Beyond Villages and Open Fields: the Origins and Development of a Historic Landscape Characterised by Dispersed Settlement in South-West England

Home , History of Devon, Holne, Molland, Morchard Bishop, Roachill, Stockleigh Pomeroy

ORE Open Research Exeter

TITLE Beyond Villages and Open Fields: The Origins and Development of a Historic Landscape Characterised by Dispersed Settlement in South-West England

AUTHORS Rippon, Stephen; Fyfe, Ralph; Brown, A.G

JOURNAL Medieval Archaeology

DEPOSITED IN ORE 17 March 2008

This version available at

http://hdl.handle.net/10036/20862

Open Research Exeter makes this work available in accordance with publisher policies.

A NOTE ON VERSIONS

The version presented here may diﬀer from the published version. If citing, you are advised to consult the published version for pagination, volume/issue and date of publication Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology more enclosedfieldsystems associatedwithdispersedpatternsofsettlement. in south-eastern,northernandwesternEngland whichwerecharacterisedby fields surroundingnucleatedvillages,separated areas of‘woodland’landscape countryside oftheMidlands,characterisedby communallymanagedopen landscape couldbedividedintothreebroadprovinces, ofwhichthe‘champion’ change inthelater1stmillennium that the‘greatreplanning’wasjustoneofseveralregionally distinctivetrajectoriesoflandscape earlier than,thecreationofnucleatedvillagesin‘Central Province’ofEngland,suggesting evidence forfieldsystems.Thistransformationappearstobe roughlycontemporarywith,oreven Romano-British/post-Roman landscapeofsmall,enclosed settlementswithonlyverylocalised isolated farmsteadssetwithinanearcontinuousfieldscape,replacingthelateprehistoric/ also havebeenthecontextforcreationoftoday’shistoriclandscapesmallhamletsand of aregionallydistinctivesystemagricultureknownas‘convertiblehusbandry’.Thismay significant changeinthepatternsofland-use,whichitissuggestedrelatestointroduction palaeoenvironmental sequencessuggestthataroundthe7th–8thcenturies,however,therewasa that the5thcenturysawlittlediscerniblechangeinmanagementoflandscape.These exploitation. InaregionthatlaybeyondthemainareaofRomanisation,itisnotsurprising incorporation ofthisregionintotheRomanworldhadlittleimpactonpatternslandscape of woodlandinlowlandareasandtheuplandfringebyLateIronAge,that and theedgesofExmoorstarttoredressthatimbalance.Theysuggestsubstantialclearance beyond areassettledduringthisperiod.TheninesequencesreportedherefromcentralDevon millennia, andthosethathavebeenanalysedaremostlylocatedinuplandlocationslay relatively fewlongpalaeoenvironmentalsequencesprovideacontinuousrecordforthepasttwo origins anddevelopmentofthemedievallandscape.Comparedtoprehistoricperiod, POLLEN EVIDENCEhas,todate,madelittlecontributionourunderstandingofthe Medieval Archaeology, 06SceyfrMdea rhelg DOI: © 2006Society for MedievalArchaeology 1 E.g. L.ToulminSmith, From the16thcentury,topographicalwriters describe howtheEnglish The OriginsandDevelopmentofa Beyond VillagesandOpenFields: Historic LandscapeCharacterised By S.J.RIPPON,R.M.FYFE by DispersedSettlementin 50 , 2006 The ItineraryofJohnLelandinorabout theYears1535–1543 South-West England

A . D . 31 and A.G.BROWN 10.1179/174581706x124239 , 2(London,1908),47. 1 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology (Macclesfield, 2003),5–6. ‘The originsofthecommonfields’, figs. 17–18. Volume 3:LandscapesofSouth-West England Landscape ofWessex England a StudyofEnglishRuralSettlement evidence forsettlementinthefifth toseventhcenturies Guide: RomanBritain,FifthEdition Province simplynotpenetratethisfarsouth-west? Havingalsoescapedthe and associatedregularlyarrangedopenfields. westernmost limitofparisheswithapredominantly nucleatedsettlementpattern and artefacts. as reflectedindiagnosticstructures(e.g.sunkenfeaturebuildings),burials evidence ofEarlyAnglo-Saxonsettlement,acculturationandexchangenetworks The Blackdowns–Quantockslinesimilarlyrepresentsthewesternlimitfor 1). no smalltownsorRomano-Celtictemplestothewestofthesehills(Fig. marks thewesternlimitofextensiveRomanisation,withveryfewvillasand and massivelydefendedhillforts. limit oftheDurotriges,asreflectedindistributiontheirpottery,coins in thewesternpartofSomersetLevels,appeartohavemarked rising abovetheAxeValleyonDevon–DorsetborderandParrett 1), rest ofBritain.Inpre-RomantimestheBlackdownandQuantockHills(Fig. the South-WestPeninsulahadalandscapecharactersomewhatdistinctfrom ‘convertible husbandry’(discussedindetailbelow).SinceatleasttheIronAge, in particulararegionallydistinctivesystemofrotationalagricultureknownas pattern offields,roadsandsettlements—intheSouth-WestEngland, replanning’ thatledtothecreationofvillagesandopenfields? tryside thatwouldhavesurvivedintheMidlandshaditnotbeenfor‘great essentially lateprehistoric/Romano-Britishformoflandscape—atypecoun- landscape-reorganisation. were simplyperipheraltothecentreofgravitythislate1stmillennium High-medieval landscapeastheyhadlowpopulations,werecolonisedlate,or the remainingareasofEnglandhadfailedtodevelopthis‘classic’form fields inthe‘CentralProvince’,withamoreorlessimplicitassumptionthat research todatehasfocusedontheoriginsanddevelopmentofvillagesopen Western’ Provincesinmoredetail, and Wrathmellhasdefinedthese‘Central’,‘South-eastern’‘Northern The systematicmappingof19th-centurysettlementcharacterbyRoberts 32 7 5 4 3 2 6 S. Rippon, B. JonesandD.Mattingly, B. Cunliffe, E.g. C.Lewis,P.Mitchell-FoxandDyer, B. K.RobertsandS.Wrathmell, C. Arnold, DISTINCTIVE LANDSCAPECHARACTERINTHESOUTH-WEST So didthe‘greatreplanning’thatledto‘village moment’intheCentral This studyfocusesontheoriginsofhistoriclandscape—present (Manchester,1997),199–201;J.Thirsk,‘Thecommonfields’, An ArchaeologyoftheEarlyAnglo-Saxon Kingdoms Iron AgeCommunitiesinBritain Historic LandscapeAnalysis:Deciphering theCountryside (Oxford,1994);P.Rahtz,S.Hirst andS.M.Wright, 6 IntheHighMiddleAgesthesesamehillsalsomarked (London,2002). An AtlasofRomanBritain (Southampton,2001). 3 Past &Present Sodoareasbeyondthe‘CentralProvince’havean An AtlasofRuralSettlementinEngland s. j.ripponetal. (London,2006);RobertsandWrathmell 2000,op.cit.innote2, (London,1991,3rdedn.),figs.8.1and8.3. OF ENGLAND 4 ThissameBlackdowns–Quantockslinealso , 33(1966),142–7;T.Williamson, Village, HamletandField:ChangingMedievalSettlementsinCentral 2 thougharchaeologicalandhistorical ad (Oxford,1990);OrdnanceSurvey, ’, 13–32inM.AstonandC.Lewis (eds.), (London,1988);B.Eagles,‘The archaeological 7 (York,2004);idem, Past &Present (London,2000);idem, Cannington Cemetery Shaping MedievalLandscapes , 29(1964),3–29;eadem, England’s Landscapes, (London,2000). Historical Mapand Region andPlace: The Medieval 5 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology in turnreflectsthedistributionof medievalregularlyarrangedopen-fieldsystems(Rippon2004,op. cit.in south-westerly boundaryofRoberts andWrathmell’s(2000,op.cit.innote2)‘CentralProvince’, which Location ofthestudyarea.Thesouth-westerlylimithighlyRomanised landscapes(asreflectedinthe distribution ofvillas,afterOrdnance Survey2001,op.cit.innote5),broadlycorrespondstothe beyond villagesandopenfields note 7,figs.27.6–8). fig . 1 33 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology Soc. ‘Excavations ofacausewayedenclosureandhillfortonRaddonHill, StockleighPomeroy’, Soc. 171–6; P.J.Weddell,‘Theexcavation ofapost-RomancemeterynearKenn,SouthDevon’, Mothecombe: somenewfindsamongst oldmaterialinTotnesMuseum’, 2004); Simpsonetal.,op.cit.in note 9;Turner,op.cit.in10;idem,‘Importedandlocalpottery from 1997’, Soc. Oxford, 2004). England, Proc. Devon.Archaeol.Soc. Devon Archaeol.Soc. G. F.Quinn,‘AnewsurveyoftheprehistoricfieldsystemonKerswell DownandWhilboroughCommon’, British siteatLowerWellFarm,StokeGabriel,Devon’, Pocombe Link, of aRomano-BritishsiteatLowerWellFarm,StokeGabriel,Devon’, Neolithic settlement,Topsham,Devon’, (Exeter, 1988),23;K.JarvisandV.Maxfield,‘Theexcavationofa firstcenturyRomanfarmsteadandalate fields ontheSouthDevonlimestoneplateau’, 227–47. 133–52; J.Uglow,‘ThreeRomano-BritishsitesintheLowerExeValley’, Late-medieval countryside. farmsteads withrectangularlonghousesthatcharacterisedtheHigh-and roundhouses, quiteunlikethesprawlingunenclosedhamletsandisolated was characterisedbysmall,enclosedsettlementscontainingoneormore in DevonhasshownthatthelateprehistoricandRomano-Britishlandscape form, distributionandtheirassociatedfieldsystems.Surveyexcavation late prehistoricform?Theanswerappearstobeno,bothintermsofsettlement Romanisation, isitpossiblethattheSouth-West’scountrysideessentiallyof landscape transformationspotentiallybroughtaboutthroughextensive 34 prehistoric Dartmoor’, Improvement DBFOScheme,1996–9 R. Wilson-North, (1989), 1–28;M.Todd,‘AhillslopeenclosureatRudge,Morchard Bishop’, Alverdiscott’, ‘The prehistoric,Romanandearlypost-RomansiteatHayesFarm,ClystHoniton’, Valley, WestDevon’, Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. systems, up ascropmarksandearthworks,donotappeartobeassociatedwithfield is thatmanyoftheselateprehistoricandRomano-Britishenclosureswhichshow Collomoor, Bittadon’, Bittadon, NorthDevon’, 11–32; S.J.ReedandP.T.Manning,‘ArchaeologicalrecordingofahillslopeenclosureatNorthHillCleave, Mediterranean canalsobeseenasacontinuationofearliertradingtraditions. sandy beaches—thathaveproducedlargeamountsofpotteryimportedfromthe emergence ofaseriescoastaltradingsites—bothrockyislandsandsheltered the occurrenceofimportedpotteryinanumberreoccupiedhillforts.The with asignificantmovetowardstherecolonisationofhilltopsalsoreflectedin British traditionofenclosedsettlementscontinuedintothe6th–7thcenturies, dating isstartingtorevealtheextentwhichthislateprehistoric/Romano- orientation andnotsharinganyalignments). recorded bearnorelationshiptothehistoriclandscape(beingonadifferent 11 10 8 9 B. Cunliffe, Fitzpatrick etal.,op.cit.innote8;Jarvis,L.Gallant, N.LuxtonandM.Collman,‘Ancient A. Fitzpatrick,C.ButterworthandJ.Grove, F. M.Griffith,‘RomanmilitarysitesinDevon:somerecentdiscoveries’, , 57(1999),1–76;idem,‘Salvage recording ontheNeolithicsiteatHaldonBelvedere’, , 56(2000),93–126. , 57(1999),77–104;F.M.Griffith andS.J.Reed,‘RescuerecordingatBanthamHam,SouthDevon, in Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. c . 9 a.d. whilethesmallnumberofpre-medievalfieldsystemsthathavebeen Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. 400–600’,25–32inR.CollinsandJ.Gerrard(eds.), Mount Batten,Plymouth:APrehistoricandRomanPort Proc. , 53(1995),131–4;R.J.Silvester,‘Theprehistoricopensettlementat Dainton,southDevon’, The FieldArchaeologyofExmoor

Devon Archaeol.Soc. Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. Proc. Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. , 38(1980),119–21;idemandC.J.Balkwill,‘ThreehillslopeenclosuresintheLyd , 38(1980),17–48;S.Turner,‘Coastandcountrysidein“LateAntique” southwest Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc.

