The Population of Greece

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World Population Year

THE POPULATION OF GREECE

CI.CR.E.D. Series 1974 WORLD POPULATION YEAR

THE POPULATION OF GREECE

CICRED Series

THE POPULATION OF GREECE

A Monograph for the World Population Year 1974

prepared by

DIMITRIOS TRICHOPOULOS GEORGE PAPAEVANGELOU Professor of Hygiene Epidemiology Associate Professor of Hygiene and Medical Statistics and Epidemiology

with the collaboration of

JOHN DANEZIS VICTORIA KALAPOTHAK.I Assistant Professor of Obstetrics Lecturer in Hygiene and Cynecology and Epidemiology

members of the Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology of the University of Athens Medical School

CICRED Series

PREFACE

The United Nations declared 1974 as the World Population Year and in the same year the World Population Conference was convened. On the occasion of these events the United Nations have suggested the publication of monographs presenting, according to a common plan, past population development, present situation and future trends in the various countries. The Committee for International Coordination of National Research in Demography (CICRED), under the Chairmanship of Jean tíour- geois-Pichat has assumed the responsibility of coordinating these national population monographs.

The country monograph for Greece was prepared at the re- quest of CICRED at the Center of Demographic Research of the Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology of the University of Athens Medical School. The monograph is based mainly on ma- terials already published in official demographic issues and scientific journals, and its content structure and length follow the pattern prescribed uniformly on international scale by CICRED.

Athens, December 1974

Dimitrios Trichopoulos

-7-

CONTENTS

Page CIÍAPTER 1 HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH 9

CHAPTER II COMPONENTS OF GROWTH 16 2.1 Quality and general pattern of vital statistics 16 2.2 Foetal mortality 17 2.3 Infant mortality 20 2.4 General mortality • 25 2.5 Fertility 32 2.6 International migration ... 39

CHAPTER III POPULATION COMPOSITION 44 3.1 Sources and quality of data 44 3.2 The growth of the Greelr. population, and its ethnical, racial and religious homogeneity .... 45 3.3 Population composition by age and sex .... 45 3.4 Population composition by marital status ... 50 3.5 Education 53 3.6 Household atid family 56

CHAPTER IV POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND INTERNAL MIGRATION ... 64 4.1 Definitions and sources of data 64 4.2-Population distribution by departments ... 66 4.3 Population distribution in urban-rural areas and in major cities 67 4.4 Internal migration 70

CHAPTER V THE LA30UR FORCE 79 5.1 Sources of data and definitions 79 5.2 Economically active population by age, sex and employment status 80 -8- Page 5.3 Economically active population by occupation, branch of economic activity, and level of education ... 84 5.4 Economically active population by occupational status 91 5.5 Economically non-active population 93

CHAPTER VI POPULATION PROJECTIONS 96 6.1 Total population by age 96 6.2 Labour force 102

CHAPTER VII POPULATION POLICY 104 7.1 Position of the Church 104 7.2 Contraception, contraceptives, and abortion laws . . 106 7.3 The development of population policy 108

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . ; 115 -9-

CHAPTER I

HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH

It is difficult to trace the origin and the growth of the

Greek population whose history goes back to more than 4000 years.

It is believed that Greek speaking tribes have lived in the Balkan penninsula since the beginning of the second millenium B.C. The first information about the population of Greece concern the Mi- noan era. It is estimated that around 1500 B.C., 1.5 million people lived in Greece. After the collapse of the Minoan civilization,

Greece was inhabited by Dorian tribes. During the Golden age of

Pericles, Athens grew as a city of more than 250,000 inhabitants.

Furthermore, many colonies were soon created all over Greece, Mi- nor Asia and other Mediterranean areas, so that there existed probably more than five million Greeks during the 4th century B.C.

The demographic as well as the political history of Greece is cha-, racterised by repeated and sometimes abrupt changes. The enormous expansion of the Greek territory during the period of Alexander the

Great was followed by its collapse during the period of the Roman

Empire and later by the creation of the Byzantine Empire, which is considered as the continuation of the Greek nation.

No historical demographic data exist for the entire Byzantine period. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks and the 370 years of Turkish occupation suppressed the Greek population, but not its national identity. Thus a war of Independence started in 1821 and a new State was born in 1828. -10-

The demographic history of modern Greece starts in 1828, when the first official census revealed that the new Nation occupied an area.of 47,516 square Km., sparsely inhabited by 753,400 Greeks.

Thereafter several population censuses were conducted at irregular

intervals (Table 1.1), but the first real census which included some population characteristics was taken in 1861. The following censuses improved in their quality. However their data continued to be quantitatively and qualitatively imperfect and their analysis reveals underenumeration of the infant population and females, as well as poor reporting of the age of old people.

The registration of vital events was very early instituted:

It started in 1860 on a country-wide basis and continued thereafter with repeated interruptions in times of national and international crises. No registration data exist for the period between 1886 and 1921. The registration system collapsed again in

1941 and it resumed only in 1950. Thus in certain periods of major demographic disturbances there are no data to illustrate the demographic evolution of the Greek population. Furthermore,at the beginning these data were even worse than census data. An under- estimation of vital events and especially of infant deaths resulted in low rates.

In spite of the obvious omissions and the general poor quality, the existing population statistics provide the only way for studying the evolution, the structure and the dynamics of Greek population

(Valaoras,1943, Alivizatos,1953, Valaoras,1967). Table 1.1 summarizes -11-

Table .1.1 The growth of the area and of the population of Greece. Censuses 1828-1971

Population Population Year Area 2 (in thousands) (in km ) per km

1828 753.4 47516 15.9 1839 823.7 47516 17.3 1845 960.2 47516 20.2 1861 1096.8 47516 23.1 1870 1457.9 50211 29.0 1879 1679.5 50211 33.5 1889 2187.2 63606 34.4 1896 2433.8 63606 38.3 1907 2631.9 63211 41.6 1920 5016.9 150176 37.1 1928 6204.7 129281 48.4 1940 7344.9 129-281 57.3 1951 7632.8 131944 58.3 1961 8388.6 131944 64.1 1971 8768.6 131944 66.5

Table 1.2 Live births, deaths and natural increase in Greece (per 1000 population per year)

Birth Death Period Natural rate rate increase 1860-64 28.7 20.6 8.1 1865-69 29.0 21.3 8.7 1870-74 28.3 21.7 6.6 1875-79 27.6 19.0 8.6 1880-84 23.1 16.8 6.3 1885-89 34.7 24.3 9.6 1920-24 20.2 15.6 4.6 1925-29 29.3 16.3 13.0 1930-34 30.0 16.6 13.4 1935-39 26.5 14.4 12.1 1950-54 19.4 7.2 12.2 1955-59 19.3 7.3 12.0 1960-64 18.1 7.8 10.3 1965-69 18.0 8.1 9.9 1970-72 16.1 8.5 7.6 -12- the census data and Table 1.2 the vital statistics of modern

Greece. Their study provides the following information on the growth of the Greek population during the last 150 years (Vala- oras,1960).

The size of the population increased irregularly from 753 thousands in 1828 to 8,769 thousands in 1971. The greatest part of this increase resulted from the gradual integration within the newly created Nation of adjacent provinces, previously under fo- reign domination. The addition of the Ionian Islands in 1864 increased the initial area by about 3,000 square Km. and the population by 17%. In 1881 Thessaly and Arta were annexed increasing the territory by about 13,000 square Km. and the population by.

14%. The devastating wars that foilowed in 1897 and 1912 and the intense emigration during the first fifteen years of the twentieth century kept the population almost stationary.

In 1912 the Balkan Wars started, and Greece experienced up to

1925 extensive demographic changes. New territories were annexed which doubled its geographical area. The population increased considerably, to a large extent by the influx of refugees, after a disastrous war and an exchange of population between Greece and

Turkey. The influx of refugees brought about a revitalization of the Greek population, which was expressed by a vigorous growth.

