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Home , Biotin, Cyanocobalamin, Ergocalciferol, International unit, Panthenol, Phytomenadione

Appendix 1: Chemical and physical characteristics of

Vitamin A

Structuralformula

eM,

o

Principal commercialforms A R=COCH3 palmitate R = CO(CH2)14CH3 Empirical formula Molecular weight C2oH300 286.45 Vitamin A acetate C22H3202 328.50 Vitamin A palmitate C36H6002 524.90

Standardisation 1 Ilg retinol equivalent corresponds to 3.33 international units (IV) ofvitamin A activity. I corresponds to the activity of 0.344 Ilg of pure crystalline vitamin A acetate. The US Pharmacopoeia Unit (USP unit) is the same as the international unit. The biological activity ofpure vitamin A acetate is 6 2.904 x 10 IU/g and ofpure vitamin A palmitate is 6 1.817 x 10 IU/g APPENDIX 1 247

Solubility Retinol is soluble in and oils and practically insoluble in and . Vitamin A are readily soluble in fats, oils, ether, and . They are soluble in but insoluble in water.

Melting point Vitamin A acetate Vitamin A palmitate

Absorption spectrum Vitamin A esters show a characteristic absorption spectrum, the position of the maxima depending on the solvent used: in cyclohexane the maxima is at 328 DID and in isopropanol it is at 326 DID.

p-

Structuralformula

CH 3

I3-carotene

R

CH3 CH3

CH3 : R=CHO Apocarotenoic : R=COOC2Hs

Principal commercialforms p-Carotene p- Apo - 8' - carotenal Apocarotenoic ester 248 THE TECHNOLOGY OF VITAMINS IN

Empirical fonnula Molecular weight ~-Carotene C40H56 536.9 Apocarotenal C30H400 416.6 Apocarotenoic ester C32H4402 460.7

Standardisation There have been a number ofconventions to establish the relationship between the activity of~-carotene and vitamin A. The vitamin A equivalents based on retinol equivalents can be calculated as follows: I retinol equivalent = I j.lg retinol = 6 j.lg ~-carotene = 12 j.lg other provitamin A = 3.33 IV vitamin A activity from retinol = 10 IV vitamin A activity from ~-carotene.

Solubility ~-Carotene is insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol, fats and oils. Apocarotenal and apocarotenoic ester are insoluble in water and sparingly soluble in fats, oils and alcohol.

Melting point ~-Carotene 176-182°C Apocarotenal 136-140°C Apocarotenoic ester I 34-138°C

Absorption spectrum Solutions in cyclohexane exhibit the following maxima: ~-Carotene about 456 and 484 nm Apocarotenal about 461 and 488 nm Apocarotenoic ester about 134 and 138 nm

Vitamin D

Structuralformulae CH,

HO Vitamin 02 APPENDIX 1 249

HO VitaminD3

Principal commercialforms VitaminDz: VitaminD3: Empirical formula Molecular weight Ergocalciferol (Dz) CZSH440 396.63 Cholecalciferol (D3) C27H440 384.62

Standardisation One international unit (IV) corresponds to the activity of0.025 Ilg ofeither pure crystalline vitamin Dz or D3. The US Pharmacopoeia Unit of corre• sponds to, the international unit.

Solubility Soluble in fats and oils, insoluble in water,

Melting point Ergocalciferol (Dz) 113-118°C Cholecalciferol (D3) 82-88°C

Specific rotation

Ergocalciferol (Dz): [a]~ = +102.5° to +107.5° (c = 4 in absolute ) Cholecalciferol (D3): [a]~ = +105° to +112° (c = 5 in absolute ethanol)

Absorption spectrum Vitamins Dz and D3 exhibit an absorption maxima at 265 nm in alcoholic solution. 250 THE TECHNOLOGY OF VITAMINS IN FOOD

VitaminE

Structuralformula

CH3 RO

dl-a-: R =H dl-a-: R = CH3 co

Principal commercialforms Empirical formula Molecular weight d-a-Tocopherol C29Hso02 430.7 dl-a-Tocopherol C29Hso02 430.7 d-a-Tocopheryl ~';etate C31Hs203 472.7 dl-a-Tocopheryl acetate C31Hs203 472.7 d-a-Tocopheryl succinate C33Hs40S 530.8