Devon Archaeol.Soc. , 56(1998),109–31;H.Quinnell, (Salisbury,1999);F.M.Griffith,‘Changingperceptionsofthecontext 8 , 36(1978),249–54;idem,‘AnenclosureinStavertonFordPlantation’, AnothermajordifferencewiththeMedievalPeriod s. j.ripponetal. Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. , 34(1976),41–72;E.N.MasonPhillips,‘ExcavationsofaRomano- , 52(1994),85–99;K.Jarvis,‘TheM5MotorwayandthePeamore/ , 35(1977),81–4;S.J.Simpson,F.M.GriffithandN.Holbrook, Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. , 36(1978),245–9;idem,‘CropmarksitesatNorthTawtonand (London,2001),65–75. Prehistoric &RomanSitesinEastDevon:TheA30HonitontoExeter , 58(2000),201–14;R.J.Silvester,‘Ahillslopeenclosureat Proc. 10

Devon Archaeol.Soc. , 33(1975),209–65;E.N.M.Phillips,‘Excavation Theincreasinguseofradiocarbon Excavations atTrethurgyRound,St.Austell (Oxford,1988);H.GentandQuinnell, Debating LateAntiquity , 43(1995),23–37;F.Griffith, Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. , 23(1966),2–62;H.Rileyand Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. (BARBrit.Ser.365, Proc. DevonArchaeol. Proc. DevonArchaeol. Proc. DevonArchaeol. , 23(1966),2–62; , 62(2004), , 58(2000), , 56(1998), , 42(1984), Devon’s Past (Truro, Proc. , 47 11 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology and uplandmarginsofMid-northernDevon thatwereextensivelysettled pollen sites—smallvalleyandspringmires which laywithinthelowlands In contrast,theworkreportedherehasbeenbased onaseriesofnon-typical untypical locations,notablyextensivewetlands such astheSomersetLevels. Where sequencesexistfromlowlandareas,theyareusuallyequally best provideonlyahighlygeneralisedregionalpictureofland-usechange. peats fromthehighestuplands,beyondareassettledatthattime,andsowill record ofland-usechange. supply acontinuous,geographicallyspecificandpotentiallyhighresolution that covertheRomano-BritishandMedievalPeriodsdespitetheirabilityto toric period,though,therehasbeendisappointinglylittleworkonsequences patterns oflandscapeexploitationthroughoutBritain.Comparedtotheprehis- mental analysishasenormouspotentialforsheddingnewlightonchanging discontinuity, oratleastdislocation,inthephysicalfabricofcountryside. the 6th–7thand10th–11thcenturiesfollowingasignificantepisodeof toric landscapeoftodayappears,therefore,tohaveemergedsometimebetween are describedincharterboundaryclausesandtheDomesdaysurvey. countryside wereclearlyinexistencebythe10th–11thcenturieswhenthey before the12thcentury,thoughmanyessentialfeaturesofHigh-medieval is difficult,however,asruralsettlementshavefailedtoproducepotteryfrom British andEarlyMedievalPeriod. stand insharpcontrasttotheunicellularoval/sub-ovalhutsofRomano- which cancertainlybedatedtothe10th–11thcenturyatMawganPorth.These nant formofmedievaldwellingsappearstohavebeenthetripartitelonghouse, — appeartobeunique.Eventhecharacterofhouseschanged.Thedomi- lie closetoHigh-medievalsettlements—BagleyandSweetworthyinLuccombe of dozenslateprehistoric/Romano-Britishenclosures,thetwoexamplesthat hamlets) andphysicallocationofsettlements.AroundExmoor,forexample,out lated towhatprecededit,bothintheform(unenclosedfarmsteadsandsmall open countryside,wasabandoned.Thehistoriclandscapeoftodayisquiteunre- places andsmallenclosedfarmsteadswithinwhatappearstohavebeenalargely bon datingsuggestthatthislandscapeofhilltopsettlements,coastaltrading The CrossGoesNorth:ProcessesofConversion inNorthernEurope, (Exeter, 1995);S.Turner,‘Making aChristianlandscape:earlymedievalCornwall’,176–8inM.Carver (ed.), and ‘marginal’settlementinupland Britishlandscapes:are-evaluation’, AD 400–1100’,figs.3.1–3.2inD. HookeandS.Burnell(eds), (Woodbridge, 1994). Geography ofSouth-WestEngland 52, 1954and1974 25 (1986),135–85;Quinnell,op.cit.innote11;RileyandWilson-North, op.cit.innote8,73–5. 15 14 13 12 P. Dark, Preston-Jones andRose,op.cit.in note 12;P.RoseandA.PrestonJones,‘ChangesintheCornishcountryside H. C.Darby,‘Thesouth-westerncounties’,348–92inDarbyand R.WelldonFinn(eds.), R. Bruce-Mitford, In suchanarchaeologicallyandhistorically‘darkage’,palaeoenviron- Sometime aroundthelate6th–7thcenturies,bothceramicandradiocar- The EnvironmentofBritainintheFirst Millennium (London,1997);A.Preston-JonesandP.Rose,‘MedievalCornwall’, Mawgan Porth:ASettlementoftheLateSaxonPeriodonNorthCornishCoast. Excavations1949– beyond villagesandopenfields (Cambridge,1967);D.Hooke, 15 Workcarriedouthasgenerallybeenonblanket 12 Datingtheoriginsofthishistoriclandscape A . A D . . D

