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The Freudian 20th Century “Freud in 21st-Century America”

The Unconscious Mind: Kinder and Gentler Than That

John F. Kihlstrom Forbidden Planet (1956) Department of Psychology University of California, Berkeley

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The Discovery of the Unconscious Petites Perceptions Ellenberger (1970) Leibniz (1704/1981); Ellenberger (1970)

• At every moment there is in us an infinity of perceptions, unaccompanied by awareness or reflection…. That is why we are never indifferent, even when we appear to be most so…. The choice that we make arises from these insensible stimuli, which… make us find one direction of movement more comfortable than the

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The Limen Unconscious Inferences Herbart (1819) Helmholtz (1866/1968)

• One of the older ideas can… be • The psychic activities that lead us to infer that completely driven out of consciousness by there in front of us at a certain place there is a a new much weaker idea. On the other certain object of a certain character, are generally hand its pressure there is not to be not conscious activities, but unconscious ones. In regarded as without effect; rather it works their result they are the equivalent to conclusion…. with full power against the ideas which are But what seems to differentiate them from a conclusion, in the ordinary sense of that word, is present in consciousness. It thus causes that a conclusion is an act of conscious thought…. a particular state of consciousness, though Still it may be permissible to speak of the psychic its object is in no sense really imagined. acts of ordinary perception as unconscious

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The Philosophy of the Unconscious Critiques of Hartmann Ebbinghaus (1873); James (1890) Hartmann (1869); Ellenberger (1970) • Universe Ruled by The Unconscious “Wherever the structure is touched, it falls – Absolute Unconscious apart…. What is true is alas not new; the new – Physiological Unconscious not true” – Relative Unconscious • Forms and Preserves the Organism “Hartmann fairly boxes the compass of the • Instinct for Self-Preservation universe with the principle of unconscious • Sexual and Maternal Love thought. For him there is no namable thing that • Guides Action does not exemplify it. But his logic is so lax and • Inspires Conscious Thought • Engenders Feelings of Beauty his failure to consider the most obvious alternative so complete that it would, on the – “The Unconscious can really outdo all the whole, be a waste of time to look at his performances of conscious reason” 7 arguments in detail.” 8

The Contradiction of the Unconscious A Tumbling-Ground for Whimsies? Kant, Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (1798) James, Principles of Psychology (1890), p. 163

To have ideas, and yet not be conscious of them, -- The distinction… between the unconscious and the conscious there seems to be a contradiction in being of the mental state… is the that; for how can we know that we sovereign means for believing what have them, if we are not one likes in psychology, and of conscious of them? turning what might become a science Nevertheless, we may become into a tumbling-ground for whimsies. aware indirectly that we have an idea, although we be not directly cognizant of the same. 9 10

The Unconscious “Hysterics Suffer from Reminiscences” in Psychodynamic Theory Breuer & Freud (1893-1895) • Psychoanalysis Leads to Insight • Conflict Engenders Anxiety – Unconscious Determinants – Primitive Sexual and Aggressive Impulses • Insight Allows Rational Coping – Demands of External Reality – Demands of Conscience • Classical Psychoanalysis – Theory of Infantile Sexuality • Repression Reduces Anxiety – Ego, Id, Superego – Supplemented by Other Defenses • “Neo-Freudian” Theories • Symbolic Expressions Persist – Objects-Relations – Dreams, Symptoms 11 – Ego-Psychology 12

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The Topographical Theory The Structural Theory Breuer & Freud (1893-1895); Freud (1900) Freud (1923)

• Tripartite Division of Mind: Three Systems • Three Mental Functions – Ucs. (Unconscious) – Id (Seat of Instincts) – Pcs. (Preconscious) • Mostly Unconscious – Cs. (Conscious) • Emotions Conscious – Ego (Cognitive, Defensive) • Mostly Conscious (through Pcs.) • Defenses Unconscious – Superego (Conscience, Norms)

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Three Meanings of “Unconscious” Problems with Freud’s Clinical Evidence Freud (1915) Grunbaum (1984, 1986); Von Eckardt (1986)

