The Impact of New Highways sound motor vehicle and the willingness to endure a few minor hardships. (Fig. 1.) upon Wilderness Areas In Territory by 1951, highways hadconnected Dawson and Mayo with the Opinions with respect to whether it is in the outside world at . During the next public interest to construct roads into wilder- twenty years theYukon Territory opened ness areas of Alaska and the Canadian terri- the Robert CampbellHighway fromCar- tories are varied. Ernest Gruening, governor macks to Watson Lake via Ross River and of Alaska from 1939 to 1953, says, “High- brought to minimum standards for summer ways are indispensabmle to development and use theold Canol PipelineRoad andthe settlement.”l George W. Rogers of the Insti- Nehanni Ridge Road. Construction of the tute of Social, Economic and Government DempsterHighway began in 1959, when it Research deplores the fact that development was known asthe Flat Creek-EaglePlains has been “a simple linear process which either Road.6 Renamed the DempsterHighway in pretended there were no side effects or 1962, construction has now been completed ignored everything but the desires of the to Mile 166. exploiter.”” Alaska during the same period completed Muchtime has been devoted to impact roads to the Yukon River at both Eagle and studies of new or improved highways on a point near old Fort Hamlin northwest of urban and rural areas,3 and much energy has Livengood, a connection from theRichard- been devoted to studies of the impact of new son Highway to McKinley Park,and a or improved highways on commercial, resi- through highway paral’leling the Alaska Rail- dential or recreational developments. Bucksar road from Anchorage to Fairbanks. and Lotz have even studied the behaviour of Concern forthe environmentthrough squatters along highways and on the margins which a highway passed was undreamed of of settlements in the N0rth.4~5 However, the in the early 1800s, and even 150 years later main thrust of these studies and of most re- few actuallyworry about highway impact. search has been towards what happens to a Gruening’s article,l written in 1953, does not settled countryside. recognize environmentaldegradation as a In Alaska andthe CanadianTerritories problem. Since 1953, however, concern for today the stage of development of the coun- the environment has developed both in and tryside at the time of highway construction out of theNorth, butthere certainly is no comparesin many ways tothat of eastern agreement at the present time concerning the North America inthe early 1800s. Justas role highways shouldplay in development, the Nationacl Pike was pushed west from the nature and extent of damage to the wil- Baltimore through wilderness areas after the derness, or even whether there is any perma- Revolution, so the Richardson Highway was nent environmentaldamage when a new completed duringthe first quarter of the highway is built. twentieth century through country in a com- All authoritiesagree that changes inthe parable stage of development. visible landscape do begin with the construc- The in 1942 gave access tion of a highway through a wilderness area to the road system of south central Alaska of the Arctic or Subarctic. A preponderance by connection with the Richardson Highway of opinion favours the view that the benefits atDelta Junction. Atthe sametime this to be derived from new highways doout- trunk highway fromthe UnitedStates and weigh the undesirable side effects, and plans Western provided a land connection forfuture highway construction in Alaska, to southeastern coastal Alaska via the White theYukon, and NorthwestTerritories tend Pass and Yukon Railroad at Whitehorse and to indicatethis to be the official view as a water connection for passengers and freight well.7 with the river settlements of theYukon The background of conflicting opinions, throughregularly scheduled steamboat ser- claims, and counter-claims which have been vice. Most of the principal British Columbia, building to the present intensity for several Yukon, and Alaskan settlements were linked years promptedthis study. Much relevant together by this onearterial highway. The information was obtained by interviews with Glenn Highway andTok Cut-Off construc- knowledgeable individualsprior to actually tion broughtAnchorage into the system in visiting these areasand travelling the 1943. Thus at the conclusion of World War highways. Those interviewed included gov- 11, Anchorage and the Cook Inlet-Kenai ernment officials, highway department em- region as well as the TananaValley and Fair- ployees, fish andgame personnel, and banks were accessible to anyone in the United researchers at the universities of Alaska and States or Canada who possessed a reasonably Alberta, as well as private individuals includ- SHORT PAPERS AND NOTES 69 70 SHORT PAPERSAND NOTES