The Pre-ConquestCharter-BoundsofDevonandCornwall (London, 2000);R.Tipping,‘Climatic variability . 300–1300 Landscape andSettlementinBritain (Woodbridge,2003). Landscapes , 3(ii)(2002),10–29. Cornish Archaeol. 13 A The Domesday . Thehis- D . 400–1066 35 14 , Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology and AllerFarminStockland, in lowlandDevon(Fig.3:BowMid-Devon, usa-tl oe,wt olnsmlstkna 0m nevl sn mm mmintervalsusing5 Russian-style corer,withpollensamplestakenat 40 Exmoor (MolesChamber), new sequencescanalsobecomparedwithpreviousworkintheuplandfringesof the adjacentdrylandareasratherthanmiresthemselves.Theresultsofthese pollen relatedtochangingagriculturalpracticeswillreflectthemanagementof mires alsoshowsthattheyhaveneverbeendrained,andsoanychangesinthe so willnotdirectlyreflectclimaticchange.Thestratigraphywithineachofthe driven, thesesmallvalleymiresaresuppliedbygroundwaterandoverlandflow are purelyrainwater-fedandwhosevegetationgrowthwillbeclimatically each studyareatoensurethatatypicalpictureemerged.Unlikeraisedbogs several squarekilometres,thoughweselectedsitesincloseproximityfor macross).Thesegivearelativelylocalcatchmentofjust small insize(c.30 Codsend Moor,HoarMoorandTheChains), 2–3: from anareaintheorderofseveralhundredsquarekilometres(Figs. blanket bogsofExmoor,thatcouldonlyevergiveaverybroadregionalpicture (Figs. 2–4).Incontrasttotheearliersequencesrecoveredfromhighupland mO.D.)innorthernDevon m)andParracombe(c.340 Common (c.290 mO.D.)throughtotheuplandfringesofExmoor aroundMolland (c. 220 in abroadtransectrunningfromlowlandMid-DevontheRackenfordarea the Romano-BritishandMedievalPeriods.Atotalofninesiteswereexamined within orveryclosetothoseareasofthelandscapethatweresettledduring is likelytohavecomeintobeing. of land-useduringthehistoricperiod,andtoassesswhenpresentlandscape historic landscapeitself,areusedtoexaminecontinuityandchangesinpatterns alongside ananalysisofdocumentaryevidenceandthephysicalfabric during theRomano-BritishandMedievalPeriods.Thesenewpollensequences, 36 Exmoor, Part2:HoarMoor’, of blanketmires’,203–35inP.D.Moore(ed.), Hist. Soc. and landusechangefromuplandpeatdepositsonExmoor,Part3: Codsend Moors’, of Wetlands from asectionneartheriverExein Exeter,Devon’,145–62inP.MurphyandC.French(eds.), Change the mid-Devonlandscape’,60–9inR.A.NicholsonandT.P.O’Connor (eds.), Aller Farm,EastDevonasindicated bypollenanalysis’, and PalaeoenvironmentalPotential(unpubl.Ph.D.thesis,University ofExeter,2000). 16 20 19 18 17 P. D.FrancisandS.Slater,‘Arecordofvegetationallanduse changefromuplandpeatdepositson J. M.HattonandC.Caseldine, ‘Vegetation changeandlandusehistoryduringthefirstmillennium C. Caseldine,S.JugginsandV.Straker, ‘Preliminarypalaeoenvironmentalanalysesoffloodplaindeposits Human influenceon C. J.Caseldine,B.Coles,F.M.GriffithandHatton,‘Conservation orchange? R. M.Fyfe,PalaeochannelsoftheExeCatchment:TheirAgeand anAssessmentofTheirArchaeological (Oxford,2000). eeaie n ape h olnstsuiga5 mm-wide, We examinedandsampledthepollensites usinga50 This projectsoughtpotentialsitesforpalynologicalinvestigationthatlay , 136(1992),9–28;P.D.Moore,L.MerryfieldandM.R.Price, ‘Thevegetationanddevelopment (Oxford,1988). Proc. SomersetArchaeol.Nat.Hist.Soc. 17 THE POLLENSITES s. j.ripponetal. andtheverylimitedoftenpoorlydatedwork 20 ineasternDevon). European Mires Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. (London,1984). , 134(1990),1–26;idem,‘Arecordofvegetational 18 16 theExeBridgesnearExeter, thepeatbogsusedherewere , 49(1991),107–14. People asAgentsofEnvironmental Proc. SomersetArchaeol.Nat. The Exploitation ad at 19 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology tion ofPoaceaeandcereal-typesfollowsAndersen. taken fromeachsequenceforAMSdatingusing samplesofpeat20mmthick count foreachlevel.Pollennomenclaturefollows Bennett, pollen grains.Thedataispresentedasapercentage ofthetotallandpollen the UniversityofExeterreferencecollection,to aminimumsumof500land fied pollenandsporesusingthestandardkeysin Mooreetal., slices ofpeat.Pollenpreparationfollowedstandard procedures, 69–92. Plant Sciences,UniversityofCambridge, 1994). 1, Cambridge,1984). Location ofthepollensitesaroundRackenfordinMid-Devon,MollandCommononsouthernfringes 22 21 25 24 23 mostly foundontheblanketpeatsofhigheruplands(CodsendMoor,HoarMoorandTheChains). of ExmoorandParracombeinthewesternfringesExmoor.Thepreviouspollensitesonare P. D.Moore,J.A.WebbandM.E.Collinson, K. Faegri,P.E.KalandandKrzywinski, S. T.Andersen,‘Identificationof wild grassandcerealpollen’, K. D.Bennett,AnnotatedCatalogue ofPollenandPteridophyteSporeTypes(unpubl.rep.,Department of R. Andrew, A PracticalPollenGuidetotheBritish Flora beyond villagesandopenfields The insetboxesareshowninmoredetailFigure4. Textbook ofPollenAnalysis Pollen Analysis fig (QuaternaryResearchAssociation TechnicalGuideno. . 2 (Blackwell,1991). Danmarks GeologiskeUndersøgelseÅrbog (Chichester,1989,4thedn.). 25 Multiplesampleswere 24 andthedifferentia- 22 21 Andrew, andweidenti- 23 (1978), and 37 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology 38 Distribution ofDomesdaypopulationintheSouth-West(afterDarby andWelldonFinn,op.cit.innote 13, fig.84),andthewesterlylimit ofmedievallandscapescharacterisedbynucleatedvillagesand regularly arrangedopenfields(sources asFig.1). s. j.ripponetal. fig . 3 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology Location ofthepollensitesaround Rackenford(MiddleNorthCombe,LobbsBog,WindmillRough and Hares Down),MollandCommon (Anstey’sCombe,GourteMiresandLongBreach)Parracombe (Higher HolworthyandTwineford CombeHead),inthecontextofDomesdaymanorsandareas of ancient andrecentenclosure(the latterbeingParliamentaryEnclosureorfieldsystemsofasimilar beyond villagesandopenfields morphology). fig . 4 39 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology they approachthehigherinterfluvialareas haveincreasingamountsof (see below).Thethroughroadsaresinuous and fairlynarrow,thoughas parts oftheSouth-Westandthataresuggestive formersmall-scaleopenfields were compactwithnoevidencefortheinterspersed tenementsseeninsome Knowstone). Thelandholdingsassociatedwiththese19th-centuryfarmsteads around roadjunctionsandtheparishchurches(e.g.Templeton,Rackenford accessed downnarrowlanes;andahandfulofsmallhamlets,mostlylocated numerous isolatedfarmsteadsaretypicallysetbackfromthethroughroadsand century Tithesurveys)ischaracterisedbyadispersedsettlementpattern: far froma‘marginal’region. per squaremile.AlthoughnottheagriculturalheartlandofDevon,thisareawas northern andwesternDevonthathad1.6–1.8plough-teamsunder5tenants 3).BothfiguresareaboutaverageforDevonandhigherthanpartsof (Fig. km]andapopulation ofc.6.5tenantspersquaremile sq square mile[2.6 valleys. waterlogging onthehigherinterfluvialareasbutbetterdrainageinbroader are slowlypermeable,seasonallywaterlogged,fine-grainedloamswithgreater dissected bysteeplysidedvalleyswhosesidesarecloakedinwoodland.Thesoils landscape ofgentlyundulatinghillsaround200to250mO.D.,occasionally 4Cand8–11).Thisisa Mid-Devon CulmMeasuresaroundRackenford(Figs. rackenford area all theninesites. sequences fromParracombeandadetaileddiscussionofthehistoricperiodfor sequences. along withageneraldiscussionoftheprehistoric/Romano-Britishsections prehistoric, Romano-Britishandhistoricperiods,havebeenpublishedelsewhere a singlepaper,sothosefortheRackenfordandMollandareas,whichcover Nine pollendiagramsandtheaccompanyingreportscouldnotbepublishedin are calibratedusingtheagerangesattwosigmaCalib4.3program. sample submittedlatertothefacilityatBETARadiocarbon,Miami,USA),and submitted totheRadiocarbonfacilityatWaikato,NewZealand(withasingle 40 extent ofhuman-inducedvegetation change’, sequences): idem,‘MidtoLate-HolocenevegetationhistoryofGreater Exmoor,UK:estimatingthespatial Archaeol. Sci. landscape, anddatingtheemergenceofaregionallydistinctagricultural systeminSouthWestBritain’, Fyfe, A.G.BrownandS.J.Rippon,‘Characterisingthelateprehistoric, “Romano-British”andmedieval Wales, Sheet5 note 10. for theendof“Romano-British” periodinSouthWestEngland’,33–42CollinsandGerrard, op. cit.in Romano-British period:R.M.Fyfe andS.J.Rippon,‘Alandscapeintransition?Palaeoenvironmental evidence Radiocarbon 28 27 26 D. Mackney,J.M.Hodgson, HollisandS.J.Staines, Rackenford area(MiddleNorthCombe,LobbsBog,WindmillRough andHaresDownsequences):R.M. M. StuiverandP.J.Reimer,‘Extended14CdatabasearevisedCALIB radiocarboncalibrationprogram’, The historiclandscapeofthisarea(bothtodayandasmappedinthe19th- Four ofthepollensiteslieonclays,shalesandsandstones 28 , 35(1993),215–30. , 31(2004),1699–1714.MollandCommonarea(LongBreach,Gourte MiresandAnstey’sCombe IntheDomesdaySurveyregionsupportedc.2plough-teamsper (Harpenden,1983):soilsoftheHallsworth 2,OnecoteandNeathassociations. 27 Thispaperpresentsthefullpublicationofwhollymedieval s. j.ripponetal. Vegetation Hist.Archaeobotany Legend forthe1:250,000SoilMapof Englandand , 12(2003),215–32.Discussionof the 26 J. Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology surface horizonontheunencloseduplands. permeable subsoilandslightseasonalwaterlogging, butloamysoilswithapeaty The soilsarepredominantlywell-drainedloams withsmallareasofslowly steep-sided woodedvalleysontheheavilydissected edgeoftheAnsteyRidge. southern fringesofExmoor(Fig.4B).Thisisa landscapeofrollinghillsand molland common was partofthenearcontinuousfieldscapelowlandMid-Devon(Fig.10). Moors showsthatthehistoriclandscapeoncecoveredtheseareastoo,inwhat south-west). AnextensiverelictlandscapeonRackenfordandKnowstoneOuter east, LittleRackenfordc.1kmtothesouthandBackstone1.5 with placesincludedintheDomesdaySurvey(includingBickhamc.1kmto landscape verysimilartoMiddleNorthCombeandequallywell-populated They aresurroundedbyundulatinghillsandvalleyssupportingahistoric the unenclosedroughpastureofRackenfordandKnowstoneOuterMoors. sites lieonthefringesofanextensiveinterfluvialplateaucurrentlyoccupiedby Bog andHaresDownextendfromtheMiddleIronAgetopresent.Allthree sequence coverstheLateBronzeAgetopresentday,whilethoseatLobbs Knowstone parish,lies1kmfurthertothenorth-west.TheWindmillRough mdeep, drainingintotheSturcombeRiveronKnowstoneOuterMoorin 1.5 The siteatHaresDown(SS84712113,242mO.D.),anarrowvalleymiresome 4C). km north-westofMiddleNorthCombe(Fig. Rackenford parish,c.6 in adjacentvalleyheadsoftheLittleDartRiveronRackenfordMoor O.D.)are bothsmallvalleymires,2.0mand1.6deeprespectively, m 259 O.D.)andWindmillRough(SS85462074, m at LobbsBog(SS86102026,254 whole Domesdaymanorsaretypicallyfoundup to240270mO.D.(e.g. mark’ of11th-centurysettlementandcultivation. AroundExmoorasa here liebetweenc.280and340mO.D. areclosetothe‘high-water Combe (whichbecametheKnightsTemplarmanorofTempleton). well-populated areahasplacesmentionedintheDomesdayBook,including parish. ThesequencecoverstheLateBronzeAgetopresentday.This mdeep,inaminortributaryoftheRiverDartTempleton spring mire,1.35 post-medieval enclosuresfromthecommons. sided fields,oftenwith‘Moor’and‘Down’place-field-names,represent boundaries, whileonthehigherinterfluvialareasdistinctiveblocksofstraight- fields notpartofanopenfieldsystem)typicallywithslightlycurvingorsinuous field systemscompriseblocksofsmall,broadlyrectangularcloses(enclosed enter aseriesofsmallunenclosedcommons.Withintheenclosedlandscape, roadside wasteandeventuallybroadentoformfunnel-shapeddrovewaysthat Abbot, 1969),129–51,foradiscussion ofthedocumentaryevidenceforopen-fieldagricultureinDevon. 30 29 31 J. E.B.Gover,A.MawerandF.M. Stenton, Rippon 2004,op.cit.innote7, fig. 19;seealsoH.P.R.Finberg, Mackney etal.,op.cit.innote28: soilsoftheNeathandLydcottassociations. Three ofthepollensiteslieonsandstones,siltstones andslatesofthe The site at Middle North Combe (SS 8839 1592, 223 m O.D.) isasmall O.D.) m The siteatMiddleNorthCombe(SS88391592,223 beyond villagesandopenfields The Place-NamesofDevon,PartII 31 29 Thethreepollensitesreported West-Country HistoricalStudies (Cambridge,1932),394. 30 Thesites (Newton 41 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology while dominatedbythe village ofParracombe(c.1.8kmtothenorth-west), is boundaries asseeninthe otherstudyareas),andasettlementpattern that (blocks ofbroadlyrectangularcloses,typicallywith slightlycurvingorsinuous just beyondtheupperlimitsofanenclosedlandscape ofmedievalcharacter at Twinefordstartsaroundthe14thcentury(Fig. 6;seebelow).Bothsiteslie Holworthy sequencestartsaroundtheearly13th century(Fig.5),whilethat 4A).TheHigher on thenorthernflanksofChallacombeCommon (Fig. steep-sided valleysfeedingintotheRiverHeddon intheparishofParracombe (SS 67564290,334mO.D.)aretwospringmires towardstheheadsoftwo Higher Holworthy(SS68834404,323mO.D.) andTwinefordHeadCombe parracombe the presentday. Molland Common.ThesequencestartsintheLateMesolithicandextendsto towards theheadofatributaryDanesBrookonnorthernside enclosed landscape.LongBreach(SS81863097,341mO.D.)isavalleymire north ofasubstantialearthenbankthatmarkstheupslopelimitpresent extends tothepresentday.Bothlieinunenclosedroughpasturesc.300m Anstey’s CombestartsintheLateIronAge/earlyRomano-BritishPeriod,and erosion suchthatthePost-medievalPeriodhasbeenlost.Thesequenceat at GourteMiresstartsintheLateNeolithic,althoughitistruncatedbyrecent in theparishofMollandonsouthernfringesExmoor.Thesequence valleys feedingintotheRiverYeoonsouthernflanksofMollandCommon, 2969, 291mO.D.)aretwospring-fedmirestowardstheheadsofsteep-sided typically withslightlycurvingorsinuousboundaries. enclosed areas,thefieldsystemscompriseblocksofbroadlyrectangularcloses, shaped drovewaysastheyapproachtheopenmoortonorth.Within are narrowandsinuous,curiouslyshowlittlesignofopeningintofunnel- the pollensitesusedtoliewithinenclosedfieldscape(Fig.12). field systemsandploughridgesonwhatisnowunenclosedmoorlandshowthat currently liesatc.275–325mO.D.,thoughtheearthworksofextensiverelict is suggestiveofformeropenfields.Theupperlimittheenclosedfieldscape surveys werecompact,withnoevidencefortheinterspersionoftenementsthat again, thelandholdingsassociatedwiththesefarmsteadsasrecordedinTithe numerous isolatedfarmsspreadingupthevalleysidestoc.250mO.D.Once junctions andtheparishchurches(e.g.Molland,EastWestAnstey), being characterisedbyahandfulofsmallhamlets,mostlylocatedaroundroad per squaremile.ThehistoriclandscapeissimilartotheRackenfordarea, Combe (inBrendon).Theareasupportedc.1.8plough-teamsand4.9tenants matStone(inExford),RadworthyChallacombe:Fig.4A)andLank 360 Ringcombe), withsomeashigh300mO.D.(e.g.Badgworthy)andeven 42 32 Riley andWilson-North,op.cit.in note8,fig.5.11. The finaltwopollensiteslieinthenorth-western fringesofExmoor. Anstey’s Combe(SS82722968,282mO.D.)andGourteMires8247 s. j.ripponetal. 32 Theroads Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology released veryeasilyfromtheears,andlarge grainsizemeansthatitisnot arable cultivationinnearbyareas.Cerealpollen doesnottravelfarasitis around thepollensiteswasalargelypastoralone, thisdoesnotprecludesome along withheather,occuratrelativelylowlevels. Althoughthelandscape some ofthesteeper-sidedvalleys;otherwoodland species,notablyoakandhazel, dominated bygrasslandandherbaceousspecies, withlocalalderwoodlandin Rackenford andMollandtherewasapredominantlyopen,pastorallandscape least asfartheMiddleIronAge(4th–1stcenturies the lateprehistoricbackground and thesequenceinterpretedinTables2–3. around cal. common fromthe18thcentury. tury, ornamentalplantingofpinetreesingardensandaroundhomesteadswas started inthelate18thcenturyandbecamecommonfrommid-19thcen- early tomid-17thcentury).AlthoughconiferplantationsintheSouth-West (from themid-16thcentury),EuropeanlarchandScotspine(bothfrom southern EnglandthroughoutthePost-medievalPeriod,notablyNorwayspruce amounts ofpineatapproximately1750.Coniferoustreeswereintroducedto by usingthesurfaceofpeataspresent,andappearancesignificant 1).Additionaltimecontrolsaremadepossible between radiocarbondates(Tab. and necessitatetheuseoftimeseries,ratherthansimplelinearinterpolation the DomesdaySurvey. this regionsupportedc.1.8plough-teamsand4.9tenantspersquaremilein of TwinefordHead,firstdocumentedin1330). west ofHigherHolworthy,firstdocumentedin1215)andHighley(1kmnorth Domesday manorofRadworthy(2kmtotheeast),Holworthy(0.5 otherwise characterisedbysmallhamletsandisolatedfarmsteads,suchasthe (London, 1808),263;R.Whitlock, Exmoor Forest Britain andNorthernEurope - J.Billingsley, begins aroundcal. each individuallevel. to estimatepeatgrowthattheParracombesites,andassigncalibratedages it ispossibletousemathematicalmodels(secondandthirdorderpolynomials) Twineford CombeHead:thepine riseoccursat1.1mandomittingthe‘modern’datesgivesy R. Miles, 0.8969x Gardens: ALandscapeHistory 34 33 35 0.0007x3 W. J.Bean, Gover etal.,op.cit.innote30,67. Higher Holworthy: the pine rise occurs at 0.4 m and, omitting Wk-12541 at 1.03–1.05 m, y Higher Holworthy:thepinerise occursat0.4mand,omittingWk-125411.03–1.05m, The majorityofthesequencesfromGreaterExmoorregiongobackat The radiocarbondatesfromtheParracombesitesprovidesomeproblems + Forestry intheEnglishLandscape 2000 (r2 + (NewtonAbbot,1970),43,56,94–7, 111;C.Vancouver, General ViewoftheAgricultureCountySomerset 0.1028x2 Trees andShrubsHardyintheBritishIsles a.d. = 1360.ThepollendiagramsforthetwositesareinFigures5–6, 1). Basedonthis,TCHbeginsat around cal. BEFORE THEHISTORICLANDSCAPE - (Limpsfield,1985),156,158,166;C.S.OrwinandR.J.Sellick, beyond villagesandopenfields a.d. (Tiverton,1998);N.D.G.James, 9.2548x 35 Basedonthesemodels,theHigherHolworthysequence 1220andtheTwinefordCombeHeadsequencebegins Historic ForestsofEngland + (London,1967),36,44,47–8;A.Mitchell, 2000 (r2 34 Whentheseadditionalcontrolsareincluded, = 1). Basedonthis,HHbeginsat aroundcal. (London,1976),vol.II,519,andIII,179243; (Bradford-on-Avon,1979),31,66. (London,1797),228;J.Bond, A HistoryofEnglishForestry 33 a.d. AswithMollandCommon, 1360. General ViewoftheAgricultureDevon b.c. The CompleteGuidetoTreesof ; Fig.7).Around (Oxford,1981),165; =- The Reclamationof Somerset Parksand 0.0125x2 a.d. 1220. 43 = - Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology 44 s. j.ripponetal.