• Descriptive 1. Suggestibility – Thoughts, Feelings, Desires Not in Awareness 2. Tally Argument 3. Consilience Argument 4. Introspective Access • Systematic 5. Treatment Success – Preconscious Ideas Available to Consciousness 6. Slips and Dreams 7. Free-Association • Dynamic – Precluded from Consciousness by Repression Interpretation Overdeterminism

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The Freudian Defense Mechanisms The Freudian Defense Mechanisms After Suppes & Warren (1975) After Suppes & Warren (1975)

• “I love my mother” • Conflictual affect • “I love my mother” –Actor –I • “I hate [fear] my father” –Action – Love – Castration Anxiety – Object –My Mother • Must repress love of mother, fear of father – Render it Unconscious • Displacement • “I love my father” – Find Acceptable Substitute – Change object • Permit it Conscious Representation

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The Freudian Defense Mechanisms The Freudian Defense Mechanisms After Suppes & Warren (1975) After Suppes & Warren (1975) • Conflictual affect • “I love my mother” • Conflictual affect • “I love my mother” – Actor, Action, Object – Actor, Action, Object • Displacement • “I love my father” • Displacement • “I love my father” – Change object – Change object • Reaction Formation • Reaction Formation – Change action • “I hate my mother” – Change action • “I hate my mother” • Projection – Change actor • “Saddam loves my mother”

23 = 8 Transformations = 44 Defense Mechanisms

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The Freudian Defense Mechanisms The Waxing and Waning After Suppes & Warren (1975) of the Unconscious • Conflictual affect • “I love my mother” • Popularity of the Psychodynamic View – Actor, action, Object – Including “High”, Popular Culture • Displacement • “I love my father” – Change object • Behaviorist Revolution – Unconscious Mental Life Doubly Unobservable • Reaction Formation • “I hate my mother” – Change action • Cognitive Revolution • Projection • “Saddam loves my mother” – Helmholtz: Unconscious Inferences in Perception – Change actor – Chomsky: Unconscious Grammatical Knowledge • “Trifecta” Defense • “Saddam hates my dad” – Multistore Model of Memory – Change all three • Unconscious as Wastebasket 21 22 • Preconscious = Preattentive

Late and Early Selection in Attention Multi-Store Model of Memory Waugh & Norman (1965) Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) S1

S2 Semantic Analysis Physical Rehearsal A S3 Analysis S4 Early Selection S5 Encoding Attention Long-Term Store S1 (Secondary Memory) S2 Retrieval

Semantic Registers Sensory Short-Term Store Short-Term

Physical Memory) (Primary S3 B Analysis Analysis S4 Late Selection S5 23 Pattern Recognition 24

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Automaticity Defined After LaBerge & Samuels (1974); Posner & Snyder (1975); Schneider & Shiffrin (1977); Schiffrin & Schneider (1977) The Stroop • Inevitable Evocation Interference • Incorrigible Completion (Ballistic) Experiment • Efficient Execution Stroop (1935) • Parallel Processing • Unconscious in the Strict Sense of the Term – Operate outside phenomenal awareness – Operate outside voluntary control

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“The part of our brain that leaps to “Intentionality is the Mark of the Mental” conclusions… is called the adaptive Brentano (1874); Russell (1912) unconscious, and the study of this kind of decision making is one of the most important new fields in Mental States psychology. are Representational “The adaptive unconscious is not to be confused with the unconscious described by Sigmund Freud, which was a dark and murky place filled • Propositional Attitudes • Cognitive Faculties with desires and memories and fantasies that were too disturbing for –I know that P – Perception us to think about consciously. –I believe that P – Memory “This new notion of the adaptive unconscious is thought of, instead, as – Learning a kind of giant computer that quickly – Thinking and quietly processes a lot of the data we need in order to keep • Noncognitive Faculties functioning as human beings.” –I feel [that] P – Emotion (Affect) Gladwell (2005), p. 11 –I desire [that] P – Motivation (Conation) 27 28

