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Investigation to Uncover the Electrophysiological Correlates of the Mediating Cognitive Factors, Responsible for the Immediate Emotional Enhancement of Memory

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Investigation to Uncover the Electrophysiological Correlates of the Mediating Cognitive Factors, Responsible for the Immediate Emotional Enhancement of Memory Durham E-Theses Investigation to Uncover the Electrophysiological Correlates of the Mediating Cognitive Factors, Responsible for the Immediate Emotional Enhancement of Memory WATTS, SARAH How to cite: WATTS, SARAH (2015) Investigation to Uncover the Electrophysiological Correlates of the Mediating Cognitive Factors, Responsible for the Immediate Emotional Enhancement of Memory, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11069/ Use policy This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication 1.0 (CC0) Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Abstract Emotional memories are powerful memories that have markedly different phenomenological characteristics, compared to neutral memories. Emotional memories are adaptive and serve to aid survival of organisms. Evidence suggests that emotional events tend to be remembered with a greater depth of sensory and perceptual detail. The phenomenon around such memories has therefore been coined, emotion-enhanced memory (EEM). Much of the research into EEM has focused on the long-term consolidating affects that emotions can have upon memory; with the modulation hypothesis being the predominant theory in the literature. However, it has been noted in the literature that emotional stimuli can also enhance short-term memories, immediately after test. It is suggested that the immediate EEM is driven by changes in the cognitive attributes of emotional stimuli, which facilitates encoding processes; this is known as the cognitive-mediating account of immediate EEM. This research aims to investigate three of the key cognitive mediating factors, implicated in the behavioural literature; distinctiveness, relatedness and attention. Using electrophysiological recordings and event-related potentials, this work aims to further the behavioural research and develop functional accounts of how these cognitive factors can influence the immediate EEM. The results suggest that distinctiveness plays a significant role in the immediate EEM and a functional two-step model is proposed to outline the mechanisms through which it exerts it influence. This works also suggests overt attentional resources play a key role, as part of distinctiveness processing. The results did however find, contrary to the behavioural literature, relatedness is unable to fully account for the immediate EEM. These results are interpreted as supporting a complimentary model of EEM, which involves both the cognitive-mediating account for the immediate EEM and the modulation hypothesis for long-term EEM. These findings are discussed in terms of the real-world implications that emotional memory research can have. 1 Investigation to Uncover the Electrophysiological Correlates of the Mediating Cognitive Factors, Responsible for the Immediate Emotional Enhancement of Memory Sarah Watts Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Durham Department of Psychology 2014 2 Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ 1 List of Figure ................................................................................................................................................. 9 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................... 11 Declarations ................................................................................................................................................ 12 Publication .................................................................................................................................................. 12 Statement of Copyright .............................................................................................................................. 12 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................... 12 Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 14 1.1 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................................. 14 1.2 What is Emotion? ................................................................................................................................. 14 1.3 When did research into emotions begin? ............................................................................................ 15 1.4 Emotions and Memory ......................................................................................................................... 18 1.4.1 Flashbulb memories ............................................................................................................ 19 1.4.2 Easterbrook Hypothesis ...................................................................................................... 21 1.4.3 Eyewitness Testimony ......................................................................................................... 22 1.5 Valence and Arousal ............................................................................................................................. 24 1.6 Emotion enhanced memory (EEM) ....................................................................................................... 26 1. 7 Immediate EEM ................................................................................................................................... 27 1.7.1 Distinctiveness ..................................................................................................................... 30 1.7.2 Relatedness ......................................................................................................................... 32 1.7.3 Attention ............................................................................................................................. 33 1.8 Methodology of EEM ............................................................................................................................ 34 1.8.1 Recall versus Recognition .................................................................................................... 34 1.8.2 Cognitive neuroscience of EEM ........................................................................................... 35 1.8.3 The Dm effect ...................................................................................................................... 36 1.9 Outstanding Questions ......................................................................................................................... 38 1. 10 Present Research ............................................................................................................................... 38 Chapter 2: The neural fate of neutral information in emotion-enhanced memory ................................... 40 2.1 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................................. 40 2.1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 40 3 2.1.2 Aims ..................................................................................................................................... 45 2.2 Behavioural Pilot Study ......................................................................................................................... 46 2.2.1 Methods of behavioural pilot study .................................................................................... 46 2.2.1.1 Participants ........................................................................................................ 46 2.1.1.2 Stimuli and Design ............................................................................................. 46 2.1.1.3 Procedure ........................................................................................................... 47 2.2.2 Results Behavioural Pilot ..................................................................................................... 49 2.3 Methods EEG Study .............................................................................................................................. 50 2.3.1 Participants.......................................................................................................................... 50 2.3.2 Stimuli and Design ............................................................................................................... 50 2.3.3 Procedures .......................................................................................................................... 51 2.3.4 Memory Coding ................................................................................................................... 53 2.3.5 Electrophysiological data recording and processing ........................................................... 53 2.3.6 ERP data analysis54 2.3.6.1 Selection of time windows and scalp locations ................................................. 54 2.3.6.2 Statistical analysis .............................................................................................
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