fig. 5 Higher Holworthy pollen diagram. Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology beyond villagesandopenfields

fig. 6 Twineford Head Combe pollen diagram. 45 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology k155TH- .4593 0.74–5 TCH1-3 Wk-12545 k154TH- .78153 1.07–8 TCH1-2 Wk-12544 k153TH- .46441 1.74–6 TCH1-1 Wk-12543 Twineford HeadCombe k152H-o307– 282 0.77–9 Hi-Hol3 Wk-12542 k151H-o210– 786 1.03–5 Hi-Hol2 Wk-12541 the relativelylowoverall representationofcerealpollensuggeststhatcultivation representation atthelowest-lyinglocation,Middle NorthCombe,although There arelow,yetpersistent,levelsofcerealsat a numberofsites,withthebest the lowlandsaroundRackenfordandsouthern uplandfringesofExmoor. Period itisclearthatpastoralactivitiesinanopen landscapedominatedboth continuity acrosstheromano-britishperiod the openareasbeyond. managed species-richgrasslandandheathlandleft todeveloporregeneratein ration, orachangeinlandscapemanagementwith aclearerdivisionbetween heathland. Theshifttodamperheathvegetation mayreflectaclimaticdeterio- suggests thatburningcontinuedtobeanimportantmeansofmanagingthe around MollandCommon,thoughacontinuousrecordofmicroscopiccharcoal The endoftheIronAgeappearstohaveseenashiftwetterheathvegetation at ahandfulofsites(MiddleNorthCombe,Anstey’sCombeandLongBreach). predominantly pastoralland-useandveryslightevidenceforarablecultivation a particularlysteep-sidedvalley.Beyondthesecombesthereiscontinuityinthe appears tohaveretaineditslocalwoodlandthroughoutthisperiodinwhatwas at MolesChamber,TheChainsandHoarMoor.Anstey’sCombe,incontrast, of ExmoorattheveryendIronAge/startRomano-BritishPeriod during theMiddle–LateIronAge,aphenomenonalsoseenonhigherslopes cultivation withinakilometreortwoofthepollensites. we cansayfromthesesequencesisthattherewasprobablylittleornoarable small, lightpollengrainsthatarereleasedfromanelevatedposition). blown veryfar(incomparisontomosttrees,whichproducelargeamountsof Calibratedrange(2-sigma) D13 755 DateB.P. 1.13–15 Depth(m) Hi-Hol1 Wk-12540 Sample Higher Holworthy Lab code 46 (1970), 1–40. 36 RADIOCARBON DATESFROMTHETWOPOLLENSEQUENCES I. Vuorela,‘Theindicationoffarming inpollendiagramsfromsouthernFinland’, From theveryendofIronAgeandthroughout theRomano-British A numberofthesequencesshowamarkedphasewoodlandclearance s. j.ripponetal. PARRACOMBE Table P P P P P P 43 46 39 43 47 38 1 ------28.0 26.8 29.9 26.9 25.7 26.0 P P P P P P . Modern 0.2 . Modern 0.2 . cal. 0.2 . cal. 0.2 . cal. 0.2 . cal. 0.2 a.d. a.d. a.d. a.d. Acta BotanicaFennica 1400–1520 1480–1670 1160–1300 1210–1300 36 Allthat , 87 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology heathland management). the startofzone,indicatingsignificantburningwithin the localarea(possiblyrelatingto Rumex acetosa Dominated bypastoralindicators,althoughruderaltaxacontinue toberecorded(Asteraceae, Zone HiHol1-6.0.26–0m.cal. trace levels,indicatingcontinuedcultivationwithinthepollen catchment. (Cyperaceae). Heatherheathremainspoorlyrepresented.Cultivars continuetoberecordedat Transitional zonewherePoaceaeincreasetodominateassemblageatexpenseoflocaltaxa Zone HiHol1-5.0.42–0.26m.cal. recorded throughoutthezone. declines, possiblyduetofilteringeffectofsedge-dominatedlocalvegetation.Nocharcoal at bothtracelevels( (Cyperaceae), althoughindicatorsofcultivationandpastoralland-usecontinuetoberecorded, Quercus Zone HiHol1-3.0.94–0.78m.cal. and littlechangeintheherbaceoustaxa. vulgaris Zone HiHol1-4.0.78–0.42m.cal. fragments. some declineincertainpastoralindicators(e.g. to tracelevels.Declineinindicatorsofcultivation( Calluna vulgaris Avena indicators (Lactuceae, Small increasesintreetaxa( Zone HiHol1-1.1.18–1.06m.cal. Romano-British iron-working sitesonthefringesofExmoor(atBrayford and record forthemanagement ofwoodland,althoughcharcoalfrom two restricted tothesteeper-sided valleys.Thereislittleevidenceinthe pollen indicate somewoodland, notablyoakandhazel,whichwaspresumably Although thelandscape waspredominantlyopen,allthepollensequences was notbeingextensivelypractisedintheimmediate proximityofthemires. within thepollencatchment.Theherbaceoustaxaincludecultivars( cleared ofalmostallwoodland. Overwhelmingly dominatedbyherbaceousanddwarfshrubtaxa,indicatingalandscape Zone HiHol1-2.1.06–0.94cm.cal. Charcoal recordedinzone,possiblyrelatingtomanagementofopenheath. characterised bythehighlevelofCyperaceae,andspeciesindicativewetflushes(e.g. DESCRIPTION ANDINTERPRETATIONOFPOLLENZONESWITHINTHE / Triticum , possiblyindicatingshiftincharacterofuplandheath.Cultivarscontinuetoberecorded onlytreetaxarecordedabovetracelevels.Localwet-taxadominatetheassemblage ) andevidenceforcultivarsbecomessporadic.Significantincrease incharcoalat -type), ruderalsindicativeofcultivation(Asteraceae, expandsatexpenseofPoaceae.Declineintreetaxa( Secale cereale HIGHER HOLWORTHY1SAMPLECORE Plantago lanceolata beyond villagesandopenfields Alnus ) andhigher(e.g. a.d. Calluna vulgaris , a.d. a.d. a.d. a.d. Corylus avellana 1820–present.Poaceae a.d. 1460–1570. 1220–1340.Poaceae- 1740–1820.Poaceae-Cyperaceae 1570–1740.Cyperaceae-Poaceae , 1340–1460.Poaceae- Geranium T able atsignificantlevels,indicatingheatherheath Centaurea nigra , -type). Poaceaeincreaseatexpenseof Plantago lanceolata Ranunculus acris- 2 Secale cereale Calluna -Cyperaceae-Poaceae Calluna ). Reductioninlargecharcoal Calluna , Asteaceae, type). On-sitevegetationis ). Rangeofherbaceoustaxa Rumex acetosa -Cyperaceae -Cyperaceae Alnus Secale cereale , Corylus avellana Rumex acetosa ) andpastoral , tracesof ) and Calluna Succisa -type) 47 ). Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology Zone TCH1-1.1.92–1.74m.cal. 48 of Exmooramarkedepisode ofwoodlandclearanceandevidencefor cereal grassland atLobbsBogmaydatetothisperiod, Interpolating betweenradiocarbondates,adecline inalderandexpansion the landscapewasexploitedcoulddateto laterRomano-BritishPeriod. dar years,anumberofepisodesshowinganincreasing intensitywithwhich hazel woodlandmayhaveoccurred. Sherracombe) havesuggestedthatsomepollarding andcoppicingofoak Iron-working Sites—InterimReport (unpubl.rep.,ExmoorIronProject,UniversityofExeter,2002). Dominated byherbaceoustaxaanddwarfshrubs. heather heathinthepollencatchment.Herbaceoustaxaincludecultivars( Secale cereale taxa ( Poaceae becomedominant.Cultivars( Starts withanincreasein Zone TCH1-3.1.62–1.02m.cal. Little changeinothertaxa. grass-dominated uplandheath,possiblyreflectingchangesinthemanagementofgrazing. Calluna vulgaris Zone TCH1-2.1.74–1.62m.cal. trace levels),indicatingapredominantlyopenlandscape. Calluna vulgaris Corylus avellana Transitional zoneinwhich Zone TCH1-5.0.78–0.62m.cal. low levels.Charcoallevelsriseforthefirsttimeindiagram. Zone TCH1-4.1.02–0.78m.cal. Tree taxacontinuetobepoorlyrepresented. Pastoral indicatorscontinue( Little changeotherthanslightincreaseintreetaxa( Zone TCH1-6.0.62–0m.cal. indicative ofchangesinmanagementuplandgrazing. be recordedintracelevels,treetaxaremainlowandinclude Sharp risein DESCRIPTION ANDINTERPRETATIONOFPOLLENZONESWITHINTHE 38 37 Interpolated dateofc.1700B.P. R. Gale,SherracombeFordandBrayford, Exmoor,2002:TheAnalysisofCharcoalfromRomano-British Hydrocotyle vulgaris Though wehavetotakegreatcareconvertingradiocarbon datestocalen- ), pastoralindicators(Poaceae, Calluna vulgaris ), indicatethepersistenceofheather-heathandimprovedpastoral land. -type). Cultivarsrecordedsporadically,andmaintaxa (Poaceaeand declineandreplacedbyPoaceae,suggestingashiftfromheather-to , Cyperaceae).Treetaxaareverypoorlyrepresented(only TWINEFORD COMBE1SAMPLECORE Calluna vulgaris Calluna vulgaris atstartofzoneandslightdeclineinPoaceae.Cultivarscontinueto Ranunculus acris a.d. a.d. a.d. a.d. a.d. a.d. s. j.ripponetal. 1900–present.Poaceae- 1360–1460. 1520–1780.Poaceae- 1460–1520.Poaceae- 1850–1900.Poaceae- 1780–1850. Secale cereale attheexpenseofPoaceae,thoughthroughzone steadilydeclinesandPoaceaerise.Possibly Plantago lanceolata Table -type, 37 , Potentilla 3 Calluna vulgaris Calluna vulgaris Calluna vulgaris Avena Alnus glutinosa / Triticum -type, Lactuceae, 38 Calluna vulgaris , Calluna vulgaris Calluna vulgaris Calluna vulgaris Potentilla whileonthehigheruplands Quercus -Poaceae isdominant,indicating -Poaceae -type) declinetotracelevels. , Pinus sylvestris -type) andon-sitewetland and Corylus avellana Avena Plantago lanceolata / , Triticum Quercus Quercus -type at , -type, above ). Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology woodland regenerationintheEarlyMedievalPeriod. possibly woodland,aroundthe5thcentury,supportingtraditionalviewof Moor —suggeststherewasadeclineingrassland,andincreaseheather the higheruplandsofExmooratHoarMoor,TheChainsandpossiblyCodsend the roman–medievaltransition (also seenatHolcombeineastDevon)andurbanprosperity. wealth andinnovationasreflectedinwetlandreclamation,investmentvillas Somerset andDorsetwherethe3rd–4thcenturiessawconsiderableagricultural possible laterRomanintensificationinDevonparallelsthatseentotheeast (shortly after1380 600–800), LobbsBog(1240 (Fig. 7).AtMiddleNorthCombe(aninterpolated datearound1350B.P.,c. Rackenford inMid-Devonshowsignificantchanges inthelocalvegetation changes inthepollenrecord systems ofRomanBritainwouldberelativelyunaffectedbytheirdecline. rural populationthathadnotbecomeheavilyengagedinthesocio-economic of the evident inthelandscapeofSouth-West,outsideimmediatehinterland which itwasexploited.ConsideringtheverylimiteddegreeofRomanisation settlement), thewayinwhichitwasmanagedortenurialstructureswithin structure ofthelandscape(e.g.abandonmentfieldsystemsordesertion inferred thatthereareunlikelytohavebeenanymajorchangesinthephysical with noevidenceofwoodlandregeneration(Fig.7).Inthiscontext,itcouldbe of thepollenrecordssuggestingcontinuityinanessentiallypastorallandscape, During the4th–6thcenturies obtained fromthelowlandsanduplandfringespresentaverydifferentpicture. and anincreaseintheindicatorsofpastoralismaround3rdcentury. a markedphaseofwoodlandclearanceinthevalleyatAllerFarmStockland the 3rd–4thcenturies. cultivation atCodsendMoorandHoarisalsopotentiallydatedtoaround Moor: 1660 tab. 2. 1990, op.cit.innote16,14;The Chains: 1500 2000), 117–23. Devon’, (Oxford, 1982);S.Pollard,‘ALate IronAgesettlementandaRomano-BritishvillaatHolcombe,near Uplyme, Romano-British southSomersetandnorthDorset’,209–67inD. Miles(ed.), 39 42 41 40 Hoar Moor:1760 Hoar Moor:interpolateddateseveral centuriesafter1760 R. Leech,‘TheRomaninterludeintheSouthWest:Thedynamics ofeconomicsandsocialchangeinthe Aller Farm,Stockland:1790 The earlierworkon‘traditional’pollensites—theblanketbogscovering Around the7th–8thcenturies,pollen sequences fromaround Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. civitas P THE EMERGENCEOFHISTORICLANDSCAPE 130 B.P.,cal. capital P 80 B.P.,cal. P beyond villagesandopenfields Isca Dumnoniorum a.d. 50 B.P.,cal. 39 , 32(1974),59–161;S.Rippon, P Elsewhere,inthelowlandsofeasternDevontherewas 126–640:ibid.,12–14;idem,op.cit.innote16,1992,23. 50 B.P.,cal. a.d. + 78–431:FrancisandSlater1990,op.cit.innote16,14;Codsend a.d. 50 B.P.,cal. a.d. thereisverylittlesignificantchangeinany a.d. P 60 B.P.,cal. 132–323:HattonandCaseldine,op.cit.innote20,112. 560–770),thechangeischaracterisedby (Exeter), thisshouldnotbesurprising;a a.d. P a.d. The TransformationofCoastalWetlands 80 B.P.,cal. 670–890)andWindmillRough 120–660,Mooreetal.,op.cit.in note16, 42 a.d. Thenewsequences The Romano-BritishCountryside 78–431,FrancisandSlater 41 (London, 40 This a.d. 49 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology 50 s. j.ripponetal.