ing hunting guides, resort operators, bankers, ment progresses. editors, and long-time residents of Alaska One of these roads, theTAPS (Trans- and theYukon. Alaska Pipeline System) HaulRoad, com- Duringthe spring and summer of 1972 pleted in 1970 for 55.5 miles from Highway approximately 8,000 miles of Alaskan and 2 near Livengood, Alaska, tothe Yukon Yukon Territorial highways were travelled River, hadnot yet been opened for public in an effort to gain first-hand knowledge of use in the summer of 1972. The recent con- presentconditions along thecorridors of troversy overthe proposed construction of highways which had been built through wil- a highway paralleling the Trans-Alaska Pipe- derness areasduring the past thirty years line and generalconcern forthe Alaskan (Fig. 1). landscape have placed the oil companies and As was to be expected, dwellings, business their contracting agent on the defensive with establishments, and touristaccommodations the public. Consequently, more than theusual were mostconcentrated in the vicinities of planning andcare havegone intothe con- Whitehorse and Dawson in Yukon Territory, struction of this highway. Infact, this andin Anchorage,Fairbanks, andDelta project might be considered an experiment Junction in Alaska. In those localities, high- designed to develop the techniques by which ways, air facilities, and insome cases, rail- a first class heavy duty highway can be con- roads and watertransportation converged. structedthrough the subarcticforest with a Radiating outward from these centres along minimum permanent impact on the environ- the highways various structureshave been ments where highway construction and land- built and modified with all types of materials scaperestoration are anythingbut easy. and quality of workmanship. Many, although Permafrost is located close to the surface and abandoned, still remainsurrounded by the cannot always be avoided. Insome places accumulated debris of twentieth century fron- relief is of the order of 1,500 feet. Many tier life. This rubbish, left where it finally swamp areas are scattered through this pre- became unusable, economically unrepairable, dominantly spruce-birch forest of the Yukon- or unsalable, is a characteristic feature of Tanana uplands. However, Hess Creek is the these highway corridors andthe Alaskan- only stream of any size which hadto be Yukon landscape. Commercial establishments bridged. in these crossroads communities are housed The result of allthe controversy,public in all sorts of structures, including log cabins debate and carefulplanning is a highway and house trailers. which is a joy to behold. Broad sweeping Incontrast to the highly individudized curves carrying the traveleralong the con- structures andrandom arrangementsalong tours of the low mountainsopen vistas of the older highways and incrossroads com- valley after valley until finally thebroad munities which have grown up after highway loops of the Yukon River itself can be seen construction are the company towns of the through gaps in the tributary valleys. Yukonsuch as Clinton Creek andFaro. Much has been written about the retarded These settlementsdid not grow but were pace of revegetation in the Subarctic. No at- built according to a plan which included the tempt to revegetate a highway corridor under provision of all services and facilities. These these conditions ever was attempted on this communities exhibit the orderly newness of scale before. No one knew whether highway mass-produced buildings constructedunder cuts, push areas, fills, and permafrost expo- contract and arranged geometrically in a sures really could be stabislized and healed cleared area. To the traveller who has driven before erosion set in. However, the condi- many miles through the wilderness theap- tions imposed upon the Burgess Construction pearance of a companytown comes asa Company and TAPSleft no choice. The land- shock, but thisimpact is preferable tothat scape had to be restored, and the first neces- of the unplannedagglomerations of sub- sity was to stabilize the sides of cuts, fills, standard dwellings found elsewhere. permafrost exposures, and push areas. In contrast to these older highways and Permafrost stabilization was achieved theirsomewhat settled corridors, stand the where ice lenses were exposed by leaving the new roads under construction and still to be road cuts with perpendicular sides. When an completed throughvirtually unsettled areas. ice lens supporting the overburden of soil Here it is possible to see the road through the and vegetation melted away, the unsupported wilderness cnvironmentwithout any com- overburdengradually slumped toform a plicating settlement features. Here also is an slope which healed rapidly and provided a opportunity to obtain baseline data which can base for revegetation. Non-permafrost areas be compared with information to be obtained weregraded and preparedaccording to ac- later as the pattern of settlement and develop- cepted practice. Gravel was obtained from SHORT PAPERS AND NOTES 71

