

Soft Machine is arguably the most notable of the Canterbury bands. With

Robert Wyatt’s influence from Elvin Jones, the group quickly morphed from a poppier progressive group into what could arguably be considered a pure jazz fusion band. On their 1968 debut album, The Soft Machine, the band stays much closer to rock than later releases. The

174 The Canterbury Scene. Internet video. BBC Prog Rock Britannia. 2012. .com/watch?v=eH9Iar0Qwmw.

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influences from The Beatles are obvious in the vocals. However, some allusions to jazz fusion can be found within some of the solo playing on tracks like “” and “So Boot If At

All.”1 75 The organ playing on the opening and conclusion of “Save Yourself” sounds remarkably similar to Larry Young’s playing on some of the Lifetime tracks.1 76 “Lullabye Letter” also features a heavily-distorted, frenzied organ solo beginning around the 1:50 mark.1 77

On their third album, appropriately titled Third, Soft Machine makes the jump into what appears to be a fully-fledged jazz fusion band. The opening of the first track, “Facelift,” is perhaps noise-rock oriented, but there is undoubtedly a free jazz influence present as well. 178 The distorted guitar at 5:15 reminds the listener of Soft Machine’s progressive rock label before a horn section comes in with sustained chords, leading to an angular melody played by the horns.

179 A sudden shift at 7:03 brings the band momentarily towards Tony Williams Lifetime before another quick left turn in timbre follows. 180 This same pattern of briefly alluding to Lifetime before changing timbre occurs again at 10:15. 181 The remainder of the track consists almost entirely of extended solos over vamp sections.

The second track, “Slightly All The Time,” opens with a bass and organ duo sounding reminiscent of Mahavishnu Orchestra, especially “Dream.”1 82 Once the horns enter at 0:40, the fusion influence is overwhelmingly clear. The ensemble hit at 3:07 sounds close to what might be orchestrated in some of Chicago’s earlier work.1 83 Wyatt’s drumming at 4:32 seems extremely

175 The Canterbury Scene. Internet video. BBC Prog Rock Britannia. 2012. youtube.com/watch?v=eH9Iar0Qwmw. 176 So Machine, T he So Machine, ABC, 1968, CD. 177 Ibid. 178 So Machine, T hird, CBS, 1970, CD. 179 Ibid. 180 Ibid. 181 Ibid. 182 Ibid. 183 Ibid.

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jazz inspired, if only briefly.1 84 The sudden shift at 5:42 is again more reminiscent of what might be called “jazz rock” bands like Chicago or Chase instead of jazz fusion, though there is certainly still a touch of Mahavishnu Orchestra present in the keyboard playing.1 85 At 8:02, a new vamp in 9/4 seems to allude to Return to Forever, Tony Williams Lifetime, and a bit of

Mahavishnu Orchestra.1 86 The new texture at 12:01 alludes again to Mahavishnu Orchestra and some of the more acoustic tracks like “Dream.”1 87 The sudden shift to up tempo at 16:05 shows saxophonist ’s affinity for John Coltrane before the track closes out.1 88

The remaining two tracks on the album, “Moon in June,” and “Out-Bloody-Rageous,” continue to showcase Soft Machine crossing over to jazz fusion, though nothing is found that can’t already be highlighted within the first two tracks of the album. It is important to note that throughout the album, there is ample use of extended solos not commonly found in progressive rock. One solo may last upwards of five minutes before another solo of similar length begins.

The majority of the musical content within the album could be described as jams or solos over amplified vamp sections, not unlike the music of the first two Lifetime albums.1 89

184 So Machine, T hird, CBS, 1970, CD. 185 Ibid. 186 Ibid. 187 Ibid. 188 Ibid. 189 Ibid.

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Part Four: Conclusion, Genre Boundaries and Commonalities

With this closer inspection of jazz fusion and progressive rock, commonalities present themselves between the two otherwise disparate genres. At their very foundations, both styles combined two otherwise unacquainted styles, with progressive rock combining rock and classical, and jazz fusion combining rock and jazz. Though both styles had many influences, they are both primarily rooted in psychedelic music with Jimi Hendrix serving as perhaps the most important inspiration for each. They each took aspects of modern classical composers of the time such as Bartok or Stravinsky. Each style was fueled by the hippie subculture and the anti-war movement of the time, though perhaps in differing capacities. Each valued virtuosity, both instrumentally and compositionally, and each celebrated rhythmic density and complexity. Both genres sought to create a philosophical, spiritual, or political message oftentimes. And of course, each utilized numerous electronic instruments.