Standardisation The selected international unit (IU) ofvitamin E is the biological activity of I mg ofsynthetic dl-a-tocopheryl acetate. The equivalents ofthe other forms ofvitamin E are related to this standard. The relative activities ofthe most common forms of are given below. I IU ofvitamin E is equivalent to: I mg dl-a-tocopheryl acetate 0.909 mg dl-a-tocopherol (1.l0 IU / mg) 1.12 mg dl-a-tocopheryl succinate (0.89 IU / mg) 0.826 mg d-a-tocopheryl succinate (1.21 IU / mg) 0.735 mg d-a-tocopheryl acetate (1.36 IU / mg) 0.671 mg d-a-tocopherol (1.49 IU / mg) 1.75 mg d-~-tocopherol (0.57 IU / mg) 7.0 mg d-y-tocopherol (0.14 IU / mg)

Solubility and their esters are insoluble in water but readily soluble in oils, alcohol and organic solvents. APPENDIX 1 251

Refractive index a-Tocopherol 1.5030 - 1.5070 at 20°C a-Tocopheryl 1.4940 - 1.4985 at 20°C

Absorption spectrum a-Tocopherol (in alcohol solution) maximum at 292 nm, minimum at 255 nm. a-Tocopheryl acetate (in alcohol solution) maximum at 284-285 nm, minimum at 254nm.

VitaminKl

Structuralformula

Principal commercialforms Empirical formula Molecular weight Vitamin Kl (, phytonadione) 450.68

Standardisation Analytical results are usually expressed as weight units ofpure vitamin Kl as no international standard for the biological activity ofvitamin K has been defmed.

Solubility Vitamin Kl is insoluble in water and sparingly soluble in alcohol. It is readily soluble in fats and oils.

Refractive index [n]if = 1.525 - 1.528

Absorption spectrum Vitamin Kl shows maxima at 243,249,261 and 270 nm and minima of254 and 285 nm in cyclohexane. 252 THE TECHNOLOGY OF VITAMINS IN FOOD

Thiamin (Vitamin Bl)

Structuralformula

Principal commercialforms Thiamin chloridehydrochloride x=cr,HCl (Thiamin hydrochloride) Thiamin mononitrate

Empirical formula Molecular weight Thiamin hydrochloride CI2HI7ClN40S.HCl 337.27 Thiamin mononitrate CI2H1704NsS 327.36

Standardisation To calculate the amount of thiamin cation from the salts (molecular weight of thiamin cation is 265.4): From hydrochloride: divide the amount ofhydrochloride by 1.271 From mononitrate: divide the amount ofmononitrate by 1.234.

Solubility Hydrochloride: readily soluble in water (about 1 g / ml), sparingly soluble in alcohol. Mononitrate: slightly soluble in water (about 2.7 g / 100 ml) sparingly soluble in alcohol

Melting point Hydrochloride: 250°C (decomposition) Mononitrate: 19Q-200°C

Absorption spectrum

Thiamin shows a characteristic absorption spectrum in the region of20Q-300 TIm. In 0.1 N hydrochloric acid solution the absorption maxima of thiamin is around 245 nm. The positions ofthe maxima depend on the solvent and pH ofthe solutions. APPENDIX 1 253

Riboflavin (vitamin B2)

Structuralformula

Principal commercialforms

Riboflavin: R = OH .--" ONa riboflavin-5'-phosphate: R=-O-P, \OH o

Empirical formula Molecular weight Riboflavin C17H2006N4 376.36 Sodium riboflavin-5'-phosphate C17H2009N4PNa 478.34

Standardisation 1 g ofsodium riboflavin-5' -phosphate = 0.730 g ofriboflavin.

Solubility Riboflavin: sparingly soluble in water (1 g dissolves in from 3000 to 15000 ml water depending on crystal structure). Readily soluble in dilute alkalis. Very sparingly soluble in alcohol. Sodium riboflavin-5' -phosphate: soluble in water (112 mg / ml at pH 6.9, 68 mg / ml at pH 5.6 and 43 mg / ml at pH 3.8). Very sparingly soluble in alcohol.

Melting point Riboflavin: decomposition at 280 - 290°C

Specific rotation Riboflavin: [a]ijl = -122° to -136° (c = 0.25 in 0.05 N NaOH) Sodium riboflavin-5'-phosphate : [a]ijl = +38° to +42° (c = 1.5 in 20% HCl) 254 THE TECHNOLOGY OF VITAMINS IN FOOD

Absorption spectrum In 0.1 N HCl solutions riboflavin and riboflavin phosphate show absorption maxima at about 223, 267, 374 and 444 nm.