fig. 7a Summary pollen diagrams from the Rackenford area showing continuity in land-use either side of the Roman–Medieval Period transition, and the marked increase in cereal pollen around the 7th–8th centuries. Cereal curves show a five-fold exaggeration. Dashed horizontal lines indicate the increase in cereal pollen beyond background levels. The full pollen diagrams have been published in Fyfe et al. 2004, op. cit. in note 27. Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology cereal pollenbeyondbackground levels.ThefullpollendiagramshavebeenpublishedinFyfeet al. 2003, centuries. Cerealcurvesshowafive-fold exaggeration.Dashedhorizontallinesindicatetheincrease in Summary pollendiagramsfrom the Mollandareashowingcontinuityinland-useeithersideof Roman–Medieval Periodtransition, andthemarkedincreaseincerealpollenaround7th–8th beyond villagesandopenfields op. cit.innote27. fig . 7b 51 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology note 36. wheat) and the startofsignificantcurvesforcereal-types,notably 52 Park, Devon:theproblemsofstudying medievallandscape’, Sourton DownOkehampton1986–1991’, pollen analysisofburiedsoils,sediments andpeat’,114–17inP.J.WeddellS.Reed,‘Excavations at cit. innote20;V.Straker,‘Sourton Down,astudyoflocalvegetationchangeandhumanimpactonthelandscape: Devon inthelater1stmillennium for ryeandwheatcomparetotypicalvaluesofaround1%orlesslowland recorded atupto5%TLPand at levelsupto5%TLP,whileMiddleNorthCombe around 2%totallandpollen(TLP);atWindmillRough the pollen isalsorecordedineachofthesesequencesfromthesamedate.Although taxa associatedwitharablecultivation,notably In thethreeRackenforddiagramstherearealsosignificantlevelsofherbaceous continuous andextensivearablecultivationintheimmediatevicinityofsites. the immediatelocationofcultivation;valuesrecordedmustrepresent within akilometre. the relativelyhighpercentagesinRackenfordsequencessuggestcultivation of fenenvironments(e.g. cators inthediagramsisalsoassociatedwithanincreasespeciescharacteristic Windmill Rough,andtoalesserextentLobbsBog,theincreaseincerealindi- the barley) italsoincludesgrassescharacteristicofwetflushesandfens,suchas Potamogeton land. 10% TLP,suggestingopengrazingandpossiblytheuseoffireinunenclosed increase in as anarableindicator.AtWindmillRoughandLobbsBog,thereisalso appear untilaroundthe10thcentury. along withanincreaseinheather,althoughaconstantcerealcurvedoesnot 8th centuries,suggestingtheremovalofstreamsideandflushwetwoodland, Exmoor fringerepresentgrainsblownupthesoutherly drainingcombestothe is possiblethatsomeotherelementsofthepollen assemblagesonthesouthern trace levels,andcerealpollenisrecordedatlevels ofaround2%TLP.Whileit the Rackenfordlowlands.Thisevidenceisnotrestricted tooccasionalgrainsat of Exmooraroundthe10th–11thcenturies,some 200–300yearslaterthanin compared toLobbsBogandWindmillRough. amount ofwoodlandremaininginwhatwasarather moresteeplysidedvalley evidence fromtheRomano-BritishPeriodwheretherewasaslightlygreater later datefortheappearanceofcultivationnearHaresDownisinkeepingwith induced, asthesearegroundwater-fedmires,notrainfall-fedraisedbogs.The 46 45 44 43 Hares Down:1080 Following HeimcitedinD.Austin, R.H.DaggettandM.J.C.Walker,‘FarmsfieldsinOkehampton Caseldine etal.,op.cit.innote19,113; 18,65–7;HattonandCaseldine,op. Fyfe etal.2004,op.cit.innote27. Hordeum Glyceria At HaresDownthereisafurtherdeclinein Pollen evidenceforcerealcultivationfirstappears onthesouthernfringes ), lendingfurthercautiontotheinterpretationof group,andsoisalessreliableindicatorofarablecultivation.At Calluna Secale cereale -type groupcontainscultivatedspecies(e.g. P (heather)aroundthe7th–8thcenturiesreachingupto 50 B.P.,cal. 45 Notoriously,cerealpollenispoorlydispersedbeyond -type (rye). Filipendula a.d. s. j.ripponetal. 860–1280:Fyfeetal.2004,op.cit. innote27. Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc 43 Secale cereale a.d. AtLobbsBogthesetaxaeachreachlevelsof , 46 , 44 Hypericum elodes Thisdeclineinalderisnotclimatically andascerealpollendoesnottravelfar Landscape Hist. atupto4%TLP.Thesefigures ., 55(1997),39–147. Alnus Anthemis Avena , 2(1980),39–58;Vuorela,op.cit. in , Menyanthestrifoliata Hordeum vulgare (alder)aroundthe7th– Secale cereale - Avena-Triticum Triticum -type. -type (oatsor Hordeum Hordeum isrecorded : domestic -type is -type and -type Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology suggesting acessationofburningontheuplands. with pastoralland-usedecline,andthereisareductioninmicroscopiccharcoal associated withtheweedsofcultivation,atsametimeasspecies Mires, thereisariseincerealpollen-types( reflect theactualextensionofcerealcultivationontoupland.AtGourte sites, thepoorproductionanddispersalofcerealpollen(describedabove)must oak-dominated woodlandandshifttoopenheather-dominatedheath. expansion inarablecultivationisalsoassociatedwithamarkeddeclinethe main peakin lower levelsthanatthelower-lyingAnstey’sCombeandGourteMires, valley sides.CerealsalsoappearatLongBreacharoundthisdate,though represent pollensimplyblownupthevalleysbutrathersomecultivationof to occasionalgrainsbutispresentinsignificantamountsandhighlyunlikely the Rackenfordsites,cerealpollen,notably pollen valueshere. have beenanothersystemoflandscapemanagement causingsuchhighcereal have beenundertheplough!Thiscannot been thecaseandtheremust the South-West,thenvirtuallywholeoflowland DevonandCornwallwould as thepollensites,andifthisintensityofcultivation isappliedacrosstherestof farmsteads. Ifpermanentarablelandhadexpanded fromthesefarmsteadsasfar although somerelictfieldsystemssurviveasearthworks therearenodeserted are, however,c.1kmfromthenearestdocumented medievalsettlements,and 8).LobbsBog,HaresDownandWindmillRough considerable antiquity(Fig. is oneofsmall,irregularlyshapedcloseswhosemorphology suggeststheyareof cent toapotentialmedievalfarmstead,andthe surrounding historiclandscape settled byDomesday.MiddleNorthCombeinparticular liesimmediatelyadja- the 7th–8thcenturieswhichalllieinareasofMid-Devonthatwereextensively been thecaseelsewhere,andparticularlyinlowlandsaroundRackenford land. Sucha‘pushintothemargins’interpretationis,however,unlikelytohave to someexpansionofagricultureonwhathadpreviouslybeenopenmoor- at theuppermarginsofmedievalsettledlandscapeandsomayindeedrelate in cereals.TheMollandsitesgenerally,andmostnotablyLongBreach,arealso Combe, wheretherewasadeclineinwoodlandatthesametimeasanincrease part havebeenthecasein10th–11thcenturiesatsteeplysidedAnstey’s cultivation andhadnowreachedthecatchmentsofthesepeatbogs.Thismayin favourable locationswasexpandingintotheseareasthatwerelesssuitedto margins’: thatthearablecultivationassociatedwithsettlementslocatedinmore interpreting theincreaseincerealpollen settlement. being thehighestofpollensitesandfurthestfromareasmedieval and lowlevelsofcerealpollenatLongBreachcanbeexplainedbyitslocation, 49 48 47 Long Breach:650 Anstey’s Combe:1160 Gourte Mires:1020 One interpretationofthisincreaseincerealpollenisaclassic‘pushintothe Secale cereale P P 60 B.P.,cal. beyond villagesandopenfields P 60 B.P.,cal. 70 B.P.,cal. dates totheHighMiddleAges. a.d. a.d. 1270–1420:Fyfeetal.2003,op. cit. innote27. a.d. 890–1170:Fyfeetal.2003,op.cit. innote27. 680–1020:Fyfeetal.2003,op.cit. innote27. Secale cereale Secale cereale 47 AtAnstey’sCombethesame - and 49 (rye),isnotrestricted Thelateappearance Avena-Triticum 48 Aswith -type) 53 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology 54 frame 5303).Thedispersedsettlementandsmallirregularlyshaped closesaretypicaloflowlandDevon, Aerial photographoftheMiddleNorthCombearea(NMR3G/TUD/UK221 PartIII11July1946 and thepollensiteliesatheartofthislandscape(seeFig.9). © s. j.ripponetal. Photograph fig . 8 y. English Heritage(NMR)RAF Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology in showingthatoatsand rye werethemajorcropsduringHighMiddle Ages, Mid- andnorthernDevon. probably accountsfromtheabsenceoflegumes medievalcroprotationsin tradition ofgrowingoatsandryeasthecoarse-grain ingredientsinthediet, This methodofmaintainingsoilfertility,along withthelong-livedregional mixed withotherdressingssuchasfarmyardmanure, seasandandseaweed. ashes couldbereturnedtothesoilimprovefertility, sometimeshavingbeen known asbeat-burning.Removaloftheturfmade ploughingeasier,andthe old leygrass,turfandall,wasstrippedoff,dried andthenburnt,aprocess occasionally ploughedattimesofparticularlyhigh demand. ‘infield’ sometimeslayareasofroughgrazinglandinthe‘outfield’,whichwas area ofintensivefarmingwouldhavebeenpermanentpasture.Beyondthe cultivated inanyoneyear,andveryfewfields(ifany)withinthiscore‘infield’ a rotationofaroundtenyears. cultivation (c.2–3years)followedbyalonggrassley6–8years),producing were subjecttoalternatinggrainandgrasscrops,oftenwithashortperiodof husbandry’. Withinthisthemajorityoffields(closesorparcelsopenfields) they practisedadistinctivesystemofrotationalcroppingknownas‘convertible evidence forthecharacterofmedievalagricultureinregion.Itisclearthat Middle Ages.Fromaroundthemid-14thcentury,wehavegooddocumentary This ispreciselywhatweknowtohaveexistedintheSouth-WestbyLate included astrongpastoralcomponentalongsideareasofwoodlandandheath. brought arablefarmingclosetothepeatbogs,butwithinaregimethatstill mires wereneverdrained,itmustreflectanewsystemofagriculturethat not represent,therefore,asimpleexpansionofcerealcultivation.Asthesevalley sequences withoutanequivalentsignificantdeclineinwoodland/pasturedoes land withinitspollencatchmentwasagriculturallyimproved:Figs.8–9). lower-lying MiddleNorthCombelayinanareawithinwhichvirtuallyallthe the mostmarginallandoutsidemainagriculturalholdings(whereas presence ofheatheratthesesitesismostlikelytorepresentroughgrazingon themselves asmacrofossilevidencesuggeststheyweredominatedbysedges.The North Combe),whichisunlikelytohavebeengrowingonthepeatbogs heather atHaresDown,LobbsBogandWindmillRough(thoughnotMiddle pollen recordshowsnotjustasharpincreaseincereal,butalsoanexpansionof corresponding totheincreaseinarable(apartfromAnstey’sCombe).The tion ofarichpastoralflora,andwoodlandstillpresent,withnoreduction woodland andpasture,butthisisnotthecase.Allsitesshowcontinua- of arablecultivation,thenthereshouldhavebeenanequivalentdeclinein ‘push intothemargins’interpretation.Iftherehadbeenasimpleexpansion History ofEnglandandWales,vol.3, 1348–1500 of theArundellsLanherne,Fourteenth toSixteenthCenturies 51 50 Fox, op.cit.innote50,305–6. H. S.A.Fox,‘Farmingpracticeand techniques,DevonandCornwall’,303–23inE.Miller(ed.), In theconvertiblehusbandryregime,beforenew fieldswereploughed,the The appearanceofsuchastrongcerealcomponentinthesepollen The palaeoenvironmentalevidenceitselfalsodoesnotsupportasolely beyond villagesandopenfields 51 Documentarysourcessupportthepollenevidence 50 (Cambridge,1991);H.S.A.Fox and O.Padel, Aboutaquarteroffieldswouldhavebeen (DevonandCornwallRecordsSociety 41,2000). The CornishLands The Agrarian 55 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology 56 of ancientenclosure.Larger,rectilinear fieldswith‘Moor’and‘Down’namestendtooccuronthe higher landholding ofeachfarmsteadmarked byaboldline.Notehowthepollensitelieswellwithin area interfluvial areasandaresuggestive ofrelativelyrecentenclosurewhatwasopenroughgrazing. The historiclandscapearoundMiddle NorthCombebasedontheTitheMap,withcompact s. j.ripponetal. fig . 9 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology Hordeum assemblage atHolneMooronDartmoor,withsome century granaryexcavatedatLydford. were theprincipalcropsinextensivedepositsofcharredgrainfroma12th- Sourton Down, Dartmoor atHoundTor, side rye(37%)andwheat(21%). demesne cropping)continuedtobegrowninmid-andnorthernDevonalong- analyses willrepresentbetweenfiveandten years ofpollenaccumulation. up inthepollenrecord.The5mmthicksamples ofpeatusedinthepollen husbandry isclearlydocumented)willreflecthow convertiblehusbandryshows dating fromthe14thcentury(theearliestperiodforwhichconvertible down andQuantockHills.Thismeansthatthosesectionsofthesepeatbogs cropping wasubiquitousthroughouttheSouth-West,asfareastBlack- Documentary sourcessuggestthatthisregionallydistinctivesystemofrotational erosion intheSouthHamsregion ofDevon,UK’, 181, Oxford,1983). investigations onHolneMoor’,57–106 inM.Jones(ed.), excavations’, note 50,303–8. Tavistock Abbey:AStudyintheSocialandEconomicHistoryofDevon established andslowtochange. and thetraditionallocalpreferencefortheiruseinbreadbeerthatwaswell rye reflectstheirhighyields(higherthanthenationalaverageforthesecrops) also grownverysuccessfullyintheregion.Rather,dominanceofoatsand soils, coolsummersandhighrainfall,asinlatercenturiesbarleywheatwere and thatthiswasnotsimplybecausetheywereideallysuitedtoareaswithacid Park, and sheep,comparedto12%ineasternsouthernDevon. Devon; cowsandyoungbovinescomprised22%ofthetotalnumberscattle in Devon. warm, fertilesoilsoftheSouthHamsdoeswheatappeartohavepredominated Potamogeton indeed ariseinotherspeciestypicalofwetorwaterloggedground,including above), andcoincidentwiththe grasses characteristicofwetflushesandfens,suchasthe contains cultivatedspecies(e.g. be questionableinthiswetuplandcontext.Althoughthe bly 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 Fox, op.cit.innote50,316. I. D.L.Foster,T.M.Mighall,C. Wotton,P.N.OwensandD.E.Walling,‘Evidenceformediaeval soil Austin etal.,op.cit.innote45,48. D. Maguire,N.RalphandA.Fleming,‘EarlylanduseonDartmoor: palaeobotanicalandpedological Ibid., 116. Straker, op.cit.innote44. G. Beresford,‘ThreedesertedmedievalsettlementsonDartmoor: areportonthelateE.MarieMinter’s Campbell, op.cit.innote52,285;Finberg,86–115; Fox,op.cit.innote50,303–9. B. M.S.Campbell, Avena So whatdoesconvertiblehusbandrylooklikeinthepollenrecord? Hordeum -type (potentiallybarley-type)or -type and Medieval Archaeol. 59 (pondweeds)and Cattlerearingdominatedlivestockhusbandryin Mid- andnorthern -type dominatedthepollen(alongsidesome 55 English SeigniorialAgriculture,1250–1450 similarlyshowthatoatspredominated,whileandrye beyond villagesandopenfields Triticum , 23(1979),143. 54 -type). andontheCulmMeasuresofwesternDevonat Caltha palustris Hordeum vulgare Hordeum 53 58 52 Excavatedmacrofossilsfromtheuplandsof However,itsinterpretationasbarleymust IntheLateMiddleAges,oats(42%of The Holocene 56 -type increaseatOkehamptonParkis