Second World War left its marks on the Greek population. In addition to considerable losses caused by direct action, the occupation of Greece, the general famine as well as the civil war that followed resulted in heavy population losses, mainly through cur- -13- tailed fertility and excessive mortality. These disasters were largely encountered by the tenacity of the Greek people so that now the Greek population, after the integration of the Dodeca- nesus in 1947, lives in an area of 131,944 square Km. and nvm- bers 8,769 thousands inhabitants.

In addition to the anomalous political history of Greece, the components of natural increase and the international migration have both markedly affected the rate of growth and the evolution of the Greek population.

Up to the end of the 19th century reported birth rates fluctuated around 30-35 /oo and reported death rates around 20-25 />o.

Taking into account the reffered underregistration of vital events and using sofisticated methods Valaoras (1974b) estimated the actual fluctuating levels at about 40°/oo and 25°/oo respectively.

Both rates started to decline thereafter. The decline of mortality was more swift although the intervening wars disturbed its natural course. However, the effects of wars and of the intense emigration, obscured more strongly the course of the birth rates.

It appears, nevertheless, that the decline of fertility was smaller and started later than that of mortality.

After 1950 mortality fluctuated around the present level of

8 /oo, whereas fertility declined slowly from about 20°/oo to about 16 /oo. These changes have caused a decline in the natural increase rate of the population. Table 1.2 shows that this rate declined from 13.0°/oo in 1925-29 to the present level of 7.6°/oo

(Papaevangelou,1972). -14-

Table 1.3 Emigration from Greece in absolute numbers since 1900

Period. Emigrants

1901-1905 51479 1906-1910 12034 1911-1915 128521 1916-1920 67598 1921-1925 50531 1926-1930 40838 1931-1935 14797 1936-1940 15703 1941-19451 1946-1950J 20176 1951-1955 68063 1956-1960 161750 1961-1965 465699 1966-1970 364725 1971 and 1972 105142 -15-

The growth of the.population of Greece was always greatly curtailed by emigration. Table 1.3 shows the officially reported emigration for the period since 1900. It is obvious that two main peales of emigration occurred; the first between 1910 and 1915 and the second after 1960. Limitations in international migration statistics do not permit the estimation of the net migration. It is also impossible to study the exact effects of thet various components of population growth because of the anomalous demographic history of Greece and the long periods during which registration data are missing. Furthermore, it is difficult to make adjustments for differential errors in population enumeration, underregistration of births and deaths and errors in migration statistics. However the existing data from 1950 to 1972 show, that migration heavily curtailed the population growth. Thus in the period 1950-54 the annual net growth was reduced to 10.2°/oo (natural increase 12..2 /oo); in 1955-59 it was 9.3 /oo (natural increase 12.0 /oo); in 1960-64 5.1 /oo (natural increase 10.3°/oo); in 1965-69 6.5%>o (natural increase 9.9°/

4.1 /oo (natural increase 7.6 /oo).

Emigration patterns changed considerably during the last two decades. Earlier in the century emigrants were mainly settled in

U.S.A., Canada and Australia. Recently, however, the economic development of Western Europe directed most of them to European countries (mainly to Western Germany). -16-

CHAPTER H

COMPONENTS OF GROWTH

2.1. Quality and general pattern of vital statistics

The- purpose of this chapter is to summarize the existing information on the magnitude, nature, distribution and trends of mortality in Greece and on the patterns of growth of the Greek population. The analysis was based mainly on the most recent medico-demographic data concerning the Greek population and published annually in the "Statistical Yearbook of Greece" and in the "Vital

Statistics of the Population of Greece" and on similar data concerning other European populations and published annually in the

"World Health Statistics Annual" of the World Health Organization and in the "United Nations Demographic Yearbook". The results of a number of relevant studies were also taken into consideration.

As it was already stated, in Greece, comparatively reliable data on vital statistics exist for the years 1930-1938 and after

1956. Even for these periods, however, the analysis reveals a number of systematic errors, mainly uhder-registration of peri- natal deaths and misstatements in the reported cause of death

(NSSG, 1966). Furthermore, data are not classified by educational level, professional class, economic status etc. and therefore, differentials in fertility and mortality can only be studied between urban and rural population. However, inspite of these limitations, population statistics provide a fairly clear picture of the trends of mortality and fertility as well as of the health of the population in Greece to-day. -17-

Table 2.1 provides a summary of vital statistics in

Greece since 1930.

2.2. Foetal mortality

The registration of late foetal deaths (i.e. of still- born after the 28th week of pregnancy) is compulsory in

Greece. However, inspite of the legal obligation, registration is incomplete, particularly in the rural areas of the country. This incompleteness accounts for the peculiar time- trends of still-birth ratio in urban(io,000+)» semi-urban

(2,000-9,999) and rural (-1,999) areas of the country(Figure 2.1).

It seems likely that in urban areas there is an actual decline of late foetal mortality, whereas for the semi-urban and rural areas the actual trends are obscured by the improvement in the completeness of registration. This improvement, however, is not due to an amelioration of the registration system in the rural areas but to the mere fact that an increasing proportion of pregnant women from these areas have their deliveries in the cities (where the registration system has always been better). Thus, when the events are classified by place of occurence (rather than by place of mother's residence), no sign of improvement is noted in the rural areas (Figure 2.1).

Population statistics allow an evaluation of the effects of the inadequate prenatal care in most rural areas of Greece on late foetal (and neonatal) mortality when conditions of delivery and completeness of registration are not different from those in the urban areas. This is possible because, as already -18-

Table 2.1 Summary of vital statistics in Greece since 1930

Live births Deaths Infant deaths Population Period per 1000 per 1000 per 1000 (in thousands) population population live-born

1930-34 6545 30.0 16.7 128 1935-39 7029 26.6 14.4 114

1950-54 7731 19.5 7.2 41 1955-59 8105 19.3 7.3 41 1960-64 8434 18.1 7.8 39 1965-69 8704 18.0 8.1 34 1970-72 8852 16.1 8.5 28

Table 2.2

Reported infant mortality in Greece during the periods 1931-1939 and ]949-1972

Infant deaths Infant deaths Year Year per 1000 live-born per 1000 live-born

1931 133.8 1955 43.5 1932 128.7 1956 38.7 1933 122.7 1957 44.2 1934 111.7 1958 39.0 1935 112.8 1959 40.6 1936 114.2 1960 40.1 1937 122.2 1961 39.9 1938 99.4 1962 40.4 1939 118.2 1963 39.3 1964 35.8 • • • • 1965 34.3 1966 34.0 1949 41.9 1967 34.3 1950 35.5 1968 34.4 1951 43.6 1969 31.8 1952 40.5 1970 29.6 1953 42.5 1971 26.9 1954 42.4 1972 27.3 STILL-BIRTH RATIO

26-

24-

22-

20-

18-

16- URBAN AREAS by place of residence) 14- SEMI-URBAN AREAS by place of residence) 12- RURAL AREAS 10- (by place of residence)

4- ' RURAL AREAS 2- (by place of occurence)

T71—1—1—1—1—1—1—m—rn—1—1—1 1956 57 58 '59'60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65'66 "67'68 '69 '70 YEAR

Figure 2.1 Still-born per 1000 live-born in urban and semi- urban areas (by place of residence of mother) and in rural areas (by place of residence of mother and place of occurence) in Greece, during the period 1956-1970 -20- stated, a large proportion of the pregnant women living in rural areas come at a late stage of pregnancy to have their delivery in a hospital of an urban area (more than 82% of all births in 1970 took place in a maternity hospital). It can be estimated, that among this group of women, the still- birth ratio is about 20% higher than among women with permanent urban residence. Although factors of selection may be partly responsible for this difference, it seems likely that a substantial part is attributable to the inferior prenatal care in rural areas.