VitaminB6

Structuralformula

CHzOH

HO~I CHzOH

~••) ·HCI CH3 N

Pyridoxine hydrochloride

Principal commercialforms Empirical formula Molecular weight hydrochloride CgHl2ClN03 205.64

Standardisation 1 mg ofpyridoxine hydrochloride is equivalent to 0.82 mg pyridoxine or pyridox• amine and 0.81 mg pyridoxal.

Solubility Readily soluble in water (about 1g / 4.5 ml). Sparingly soluble in alcohol, soluble in .

Melting point Decomposition with browning 205-212°C.

Absorption spectrum In aqueous solution the absorption maxima are: at acid pH: 291 nm at neutral pH: 254 and 324 nm at alkaline pH: 245 and 309 nm APPENDIX 1 255

Vitamin B12

Structuralformula NH2-CO-CH2-CH2 CH3 CH3 CH2-CO-NH2 CH2-CH2-CO-NH2

CH3

CH2-CH2-CO-NH2

Principal commercialform Empirical formula Molecular weight C63Hss014N14PCO 1355.42

Standardisation Analytical results are usually expressed as weight units ofcyanocobalamin.

Solubility Slightly soluble in water (about 1.25 g /100 ml), soluble in alcohol.

Melting point Cyanocobalamin chars at 210 -220°C without melting.

Absorption spectrum The aqueous solution shows absorption maxima at 278,361 and 550 nm. 256 THE TECHNOLOGY OF VITAMINS IN FOOD

Niacin

Structural formula

Niacin Niacinamide (nicotinic acid) ()

Principal commercialforms Empirical formula Molecular weight Niacin (nicotinic acid) C6HsN02 123.11 Niacinamide (nicotinamide) C6H6N20 122.13

Standardisation Analytical results are normally expressed as weight units of niacinamide. Both forms possess the same vitamin activity. As the is capable offorming niacin from the , niacin is often quoted in units of 'niacin equivalent' on the basis that 60 mg oftryptophan equals 1mg ofniacin equivalent.

Solubility Niacin (nicotinic acid) is sparingly soluble in water (about 1.6 g / 100 ml) and alcohol (about 1g / 100 ml). Readily soluble in alkali. Niacinamide (nicotinamide) is very soluble in water (about 1 g / ml), slightly soluble in alcohol, soluble in glycerol.

Melting point Niacin (nicotinic acid) 234-237°C (sublimation) Niacinamide (nicotinamide) 128-131 oC

Absorption spectrum The acid and amide both show similar absorption spectra in aqueous solution with a maximum at about 261 om and an extinction dependent on pH. APPENDIX 1 257

Pantothenic acid

Structuralformula

CH20H-C(CH3h-CHOH-CO-NH-CH2-CH2-R

Pantothenic acid: R= COOH : R = CHzOH

Principal commercialforms Empirical fonnula Molecular weight ~alcium pantothenate (~91I16()5~)2~a 476.53 Sodium pantothenate ~91I16()5~a 241.20 Panthenol ~91I19()4~ 205.25

Standardisation Pantothenic acid is optically active with only the dextro-rotatory fonns having vitamin activity. Although free pantothenic acid is extremely unstable, results are expressed in tenns ofweight units ofpantothenic acid. I mg pantothenate is equivalent to 0.92 mg pantothenic acid. I mg sodium pantothenate is equivalent to 0.91 mg pantothenic acid. 1 mg panthenol is equivalent to 1.16 mg calcium D-pantothenate.

Solubility Calcium pantothenate is readily soluble in water (about 4 g /10 ml), sparingly soluble in alcohol and soluble in glycerol. Sodium pantothenate is very soluble in water and slightly soluble in alcohol. Panthenol is very soluble in water, readily soluble in alcohol and slightly soluble in glycerol.

Melting point ~alcium pantothenate: decomposition 195-196°~ Sodium pantothenate: 122-124°~ dl-Panthenol: 64.5-68.5°~

Specific rotation

~alcium pantothenate [a]~ = +26.0° to +28.0° (c = 4 in water) Sodium pantothenate [a]~ = +26.5° to +28.5° (c = 4 in water) Panthenol [a]~ = +29.5° to +31.5° (c = 5 in water) 258 THE TECHNOLOGY OF VITAMINS IN FOOD

Folic acid

Structuralformula

OH -0- COOH N)CHZ_NH I '\ CO-NH-!H N' ~ I I I- CHz ~:): ~ I HzN NN CHz I COOH Principal commercialforms Empirical fonnula Molecular weight Folic acid C19H19N706 441.40

Standardisation Analytical results are generally expressed in weight units ofpure folic acid as no international unit for the biological activity ofthis vitamin has been defined.