Explicit and Implicit Memory Priming Effects in Amnesia After Schacter (1987) After Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970, Exp. 1)

1 • Explicit Memory 0.8 Group – Conscious Recollection 0.6 Controls • Recall, Recognition Amnesics 0.4 • Any effect of a past event on subsequent 0.2 experience, thought, or action Proportion of Targets of Proportion 0 – Absence of Conscious Recollection Free Recall Recognition Fragments • [Independent of Conscious Recollection] Memory Test

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Dissociations Between Explicit and Implicit Perception Explicit and Implicit Memory After Kihlstrom, Barnhardt, & Tataryn (1992)

• Amnesic Syndrome • Explicit Perception • Electroconvulsive Therapy – Conscious Perception • General Anesthesia (?) • Detection, Distance, Motion, Form • Conscious Sedation • Identification, Categorization • Normal Aging, Dementia • Any effect of a current event on experience, thought, or action • Posthypnotic Amnesia – Absence of Conscious Perception • Dissociative Disorders • [Independent of Conscious Perception] – Psychogenic Amnesia, Fugue, Multiple Personality 31 32

Dissociations Between Masked Semantic Priming Explicit and Implicit Perception Marcel (1983a), Experiment 5 • “Subliminal” Perception – Intensity, Duration, Masking 600 500 • General Anesthesia 400 Prime Unrelated • Blindsight, Visual Neglect, Prosopagnosia 300 Associated • Hypnotic Blindness, Deafness, Anesthesia 200 100 • Conversion Disorders (“Hysteria”)

Response Latency (msec) 0 • Preattentive Processing 1 2 4 8 12 16 20 – Parafoveal Vision, Dichotic Listening Number of Repetitions • Inattentional, Attentional Blindness 33 34 – Repetition Blindness, Attentional Blink

Explicit and Implicit Thought Choice in Dyads of Triads Task Bowers et al. (1990) After Kihlstrom, Shames, & Dorfman (1996); Dorfman, Shames, & Kihlstrom (1996)

Blank Still Which triad of words White Pages • Explicit Thought has a common associate? Lines Music – Conscious Cognitive Activity 0.8 • Reasoning, Problem-Solving • Judgment, Decision-Making 0.6

• Any effect of an idea (or image) on 0.4 experience, thought, or action 0.2

– Not itself a percept or (episodic) memory Correct Proportion • Nor recent learning 0 12345 – Absence of Conscious Access to Idea 35 Experiment 36

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Dissociations Between Intuition in the Stages of Thought Explicit and Implicit Thought After Wallas (1926)

Preparation Intimation Unconscious (Intuition) • “Dyads of Triads” Paradigm – Semantic Priming • Risky Choices Incubation – Damage to Prefrontal Cortex • Insight Learning Illumination Conscious (Insight) Verification 37 38

Implicit Learning of Explicit and Implicit Learning After Reber (1967, 1993) Artificial Grammars After Reber (1989, 1993) • Explicit Learning – Conscious Access to Knowledge 0.8 • Semantic, Procedural 0.7 – Acquired Through Experience 0.6 0.5 •Not Merely Incidental Learning Implicit 0.4 Explicit • Any effect of new knowledge on 0.3 experience, thought, or action 0.2 – No Conscious Awareness of Knowledge 0.1 0 • Not Source Amnesia Mem Obs Random Rules – Episodic Knowledge 39 40

Dissociations Between Explicit and Implicit Motivation Explicit and Implicit Learning After McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger (1989)

• Artificial Grammar Learning • Explicit Motivation • Categorization – Conscious Drive, Need, or Goal • nAchievement, nAffiliation, nIntimacy, nPower • Covariation Detection • Any effect of a drive or goal on experience, • Sequence Learning thought, or action • Control of Complex Systems – Absence of Conscious Awareness of Motive

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Explicit vs. Implicit n Achievement Explicit vs. Implicit Motives Fineman (1977); Spangler (1992); Thrash & Elliot (2002) Schultheiss & Brunstein (2001); Pang & Schultheiss (2005)