2.3. Infant mortality

Reported infant mortality has fallen significantly during the last 40 years from about 130 per 1,000 live-born to about 27 per 1,000 live-born (Table 2.2). Since underregistration of neonatal deaths is still evident particularly in rural areas the actual infant mortality rate may be closer to (or slightly higher than) 30 per 1,000 live-births (Tri- chopoulos,1964, NSSG,1966, Valaoras,1974b). Inspite of this remarkable improvement, the Greek rate is still among the highest in Europe, being more than twice that of the Scandi- navian countries (Table 2.3). Approximately 2/3 of all infant deaths in this country occur within the first four weeks of life (neonatal mortality). Nevertheless, in proportional terms, the easily preventable late infant mortality is particularly high in Greece, being almost four times that of the

Scandinavian countries. The study of infant mortality rates -21-

Table 2.3 Infant mortality (total), neonatal mortality (0-27 days), and late infant mortality (28-365 days), in European countries (1970)

Infant deaths Infant deaths Infant deaths Country (total) (10-27 days) (28-365 days) per 1OOO live-born per 1000 live-born per 1000 live-born

Albania Austria 25.9 19.0 6.9 Belgium 20.5 14.4 6.1 Bulgaria 27.3 13.2 14.1 Czechoslovakia 22.1 15.7 6.4 Denmark 14.2 11.0 3.2 Finland 13.2 10.5 2.7 France 18.2 12.6 5.6 Germany Eastern 18.5 13.0 5.5 Germany Western 23.6 18.4 5.2 Greece 29.6 19.6 10.0 Hungary 35.9 28.4 7.5 Iceland 11.7 8.3 3.4 Ireland 19.5 12.8 6.7 Italy 29.6 20.4 9.2 Luxembourg 24.9 16.8 8.1 Malta 27.9 ¿2.0 5.9 Netherlands 12.7 9.5 3.2 Norway 12.7 9.5 3.2 Poland 33.2 19.6 13.6 Portugal 58.0 25.4 32.6 Romania 49.4 18.2 31.2 Spain 28.0 Sweden 11.0 9.1 1.9 Switzerland 15.1 10.8 4.3 United Kingdom England-Wales 18.2 12.3 5.9 N. Ireland 22.9 15.8 7.1 Scotland 19.6 12.8 6.8 Yugoslavia 55.5 23.4 32.1 -22- by regions (nomos) of Greece shows a remarkable variability which is accounted for by differences in hygienic conditions and to some extent by differences in completeness of registration.

Table 2.4 shows infant mortality rates by cause in

Greece, England and Wales, and Norway. The excessive infant mortality in Greece, is mainly attributable to infecti- ous diseases (including pneumonia etc), to immaturity and to various ill-defined diseases of early infancy and, to a lesser degree, to various anoxic and hypoxic conditions (ate- lectasia etc). It is worthwhile to note that infant mortality from birth injuries is lower in Greece than in England and Wales, Norway and many other highly developed European countries. This may be either a reflection of the skill of

Greek obstetricians or of their unwillingness to report

"birth injuries" as the cause of an infant's death.

The postwar trends of neonatal and late infant mortality

in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of Greece by place of re-

sidence are shown in Figure 2.2. The main conclusions that

can be drawn from the study of these rather peculiar time-

trends are the following: (a) Neonatal mortality in urban

areas is high, whereas the actual level of this mortality in

rural areas is unknown because of the apparent incompleteness

of registration of neonatal deaths. Under-registration is also

responsible for the unreliability of the shown trends of neo-

natal mortality, (b) Late infant mortality declines clearly

and steadily in the urban and semi-urban areas; by contrast -23-

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«i -25- in rural areas the decline of this rate is relatively slower and rather irregular, (c) Since 1964 reported infant mortality has been higher in urban areas than in rural ones- a pattern reminiscent of the pre-war experience. One of the factors responsible for this change seems to be the apparent increase of

neonatal mortality in urban areas, probably due to an amelioration of the registration system.

2.4. General mortality

Table 2.5 shows age-specific mortality rates for Greece and their rank among the corresponding rates of all 27 Euro- pean countries for which data are available (rank 1 indicates

the lowest, and rank 27 the highest rate). It is of particular

significance that infant and childhood mortality of Greece are

still relatively high, whereas the mortality of adults of this

country is among the lowest in Europe and indeed in the whole world. This situation is also reflected in- the life-tables of

European populations. It can be seen in Table 2.6 that expe-

ctation of life for Greeks at the age of 35 ia among the longest

in Europe. This holds true for both men and women although it

is more pronounced for men.

Age-specific death rates for all ages below 60 have been

declining in Greece during the period 1952-1970. The decline was most evident among the younger age-groups. By contrast, age-specific death rates for ages above 60 have been constant or slightly increasing during the same period. The fact that almost 2/3 of the deaths among persons over 60 years old are —26-

Table 2.6 Expectation of life at birth and at the ages of 35 and 55 years by sex in European countries in 1970

Age in years Birth 35 55 Country Mai - Fern Mai - Fein Mai - Fern

Austria 66.4 73.4 35.5 41.2 18.5 23.0 Bulgaria 69.1 73.5 38.3 41.5 20.6 23.1 Czechoslovakia 66.3 73.2 35.1 40.7 18.1 22.5 Denmark 71.0 76.1 38.7 42.9 21.1 24.8 France 69.1 76.7 37.2 43.9 20.2 25.7 Germany Western 67.3 73.6 36.2 41.3 18.9 23.1 Greece* 71.6 76.0 40.6 44.1 22.6 25.4 Hungary 66.3 72.2 36.1 40.6 19.0 22.4 Ireland 68.6 73.2 36.6 40.6 19.1 22.6 Italy 68.5 74.6 37.5 42.7 20.0 24.3 Luxembourg 66.4 73.1 35.6 41.2 18.6 23.1 Malta 68.0 72.9 36.4 40.3 18.7 21.6 Netherlands 70.9 76.6 38.5 43.5 20.6 25.0 Norway 71.0 77.5 38.8 44.1 21.1 25.4 Romania 65.7 70.4 37.1 40.5 19.7 22.4 Spain 69.0 74.4 37.6 42.1 20.2 23.7 Sweden 72.3 77.4 39.8 44.0 21.9 25.6 United Kingdom England-V/ales 68.8 75.2 36.6 42.2 18.9 24.1 N.Ireland 67.7 73.6 35.9 40.9 18.5 22.9 Scotland 67.0, 73.3 35.1 40.5 18.0 22.8 Yugoslavia 65.1 69.9 36.4 40.6 19.3 22.4

In a well documented study Valaoras (1974b) claims that the expectation of life in Greece in 1970 is for males 70.1 at birth, 39.9 at 35, and 21.7 at 55 and for females 73.8 at birth, 42.9 at 35, and 24.3 at 55 -27- due to either cardiovascular diseases or malignant neoplasms explains the stagnation of the mortality in the older ages. In- spite of the improvement of most age-spec ific mortality rates, in Greece, the crude death rate has recently shown an upward trend which is accounted for by the ageing of the Greek population.

Table 2.7 shows death rates from the 14 internationally most important causes of death, in Greece, in 1961 and in 1970.