Solubility Folic acid is sparingly soluble in water, readily soluble in dilute alkali, soluble in dilute acid and insoluble in alcohol.

Melting point Darkens at 250°C followed by charring.

Specific rotation [a]~ = c.+ 20° (c = 0.5 in 0.1 N NaOH)

Absorption spectrum Folic acid shows a characteristic absorption spectrum which is dependent on the pH ofthe solution. In 0.1 N NaOH the maxima are at 256, 283 and 365 nm. APPENDIX 1 259

Biotin

Structuralformula

Principal commercialform Empirical formula Molecular weight d- ClOH1603N2S 244.31

Standardisation Analytical results are normally expressed as weight units ofpure d-biotin.

Solubility Very sparingly soluble in water (about 20 mg/ 100 ml) and alcohol. Soluble in dilute alkali.

Melting point 228-232°C with decomposition.

Specific rotation [a]~ =+90° to +94° (c =1.0 in 0.1 N NaOH)

VitaminC

Structuralformula O=C~ J-OH \ ,-OH/I /0 H-C--l I Ho-C-H I CH20H Ascorbic acid 260 THE TECHNOLOGY OF VITAMINS IN FOOD

Principal commercialforms Empirical formula Molecular weight Ascorbic acid C6Hg06 176.13 C6H706Na 198.11 Calcium ascorbate C12H14CaO12.2HzO 426.35

Standardisation I mg ofsodium ascorbate is equivalent to 0.889 mg ofascorbic acid. 1 mg ofcalcium ascorbate is equivalent to 0.826 mg ofascorbic acid.

Solubility Ascorbic acid is readily soluble in water (about 30 g /100 ml), slightly soluble in alcohol, and sparingly soluble in glycerol. Sodium ascorbate is very soluble in water (about 90 g /100 ml) and almost insoluble in alcohol. Calcium ascorbate is soluble in water and slightly soluble in alcohol.

Specific rotation

Ascorbic acid: [a]~ = _22 0 to _23 0 (c = 2 in water) Sodium ascorbate: [a]~ =+1030 to +1060 (c = 5 in water) Calcium ascorbate: [a]~ = +95 0 to +97 0 (c = 2.4 in water)