Secale Integrating theSubsistenceEconomy Avena (NewtonAbbott,1969),86–115;Fox,op.cit.in (marshmarigold).Onlyonthe (Cambridge,2000),252–61;H.P.R.Finberg, , 10(ii)(2000),261–71. : domesticbarley),italsoincludes -type alsodominatedthepollen -type (oats). Triticum Secale 57 Hordeum Glyceria AtOkehampton 60 (wheat)butno -type andpossi- (BARInternat.Ser. -type group group(see 57 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology formerly partoftheenclosed fieldscape.Whilethereisnosurvivingevidence for around theMollandCommonpollensitesshow thattheseareaswerealso tive ofpost-medievalenclosure(Fig.9).Relictfield systemsatHaresDownand predominance of‘Moor’and‘Down’fieldnames, thattakentogetherissugges- on theTithesurveyarecharacterisedbylarger, morerectilinearfieldswitha Farm, whoselandholdingextendsupontothe higher interfluvialareaswhich Combe, forexample,actuallylieswithinthecloses ofMiddleNorthCombe Exmoor andintheSouth-Westasawhole). occasionally cultivatedasan‘outfield’(apractice thatiswelldocumentedon interfluvial areas,therewereareasofunenclosed roughgrazingthatwas Moorhouse: Fig.12).Inbetweentheseareasof enclosure, oftenonthehigher Ringcombe, Brimblecombe,Landcombe, theLyshwell,Cloggsand 11)andMollandCommon(East Roachill andHigherSwineham:Fig. Windsor Farm,Blindwell,RackenfordMoor,Canworthy,Brownsford,South shaped orsub-rectangularenclosuresseenbotharoundRackenford(Bickham, between aroundeighttotwelvecloseswhicharedefinedbyroughlyoval,lobe- with acompactblockofclosesheldinseveralty.Typicallytheseweredivided c. 1840suggeststhatmostfarmsteadswithinthestudyareaswereassociated field boundariesandpatternsoflandownershiprecordedintheTithesurveys the physicalfabricofhistoriclandscape(Figs.8–12).Theconfiguration the historiclandscapeassociatedwithconvertiblehusbandry centuries laterintheuplandfringe. may havebeenintroducedinthelowlandsofDevonatthisdate,andseveral ries aroundRackenford.Itwouldappear,therefore,thatconvertiblehusbandry ment betweenthenandtheonsetofsignificantcultivationin7th–8thcentu- examination oftheearliersamplesrevealsnodifferencesinlandscapemanage- convertible husbandrysignaturefrom14th-centuryandlaterhorizons,an abandonment ofconvertiblehusbandry).Crucially,havingrecognisedthe than afundamentalchangeinthewaythatagriculturewaspractised(i.e. likely toreflectareductionintheproportionoflandthatwascultivated,rather woodland andheather-richmoorland—remains.Thedeclineincerealpollenis cultivation alongsidelargeareasofimprovedpasture,andsmallamounts altogether andthedistinctivesignatureofconvertiblehusbandry—arable a declineincerealpollen.Butcrucially,cultivationdoesnotdisappear convertible husbandrycontinuedtobepractised,thepollensequencesallshow that inthePost-medievalPeriod,whendocumentarysourcessuggest constant pasturesignatureinthepollensequences(Fig.13).Ithasbeenobserved and otherarableindicators,withtheinterveningleyperiodsresultingin been cultivatedforseveralyears,leadingtothehighrepresentationofcereals During thisperiod,fieldsimmediatelyadjacenttothemiresarelikelyhave 58 on Exmoor’, (ed.), 61 H. S.A.Fox,‘Outfieldcultivation inDevonandCornwall:areinterpretation’,190–38M.Havinden Husbandry andMarketingintheSouth-West 1500–1800 We canstillseeevidenceforthepracticeofconvertiblehusbandrywithin Proc. SomersetArchaeol.Natur.Hist.Soc. s. j.ripponetal. , 122(1978),37–51. (Exeter,1973);O.Hallam,‘Vegetation andlanduse 61 ThepollensiteatMiddleNorth Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology fields, butonafarsmallerscale. are referredtoas‘Wares’,perhapsequivalentthe‘furlongs’inMidlandopen occur inblocksthatalate18th-centurysurveyofChallacombe,onDartmoor, strips, knownas‘landscores’(i.e.‘land-shares’,orasub-divisionofanopenfield) of lowbanksforminglong,narrow,curvingstrip-likesub-divisions. not subjecttorecentintensiveploughingtheysometimescontaintheearthworks represent theamalgamationofseveralsuchformeropenfieldstrips,aswhere suggestive ofstripswithinaformeropenfield.Inplacesthesquarishclosesmay up intosmallblocksoflonger,narrowerfieldswithcurvingboundariesthatare elsewhere inParracombe)theareabetweentheseco-axialboundariesisdivided 10–11).Insomeplaces(forexample and ‘gratton’(e.g.SouthRoachill:Figs. sometimes withslightlycurvingboundaries,andsimilarlycalled‘close’,‘park’ around whichformtheskeletonforsmallsquarishorrectangularfields, around afarmsteadisdividedupbyoneormoresinuouscoaxialboundaries 8–9).Occasionallythelandimmediately around MiddleNorthCombe:Figs. called ‘close’,‘park’and‘gratton’thatwereclearlyfarmedinseveralty(e.g. associated withaclusterofsmall,rectangularormoreirregularlyshapedfields though, onlythelatterappearstohavebeencasewithmostfarmsteads arranged inbothopen-andenclosedfieldsystems.Withinthestudyareas, agricultural landthatsupportedconvertiblehusbandryintheSouth-Westwas rough grazingonthenearbyhighinterfluvialcommons. ‘outfield’, althoughitcanequallybearguedthattheserepresentpermanent lend weighttothealternativeinterpretationofperiodiccultivationan occasionally takenin.Thepollendiagramsrecordheathspecies,whichmay land ploughedwithinarotationsystem,ratherthanroughgrazing species suchasknapweedandribwortplaintain),whichsuggestsgoodgrazing ated weedsofarablecultivation,sitsalongsideimprovedpasture(asindicatedby tion ofan‘outfield’.Theconstantandrelativelyhighcerealcount,associ- sites isnotcompatiblewiththecerealssimplyrepresentingperiodiccultiva- this atLobbsBogandWindmillRough,thepollenevidencefromallofthese fields oftheSouth-Westwereonanaltogether different scaletothoseinthe ings associatedwithisolatedfarms.Itisalsoimportant tostressthattheopen and 12,allofwhicharecharacterisedbysquarish closesandcompactlandhold- West. None,forexample,existwithinthestudy areas mappedinFigures9,11 to over-emphasisetheextentofthesesmallopen-field systemsintheSouth- an individualfarminterspersedwiththoseofitsneighbours. Itiseasy,however, show adistinctivelyfragmentedpatternoflandownership, withtheholdingsof open fieldsareusuallyassociatedwithhamlets, andintheTithesurveysalso note 62,68. evidence’, W. L.D.Ravenhill(eds.), ‘Challacombe revisited’,61–70in P. Pattison,D.FieldandS.Ainsworth(eds), Enclosure andSettlementinanUplandFringe(unpubl.Ph.D.thesis, UniversityofExeter,2002);P.Pattison, fig. 26. Riley andWilson-North,op.cit. in note8,figs.4.12–13,4.30,5.6,5.11–12;Rippon2004,op.cit. note7, 62 63 A. FlemingandN.Ralph,‘Medievalsettlementlanduseon Holne Moor,Dartmoor:thelandscape D. J.Bonney,‘Formerfarmsand fields atChallacombe,Manaton,Dartmoor’,83–91inK.J.Gregory and A widerangeofevidenceshowsthatduringtheMedievalPeriod Medieval Archaeol. beyond villagesandopenfields Exeter EssaysinGeographyHonour ofArthurDavies , 26(1982),101–37;M.Gillard,TheMedievalLandscapeoftheExmoor Region: 63 Thesefieldsystemssuggestiveofsmall-scale (Exeter,1971);Pattison,op.cit.in Patterns inthePast (Oxford,1999); 62 These 59 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology 60 The pollensiteliesjustbeyondtheenclosedfieldsystemsoftoday, thoughtheearthworksofanextensive Aerial photographoftheHaresDownarea(NMR3G/TUD/UK221 PartII11July1946frame5094). relict landscapeshowthatthisareawasoncecoveredbyanearcontinuous fieldscape(seeFig.11). © English Heritage(NMR)RAFPhotography s. j.ripponetal. fig . 10 . Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology boundaries (showninbold)reflect theprogressiveenclosureofmoor.Areaslarger,morerectilinear fields, suggestiveofmorerecent enclosure, canbeseentothesouth-westofWindmillRough.Although the pollensitescurrentlylieinareas ofopenground,theearthworksrelictfieldsystemssuggest that The historiclandscapearoundRackenford MoorbasedontheTitheMaps,witheachfarmstead associated withacompactlandholding ofclosesheldinseveralty.Aserieslong,sinuousfield they wereoncewithintheenclosed landscape(seeFig.10). beyond villagesandopenfields fig . 11 61 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology 62 ‘infields’). Thepollensitescurrentlylieinareasofopengroundbut aresurroundedbytheearthworksof relict fieldsystemsandploughridgessuggestingtheseareaswere formerlythe‘outfield’offarmssuchas farmstead associatedwithacompactlandholding(markedbybold line)ofclosesheldinseveralty(the The historiclandscapearoundtheMollandCommonpollensites basedontheTitheMaps,witheach Brimblecombe, Gourte,SmallacombeandMoorhouse. s. j.ripponetal. fig . 12 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology associated withprobableopenfields,areknown tohaveshrunkasingle Ages, that someofwhatarenowisolatedfarmsweresmall hamletsintheHighMiddle farmsteads. InbothCornwallandDevondetailed historicalresearchhasshown South-West’s historiclandscape,manyareasarecharacterisedbyisolated its agriculturalland(therestbeingheldinseveraltycloses). within aparishhaditsownsmall-scaleopenfieldthatoftencoveredonlypartof all theploughedlandwithinaparish,whereasinSouth-Westeachhamlet ‘Central Province’.Thelattersawasingleopen-fieldsystemencompassvirtually Townscape intheSouthWest the landscapesofDevonandCornwallduringlaterMiddleAges’, 41–75inR.Higham, 13–27; Bonney,op.cit.innote63;H.Fox,‘Peasantfarmers,patterns ofsettlementandpays:transformationsin both isolatedfarmsteadsandsmallhamlets. Archaeological evidencesuggeststhatthesettlement patternalwayscontained 130–2; WeddellandReed,op.cit. innote44. Medieval Archaeol 119–47; E.M.JopeandR.I.Threlfall, ‘ExcavationofamedievalsettlementatBeere,NorthTawton, Devon’, settlements onDartmoorandinwest Devon:theevidencefromexcavations’, Moor, SouthDevon, Medieval Villages 191–240; D.Austin,‘DartmoorandtheuplandvillageofSouth-West ofEngland’,71–80inD.Hooke(ed.), 65 64 M. W.Beresford,‘Dispersedandgroupedsettlementinmedieval Cornwall’, D. Austin,‘ExcavationsinOkehamptonPark,Devon,1976–78’, Schematic modelforhowtherotation-basedsystemofconvertiblehusbandryshowsupinapollen As suggestedabove,whilesmallhamletsareadistinctivefeatureofthe 64 butitwouldbewrongtoassumethatthiswas thecaseeverywhere. sequence takenfromasmallvalleymirethatwasnotitselfdrainedandcultivated. (Oxford,1985);Austinetal.,op. cit.innote45,54;A.Fox,‘AmonastichomesteadonDean ., 2(1958),112–40;Pattison,op.cit. innote62;RileyandWilson-North,op.cit.8,100, Medieval Archaeol (Exeter,1989);Fox,op.cit.innote50,164. beyond villagesandopenfields ., 2(1958),141–57;C.G.Henderson andP.J.Weddell,‘Medieval fig . 