The ranks occupied by the Greek rates among the corresponding rates of 26 European countries for which data are available are also shown (rank 1 indicates the lowest and rank 26 the highest rate). It should be noted that international comparisons by cause of death are hindered by the existing differences among countries with respect to the classification of some diseases and to the proportion of deaths attributed to "ill-defined or unknown" causes. Furthermore the figures .on Table 2.7 are based on data, given by the World Health Organization, which are not age-adjusted. It is clear, nevertheless, that the comparatively low mortality of adults in Greece is mainly due to the apparently low incidence of cardiovascular diseases, malignant neoplasms, and accidents. On the other hand, the excessive premature mortality in Greece is attributable mainly to infective diseases and to a lesser extent, to diseases of the nervous system and to ill-defined conditions of early infancy (including immaturity). Table 2.7 illustrates also the gradual assimila- tion of the nosological spectrum of the Greek population to that -28-

Table 2.7 Death rates (per 100000 population) from 14 important causes, in Greece, in 1961 and in Í970, and their rank among the corresponding rates of 26 Euro- pean countries for which comparable data are available (rank 1 indicates the lowest and rank 26 the highest rate)

Cause of death Rate Rank Rate Rank

Tuberculosis 18.0 15 9.5 16 Acute respiratory infections 1.2 20 1.2 10 Influenza and pneumonia 41.4 12 48.3 13 Other infective and parasitic diseases 15.1 23 13.1 24 Other diseases of respiratory system 16.5 8 40.2 14 Diabetes melitus 10.3 16 22.0 21 Diseases of nervous system and sense organs 25.7 24 18.3 25 Cirrhosis of liver 12.2 17 15.8 18 Other diseases of digestive system 31.0 13 24.6 12 Complications of pregnancy (per 100000 live-born) 79.6 20 28.3 15 Malignant neoplasms including lymphoraas 105.7 4 131.4 6 Accidents and violence 38.2 3 44.4 2 Cerebrovascular disease 83.6 5 117.3 8 Ischaemic heart and other diseases of circulation 124.8 1 171.5 2 -29- of the more developed European populations. Thus «îortality- rates from infective diseases and complications of pregnancy- are declining whereas mortality rates from cardiovascular diseases, malignant neoplasms, chronic diseases of the respiratory system, and diabetes melitus are gradually increasing.

Table 2.8 gives the chances per 1,000 live-born, of eventually dying from specified causes, by sex, in Greece and selected European countries in 1970. It can be seen that 1 out of 7 Greeks is expected to die from cancer, 1 out of 6 from cerebrovascular disease, and 1 out of 4 from another disease of the circulatory system (including ischaemic heart disease).

The probability of eventually dying from a motor vehicle acci-

dent is still rather small in Greece (1% as compared to 2?/a in

Italy and 1.9J6 in Sweden).

A comparison of age specific death rates in the urban

(10,000+) and in the rural (-1, 999) population of Greece reveals that up to the age of 45 years mortality is higher in rural a- reas, while the opposite is true for the older ages (Figure

2.3). The excess premature mortality in rural areas is main-

ly due to infective diseases; on the other hand, the higher mortality of adults in urban areas is accounted for by the correspondingly higher death rates from cardio-vascular diseases and malignant neoplasms. Age and cause specific morta-

lity rates of semi-urban population hold usually intermediate positions between the corresponding rates of the urban and rural population. -30-

Table 2.8 Chances per 1000 live-born, of eventually dying from specified causes, by sex, in Greece and selected European countries (1970)

Infections Ischaemic Other Malignant and other Cerebro- heart Motor neoplasms Country diseases of infective disease and and parasitic vascular vehicle respiratory disease other diseas. accidents system lymphomas of circulatory system

Bulgaria M 142 19 148 192 293 15 (5.0P,0* F 116 10 109 258 340 4

Greece M 26 165 128 211 14 (12.0»/) + F 108 16 108 181 218 5

Italy M 107 18 190 133 312 29 (3.390* F 90 11 151 161 378 8

Netherlands M 85 6 235 103 364 28 (3.5°/.) + F 66 7 199 154 351 10

Norway M 91 7 178 143 375 17 (5.050* F 114 7 1G7 201 330 6

Spain M 128 26 151 125 293 IS F 109 13 124 166 348 5

Sweden M 65 10 189 95 450 18 F 66 8 185 132 441 9

England-Wales M 170 7 208 111 381 14 F 138 4 175 178 369 7

Ill-defined and unknown causes of death as percentage to all deaths in the country AGE SPECIFIC DEATH RATES

0.1 0 10 20 30 40 80 90 AGE

Figure 2.3 Annual death rates specific for age per 1OOO population in urban ( ) and rural ( ) areas of Greece around 1968. (Infant deaths per 1000 live- born; infant mortality rectified) -32-

2.5. Fertility

The birth-rate in Greece declined during the last forty years from about 30°/oo to about 16°/oo (Table 2.9) (Katsou- yiannopoulos,1970). The reduction of fertility has occurred especially in mothers over the age of 35, and in birth orders beyond the third child (Tables 2.10 and 2.11).

The new attitude of the Greek population towards reproduction was brought about by the deep socio-economic changes that took place in Greece during this period. However, the ways and means by which the reduction in fertility was brought about were not evident.

In order to clarify the ways and means by which the reduction in fertility came about, a field survey was conducted in 1962-1963 by the Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology of the University of Athens (Valaoras, Polychronopoulou, and Tri- chopoulos,1965). It was found that the average desired family size was 2.6 children in urban and 2.9 children in rural areas.

Of the urban and rural married women interviewed, 87 percent and 79 percent, respectively, reported practicing some method of birth control (Table 2.12) primarily coitus interruptus

(withdrawal) or the condom (Table 2.13). The contraceptive pill and the intrauterine device were almost unknown to the sample interviewed.

In view of the rather low effectiveness of the reported birth control methods, these findings could not fully explain the drastic curtailment in the number of live births in Greece. -33-

Table 2.9 Live-born per 1000 population in Greece during the periods 1925-1940 and 1949-1972

Year Live-born Year Live-born

1925 26.3 1950 20.0 1926 30.0 1951 20.3 1927 28.8 1952 19.3 L928 30.5 1953 18.4 1929 28.9 1954 19.2 1930 31.3 1955 19.4 1931 30.8 1956 19.7 1932 28.4 1957 19,3 1933 28.6 1958 19.0 1934 31.1 1959 19.4 1935 28.2 1960 18.9 1936 27.9 196 L 17.9 1937 26.2 1962 18.0 1938 25.9 1963 17.5 1939 24.8 1964 18.0 1940 24.5 1965 17.7

• • • • 1966 18.0

• • • • 1967 18.7

* • • • 1968 18.2 * • • • 1969 17.4

• • • • 1970 16.5 • • * • 1971 15.9 1949 18.6 1972 15.7 -34-

Table 2.10 Fertility rates (per 1000 women at specified ages) in Greece

Age of mother Gross Net repro- repro- Period auction auction 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 r&te pate 1933-37 18.2 129.4 205.5 178.5 141.1 51.6 12.6 1.79 1.26 1956-59 15.5 100.6 154.2 110.4 54.6 16.6 3.0 1.10 1.01 1960-64 17.9 109.1 145.4 103.9 46.4 12.6 1.6 1.06 0.98 1965-69 30.4 128.2 154.5 98.7 44.1 10.2 1.2 1.13 1.05 1970-71 36.7 143.6 150.8 91.8 41.8 9.4 1.0 1.16 1.09

Table 2.11

Fertility rates by birth order (per 1000 women aged 15-49) in Greece

Birth order Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 +

1936 26.3 22.5 19.2 16.0 11.7 15.7 1956-59 28.8 21.4 10.1 4.9 2.7 3.2 1960-64 28.6 22.8 9.3 3.9 1.9 2.3 1965-69 29.4 25.8 9.0 3.1 1.2 1.3 -35-

Table 2.12 Percent of urban and rural married women practicing birth control, by age, in Greece, 1962-1963

Percent practicing Age Urban Rural

-20 74.4 53.8 20-24 32.5 80.6 25-29 84.8 81.2 30-34 92.0 85.5 35-39 95.1 86.0 40-44 90.5 74.4 45* 75.0 69.6