0.25 2001 2005 0.14 0.2 0.12 0.15 0.1 0.08 0.1 0.06 Correlation 0.05 0.04 Correlation 0.02 0 0 Fineman Spangler T & R -0.02 n Ach n Pow/Dom n Aff Study Study

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Dissociations Between Multiple-Systems Explicit and Implicit Motivation Theory of Emotion Verbal- Spangler (1992); Schultheiss & Pang (2007) Cognitive After Lang (1968) • “Projective” vs. “Objective” Correlations – Thematic Apperception Test • Picture-Story Exercise Emotional Overt State Motor – Personality Research Form • EPPS, CPI • Relate to Different Aspects of Behavior

– Verbal vs. Nonverbal Cues Covert – Performance vs. Nonperformance Behaviors Physiological

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Explicit and Implicit Emotion Dissociations between After Kihlstrom, Mulvaney, Tobias, & Tobis (1996) Explicit and Implicit Emotion

• Explicit Emotion • Desynchrony of Components of Emotion – Subjective mood, Affect, or Feeling • Affective Priming of Consummatory Behavior • Any effect of an emotional response on experience, thought, or action • Implicit Association Test (?) – Overt Motor Response • Facial Expressions – Covert Physiological Response • Autonomic Nervous System

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Dissociations Between Implicit Attitude Test Explicit and Implicit Attitudes Greenwald et al. (1998); Banaji & Greenwald (2013) Greenwald & Banaji (1995) Banaji & Greenwald (2013) • Make Dichotomous Judgment • Explicit Attitude • Phase 1: Is X a Swedish or Finnish name? – Aaltonen, Eriksson, Haapakoski, Lind, Nurminnen, Sundqvist – Affective Disposition to Favor/Oppose • Phase 2: Is Y a Good or a Bad Thing? • Pro/Anti, Like/Dislike, Positive/Negative – Admiration, Aggression, Caress, Abuse, Freedom, Crash – Assessed by Self-Report Scales • Then Superimpose Tasks • Implicit Attitudes – Swedish-Finnish Alternates with Good-Bad – Effect on Experience, Thought, or Action • Phase 3: Swedish Shares Key with Good • Physiology or Behavior – Finnish Shares Key with Bad – Attributable to Attitude •(Phase 4 is a Control Condition) • Phase 5: “Swedish” Shares Key with “Bad” – Independent of Awareness of that Attitude 49 50

Pattern of Responses Reveals The “Race IAT” Implicit Associations Paper & Pencil Version Greenwald et al. (1998) Project Implicit (2007)

Stimulus-Response Compatibility Fitts & Seeger (1953), after Small (1951) Faster Responses when Compatible with Stimulus “Left” with Left key, “Right” with Right

• Implication of S-R Compatibility – Same Response to Swedish Names, Positive Words • Faster Latencies: Association Swedish ↔ Good – Same Response to Finnish Names, Negative Words • Faster Latencies: Association Finnish ↔ Bad 51 52

Implicit Stereotyping Implicit Stereotyping in White Subjects Greenwald et al. (1998) in Japanese and Korean Subjects Greenwald et al. (1998)

Correlation with Explicit Prejudice: .07 < r < .30 Correlation with Explicit Prejudice: .-.04 < r < .64

1200 800 1000 Black/White Jap/Kor 600 800 Pos/Neg Pos/Neg 600 400 400 White/Pos Kor/Pos 200 200 Black/Pos Jap/Pos 0 0 White/Pos First Black/Pos First Koreans Japanese Condition Subjects Response Latency Response Latency (msec) Response Latency (msec)

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The “Blindspot” Problems with the IAT Banaji & Greenwald (2013) Arkes & Tetlock (2004); Levitin (2013) • Hidden biases we all carry from a lifetime of • Confounding Factors exposure to cultural attitudes – Target Familiarity – Age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, social class, – Task Difficulty sexuality, disability status, nationality – Complementarity Assumption • Perceptions of social groups – without our • Negative vs. “Less Favorable” awareness or conscious control – shape our • Positive vs. “More Favorable” likes and dislikes and our judgments about – Associations vs. Attitudes people’s character, abilities, and potential • Construct Validity – Predict External Criterion – Relevant Group Differences 55 56 • “Would Jesse Jackson Fail the IAT?”