13 65 Wherehamlets,sometimes Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc. Agric. Hist.Rev. , 12(i)(1964), Landscape and ., 36(1978), , 52(1994), 63 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology woodland increases.This localdifferencebetweensitessuggestsanupland fringe land (includingPoaceae, vegetation alsodeclinedalthoughheatherremains thedominanttaxon.Grass- At Anstey’sComberyealsodisappearsaslate thepinerise,butheathland nigra vegetation increasesandthereisadeclineingrassland herbsincluding half ofthe18thcenturywhenplantationswere established inthearea.Heath synchronous withtheriseofpinewhichisestimated tobearoundthesecond Common sites,thedeclinein of cerealcultivationislessclear.AtLongBreach, thehighestofMolland cattle husbandry. arable indicators,suggestingadecreaseingrazing intensityorashifttowards Lobbs Bog)alsorecordasmallpeakinbracken shortlyafterthedeclinein Middle NorthCombeandHaresDown.Twosites(Middle continues toberecordedatlowlevelsallthesites,itincreasesslightly There isageneraldeclineinvaluesofhazelduringthisperiodandwhileoak typical Culmgrassland(anationallyscarce,species-rich,pastoralcommunity). suggest asomewhatwetterlocalenvironmentthattodaywewouldregardas Lobbs BogandWindmillRoughthedominanceofsedgesalongsidegrasses grasses dominatetheMiddleNorthCombeandHaresDownsequences,whileat centuries. Rackenford thedeclineinarabledidnotoccuruntilaround16th–18th in thesamecluster,post-medievalchangesweremorevaried.Around Medieval Periodtheincreaseinarablewasremarkablesynchronousacrosssites changes inthePost-medievalPeriodand,whileitwasnotablethatEarly 5–7).Thereare,however, occurred duringthePost-medievalPeriod(Figs. Middle Ages,andatmostsitesthedeclineinarablecultivationappearstohave Common andParracombeshowfewsignsofchangeinland-useduringtheLate the lateandpost-medievalperiods returned tolater). degree ofnucleationseenintheMidlands(thesignificancewhichwillbe Medieval Periodbeingafeatureofsomeareas,butneverapproachingthe dispersion, withthegrowthanddeclineofsmallhamletsovercourse of Dartmoor. appears tohavebeenthecaseatOkehamptonParkonnorthernfringes whether theyoriginatedasisolatedfarmsteadsthatsubsequentlygrewinsize, Period (whenconvertiblehusbandryappearstohavebeenintroduced),or small hamletsoftheHighMiddleAgeswerecreatedassuchinPre-conquest the studyareasshowninFigures9,11and12.Itisalsonotclearwhether tern oflandownershipintheadjacentareas:seeabove).Wedonotfindthis paddocks andclosesaroundtheabandonedtofts(alongwithafragmentedpat- farmstead, thehistoriclandscapeoftencontainsadistinctivesignaturewithsmall 64 67 66 Windmill Rough:240 Austin 1978,op.cit.innote65. andLactuceae,suggestingthatenclosedagricultural landwasabandoned. On thesouthernandwesternfringesofExmoor the timingofcessation Perhaps surprisinglythepollensequencesfromRackenford,Molland 67 Allthesitesshowcontinuationofpastorallandmanagement: 66 Overall,theemphasiswithinsettlementpatternisononeof P 50 B.P.,cal. Ranunculus acris s. j.ripponetal. Secale cereale a.d. 1490–1949;HaresDown:interpolated dateofc.500B.P. (rye)issurprisinglylate,beingbroadly -type andLactuceae) oak/hazel Centaura Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology of heathandgrass( with amosaiccharacter:theunenclosedareaswereprobablycombination may havebeenmorepronounced thanonsmallerholdings. from certaindemesnesonthelargerestateswhose shiftfromarabletopasture compared totheratherfragmentarydocumentary sourcesthatderivelargely greater stabilityinthesignificanceofarablewithin thelandscapeasawhole, arable andpasturealteredlittle.Thepollenevidence mayinfactsuggesteven more marginalareas,butthatwithinareasstill occupiedtheproportionof amount ofmoorland(risingfrom9%to31%), suggestingaretreatfromthe these pollensequencesthedeclineinarableisbalanced byanincreaseinthe demand forcerealsbyshiftingtopastoralfarming. Butitisalsonotablethatin reflects howdemesnemanagersweretosome extentreactingtoreduced early 14thcentury,comparedto51%inthelate 15thcentury. demesne landwas‘arable’(i.e.partofaconvertible husbandryrotation)inthe tary sources;inmid-andnorthernDevonasawhole,forexample,c.70%of in arablecultivationduringtheLateMiddleAgesisalsorecordeddocumen- regime withcerealcultivationalternatingimprovedgrassland).Thisdecline vated appearstohavebeenmanagedaspartofthesameconvertiblehusbandry in themanagementofopenmoorland(thoughlandthatwasstillculti- after therewassomecontractionintheareaofagriculturallandandfluctuations management, includingarablecultivation,untilaroundthe16thcentury.There- continued. grazing intensityontheuplandsthoughthroughoutthisperiodsomecultivation was reversedaroundthe19thcentury.Thesemostlikelyrepresentvariationsin heather andslightdeclineinpastureoccurredaroundthe18thcentury,which some contractionintheareaofenclosedagriculturalland.Afurtherrise declines alongwiththegrassland.Asheatherincreasestheremayhavebeen of arablecultivationremainsthesameuntilaround16thcenturywhenit perhaps reflectingchangesinmanagementofuplandgrazing,buttheextent possibly ashiftfromheather-tograss-dominatedheathinthe15thcentury, controlled burning(knownasswaling). increase incharcoalmayindicateincreasedheathlandmanagementthrough Cultivation, however,continuedaslatearoundthe19thcenturywhenan reduction ofcharcoalmightalsosuggestlessmanagementthemoorland. centuries, whichmightsuggesttheabandonmentofsomeagriculturalland;a some declineintheindicatorsofgrasslandandcultivationaround15th (Figs. 10–12). Rackenford andMollandCommonevidencedbytherelictlandscapesthere provide acontextfortheabandonmentofhigherinterfluvialareasat This post-medievaldeclineinarableandincreasemoorlandvegetationmay depending onlocalvariationintopography,drainageandgrazingintensity. 70 69 68 Ibid., 157,163. Fox, op.cit.innote50,154–7. Hallam, op.cit.innote61,40–1. Overall, thereappearstohavebeencontinuityinmostaspectsoflandscape At HigherHolworthyinParracombethereisanexpansionheatherand beyond villagesandopenfields Molinia ) moorlandandregeneratingscrubbywoodland, 68 AtTwinefordHeadCombethereis 70 69 Thisnodoubt 65 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology open-field agricultureintheMidlands.Thesecanbesummarisedasfollows: occurred. Awiderangeofexplanationshasbeensuggestedforthechangeto landscape oftoday. pattern ofsmallenclosedfarmsteadsanditsreplacementwiththehistoric for theabandonmentoflateprehistoric/Romano-British/post-Roman 14th century(whenconvertiblehusbandryisfirstrecorded)thatcouldaccount ance ofsignificantamountscerealpolleninthe7th–8thcenturiesand sequences foradiscontinuityinlandscapeexploitationbetweenthefirstappear- come intobeingatthatdate.Thereisnootherevidencewithinthepollen suggest thattheSouth-West’sequallydistinctivehistoriclandscapehadalso 10th century.Theemergenceofconvertiblehusbandryatthistimecouldalso turies inthelowlands,spreadingtouplandfringesofExmooraround distinctive systemoflandmanagementcameintobeingaroundthe7th–8thcen- century. Butthepalaeoenvironmentalevidencepresentedheresuggeststhatthis All wecansayfromdocumentarysourcesisthatitwasinplacebythe14th enclosed fieldsystems.Theoriginsofconvertiblehusbandryarenotrecorded. small hamletsandisolatedfarmsteads,surroundedbyamixtureofopen- historic landscapecharacterisedbyamostlydispersedsettlementpatternof agriculture, knownasconvertiblehusbandry,whichwaspractisedwithina 66 fieldwork evidence’,22–38inT.Rowley (ed.), (London, 1980);Fox,op.cit.innote 50,121–32;D.Hall,‘Theoriginsofopen-fieldagriculture:thearchaeological Century Open Fields op. cit.innote3,199. 74 73 71 75 72 Thirsk 1964and1966,op.cit.in note3;R.Dodgshon, E.g. H.L.Gray, E.g. F.Seebohm, Fox, op.cit.innote50,100;R.Faith, E.g. P.Vinogradoff, $ $ $ $ $ $ (Cambridge,1941),90–1. What islessclearwhythisimportantchangeinlandscapemanagement By theLateMiddleAgesSouth-Westhadadistinctivesystemof in thecontextofanexpandingeconomy,provided theincentiveand that increasingdemandsfromtheCrownfortaxation andmilitaryservice, fragmentation oflarge‘multipleestates’; that thereorganisationoflandscapeoccurred inthecontextof resources, duetorisingpopulation,leadinggreater co-operation; that openfieldswerecreatedasaresultof increasing pressureon inheritance; and resultedfromthedisintegrationoflandholdingthroughpartible that openfieldswereintroducedbyEarlyAnglo-Saxonimmigrants that openfieldsprovidedamoreequalshareoftownship’sresources; within whichtomanoeuvre; organisation ofresourcesandlargefieldswithlong,narrowplough-units that aheavymouldboardploughpulledbyeightoxenrequiredcommunal (Oxford,1938),37–44. DISCUSSION: REGIONALTRAJECTORIESINLATE 1ST-MILLENNIUM A.D.LANDSCAPECHANGE English FieldSystems The EnglishVillageCommunity Villeinage inEngland 73 (Cambridge,1915),415;Vinogradoff, op.cit.note72,162. s. j.ripponetal. The EnglishPeasantryandGrowthofLordship (Oxford,1892),236;G.C.Homans, The OriginsofOpenFieldAgriculture 71 (London,1890),120–2;C.S.OrwinandOrwin, The OriginofBritishFieldSystems:An Interpretation 75 and (London,1981);Lewisetal., English VillagersoftheThirteenth (Leicester,1997),153–200. 74 The 72 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology of asinglenucleatedvillageandregularlyarranged setofopenfieldswithineach a landscapereorganisationintheMidlandstook place, whichledtothecreation the South-West’slandscapeisbroadlycontemporary withwhenwebelievethat the 10thcenturywhentheywereanaverageof4hides. when chartersrecordestateswithanaveragehidageof13.5hides,comparedto estates. Thelatterwascertainlyatanadvancedstagebythe8th–9thcenturies managed thecountryside,andperhapsabreakdownofterritorialstructures/ may haveledtonewpatternsoflordshipthatencouragedchangesinhowthey to invoketraditionalmigrationistviewsoftheAnglo-Saxonconquest,butthis church atExeterbeingfoundedby690andprobably670). Devon wasincorporatedintothekingdomofWestSaxons(theminster South-West England 2001 35–59; GriffithandReed,op.cit.in note11;W.Horner,‘Secretsofthesands’, ‘Neolithic andDarkAgesettlements onHighPeak,Sidmouth,Devon’, Second SeasonofArchaeologicalExcavationatTintagelChurchyard,Cornwall, 1992 Medieval Archaeol. 1989). settlements suchasHaldonHillandRaddon. along withtheirexchangelinkstheMediterranean,andreoccupiedhilltop as TintagelandHighPeak,beachmarketssuchBanthamMothecombe, have beenreplacedatthistime.Theyabandonedthecoastalroyalcitadelssuch during the7th–8thcenturies,thougholdsocialordercertainlyappearsto the South-Westitisimpossibletosaywhethertherewasapopulationincrease applied totheemergenceofconvertiblehusbandryinSouth-West.In benefits ofanucleatedsettlementpatternorcommunaluseresourcescanbe tions fortheemergenceofopen-fieldfarminginMidlandsthatrelyon and landscapesheldinseveralty,itwouldappearunlikelythatthoseexplana- convertible husbandryisdocumentedinareaswithbothcommon-fieldfarming landscape, eachsetwithinacompactblockofclosesheldinseveralty.As Rackenford MoorandMollandCommonisolatedfarmsteadsdominatethe communal approachtolandscapemanagement.AroundMiddleNorthCombe, common fields,thoughmanyplacesshownoneofthetell-talesignsthis landowners imposingtheirwill. landscape occurredasagrassrootsresponsebythecommunityorthrough Underlying thisdebateisalsotheissueofwhetherrestructuring change’, 31–43inM.Aston,D.AustinandC.Dyer(eds.), village’, 27–32inHooke(ed.),op.cit.note65;P.D.A.Harvey, ‘Initiativeandauthorityinsettlement dimension’, 112–29inRowley(ed.),op.cit.note74.SeealsoC. Dyer,‘Powerandconflictinthemedieval 79 78 77 76 80 D. Hooke,‘Saxonconquestandsettlement’, 95–104inR.KainandW.Ravenhill(eds.), C. D.Morris,E.Batey,K.Brady,R.Harry,P.G.Johnsonand C.Thomas,‘RecentworkatTintagel’, Cf. Thirsk1964and1966,op.cit.innote3;B.M.S.Campbell, ‘Commonfieldorigins—theregional Hall, op.cit.innote74,37;Lewisetal.,3,199–200. H. P.R.Finberg, , 1(2001),8–9;Turner,op.cit.in note10.ForHaldonHillandRaddonsee11. The suggesteddateofthe7th–8thcenturiesforthissignificantchangein In theSouth-Westtherewereindeedareaswithsmallhamletsand surplus. opportunity toincreaseproductivityandthecreationofatradable , 43(1999),206–15;J.A.NowakowskiandC.Thomas, (Exeter, 1999);M.Todd, 76 The EarlyChartersofDevonandCornwall beyond villagesandopenfields 77 The SouthWestto (Leicester,1953);Hooke,op.cit. in note13. A The RuralSettlementsofMedievalEngland . 