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Implicit Learning: Development, Individual Differences, and Educational Implications Implicit Learning: Development, Individual Differences, and Educational Implications The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Kalra, Priya. 2015. Implicit Learning: Development, Individual Differences, and Educational Implications. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard Graduate School of Education. Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:16460206 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA Running head: IMPLICIT LEARNING IN EDUCATION Implicit Learning: Development, individual differences, and educational implications Priya Kalra Committee: Jon R. Star, Chair Andrew D. Ho John D.E.Gabrieli Jennifer M.Thomson A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Education of Harvard University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education 2015 © 2015 Priya Kalra All Rights Reserved i Acknowledgements I would like to thank my committee for their support, patience, attention to detail and adherence to high standards. I thank my fiancée, Heidi Beeler, for her moral, emotional, and occasionally financial support through this process. This project would not have been possible without the help of all of the following: Amy Finn, Stacy Peazant, Shu- Ling Chen, Larsen Family Foundation, Harvard Student Health Insurance Program, Drs. Sara Kimmel and Katherine LaPierre, and the Federal Student Loan Program. I especially thank my Berkeley SLC students for reminding me why this research is interesting to me. ii Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Chapter One: Overview ...................................................................................................... 1 Chapter Two: Introduction to Implicit Learning ................................................................ 3 What is Implicit Learning? ............................................................................................. 4 Operationalizing Implicit Learning: The Tasks ............................................................ 17 Chapter Three: Implicit Learning and Education ............................................................. 24 The Representation of Procedural Memory .................................................................. 24 Procedural Knowledge and Conceptual Knowledge in Education Research ............... 26 Relevance to Education................................................................................................. 32 Chapter Four: Developmental Differences in Implicit Llearning ..................................... 40 Background ................................................................................................................... 40 Methods......................................................................................................................... 47 Results ........................................................................................................................... 54 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 56 Chapter Five: Individual Differences in Implicit Learning .............................................. 62 Background ................................................................................................................... 63 Methods......................................................................................................................... 69 Results ........................................................................................................................... 78 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 90 Chapter Six: Conclusion and Directions for Future Study ............................................... 97 Appendix 1: Tables and Figures ..................................................................................... 104 Tables .......................................................................................................................... 104 Figures......................................................................................................................... 127 References ....................................................................................................................... 132 Vita .................................................................................................................................. 150 iii Abstract This dissertation attempts to link models from cognitive neuroscience with problems and models from education research as well as to advance our understanding of implicit learning. In addition to a review of the current understanding of implicit learning from psychology and neuroscience, an essay on the potential applications of implicit learning to education and two empirical studies comprise this document. The first study compares implicit learning in adults and children to address the question of developmental invariance in implicit learning. One novel aspect of this study is the use of a battery of implicit learning tasks, as well as comparison explicit learning tasks. Although gross differences were not found between adults and children in the implicit learning tasks, nevertheless first-level item analysis revealed that children and adults may differentially exploit stimulus frequency information to perform the tasks. The second study uses parallel forms of multiple implicit learning tasks to determine the reliability of implicit learning tasks for adult participants. Contrary to the prevailing view of implicit learning, stable individual differences were found. Correlations between individual implicit learning and certain non-cognitive traits (such as conscientiousness) were found, but IQ was not correlated with implicit learning. Finally, the implications of these findings for basic research as well as for the possibility of applying implicit learning to K-12 instruction are discussed. IMPLICIT LEARNING IN EDUCATION 1 Chapter One: Overview This dissertation was inspired by my curiosity about possible interactions between implicit and explicit memory systems and the representations they create, and how these interactions could be leveraged to optimize instruction in K-12 education. Before I could attempt to investigate inter-system relationships, I found that some fundamental questions about implicit learning needed to be addressed. In particular, Arthur Reber’s (1993) proposed characteristics of implicit learning have been both influential but untested— with the outstanding exception of evidence for robustness to disease and injury: 1. Robustness to injury or disease 2. Age independence 3. IQ independence 4. Low individual variability 5. Conservation across phylogeny In this dissertation I empirically address the proposed characteristics of age- independence, IQ-independence, and low individual variability. In Chapter 2, I review what is known about implicit learning and how it is defined in the context of the multiple memory systems model of human memory. This chapter may be particularly helpful to readers who are unfamiliar with the multiple memory systems model specifically, or unfamiliar with the cognitive neuroscience more generally. In Chapter 3, I discuss how what we already know about implicit learning could be applied to instructional strategies, as well as how the implicit/explicit distinction in psychology and neuroscience compare to the procedural/conceptual distinction in education research. Chapter 4 presents an empirical study comparing implicit learning in 10-year-old children and adults. This study directly addresses the 2nd of Reber’s proposed IMPLICIT LEARNING IN EDUCATION 2 characteristics. In contrast to other studies that have compared implicit learning in adults and children, this study uses multiple tasks and furthermore presents first-level item analysis for two of the tasks. Chapter 5 is another study, this time to address the questions of individual variability and intelligence (i.e. intelligence quotient, IQ) independence. Through the lens of classical test theory, this question can be seen as a question of reliability—can individual differences in implicit learning be reliably measured? Again, multiple tasks are used. The participants in this study are neurotypicals (healthy) young adults. Finally, Chapter 6 provides a synthesis of the findings and an update on what the state of our understanding of implicit learning and its potential applications to education might be in the light of these findings. Together, these theoretical and empirical matters are intended to form the keystone of a structure that will reach from research in cognitive neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and educational psychology on one side to instructional strategies and curriculum design on the other. Much work remains to be done for such a structure to become viable, but this dissertation represents a first step. I hope to be able to contribute further to this bridge with my future work in this area. IMPLICIT LEARNING IN EDUCATION 3 Chapter Two: Introduction to Implicit Learning Key theoretical and empirical
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