areas screened from the roadway by vegeta- construction cleanup. LandManagement tion; sometimes borrow pits were established Zoneshave been established to facilitate as muchas half a mile fromthe highway administration. right-of-way. Miles 79 through 123 had been bid and The final step was artificial seeding of ex- the contract let before the Land Use Regu- otic grasses, by hand in some localities and in lations became effective. Hereafter they other instances with ahydroseeder using a will apply to all construction work north of commercial mix of 75 percent oatsand 25 the 65th Parallel (approximately Mile 86.5). percent perennial grasses mixed with 300 Ibs. Consequently the remainingconstruction in of 22-1 1-11 fertilizer per acre. Yukon Territory will be monitored for com- The first 33 mimlesof the highway corridor pliance with these regulations from White- were seeded before 4 July 1970, and the horse where Yukon Land Management Zone remainder from HessCreek tothe Yukon #3 is administered (Fig. 1). Jurisdiction River was completed by 17 July 1971. The changes at the Yukon-Northwest Territorial areas which were in their third growing sea- boundary to Northwest TerritorialLand son showed the differential survival of dif- ManagementZone #2, and responsibility ferent species which one would expect of a for enforcement of the regulations will shift grass mixtureplanted under a variety of to Yellowknife. conditions of soil, moisture, slope, and expo- Unlike the TAPS Haul Road, which was sure. However, even in the areas which were completed by one contractor under acrash onlyin their second growing season,the program in less than 12 months, the Demp- natural revegetation cycle had already started. ster Highway has been constructedover a Willows and even a few white spruce IO-year period by several contractors using seedlings were flourishing. Acount of a different standards. In thebeginning economy typical area 36 inches by 36 inchesin the in layoutand constructionwere thepara- section seeded in 1971 showed 46 healthy mount considerations. Gravel was taken willow seedlings mixed with the grasses. A fromstream beds; borrow pits werenot similar count made in the 1970 area of concealed; brush was left in push areas; and seeding showed 74 willow seedlings. no revegetation was attempted. Consequently ,In cvntrast to the TAPS Haul Road,the the first 123 miles of this highway will pro- hasa more typical his- vide an excellent basis for comparingthe tory. The first 79 miles were completed by residual impact on the environment resulting 1962 to facilitatethe initial petroleum ex- from construction underthe oldstandards plorationin thenorthern Yukon.6 In 1965, with the impact from highways built later the Northern Road Program scheduled the under the new standards. The section from Dempster for completion to Fort McPherson Mile 123 (Ogilvie River) to Mile 166 is by 1975 and projected the extension to Arctic transitional since the new construction prac- Red River, , aad Tuktoyaktukin the tices and restrictions imposed by theTer- 1976-1985 time frame.? The section from ritorialLands Act were gradually applied. Mile 79 to the Ogilvie River (Mile 123) was From Mile 166 northwardall the new contractedin 1969; at the same time the regulations will be in full effect. surveys for Miles 123 through 166 were In addition tothe controls imposed with begun. This section was completed in 1972, respect to construction practices, other sec- and construction of an additional 12 miles tions of this same regulation give the started in July of that year. Thislast 12 Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern miles is the first section of the highway to Development power tocarry out land de- come completely under the provisions of the velopment plans through his authority to Territorial Lands Act of 1970 and the Terri- withdraw land and issue limitedland use torialLand Use Regulations passed on 2 permits. He also may enforce the regulations November 197 1.8 through his power to cancel a permit when The Territorial Land Use Regulations are a provision of the act has been violated. designed to regulate exploration and develop- Currently allthe land along the Dempster ment activities on federal lands of the Yukon Highway has been withheld from settlement and NorthwestTerritories, to insure maxi- until a development plan can be worked out. mum protection for the environment but in However, thereare at presentfew restric- no way to exclude or prohibitexploration, tions which apply to the use of the highway development or exploitation of natural or the newly accessible wilderness areas by resources. The regulationsrefer specifically eitherlocal residents or visitors. Infact, to water crossings and clearing of lines, Paragraph 3 of the Actstates that “These trails and rights-of-way. They also deal with Regulations donot apply to (a) anything fuel storage areasand therequired after done by aresident of the Yukon Territory 72 SHORT PAPERS AND NOTES