Absorption spectrum Ascorbic acid in strongly acid solution shows an absorption maxima ofabout 245 nm which shifts at neutrality to 365 nm and at pH 14 to about 300 nm in UV . Appendix 2: Recommended reference values for food labelling purposes Recommended dietary intakes in different countries. Adapted from FAO / WHO Joint Expert Consultation on Recommended Allowances of for Food Labelling Purposes, Helsinki, 12-16 September, 1988. Thiamin Riboflavin (Bl) (B2) B6 Niacin Bl2 Pant. Biotin C AD E K Units mg mg mg mg J.lg mg mg mg mg J.lg J.lg mg mg Argentina 1.3 1.9 - 21 2 0.2 - - 30 750 2.5 Australia 1.0 1.2 1.3 16 2 0.2 - - 30 750 Belgium 1.5 1.7 2.0 18 3 0.4 5.0 0.2 60 1000 7.5 10 0.10 Bolivia 1.1 1.5 2.2 18 3 0.4 4.0 0.1 60 750 5.0 10 0.70 Brazil 1.0 1.5 2.0 17 2 1.0 3.0 - 70 1500 10.0 5 Bulgaria 1.5 1.8 - 19 - - - - 85 1200 Canada 0.4 0.5 0.2 7 2 0.2 5.0 - 60 1000 2.5 10 0.03 Caribbean 1.2 1.7 2.0 20 2 0.2 - - 30 750 2.5 15 Chile 1.1 1.5 - 18 - - - - 45 750 (PR) 1.5 1.5 - 15 - - - - 75 1300 10.0 Colombia 0.9 1.2 2.3 14 3 0.2 6.0 0.2 40 1600 5.0 10 0.10 Czechoslovakia 1.2 1.8 1.9 20 - 0.2 8.0 - 60 1000 - 12 Denmark 1.4 1.6 2.2 18 -- - - 60 1000 5.0 Finland 0.5 0.7 1.1 7 - - - - 33 440 France 1.5 1.8 2.2 18 3 0.4 7.0 0.1 80 1000 10.0 10 Germany (FR) 1.3 1.7 1.8 18 5 0.4 8.0 - 75 1000 5.0 12 1.4 1.8 2.2 18 3 0.4 8.0 - 60 1000 5.0 12 India 1.4 1.5 - 19 1 0.1 - - 50 750 5.0 Indonesia 1.0 1.4 - 17 - - - - 30 1200 Ireland 1.2 1.6 2.2 18 3 0.3 -- 60 750 7.5 10 Israel 1.0 1.6 1.8 17 - - - - 70 1500 10.0 Italy 1.2 1.8 1.4 19 2 0.2 - - 45 700 2.5 10 Japan 1.2 1.7 - 20 - - - - 50 600 2.5 Korea (south) 1.3 1.5 - 17 - - - - 55 750 10.0 Malaysia 1.0 1.4 - 16 2 0.2 - - 30 .750 2.5 Mexico 1.3 1.5 - 23 - - - - 50 1000 1.4 1.6 2.0 18 3 0.4 - - 50 1000 5.0 10 New Zealand 1.2 1.7 2.0 18 3 0.2 - - 60 750 10.0 14 Norway 1.4 1.6 2.2 18 - - - - 60 1000 5.0 Philippines 1.2 1.2 - 16 - - - - 75 650 1.7 1.7 2.0 17 5 0.4 - - 75 1500 10.0 30 Continued. FAO/WHO Codex reference Bl B2 B6 Niacin B12 Folate Pant. Biotin C A D E K Portugal 1.5 1.8 2.2 18 3 -- - 75 1500 Singapore 0.5 0.8 1.0 6 - - 3.5 0.1 - 360 5.0 10 South Africa 1.5 1.7 2.2 19 3 0.4 7.0 0.2 60 1000 10.0 10 Spain 1.2 1.8 - 20 2 0.2 - - 45 750 2.5 Sweden 1.4 1.6 2.2 18 ---- 60 1000 5.0 Switzerland 1.2 1.8 1.6 15 1 0.1 10.0 - 75 1650 11.0 10 Taiwan 1.4 1.5 2.0 18 3 0.4 - - 60 750 2.5 10 Thailand 1.0 1.4 - 16 - --- 30 750 10.0 Turkey 1.2 1.8 - 17 - 0.2 -- 50 750 United Kingdom 1.2 1.6 - 18 - 0.3 -- 30 750 10.0 Uruguay 1.2 1.6 2.0 19 2 0.2 - - 30 750 2.5 10 USA 1.4 1.6 2.2 18 3 0.4 4.0 0.1 60 1000 5.0 10 0.Q7 Venezuela 1.2 1.6 - 20 3 0.2 - - 30 750 2.5 Western Pacific l.i 1.6 - 19 2 0.2 - - 30 750 2.5 Range Minimum 0.4 0.5 0.2 6 1 0.1 3.0 0.1 30 360 2.5 5 0.03 Maximum 1.9 2.2 2.2 23 5 0.4 10.0 0.2 85 1650 11.0 30 0.70 European Community recommended daily allowances for food labelling purposes are expected to be published at the end of 1992. When accepted by the EC Parliament these will supersede the individual national requirements. Index