Total 87.1 78.7

Table 2.13

Birth control methods per 100 users in Greece, 1962-1963

Method Urban Rural

Withdrawal 41.7 67.4 Condom 33.2 19.3 Other 25.1 13.3

Total 100.0 100.0 -36-

Tiiu.s a new field survey was undertaken in 1966-1967 in order to evaluate the frequency and reveal the epidemiologic background of induced abortions, which are illegal in Greece but thought to have been the factor responsible for the reduction in live births •

The study was carried out by the Department of Hygiene and Epi-

demiology of the University of Athens (Valaoras, Polychronopou-

lou and Trichopoulos,1969). Approximately one third of the married women interviewed reported one or more induced illegal a-

bortions. On the average, there was a correspondence of 75 in-

duced abortions per 100 married women of reproductive age, or of

34 induced abortions per 100 live-born. The findings of the a-

bortion survey by age of mother, duration of marriage, schooling

of the mother, urban or rural population, as well as by order of

pregnancy, are given in Tables 2.14, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17 and 2.18

respectively. With the use of the available data Polychronopou-

lou and Trichopoulos (1969) later estimated that induced illegal

abortions were responsible for about 40 percent of the recent re-

duction of the fertility of the Greek population.

The decline of fertility has caused strong concern, parti-

cularly around 1963 when the net reproduction rate fell below the

value of 1.0, and again after 1969 when most age-specific ferti-

lity indices after showing short-term anodic trends between 1963-

1967 started again to decline (Valaoras,1973, 1974a). Although

the prospects of the future growth of the Greek population are

certainly not entirely satisfactory, they are nevertheless not

so alarming as they are sometimes thought of. In this regard, -37-

Table 2.14 Live-born and induced abortions, by age of mother

Per 100 interviewed Number interviewed Live- Admitting Total born abortion abortions

-25 485 113 15 20 25-29 1044 174 28 50 30-34 1533 205 34 69 35-39 1446 234 40 93 40-44 1070 245 42 101 45+ 924 308 38 86

Total 6502 221 35 75

Table 2.15 Live-born and induced abortions by duration of marriage

„ _ •• . Per 100 interviewed Years of Number marriage interviewed Live- Admitting Total born abortion abortions 0-4 1281 113 14 18 5-9 1806 195 31 53 10-14 1478 235 43 89 15-19 1041 271 45 115 20+ 882 346 49 134

Total 6488 221 35 75

Table 2.16 Induced abortions by years of school attendance of mother

School Number Abortions years interviewed per 100 interviewed

0 545 94 1-3 2242 91 4-7 2639 65 8-12 943 60 13+ 113 38

Total 6482 75 -38-

Table 2.17 The frequency of abortion in two metropolitan populations of Greece, in other urban areas, and in other areas of the country

Number Per 10° interviewed Population . , . , interviewed Admitters Abortion« Athens and Salonicit 514

Other urban Qoooo*) 2382 37 77 Other areas (semi-urban and rural) 36Q6

Total 6502 35 75

Table 2.18 Outcome of pregnancies, by order

Per Order of Number of cent outcorr.e of pregnancy pregnancy pregnancies Live Still Spontaneous Induced births births abortions abortions

1 6252 88.8 1.8 6.6 2.8 2 5227 80.1 1 .3 7.7 10.9 3 3460 60.5 1.8 9.0 28.7 4 2153 50.5 3 .5 9.0 39.0 5 1325 42.2 1.0 9.0 47.8 6 + 1644 32.6 1.0 9.1 57.3

Total 20041 69.9 1.5 7.9 20.7 -39- it should be noted that: (a) the net reproduction rate varies now above the limit of 1.0, thus suggesting a continuation of future population growth, (b) among the younger age groups

(15-19 and 20-24) birth rates show clear anodic trends (Table

2.10 and Figure 2.4), as a consequence of which there is a tendency for younger mothers and shorter intervals between successive generations, and (c) the fertility rate among Greek women of reproductive age (10-49 years old) occupies the 16th rank among the corresponding rates of 26 European countries for which data are available (rank 1 indicates the highest rate). Therefore, the situation in Greece is not exceptional, with European fertility standards (Table 2.19).

2.6. International migration

Since 1922, when an exchange of population minorities between Greece and Turkey took place, the population of Greece is practically homogeneous. Thus, no ethnic or religious differentials are of importance, since about 97% of the population are Greek speaking and belong to the Greek orthodox Church.

International emigration has always been a potent factor shaping the profile of the Greek population. Since 1960, however, the wave of emigration, mainly toward Western Germany, reached unprecedented dimensions. The excess of emigrants over repatriated during the periods 1962-1966 and 1969-1970 became almost as large as the excess of births over deaths, thus causing a virtual stagnation in the rate of population growth (Table

2.20) Recently, however, the trend has shown signs of change, LIVE-BORN PER 1000 WOMEN

150- 25-29 20-24

100- 30-34 80-

60-

40-

20-

10-1 1956357 '58 '59 '60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65 '66 '67 '68 '69 '70 YEAR

Figure 2.4 Ldve-born :in Greece per 1000 women at the specified age-groups during the period 1956-1970 -41-

Table 2.19

Live-born per 3 000 population (1970) and per 1000 women at the reproductive age (1968) in European countries (latest available comparable data)

„ , Live-born Live-born _° ry Eer_i°°9 population per. 1000 women age 10-49

Albania 35.3 Austria 15.2 64.7 Belgium 14.7 57.4 Bulgaria 16.3 56.4 Czechoslovakia 15.9 52.8 Denmark 14.4 67.3 Finland 14.0 56.5 France 16.8 61.9 Germany Eastern 13.9 56.6 Germany Western 13.2 65.8 Greece 16.5 61.2 Hungary 14.7 50.3 Iceland 19.7 80.6 Ireland 21.9 81.0 Italy 16.8 62.2 Luxembourg 13.0 51.4 Malta 16.3 53.4 Netherlands 18.3 66.6 Norway 16.6 67.0 Poland 16.8 52.6 Portugal 19.3 73.3 Romania 21.1 87.3 Spain 19.6 • • Sweden 13.7 58.3 Switzerland 15.8 63.3 United Kingdom England-Wales 16.0 64.5 N.Ireland 21.1 • • Scotland- 16.8 68.3 Yugoslavia 17.8 63.3 -42-

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HHr-lr-lr-IHHHHHHiHHHi-IHr-( -43- due to some extent "to changes of policies or economic conditions in the countries of destination.

Emigration rate has always been higher from rural areas and it has been partly responsible for the more pronounced decline of fertility in the rural population. Most emigrants are males (about 55 per cent) and between 15 and 44 years of age (Table 2.20), thus depleting seriously the labour force of the country. The majority of emigrants are unskilled work-

ers without occupation, followed by agricultural workers and by production technicians and workers (in 1972 the corresponding proportions were 51.6%, 23.8% and 15.5%). On the other hand, among the repatriated Greeks, production technicians and workers form a substantially larger part (in 1972 38.9%). The wave of emigration is stronger towards Western Germany, but it is also strong towards U.S.A., Australia and Canada (in 1972

61.5%, 15.2%, 8.4% and 5.3% respectively). -44-

CHAPTER III

POPULATION COMPOSITION

3.1. Sources and quality of dala

The National Statistical Service of Greece carried out, on March 14, 1971, the general population census, and during the preceding week (7-13 March) the census of dwellings. The analysis that follows is based mainly on data derived fro« a 3S sample elaboration of the census returns, which was undertaken by the

National Statistical Service of Greece (NSSG,1973a, 1973b, 1973c).

Data from other censuses and particularly from that of 1961 were also used for comparative purposes.