orthe NorthwestTerritories inthe course vegetation. of hunting, fishing or trapping; or (b) lands, The first hunting and fishing seasons fol- thesurface rights of which have been dis- lowing the opening of a highway into a posed of by the Minister.” wilderness area will see a manifold increase Although the investigation of these Cana- in individuals intent upon enjoying the sport dianand Alaskan highways was in the beforethe game disappears. Mostprivate nature of a reconnaissance and any conclu- individuals believe thatall the trophy sions must certainly be validated by further specimens are gobbled up within twoor study, it would appear that the construction three years. Game managementpersonnel of a new highway through a wilderness area do not believe the changes are all badbut starts an irreversible series of more or less thatproper management and enforcement predictable events. First come the surveyors practices will preserve healthy herds of prime and the contractors who plan and build the animals and adequate stocks of fish. “No- highway. Thenthere are the hunters and hunting” zones of some depth on both sides fishermen who want to get in and get theirs of the highway appearto be effective in before they and others “spoil” the country. keeping the illegal practices of sfiooting from On the heels of the sportsmen come guides, the highway at a minimum. outfitters, small enterprises which provide Settlement,commercial development and gasoline, tire repairs, groceries, and possi- services are required by highway users bly food and lodging. These small businesses whether they be hunters,tourists orcom- may expand and improve the quality of their mercial truckers. Attendant phenomenawhich services, or otherswith more capital and threaten theenvironment are fires, sanitation, experience may providecompetition which noise and over hunting, trapping, and fishing. forces the first comers out of business. In When development is concentrated at rea- rare instances atsome favouredlocation sonableintervals these hazards can more suchas atDelta Junction, Alaska,where easily be controlled. At present all land along transportationroutes converge, or where the Haul Road and the Dempster Highway there is some largemineral deposit as at is withdrawn from settlement in orderto ClintonCreek on theForty Mile River,a avoid land speculation and settlement which settlement with schools and services may will not conform to plans which are under develop. development. Since it must be assumed that new high- In summation, we must recognize that ways such as the TAPS Haul Road and the highways will be built through wilderness DempsterHighway will continue to pene- areas,and that they can be built insuch a tratethe remaining wilderness areas of way thatthe changes in the wilderness en- Canadaand Alaska?,what can be doneto vironment will be acceptable. The greatest soften the impact on the environment? Do environmental problems are created by those we know how to make highway construction who will use the highways for purposes of compatiblewith permanent preservation of access and exploitation of a heretofore inac- the wilderness? Do we know how to preserve cessible wilderness. It is essential that there the fish and game? And finally howcan be acomprehensive land use plan which settlement and commercial development would allocate appropriate areas for all ac- prosperwithout destroying the wilderness tivities and allocate the locatibns for all values on which they depend and so many installations, services and recreational areas seek to preserve? insuch a way that incompatible activities Highwayconstruction by its very nature would not be in too close proximity. Thus makesa mark on the landscape which is by anticipation of conflict andthe use of much more apparent from the air than on landallocations or zoningit would appear the ground. Healing of the construction scars thatoptimum landutilization can be takes place at varying rates, but can be ac- achieved and the wilderness character of the celerated by careful construction practices, area preserved. selection of a route which avoids the worst permafrost areas and which takes gravel and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS other materials from concealed sites near, This research was made possible through but not on, the right-of-way.9 Artificial the assistance of Western Michigan Univer- seeding of all exposed surfaces with a blend sity and the Arctic Institute of North Amer- of annual and perennial exotic grasses along ica with funds provided by theNational the right-of-way will acceleratethe return Research Council of Canada. I should also of natural vegetation by fixing the soil and like to express mythanks and gratefulap- providing ahospitable environment for the preciation forall the help received from natural reseeding and growth of native peoplein Montrealand in the field; they SHORT PAPERS AND NOTES 13

aretoo numerous to name in thisshort Six oceanographicstations were occupied: report. one in central Baffin Bay; a second in eastern Albert H. Jackman Baffin Bay southeast of the first; and a cross- Department of Geography section of 4 stations in southern Davis Strait Western Michigan University (Fig. 1). Kalamazoo, U.S.A.