alcohol, of 5 specific rotation of 259 amino stability of 99 balances of 2 standardisation of 259 metabolism of 6, II structural formula of 259 anaemia folic acid deficiency 48 of 4 haemolytic 4,44 synthesis of 45 megaloblastic deficiency 10, , of 3 48 brain, metabolism of 7 pernicious vitamin BI2 deficiency 48 pyridoxin deficiency 8 loss ofthiamin in 95 removal ofvitamins 124 effect on 4 stability ofriboflavin in 96, 127 vitamin E 3,4, 114 stability ofvitamins in 126 ascorbic acid see vitamin fortification of 125 Ashbyagossypu, production ofriboflavin 73 , stability ofvitamins in 92 ATP, generation of 5 calcification, vitamin D 3 Bacillus, ofvitamin C 82 , vitamin D 3 ~-carotene (provitamin A) calcium absorption spectrum of 248 absorption 3 analysis of 183-186 ions 3 as a 136 release from bone 3 commercial isolation of 68, 69 renal absorption 3 extraction of 183, 184 calcium pantothenate, pantothenic acid 74, in natural sources 20, 68 75 location of 74 Candida jlaveri, production ofriboflavin melting point of 248 73 production of 68, 69, 70 solubility of 248 metabolism of 1,5,7,11,45 stability of 94, 117, 127 oxidative metabolism of 6 structural formula of 247 , deficiency of 13 beans, thiaminases 96 carotenoids 1,19, 143, 183 beri-beri, 5, 46 analysis of 183-186 beverages as a food additive 154-168 addition ofvitamins 115-118 natural sources of 21, 23 carbonation of 116 cereals biological assays 172 addition ofvitamins 118-125 biotin (vitamin H) 12,28,224 in 212 analysis of 224 hot products 118 content in common 37 RTE products 118 deficiency in 12,48 stability ofvitamins 119 fermentation of 87 chewing gum 141 manufacture of 35,85,86 fortification of 141 MBAof 224 overage in 141 melting point of 259 vitamin C in 141 solubility of 259 , fortification of 139 266 THE TECHNOLOGY OF VITAMINS IN FOOD cholecalciferol, vitamin D3 3 content in common foods 38 12 deficiency in II, 48 coating extraction of 218,219,220 ofcereals 121 manufacture of 78, 79 ofvitamins 1l0, 112 MBA of 222, 223 1l,35 melting point of 258 biotin 12 occurrence of 35-38 flavin dinucleotide (FAD) 6 solubility of 258 (FMN) 6 specific rotation of 258 nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) 8 stability of 97, 116, 123, 124,218 nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide standardisation of 258 phosphate (NADP) 8 structural formula of 258 pantothenic acid 97 fondant, fortification of 139 pyridoxal-5-phospate 7 free radicals, damage by 1,14,15,16,17, pyruvate conversion 5 56,57 riboflavin 6 cofactors loss ofvitamins in processing 103 NAD,NADP 8 vitamin B6 in 212 thiamin phosphates 5 fruit drinks, stability ofvitamins in 95, 117 confectionery, fortification of 138, 139 conjunctiva, dryness of 2 gas liquid (GLC) 172 convulsions, pyridoxin deficiency 8 Gluconobacter, fermentation ofvitamin C ions, stability ofthiamin 96 82 cornea , transketolation of 5 dryness of 2 , NAD 9 vascularisation of 7 , RNA synthesis of 2 cyanocobalamin, vitamin B12 activity 9 growth retinol in 1 dairy products see specific examples folic acid in 10 , by thiamin phosphates 5 development, retinol in 1 hard boiled candies 138 differentiation, retinol in addition ofvitamins in 139 DNA, synthesis of 8 loss ofvitamins in 139 heart eggs deficiency in 5 biotin binding by 12 riboflavin storage in 4 pantothenic acid in 97 stability ofthiamin 95 high performance liquid chromatography vitaminA 20 (HPLC) 172 encapsulation ofvitamins 110 high-temperature short-time (HTST) 119 energy, metabolism 47 stability ofvitamins during 119 ergocalciferol see vitamin Dz Erwinia, fermentation ofvitamin C 82 ice cream extrusions coolcing 119 addition ofvitamins to 136 eyelids, riboflavin deficiency 7 stability ofvitamins in 136 inunune system, vitamin E 4 , metabolism 1,5,6, II inununoassay 172 fat soluble vitamins 19,20,43,91,137 inununo-defence systems 56 intestinal , vitamin K production 4 extraction ofPUFAs from 85 intestinal mucosa, riboflavin transport of 13 phosphorylation 4 intestine oils 20 absorption ofcolabamins 9 roes 20 absorption offolic acid 10 folic acid (pteroylglutamic acid) PGA, also calcium absorption 3 10, 28, 48, 218 absorption spectrum of 258 absorption 14, 241 analysis of 218-223 addition to food 240, 241 INDEX 267 irradiation, deterioration ofvitamins 105, stability ofvitamins in 92, 96, 97, 131 106 storage of 131 mitochondria jaundice, 4 modo-reduction in 8 stabilisation oflipid membranes 4 moisture, stability of vitamins 90 pantothenic acid in 97 Mortierella , production ofPUFAs 85 in 94 muscle weakness riboflavin storage in 5 ascorbic acid deficiency 14 vitamin D conversion in 3 pantothenic acid deficiency 12 vitamin K deficiency in 5 3