Explicit vs. Implicit Attitudes Nosek (2007) Problems with IAT • Dissociation from Explicit Measure? – Significant Correlations Show Validity

Median r = .48 – Nonsignificant Correlations Show Dissociation – Correlations Usually Significant • Increase with Importance • Decrease with “Social Sensitivity” • The Psychologist’s Fallacy (James, 1890) – Every Event has a Psychological Explanation – Psychologist’s Explanation is the Right One

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Does the Cognitive Unconscious Support Balancing the Ledger the Psychodynamic Unconscious? Westen (1998, p. 35) Strong Evidence Weaker Evidence “The notion of unconscious processes is not • Implicit Memory psychoanalytic voodoo, and it is not the fantasy of • Implicit Learning • Implicit Perception fuzzy, muddle-headed clinicians. It is not only • Implicit Thought clinically indispensable, but it is good science. At this point, I believe that the question of whether unconscious cognitive, affective, and motivational Ambiguous Evidence processes exist is no longer interesting or informative and that we would do better to turn our • Implicit Motives attention to the implications of their existence and • Implicit Emotions the mechanisms by which they influence 59 information processing and behavior.” 60

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The “Metapsychology” of Psychoanalysis The Topographic Point of View Rapaport (1959, 1960); Rapaport & Gill (1959) Rapaport (1960)

• Empirical • Dynamic • The Crucial Determinants of Behaviors – The Subject Matter of – The Ultimate Determiners of All Psychoanalysis is Behavior Behavior are the Drives [including Thoughts, Feelings, and Desires] •Gestalt • Economic are Unconscious – Behavior is Integrated and – All Behavior… Is Regulated by Indivisible Psychological Energy • Specific Hypotheses • Organismic • Structural – Unconscious Mental States Exist – No Behavior Stands in Isolation – All Behavior Has Structural • Mental Contents, Not Just Mental Processes • Genetic Determinants – All Behavior is Part of a… • Adaptive – They Are the Crucial Determinants of Behavior Temporal Sequence” – All Behavior Is Determined by • Topographic Reality – The Crucial Determinants of • Psychosocial Behaviors are Unconscious – All Behavior Is Socially 61 62 Determined

A Hierarchy of Psychoanalytic The “New Look” Propositions About the Unconscious in Perception (and Memory) After Rapaport & Gill (1959) and Hilgard (1952, 1968) Inspired by Bruner & Postman (1949) • General • Recognition of “Taboo” Words – Unconscious Mental Contents Differ from Conscious Mental Contents – Tachistoscopic Presentation • Specific – The “Judas Eye” – Unconscious Mental Contents Are Related to Infantile • Memory for Familiar Words, Tasks Sexual and Aggressive Instincts – Recall: Positive > Negative – Unconscious Ideas Are Kept Out of Consciousness by Repression – Recall: Completed > Uncompleted • Empirical – Unconscious Conflict and Repression Explain Infantile and Childhood Amnesia 63 64

Repression: Not “Merely Unpleasant” Repression: Not Merely “Disagreeable” Rappaport (1942) Rappaport (1942, p. 169)

• “To forget the disagreeable” implies that what is • “The survey of the pertinent psychoanalytic forgotten is consciously disagreeable, since the literature has shown us the fallacy of the term disagreeable obviously refers to conscious widespread notion that Freud taught the content; thus, it does not fit the Freudian forgetting of the disagreeable. What Freud conception of the unconscious motivation of discovered was the function preventing the forgetting and parapraxis. emergence into consciousness of an • “To avoid the awakening of pain through unconscious idea which, if it became conscious, memory” refers directly to those unconscious would give rise to a conflict.” motivating factors whose awakening is prevented by the forgetting of ideas which stand