REFERENCES 'Gruening, E. 1953. Alaska: progress and problems. The Scientific Monthly, July: 3-12. 'Rogers, G. W. 1971. Wilderness and devel- opment. In: G. S. Harrison, editor. Public Policy: Current Problems and Issues. Institute of Social,Economic, and Gov- ernment Research, University of Alaska, pp. 223-32. "err, P. B. 1960. The regionalimpact of highways. Urban Land, 19(2): 3-8. 4Bucksar, R. G. 1970. The squatter on the resources frontier. Arctic, 23(3): 202-04. *iLotz, J. R. The squatters of Whitehorse: a study of theproblems ofnew northern settlements. Arctic, 18(3): 173-88. FHill, R. M. 1972. The Dempster Highway -benefits tothe Arctic. Unpublished paper presented toNorthern Resources Conferences, Whitehorse, Y.T., April 5-7, 1972. 'Woodward, H. W. 1970. Northern road FIG. 1. Geographical locations of oceanographic program.Arctic Transport, Proceedings stations occupied in Baffin Bay and Davis Strait during February 1972 andlocations of the of the Arctic Transportation Conference, stations usedin thetext for purposes of Yellowknife, N.W.T., December 8 and 9, comparison. 1970, 2: 151-79. "Territorial Lands Act: Territorial Land Use The temperature and salinity data were Regulations, P.C. 1971-2287, 2 November obtained using discrete samples from Knud- 1971. Canada Gazette Part 11, Vol. 105, sen bottles, equipped with deep-sea reversing NO. 22,24/11/71, SOR/DORS/71-580. thermometers, andan in situ recording "otspeich, F. B. 1971. Environmental guide- salinity/temperature/depth unit (STD). Tem- lines forroad construction in Alaska. peratures and salinities determined from the EnvironmentalProtection AgencyAlaska discrete water samples were used to calibrate Water Laboratory, College, Alaska, Report theSTD andcorrect it for drift, while the 1610 GO1 09/71. 127 pp. STD was used to detect fine structure in the NO. vertical distributions of temperatureand salinity. Salinities are felt to be accurate to ? 0.05%,, the advertised accuracy of the Physical Oceanographic STD unit, except in the 0-200 m. deep layer Observations in Baffin Bay at station 1; presence of ice within the Knudsen bottles during decanting of salinity and Davis Strait * samples, coupled with malfunctioning of the STD, created errors leading to a salinity INTRODUCTION accuracy of only about & 0.3X0 in that case. DuringFebruary 1972, scientific personnel Irregularities in the verticaldistribution of operating from the Lowis S. St. Laurent ob- salinity between 0 and 200 m.depths at tained the first winter oceanographictem- station 1 (Fig. 2) may therefore not be real. perature and salinity data from Baffin Bayl. The temperatures presented below (Figs. -~ 2 and 3) were thoseobtained from the "Contribution No. 170 of The Institute of reversing thermometers. They are considered Marine Science, Universityof Alaska. accurate to ? 0.02"C.