78 D . 1000 Atapproximatelythesametime (London,1987),267–310. Grave NewsfromTintagel:AnAccountofa Proc. DevonArchaeol.Soc (Truro,1992);S.M.H.Pollard, 80 Devon Archaeol.Soc.NewsletterMay 79 Thereisnoreason Historical Atlasof ., 23(1966), (Oxford, 67 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology ‘Village developmentintheWest Midlands’, 125–54inHooke(ed.),op.cit.note65. Fox, ‘Approachestotheadoption of theMidlandsystem’,64–111inRowley(ed.),op.cit.note74;D. Hooke, Buckinghamshire thefigureisabout80%:Lewisetal.,op.cit.innote 3,81. Northamptonshire Archaeol. ‘The discoveryofSaxonsitesbelowfieldwalkingscatters:settlement evidenceatBrixworthandUpton’, away duringthisreorganisationisof‘MiddleAnglo-Saxon’-type, pottery recoveredfromfieldwalkingonthescatteredsettlementsthatwereswept occurred sometimebetweenthemid-7thandmid-9thcenturies;latest township. FieldwalkinginNorthamptonshirehassuggestedthatnucleation 68 countryside: villagesandtheirfields’,99–122inD.Hooke(ed.) Northamptonshire: anintensivefieldsurvey’, of SaxonsettlementinNorthants’, (eds.), communities and/ortheirlordstorestructure thelandscape.Thedensity is simplynocorrelationbetweenhighpopulation andthedecisionbyrural Provinces withnucleatedanddispersedsettlement patternsrespectively, such asthecountyofSomersetthatstraddles‘Central’and‘Western’ spread followingastandardmodel’. that, asthesuccessofnucleatedopen-fieldvillagebecameevident,idea communities acrosstheEastMidlandsshowsomanysimilaritiesastosuggest by emulation.Thenucleatedsettlementsandregularopenfieldsinsomany [villages andopenfields],onceintroducedestablished,probablyspread century. evidence canonlysuggestthatopenfieldsexistedintheMidlands of somevillages,forwhichtheysuggesta9thor10th-centurydate;documentary system overwholetownships.Thiswasperhapsassociatedwiththereplanning Anglo-Saxon Periodmayhavepre-datedtheimpositionofaregularopen-field and FoardhavesuggestedthisinitialnucleationofsettlementintheMiddle Anglo-Saxon’ potteryisalmostwhollyfoundinnucleatedvillages. insulated themfromradicalchange’. pastoral interests,oropportunitiestomakealivingfromthewoodsandwastes, of markets,nonethelesstheavailabilityadditionallandforcultivation,their were subjecttothesamefactors,suchasincreasedpopulationoremergence either necessaryordesirable.Althoughareasofcontinueddispersedsettlement never reachedthepointatwhichatransformationoflandscapeseemed arable contributiontotheeconomywaslessdominant,pressureonland evolution offields,boundariesandsettlementswasnotfollowed.Wherethe Dyer, forexample,suggestthat‘inotherregions,however,thisadaptive the ‘CentralProvince’simplyfailedtofollowthislead.Lewis,Mitchell-Foxand out fromtheMidlandsreinforcesimpressionthatlandscapesbeyond nucleation andthereorganisationofagriculturallandintoopenfieldsspread 86 85 84 83 82 81 T. BrownandG.Foard,‘TheSaxonlandscape:aregionalperspective’, 67–94inP.EversonandT.Williamson Rippon 2004,op.cit.innote7. Lewis etal.,op.cit.innote3,200. Lewis etal.,op.cit.innote3,200. SeealsoRobertandWrathmell2002,op.cit.innote2fig.5.11. Brown andFoard,op.cit.innote 81;M.Costen, In Leicestershire90%of‘LateAnglo-Saxon’findspotsarefromvillages, whileinNorthamptonshireand The ArchaeologyofLandscape There is,however,aproblemwiththishypothesis.Attheregionalscale, To date,an‘evolutionarymodel’hasemergedwhereby‘thisadaptation 83 , 25(1993/4),77–92. (Manchester,1998);G.Foard,‘Systematicfieldwalkingandtheinvestigation WorldArchaeol. s. j.ripponetal. J. BritishArchaeol.Ass. , 9(iii)(1978),357–74;D.HallandP.W.Martin,‘Brixworth, 84 85 Thisideathattheconceptsofsettlement The OriginsofSomerset Anglo-Saxon Settlements , 132(1979),1–6;D.Hall‘TheLateSaxon (Manchester,1992),126;H.S.A. (Oxford, 1988);M.Shaw, 81 while‘Late by 82 the10th Brown 86 there Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology mainstay inpreviouspalaeoenvironmentalresearch areclearlynotreflectiveof non-traditional pollensitesshowsthattheupland blanketbogsthathavebeena the lateprehistoric,Romano-Britishandhistoric periods. Thestorytoldbythese close tothemarginsof,thosepartsoflandscape thatweresettledthroughout have beenobtainedfromsmallvalleymireseitherembeddedwithin,orvery pling. Acrucialfeatureoftheworkpresentedhereisthatpollensequences nia isyettoberealisedbecauseofdifficultiesinlocatingsuitablesitesforsam- was developingitsownverysuccessfulapproachtolandscapemanagement. centuries. Theymayneverhavecreatedvillagesintheseregionsbecauseeach regions wasseeingperiodsofmarkedlandscapechangearoundthe7th–8th settlement nucleationthatneverquite‘reachedtheperiphery’,eachofthese in thelate1stmillennium This regiondemonstratesyetanotherdifferenttrajectoryoflandscapechange open-field systemsthatwereofalessregularcharacterthanintheMidlands. to emergebesidelargecommons. ‘Late Anglo-Saxon’potterywasinuse,secondarysettlementfocistarted ation aroundwhatisnowtheparishchurch,thoughbyperiodduringwhich previously dispersedsettlementpatternwasalsoundergoingaprocessofnucle- in EastAnglia,forexample,hasshownthataroundthe7th–8thcenturies regionally distinctivephaseoflandscapeevolutionatthistime.Fieldwalking comparable tothatoftheMidlands.Infact,theremaybeotherexamplesa convertible husbandrysupportingadensityofpopulationandplough-teams already startedtodevelopalongitsowntrajectorywiththeextensivesystemof had aclassic‘Midland’stylelandscapeofvillagesandopenfields(Fig.3). same orevenhigherthanthosepartsofcentralandsouth-easternSomersetthat typical South-Westernlandscapeofdispersedsettlement,forexample,wasthe of DomesdaypopulationinthehinterlandExetercentralDevonwithits See alsoWilliamson,op.cit.innote3,28–35. the leadproponent. emulation modeloutlinedabove,withGlastonburyAbbeypossiblybeing which mayhaveoccurredaroundthe10thcentury,wellfollowed spread ofvillagesandopenfieldsdownfromtheMidlandstocentralSomerset, Carver (ed.), J. Newman,‘TheLateRomanand Anglo-SaxonsettlementpatternintheSandlingsofSuffolk’,25–51 inM. A. J.Lawson, in LaunditchHundred,Norfolk the SomersetHundreds 79 (1999),1–58;N.Corcos, Hooke (ed.),op.cit.innote81;Williamson, op.cit.innote3,97–9. Chronology andRegionalLandscapes: TheEvidencefromtheClaylandsofEastAngliaandEssex’,153–75 in a LandscapeHistoryofWalshamleWillows 88 87 89 M. AstonandC.Gerrard,‘“Unique,traditionalcharming”:the ShapwickProject,Somerset’, Cf. Darby,op.cit.innote13,figs.84–6;andRobertsWrathmell 2000,op.cit.innote2,figs.10and17. A. Davison, The fullpotentialofpalaeoenvironmentalresearchforthepasttwomillen- The AgeofSuttonHoo The ArchaeologyofWitton,nearNorthWalsham,Norfolk The EvolutionofSettlementinThreeNorfolkParishes (Oxford,2002),182–90;Rippon2004,op.cit.innote7. beyond villagesandopenfields (EastAnglianArchaeol.10,Dereham, 1980);S.E.WestandA.McLaughlin, 88 The AffinitiesandAntecedentsofMedievalSettlement:TopographicalPerspectives fromThreeof Inthemeantime,however,South-Westlandscapehad (Woodbridge,1992);P.Wade-Martins, (EastAnglianArchaeol.85,Dereham, 1998);T.Williamson,‘Settlement a.d. CONCLUSION RatherthantheMidlandsseeingaprocessof 89 EastAngliaalsosawthedevelopmentof (EastAnglianArchaeol.49,Dereham,1990); (East AnglianArchaeol.18,Dereham,1987); Fieldwork andExcavationonVillageSites 87 Antiq. J. Towards The 69 , Published by Maney Publishing (c) Society for Medieval Archaeology Province’. and whichstoppedvillagecreationspreadingoutfromEngland’s‘Central landscape managementthatincludedasignificantamountofarablecultivation in factdevelopeditsownverysuccessful,regionallydistinctiveapproachto pastoral economyandlowpopulation.Butitnowappearsthattheregionhad because thatregionwasinsulatedfromradicalchangeduetoitsessentially around nucleatedvillagesandopenfields,neverreachedtheSouth-West assumed thatthe‘Midland’approachtomanagingcountryside,based agricultural changesseenintheSouth-Westcannowbeadded.Ithasoftenbeen organisation oflandedproductionandregionalexchange, England sawprofoundchangesinsettlementstructure,architecture,the c. 680to830haspreviouslybeendescribedasthe‘longeighthcentury’,when for suchasignificantchangeinthelandscapeexploitation.Theperiodfrom the historiclandscapeoftoday.Thereisnootherpalaeoenvironmentalcontext prehistoric topost-Romanlandscapewasalsoprobablyreplacedatthistimeby convertible husbandryisknowntohavebeenthenorm,itarguedthatlate high levelsofcerealpolleninthe7th–8thcenturiesand14thcentury,when bandry. Asthereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenthefirstappearanceofsuch as theregionallydistinctivesystemofagricultureknownconvertiblehus- to representthepollensignatureofwhatbyLateMiddleAgesisdocumented increase incerealswithoutanequivalentdeclinepastureorwoodlandistaken from theLateIronAgethroughtoPost-RomanPeriod,thisdramatic too farawayfromthecultivatedareastopickupcerealpollen. 7th–8th centuriesissimilarlynotevidentintheuplandblanketbogsthatwere exploited atthistime.Therelativelyhighlevelsofcerealpollenseenfromthe where therewasalmostcompletecontinuityinhowthelandscapebeing around RackenfordandeventheuplandfringesMollandCommon the highuplandsofExmoor),forexample,areentirelyabsentfromlowlands heathland regenerationseenatTheChains,CodsendMoorandHoar(on landscape historyinthesurroundinglowlands.Thepost-Romanwoodlandand 70 suggestions. Allviewsexpressedare,however,thoseof theauthors. draft ofthispaper,andtheanonymousrefereefor hisorherveryconstructive and thehistoryofDevonagricultureingeneral,along withcommentingonanearlier The authorswouldalsoliketothankHaroldFoxfor discussingconvertiblehusbandry Parracombe sites,andWillFletcherforcontributingto fieldsurveyaroundRackenford. authors aregratefultoJackieHattonforcompleting thepollenanalysison acknowledgements H. Hamerow, 90 I. L.HansenandC.Wickham(ed.), This researchwasfundedbyTheLeverhulmeTrust (grant no.F/00144/D).The Against abackdropofremarkablecontinuityinlandscapemanagement Early MedievalSettlements (Oxford,2002),191. The LongEighthCentury:Production,Distribution andDemand s. j.ripponetal. 90 towhichthe (Leiden,2000);