The first population census took place in 1828. Since then,

14 more population censuses were carried out (Table 1.1). However, data of all censuses before 1920 and to a lesser extent of those of 1928, 1940 and 1951 are inaccurate because of extensive under- reporting and frequent misstaternents. Thus, in all censuses before 1920 more nales were registered than females, -an improbable finding which may reflect the relative importance attributed to the two sexes by the Greek society of that time. Furthermore, in these censuses males were always fewer than expected in the age groups 15-24 presumably because several young men were not registered in order to avoid the draft. These and other apparent weaknesses have created serious doubts about the reliability of the earlier population statistics. Although corrections have been attempted by eminent Greek demographers in order to improve the -45- quality of the earlier statistics (Valaoras,1960, NSSG,1966), confidence should be placed mainly on conclusions based on data derived from the last turo censuses.

3.2. The growth of the Greek population, and its ethnical, racial and religious homogeneity

Within 150 years the population of Greece has increased from 753 thousands in 1828 to 8,769 thousands in 1971 (Table

1.1). This growth was accomplished not only by the natural increase of the population but also by the annexation of new areas (mainly in 1913) and by the influx of more than 1 million

Greek refugees from Asia Minor, after a disastrous war with Tur- key (in 1922). Since 1922, when the exchange of population mi-

norities between Greece and Turkey took place, the population

of Greece is practically homegeneous (about 97 per cent are

Greek-speaking and belong to the Greek Orthodox Church).

3.3. Population composition by age and sex

The population distribution by sex and age groups at the

census of 1971 is shown in Table 3.1, and is illustrated by

means of a population pyramid in Figure 3.1. The overall sha-

pe of the pyramid indicates that the population of Greece has

already exceeded the stage of maturity with respect to age

structure. Three otlier demographic features may be noted in

the population pyramid; the demographic "scars" which are evi-

dent in tlie age groups 25-29 and 45-54 of both sexes, and cor-

respond to the periods of war, destruction and famine 1941-1943 -46-

Table 3.1 Population of Greece by sex and age groups. Census of 1971

Age groups Males Females Total

0-4 389700 378380 768080 5-9 359200 338800 6 98000 10-14 367760 346380 714140 15-19 335960 322520 658480 20-24 327300 305320 632620 25-29 243840 257600 501440 30-34 285680 318760 604440 35-39 314160 337240 651400 40-44 320960 341620 662580 45-49 243980 268000 511980 50-54 204100 238420 442520 55-59 241320 254560 495880 60-64 218160 231220 449380 65-69 172900 193300 566200 70-74 119460 160820 280280 75-79 66460 86020 152480 80-84 41260 66240 107500 85-89 19000 27120 46120 90-94 6800 11440 18240 95+ 2060 4820 6880

Total 4280060 4488580 8768640 3opulation in thousands Population in thousands DO 300 200 100 100 200 300 400

Age

Figure 3.1 Population pyramid (by sex and five-years age- groups) of Greece at the census of 1971 -48- and 1916-1922; and the underrepresentation of males in the older age-groups (mainly 75-79), which is accounted for not only by the differential mortality but also by the massive emigration during the decade around 1910 of young males toward, the United States of America.

The percentage distribution of the population of Greece by major age-groups in all censuses since 1907 is shown in

Table 3.2. The progressive demographic maturation of the population is evident in the relatively rapid changes of the age structure, which were brought about by the almost simul- taneous rapid decline of birth rate and remarkable prolongation of life expectancy. Within a period of less than three generations, the proportion of children and adolescent declined by more than one third and the proportion of old persons almost tripled. Several Greek demographers consider these changes as too rapid and too extensive for a country with the geopolitical position and the socio-economic development of Greece, and believe that our population has already shown symptoms and signs of ageing (Valaoras,1973, 1974a). Never- theless the increase of the biologically and economically more active part of the population aged 15-64 years, from 57.6 per cent in 1907 to 65.3 per cent in 1961 and the marked proportional decrease of the economically dependent population of children, were certainly responsible to a considerable extent for the rapid economic development of the country in the last decades. -49-

Table 3.2 Percentage distribution of census population of Greece (1907- 1971) by age groups

Percentage by age groups

0-14 15-24 25-44 45-64 65+

1907 38.3 18.3 25.9 13.4 4.1 100.0 1920 34.3 18.9 25.0 16.1 5.7 100.0 1928 32.2 20.1 25.9 16.0 5.8 100.0 1940 33.0 16.8 28.2 15.7 6.3 100.0 1951 28.3 19.9 27.7 17.2 6.9 100.0 1961 26.4 16.1 28.6 20.6 8.3 100.0 1971 24.9 14.7 27.6 21.7 11.1 100.0

Table 3.4 Percent literates in the census population of Greece (1879-1971) by sex (population of 10 years of age and over)

Census Literates percent Year Total Males Females

1879 19.3 30.8 7.0 1907 39.5 59.6 19.5 1920 50.4 66.1 39.3 1928 58.2 76.2 40.6 1940 . , * • 1951 76.4 89.0 64.7 1961 82.3 92.5 72.7 1971 85.2 93.6 77.2 -50-

3.4. Population composition by marital status

The percentage distribution of the Greek population according to marital status within groups of persons of the same sex and age (5-years groups) at the censuses of 1951, 1961 and

1971 is shown in Table 3.3. The data of the Table reveal a number of interesting facts.

(a) The proportion of those who stay single throughout life is small and approximately the same among males and females. The percentages shown may be partly distorted by the differential mortality by marital status, but even so it appears that only about 5 per cent remain unmarried.

(b) In all age-groups below 40 the proportion of married is higher among women than among men, due to the usually earlier marriage of women. After that age the proportion of widows rises sharply among women but only moderately among men, because of the higher mortality rates of males, their higher average age at marriage and their higher frequency of re-marriage after widowhood or divorce. As a result, the percentage of married men exceeds that of married women in all ages above 40.

(c) In both sexes and in all age-groups the proportion of married is higher in 1971 than in 1961, and the difference is more evident among the younger age-groups. The phenomenon is accounted for by the slight increase of crude nuptiality rates

(from below 6.0 in 1940-1949, to 7.9 in 1950-1959, and 8.4 in

1960-1969) and mainly by the marked recent trend for earlier marriage of both men and women. Thus in 1958-1962 13.1 per- -51-

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•p rH 95 1 00 00 to in 00 O CO to to rH LO os OS OS co IO to to rH rH CD rH H ^ OS CD rH 0i5n os oo to to to •rH rH -p tH i-H m O CU O5 OS Tí*OS ^ •* ^p 05 H* 05 os rf i-H •H M rH Ol CM to to 10 CD IS (S rH CM CM to to in tD IS •o te cö 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + ^û 1 1 1 1 1 i i 1 1 -ap 01 in o in o IO O in in in 10 O LO o in o in o in m IO in o eu œ •e H CM CM to to tf IO eo IS in rH CM CM to to •* in CO IS EH QO 3 cetf -ePs œ ac Y mcu eau u O1A M rH ü «2 0> _ PH Oi os 1 Fem a -52- cent of the brades (first marriage) were younger than 20 and their median age at marriage was 24.4 years, while in 1970-

1971 the corresponding figures were 26.2 per cent and 23.1 years. Similarly in 1958-1962 21.1 per cent of the grooms

(first marriage) were younger than 25 and their median age at marriage was 28.6 years, while in 1970-1971 the corresponding figures were 28.6 per cent and 28.3 years. The lessening of the age at marriage' was the main factor responsible for the recent rise of the fertility rates among the younger age- groups, since in Greece almost 99 per cent of all live-born are legitimate.