Laboratory ofthe Government Chemist ofUK , deficiency in vitamin K 5 (LGC) 172 niacin (nicotinic acid, nicotinamide) 8,28, Lactobacilli, determination ofB-group 47,143,206,207 vitamins 191, 192, 193 absorption spectrum 256 Lactobacilli casei analysis of207-212 MBA of riboflavin 206 as a food additive 169 MBA offolates 222, 223 content in common foods 31, 32 Lactobacillusfermenti, MBA of thiamin 200 deficiency in 9,47 leichmanni, MBA ofvitamin extraction of 207, 208, 209 BI2 223 manufacture of 73 Lactobacillusplantarum MBAof 212 MBA ofbiotin 224 melting point of 256 MBA ofniacin 212 metabolism of 133 MBA ofpantothenic acid 224 solubility of 256 light stability of 96, 117 effect ofexposure to 2 standardisation of 256 laboratory environment 172 structural/ormula of 256 stability ofvitamins 90 synthesis of 6, 8, 47 nicotinamide see niacin antioxidant effect on 3 nicotinic acid see niacin metabolism of 7 nitrogen, metabolism of 2 lipid membranes, stabilisation of 4 lips, riboflavin deficiency 7 Ochromonas malhamensis, MBA ofvitamin liver BI2 223 carnitine deficiency 13 oil soluble vitamins, determination ofby niacinin 97 HPLC 173 pantothenic acid 97 overages 91,107,108,109,110 provitamins in 94 oxidative metabolism, 6 riboflavin storage in 5 oxidising agents, stability ofvitamins 90, vitamin B6 in 98 95,97 vitamin D conversion in 3 oxido-reductive systems 6, 56 niacin 8 , enrichment of 136,137 riboflavin 5, 6 oxygen, stability ofvitamins 90 loss ofvitamins in processing 104 niacinin 97 pantothenic acid 11, 28,224 vitamin B6 in 98,212 analysis of 224 metabolism, retinol I content ofin foods 36 microbiological assays (MBAs) 172,191 deficiency of 12,48 manufacture of 74 exposure to light 96 MBAof 224 fortification of 128-131 melting point of 257 loss ofvitamins in 130 solubility of 257 pantothenic acid in 97 sources of 35 processing of 129 specific rotation of 257 provitamins in 94 stability of 97 268 THE TECHNOLOGY OF VITAMINS IN FOOD pantothenic acid (continued) in metabolism 6, 7 standardisation of 257 manufacture by fermentation 72 structural formula of 257 MBA of 191,206 parathyroid glands, vitamin D synthesis 3 melting point of 253 , effect ofproduction on vitamins 127 microbial production of 73 pasteurisation oxido-reductive processes 5,6 concentrates, nectars, fruit 116 phosphorylation of 5 ice cream 136 solubility of 253 milk 98,129 sources of 31 yoghurt 133 specific rotation of 253 , niacin deficiency 9,47 stability of 96, 117, 127 peripheral tissues I, 2 standardisation of 252 pH, stability of vitamins 90 storage of 5 phosphate structural formula of 253 absorption from intestine 3 RNA release from bone 3 retinol carrier 2 2 synthesis ofglycoproteins 2 potatoes, deterioration of 90, 91 roller drying, ofliquid cereals 123 processing 103 Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, MBA of loss of vitamins 103 vitaminB6 217,218 meat 104 , MBA ofbiotin milk 104 224 103 safety prohormone, vitamins as I manufacture ofvitamins 64 protection ofvitamins 110 RDA of vitamins 53-58 use of vitamins 53,54,57,58 metabolism 1,7 , vitamin C deficiency 14,42,48,49 synthesis of 3, 45 sea food, thiaminases 96 prothrombin, synthesis of 45 shelf-life, deterioration ofvitamins 106-110 provitamin A see ~-carotene spleen pyridoxin see vitamin B6 provitamins in 94 riboflavin storage in 5 ready-to-eat (RTE), cereal products 118 spray drying, ofmilk 129 recommended daily allowance (RDA) starvation, 42 49-57,58 recommended daily intake (RDI) 49 formation of II reducing agents vitamin D synthesis 3 stability ofriboflavin 96 Streptococcusfaecalis, MBA offolates 222, stability ofvitamins 90 223 reduction, cGMP 2 sunlight, vitamin D intake 3 , conversion ofvitamin A to 70 retinaldehyde, vitamin A activity 43 , deficiency in 12, 13 , natural sources of 21, 22 temperature, stability ofvitamins 91 retinol, ( vitamin A) 1,2,43 thiamin (vitamin Bl) 5,28, 193 RNA synthesis 2, 3 absorption spectrum of 252 stability of 91 analysis of 193-200 retinyl esters I, 91 as a food additive 94, 121 2 commercial forms of 252 riboflavin (vitamin B2) 5,28,46,143,200 content in common foods 29 absorption spectrum of 254 deficiency in 5, 45, 46 analysis of 200-206 determination of 196, 197, 198, 199 as a food additive 136, 168 extraction of 193, 194, 195, 196 chemical synthesis of 72, 73 manufacture of 70,71,72 commercial forms of 