even in a distant relation to them. 65 66

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The Trauma-Memory Argument Problems with Kihlstrom (1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2006) the Trauma-Memory Argument • Trauma Victim • Confounding Factors – Invokes Repression as a Defense – Infantile and Childhood Amnesia • Or Dissociation – Ordinary Forgetting – Amnesia for Trauma – Brain Injury, Drugs, Alcohol • Representation of Trauma Encoded in – Conscious Avoidance Memory • Reliance on Retrospective Studies – Affects Experience, Thought Action – Lack Evidence of Abuse • Outside Conscious Awareness/Control – Lack Evidence of Amnesia! • Recovered Spontaneously/Therapeutically • Prospective Studies Fail to Confirm • Williams (1994): 38% 67 – Goodman et al.: 15.5%  8%  3.6%  1.5%68

Subliminal Psychodynamic Activation Subliminal Symbiotic Activation Silverman (1976 ); Silverman & Weinberger (1985); Weinberger & Silverman (1990) Silverman (1976 ); Silverman & Weinberger (1985); Weinberger & Silverman (1990) • “Subliminal” Presentation • Symbiotic: Mommy and I Are One – Stimuli Relevant to “Unconscious Wishes” • Control: People Are Walking • Verbal, Nonverbal – Diminished Symptoms in Schizophrenics • Oral-Aggressive: Cannibal Eats Person – Reduced Anxiety, Defensiveness in Homosexuals – Symptoms in Schizophrenia, Depression – Improved Task Performance in “Normals” • Incestual: F**k Mommy • E.g., Dart Throwing in Israeli Business Students – Homoerotic Tendencies in Homosexuals • Anal: Go S**t • Oedipal-Sanctioning: Beating Dad is OK – Speech Dysfluencies in Stutterers – Improved Task Performance in “Normals” 69 70

Critiques from Without and Within Electrophysiology of Unconscious Conflict Shevrin (1988); Shevrin et al., (1992, 1996, 2012) • Methodological • Individual Psychodiagnostic Assessments – Threshold-Setting Procedures • Identify Stimulus Words – Prime-Task Duration Too Long – Patient’s Conscious Understanding • Misinterpretations of Psychoanalytic Theory – e.g., Social Phobia • Psychoanalytic Formulations Invalid – Hypothesized Unconscious Conflict • Limitations of Subliminal Perception – e.g., Exhibitionistic Fantasies – Controls: Positive and Negative Words – Temporal: Duration of Subliminal Priming – Analytic: Extent of Meaning Analysis • Event-Related Potentials, EEG Alpha • Greenwald, Affective Priming – Sorted by Complex Time-Frequency analysis – Friend – Peace • Correct: Subliminal > Supraliminal – Enemy Loses - Peace 71 – Especially for “Repressors” 72

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Plusses and Minuses The Contradiction of the Unconscious Kant, Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (1798)

• Methodological To have ideas, and yet not be – Improved Threshold Setting (Too Improved?) conscious of them, -- – Single Words, Short Durations there seems to be a contradiction in • Avoids Vulgar Freudianisms that; for how can we know that we • “Conflicts” Far Removed from Classic Freud have them, if we are not • How to EEG Findings Map On To Theory? conscious of them? • Is Conflict Really Unconscious? Nevertheless, we may become aware indirectly that we have an • Is Psychoanalytic Theory Necessary? idea, although we be not directly 73 cognizant of the same. 74

A Tumbling-Ground for Whimsies? The Bottom Line James, Principles of Psychology (1890), p. 163 • What is True is Not New The distinction… between the – Unconscious Mental Life unconscious and the conscious – Automatic Processes being of the mental state… is the – Unconscious Ideas sovereign means for believing • Percepts, Memories, Thoughts, Knowledge what one likes in psychology, and • Motives, Emotions of turning what might become a • What is New Remains Unproven science into a tumbling-ground for – Primitive Sexual/Aggressive Motives whimsies. – Conflict and Defense

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Written Version:

http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/OLLI_Freud_2013.html

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