With groups on either side inching towards the opposite style many examples of crossing over stick out, though the most notable are arguably Return to Forever’s Romantic Warrior as a progressive rock album and King Crimson’s Islands as a jazz fusion album. With these crossings and experimentations, defining each style becomes increasingly difficult. Avid listeners of each style can often define a song or an album within the style, but qualifying this distinction is sometimes troubling. Interestingly, all four jazz artists examined herein can be found on progarchives.com, the website used primarily in Ahlkvist’s research for defining progressive

190 rock. Users of the website discuss albums like Emergency!, Bitches Brew, and Inner Mounting

Flame in a progressive rock context, though they are almost always defined as jazz fusion.

190 Prog Archives, “Prog Archives: Your Ulmate Prog Rock Resource,” accessed November 29, 2019, hp://www.progarchives.com/.

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Album personnel often further obscures genre labeling. Albums created by jazz musicians are typically labeled as jazz fusion whereas a similar sounding album created by a rock musician would be labeled as progressive rock. , writer and musician, says of the Canterbury Scene:

“Kind of a shame it ever became regarded as a part of rock and roll because it’s not… if you judge it by the standards of rock and roll, then it fails.” 191

George Grella further echoes this sentiment when discussing Bitches Brew.

“If it’s played by jazz players, it’s fusion. The same music played by rock musicians is called rock.”1 92

Clearly critics and listeners were struggling to compartmentalize these new bands. As time has progressed, this has only become more difficult as more modern groups cross further and further over into both genres. Artists like , , Cosmosquad, and Alex

Skolnick push their music towards jazz fusion and progressive rock making them difficult to place exclusively in one style.

Muddying the waters even more, it must be considered whether a progressive rock group’s jazz influences necessitate a jazz fusion influence. While Soft Machine drummer Robert

Wyatt notes his debt to musicians like John Coltrane and Elvin Jones, neither of these are jazz fusion musicians specifically. Is it appropriate to then say these musicians were inspired by jazz fusion musicians if the influence is more indirect?

With all of this being considered, do these styles warrant separate labels? As has already been shown, both styles have wide reaching definitions allowing them to cover a large breadth of music. Because of this, there will of course be some crossover, but how helpful are these

191 The Canterbury Scene. Internet video. BBC Prog Rock Britannia. 2012. youtube.com/watch?v=eH9Iar0Qwmw. 192 George Grella Jr., Bitches Brew (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 98.

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definitions in categorizing music? If jazz fusion is simply a mix of and harmony with rock drum beats and electronics, a large breadth of newer jazz could easily be classified as fusion despite what record companies might use as a label. Similarly, progressive rock’s many definitions struggle to put any sort of limit to what the genre can’t claim outside of perhaps some of the most straight-ahead pop music. Despite this, the author makes no suggestion at rewriting or reworking these labels. Despite their large breadth, it seems impossible

While there are numerous examples of music that either cross to the other style or feature a mix of both styles, the total catalog of music filling this area is insufficient to warrant its own stylistic label. Certainly all of the albums discussed herein could be placed along a spectrum with one end being complete progressive rock and the other being complete jazz fusion, but the valley between the two styles is too thin to necessitate a label. This being said, both styles have more than enough distinct music to necessitate separate labels. Though many commonalities exist, there are too many distinctly progressive rock and jazz fusion bands to all be grouped in the same stylistic label.

Perhaps the most important consideration of the two styles is whether or not a hard line exists between them. The albums and bands discussed herein show, if nothing else, the musical output from one style can venture quite far into the other without losing its assigned label.

However, there seems to be no clear boundary between the two. As previously noted by George

Grella, the closest thing to a consistent stylistic distinction comes not from the music, but the musicians making it. Even here, King Crimson breaks the rule as Islands is often classified as a jazz fusion album. Generally speaking, jazz fusion features more improvisation than progressive rock and progressive rock features more arranged instrumental virtuosity, but neither of these is

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completely unique to the other. It seems that the distinction lies in the frequency of certain musical elements, rather than their mere presence or absence. Therefore, despite their many commonalities and occurences of crossing over, both jazz fusion and progressive rock must be defined as separate and distinct styles.

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