253 MBAof 200 content in common foods 30 melting point of 252 deficiency in 7, 46 phosphorylation of 5 extraction of 200,201,202,203 retention ofin cereal products 121 INDEX 269 thiamin (vitamin Bl) continued vitamin B-group (vitamin B-complex) 1,45 solubility of 252 analysis of 190-193 sources of 28 vitamin Bl see thiamin stability of 94, 116, 117, 123, 124, 126, vitamin B2 see riboflavin 127,133 vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 7,28,47,98,212 standardisation of 252 absorption spectrum of 254 structural formula of 252 analysis of 212-218 toxicity, vitamin D2 3,58 commercial forms of 254 tryptophan, niacin synthesis 6, 8 content in food 33, 34 deficiency in 8, 47 ulceration, ofeyes 2 extraction of 213,214 ultra high temperature (UHT), ofmilk 129 in 7 , formation ofvitamin D 3 manufacture of 75, 76, 77, 78 MBAof217,218 vegetables, loss ofvitamins in processing 103 melting point of 254 vitamin B6 in 212 natural sources of 212 vegetable oils, tocopherols in 92 solubility of 254 vision, deficiency ofretinol 2, 43 stability of 98, 117, 124,212 vitamins standardisation of 254 addition to foods 233, 234, 243, 244 structural formula of 254 coated forms of 64 vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) 9,28,47, determination in foodstuffs 172-228 223 fortification 114 absorption spectrum of 255 health claims 238, 239 analysis of 223 manufacture of 63,64,65,66 commercial forms of 255 natural sources of 63 content in food 34, 35 overages 114, 133, 136, 138 deficiency in 10,47 premix 64, 115 fermentation of 79 protection of II0 MBAof 223 restoration of 114 melting point of 255 stability of 91, 103,239,240 natural sources of 223 standardisation of 114 retention ofin cereal production 121 synthesis in body I solubility of 255 variations in 19 stability of 98 vitamin interactions 101, 102 standardisation of 255 vitaminisation 114 structural formula of 255 vitamin A (retinol) I, 179 vitamin C (ascorbic acid) I, 13,14,28,48, absorption spectrum of 247 115,143,224 activity in foods 20 absorption spectrum of 260 addition to food 121,137,236 analysis of 225-228 analysis of 179-183 as a food additive 115, 121, 143, 144-154 commercial forms of 114,246 commercial forms of 260 conversion to 70 content in foods 39 deficiency of2, 43 deficiency in 14,48,49 determination ofin foods 20 extraction of 225 extraction of 179 fermentation of 82 fortification of 115, 179 manufacture of 63,79,80,81 in development 1 natural occurrence of 39, 224 in differentiation 1,43 solubility of 260 in 59 specific rotation of 260 manufacture of 66,67,68 stabilityof 91,99,100, 116, 117, 123, melting point of 247 124,133 natural sources of 20, 179, 180 standardisation of 115, 260 solubility of 246 structural formula of 259 stability of 91,92, 116, 122, 123, 124, variations in 40 126,131 vitamin D (02 ergocalciferol, D3 standardisation of 246 cholecalciferol) 3, 23, 24, 44, 93, 173 structural formula of 246 absorption spectrum of 249 270 THE TECHNOLOGY OF VITAMINS IN FOOD vitamin D (continued) solubility of 250 activity in foods 24 stability of(tocopherol) 92, 123, 124 addition to food 128,137,236 standardisation of 250 analysis of 173-179 structural formulae of 250 commercial forms of 249 synthesis of 83,84 content in foods 24 variations in 24, 26 deficiency in 3,44 vitamin F group, polyunsaturated fatty acids extraction of 173, 174 (pUFAs) extraction from natural sources 85 manufacture of 83, 173 vitaminK melting point of 249 absorption spectrum of 251 natural sources of 23,24, 83, 173 activity 4, 45 solubility of 249 commercial forms of 251 specific rotation of 249 deficiency in 4, 45 stabilityof 93,131 manufacture of 87, 88 standardisation of 249 natural sources of 93 structural formulae of 248 refractive index of 251 toxicity 3 requirements 4 variations in 23 solubility of 251 vitamin E (tocopherol) 3, 143, 186 sources of 27 absorption spectrum of 251 stability of 93,94 activity of 24, 25 standardisation of 251 analysis of 186-190 structural formula of 251 as a food additive 137, 169 as an antioxidant 114 water soluble vitamins 28, 45 commercial forms of 250 stability of 94 content ofrefined oils 25 content ofsome foods 26 yoghurt deficiency in 4, 44 addition ofvitamins 132 extraction from vegetable oils 83, 84, 186 stability ofvitamins in 133, 134, 135 natural sources of 186 refractive index of 250 , 2