(d) The percentage of single persons is smallest in 1971 and highest in 1951 for the age-groups below 50, while the opposite is true for the older age-groups. This paradoxical phenomenon may be accounted for by the fact that the older age- groups at the 1971 census belong to the cohort that had experienced the relatively low nuptiality rates of the period

1940-1949 (crude average probably below 6.0) while the corresponding age-groups at the 1961 and 1951 censuses had experienced the slightly higher nuptiality rates of the periods

1930-1939 (crude average 6.6) and 1920-1929 (crude average

7.1) respectively.

* • • In the pre-war period (1933-1937) the median age of brides (23.3) was slightly higher but the median age of grooms (27.3) substantially lower than the corresponding values in 1970-1971 -53-

(e.) The proportion of widows is lower in 1971 than in 1961 and 1951 among both sexes and in all age-groups. The prolongation of the expectation of life even among middle-aged persons and the higher re-marriage rates (particularly of males) are partly responsible for this change.

(f) The divorced represent a small but increasing group of the population. More women than men were counted as "divorced" because of the higher re-marriage rate of the divorced males.

3.5. Education

Data from the census of 1971 and from previous censuses, concerning the level of education of the population of Greece are summarized in Tables 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6. Table 3.4 illustrates the growth of literacy in Greece during the last 100 years;

Table 3.5 shows the distribution of the population by educational level in the various age and sex groups; and Table 3.6 de- monstrates the educational differences between the population of urban, semi-urban and rural areas.

Males are on average more educated than females, but the gap is narrowing and tend ta disappear among the younger age- groups. The educational achievements of the younger generation are of course higher than those of the older generation and the contrast is more marked among women. Examination of the age- groups 15-29 years (Table 3.5) reveals that to-day about 95% of population complete primary school, about 30% secondary school and about 6% receive a higher degree. As it might be expected, the educational level is higher in urban areas and -54-

Table 3.5 Percent distribution of population of Greece according to educational level by age and ses: (census 1971)

With With With Literate Sex and age higher secondary primary but not Illiterate Total education education education primary

Males 10-14 56.2 42.3 1.5 100.0 tt 15-19 0.1 ]1.8 82.7 3.7 1.7 100.0 it 20-24 2.3 27.3 64.7 4.0 1.7 100.0 it 25-29 6.9 20.5 63.8 6.4 2.4 100.0 it 30-44 7.1 14.4 52.3 21.0 5.2 100.0 ti 45-64 5.4 9.3 52.4 24.1 8.8 100.0 ii 65+ 3.9 6.9 42.6 28.6 18.0 100.0 ti total(10+) 4.4 12.1 56.5 20.6 6.4 100.0 Male population (10+) (in thousands) 152420 419700 1956860 715000 222700 3466680

Females 10-14 ... • 58.0 40.7 1.3 100.0 ti 15-19 0.1 12.8 80.8 4.4 1.9 100.0 ti 20-24 2.2 27.4 61.5 6.4 2.5 100.0 it 25-29 4.4 19.6 59.3 11.7 5.0 100.0 ti 30-44 2.3 12.0 44.2 26.4 15.1 100.0 M 45-64 1.5 7.0 37.5 20.4 33.6 100.0 II 65+ 0.8 3.4 20.0 6.8 69.0 100.0 ti total(10+) 1.6 10.4 46.3 18.9 22.8 100.0 Female population (10+)(in thousands) •"38100 370500 1656860 676160 817300 3578920

* Excluding 64480 males and 192480 females with unknown educational level -55-

Table 3.6 Percent distribution of population of urban, semi-urban, and rural areas of Greece according to educational level (census 1971)

Semi- Urban areas Rural areas Educational level urban areas Males Females Males Females Males Females

Illiterate 4.3 14.1 7.7 25.4 9.3 35.9 Literate but 23.4 not primary school 15.0 17.4 21.6 28.6 20.5 With primary 54.9 59.5 57.9 education 49.0 47.2 41.6 With secondary 19.0 17.1 6.8 4.7 3.0 1.4 education* With higher 6.8 2.6 1.1 education 2.4 1.2 0.6

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Population (10+) (thousands) 1899.1 2032.5 417.0 424.1 1215.0 1314.8 -56- lower in rural areas, where even to-day more than one third of the female population 10 years old or more is illiterate.

One of the peculiar characteristics of higher education in Greece is the plenitude of medical students and medical doctors. At the 1971 census 17,200 of the 210,520 College and

University graduates were medical doctors (8.2 per cent) and among the 11,482 new graduates of the academic year 1971-1972,

1,355 (11.8 per cent) were medical doctors. Indeed the ratio of physicians to population in Greece is among the highest,and the rate of increase of this ratio the highest in the world

(World Health Organization, World Health Statistics Annual,Vo- lume III). An interesting relevant observation made by Greek authors (Center of Planning and Economic Research,1972a) and later by other investigators (Ward Hinds,1974) is that beyond a certain limit the ratio of physicians to population is nega- tively correlated with a number of health indices (notably infant survival). This finding contrasts sharply with the positive correlation which exists between the same indices and the relative number of para-medical personnel and seems to imply that too many physicians may exercise a detrimental effect on the quality of medical care.

3.6. Household and family

In the 1961 and 1971 population and housing censuses the following definitions, pertaining to household and dwelling, were used:

Household: (a) A group of two or more persons who live together, jointly provide themselves with -57-

food or other essentials for living and usually share meals (multi-person household). The group may be com- posed of related persons only, or of unrelated persons, or of a combination of both, including boarders, but excluding lodgers, (b) A person who lives alone in a separate housing unit, or who shares the housing unit with other persons, but does not join with them -i.e..he does not share meals - to form a member of their household (one-person household). Housing unit: A separate and independent space which, by the way it has been built, rebuilt or con- verted, is intended for habitation, or one not intended for habitation but occupied as living quarters at the time of the census. Regular (conventional) dwelling: A permanent and independent structure constituted by one regular room at least and intended for the purposes of habitation by a private household. Regular room: A space within a building reaching at least to a height of 2 metres, of a size large enough to hold a bed for an adult (that is 4-square metres at least), with direct day-light from a window or a glass- door.

Tables 3.7-3.11 summarize the information derived from data collected in the last two censuses (1961 and 1971) and concerning the distribution of private households according to the size, to the number of persons per room, to the facilities available and to the type of water supply and sewerage. Institutional households (hospitals etc) were not included in the present analysis.

Of the total population (8,769 thousands) 8,455 thousands were members of private households and 314 thousands of institutional households.

The number of households has increased from 2,143 to 2,556 thousands between 1961 and 1971. This increase reflects both the increase of the population and the decline of the average household size. Thus, in 1961 31.5 per cent of the households -58-

c ai 00 t>- Ci C- o ü O N O) r-l M H i-l 0) •H (M i-l N rH i-l 8 tS PH a H es lu m o oo •* m •* fi ai IO iH CI <£> O tO tO 05 O t» 00 OJ O IM H r-i iH r-l • i •IS •M IS -p co 4! tu 00 IS O 00 IS O m B Ü a u H Ol CM OJ i-l £1 i œ -ri h o to lo o •* r-i E a -p SI U O 05 •H -P H ¡M H to to in oí en IS C o in o I-I o to co to >s O i-i IS tO IO i-i 10 f oj to •* •* to to H ^a o CM

T3 J: H -P Ifi o U T3 « o V i-H m 10 fi O 3 oo E Xi o ß 3 ai X m C œ œ « 01 H O > tí H CM to •* in to «1 a s: O

20.3 per cent (Table 3.7). The decline of the household size is accounted for by the decline of family size and by the progressive abandonment of the traditional cohabitation of parents with their children even after their marriage. As expected,the average household size is smaller in urban than in semi-urban and rural areas, since the responsible demographic and social changes are more extensive in the urban population.

The number of private households has increased considerably in urban areas but has remained relatively stable in semi-urban and rural areas. Nearly all households (99.5 per cent) are now living in regular dwellings and in most of them (88.7 per cent) there are less than 2 persons per room (Table 3.8). This contrasts sharply with the situation in 1961 when in more than one third of the households there were 2 or more persons per room.

Significant improvement has been achieved in the type of water supply, whereas the waste disposal system and particularly the type of sewerage is far from satisfactory in many regions of the country and particularly the rural areas (Tables 3.9 and 3.10).

Nevertheless, the improvement in the type of water supply and in some regions of the type of sewerage have contributed significantly in the marked decline of the incidence of most water-trans- mitted diseases.

Tables 3.10 and 3.11 demonstrate the rapid change of the quality of everyday1s life in Greece. Within a decade the percentage of regular dwellings with bath or shower increased from 13.8 -60-

S o 01 j-t O u O 01 11 « u •a 01 fi a - s 01 •H co •* 13 •H U i-l rH ID to O 01 £1 > a C O U o •-i CD 1- ci OH •ri -p rHo CN r- •H ft co 18 •O rH 18 C =1-. H to o 13 (0 O 01 c CO •ri ci •a i iH h T> •a 1-1 01 S) o o CO 00 CD o to o u C Si O o 18 •p •ri il g CD 00 O) 18 o 01 U 0) •o rH CO S Ci IN ICI o co o e 3 S 3 18 S -P 18 01 o to o 01 01 -H 01 '— 10 •p ft C co to oi > 01 to O (M to o co Oî CO CD s o> o O CO to • • • S te to CO CO CO •ri 13 rH Ol r- co -P C c 01 !H in CO CO 10 C -ri to o H 01 •H to il rH c O •H ^ 01 ï e O rH O m i> •ri -p •p ¿ cu n CO 3 -p 10 co i in t oo •H 3 a o c co CD in rH CO •r\ -p o 11 0> 10 Ö c c « r- o to 10 n O 10 18 •o M C0 t> u5 1-5 H •H u 5 te CD CO P- o •a 01 h-g bOH C ro a co fi eu l£ a co c s -H 01 ü -p 01 -P CM to H o C 18 3 •H 61H •ri H •2 CI r-l 3 o s c ó CO ô 3 o o o •* CM to CO M 7r,~ rH JH PH in c3 -p •Ö O •H C 13 in CD CD to Ü c H U o O) O] 00 Cri M O 01 01 O a, X C i-i CO •H co 16 CO T3 EH » •a 18 ¡> 13 rH ÍH 3 co •ri eu O I O Ü -p o M t0 n CD c- ^, ^, x; rH X! C 10 c ^ tO CU C ^, ta u 3 01 "O m a C U -n o o ó 10 co to io ü co . rH to 3 •a ai fco 01 (8 S* 3 h o ^ H rH >-P •ri T3 s: t£ s rH CM fil ¿3 -P •o u -p C •a 3 13 ta -^ •ri r* eu1 - IS •ri C r c •ri Oh « Ol 00 IN H C8 -P rH Ol U tn a oo 3 C iH ÛJ 10 CH O J= •ri 3 O s—. •H -a g [3 0 O T3 1 •P C 3 -p X! J3 CN CM co • ri 01 a 3 18 Z o s Cl E tö 05 C +> O 03 10 to eu 18 CO 18 o 00 CD O) ß 10 18 -P O! CM GO •p 0) rH „ C U o CO i-l 01 C 01 B 1 r-i u M 13 a 1•ri 18 eu 2 o XI 01 O b 0)

•p 10 Ti C to e •rt rH to l> a 00 T3 IS * c c rH Ol • in O 00 a 10 •H •rt F-l rH S2 to 3 •H | i H H "0°1 • H rH Pi Jï e 01 -p u * -p 10 3 rH O •H F-) (M r- O » a. h J3 J3 to • * « c r^ CO •p -P Ol 7-i ro (N C\ 10 3 H •H -M rH IO r- Oî to ja to 3 60 H 01 01 U 60 e -p S 60 S •ri a C -ri i -p •H T3 to •H œ rH l-H M "H 60 rH -rt F-l in o O) IO C o C 01 3 t> •H •H !? ï £ 01 to in 00 to 01 60X1 FH CM Ol fi Pi •H a 01 Cl H •H U X -P X -p TJ to P -p T) c M 0! -p O Pi •§ £ fi 10 co OÍ Ci 3 0 01 J- M S Ol iñ rrt 60 -p 10 -p •p r-i H fi ôfi 11 3 •H 3 -P U o O 3

C in g ^ -H TJ 01 f Ol in CJ rH in to CM to tí C •H OS co "I1 CJ IN rH -P rH CM to IN •v tS r-\ Ä Q) •p 3 S •H -H o rH in ,H O to •a > o x; to -P OS [^ 00 in T3 •H rH to IN too to C ts S tS i-H to IN t- CM c: fcO • IN • • • tS tu OS o CS a iñ 'H -P o ^H t- IN Xi Q) 3 C 1 •H •H -H rH D- IN O c; •M •* o -p tO E 60 •H OS CO rH tu tj rH 04 rH 10 •H T3 „ •ri rH to to c to IN • • • rs CJ OS OS to CO XI (^ O rH Ci CO IN CO •ri -P 3 M Ä ÍH •a -P -P bû c tu rH •H Ü •ri rH o in 00 rH O 5c a ,—{ to • • XI x: H œ os to » ts ai H CO IO in to

•H ts o rH to CO to > x: IN • • • • rH ts OS IN o in in U O tu ,—| ID a to i tfl o ^ •a 0) •p Ä 0 •H -p •H -P £1 rH in o OS -jj c M to • • CO •H tu D as to H «H Ü i-i

O =H O û) 01 C +as 60 to to a o 13 tu tS XI -p -p 10 rH u v—y G 3 U 3 a 0) to c 1 0 U ts ts •rl a a tu ai XI o U u CeJ u £4 a. i tn -63- to 35.6 per cent, of those with electric light fron 54.8 to

88.3 per cent, of those with toilet with VÏ.C. from 14.2 to

45.2 per cent, and of those with water supply through plumb-

ing system within the dwelling from 27.8 to 65.0 per cent.

However, in spite of the general improveinent, the situation is not yet satisfactory, particularly in the rural areas of the country. -64-

CHAPTER IV

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND INTERNAL MIGRATION

4.1. Definitions and sources of data

Greece is divided into 9 geographical Departments, and these Departments are further divided into 52 administrative regions (nomos). When the State of modern Greece was esta- blished in 1828 it comprised only Central Greece, Peloponne-

sos and the Cyclades islands, but other parts of the country were liberated soon afterwards (mainly in 1881 and 1913). The

evolution of the population of these Departments since their

annexation is evident through the subsequent population censu-

ses (Table 4.1).

Since 1928 the communes and municipalities of the country

are classified into urban, semi-urban and rural areas. Ac-

cording to this classification urban is the population of ci-

ties of more than 10,000 inhabitants, semi-urban is the popu-

lation of towns of 2,000-9,999 inhabitants and rural is the popu-

lation of villages of less than 2,000 inhabitants. Urban po-

pulation naturally comprises the population of Greater Athens,

Greater Salónica, and Greater Patras (the three larger cities

of Greece, in 1971) as well as that of all other urban agglomerations. It should be noted that definition of urban-rural

population differs for the censuses prior to 1920.

All the classifications in this chapter by urban, semi- -65- IO Ol Tf Ol to CO 10 CO O CO CD 00 197 ] 98 6 12 1 18 4 65 9 31 0 32 9 21 0 45 6 189 0 353 2 876 8

t> •* O CO •* CD CO CD in CM O CO

to IO 10 0 12 3 196 J 21 2 69 5 35 2 to 25 4 48 3 109 6 189 0 282 3 838 8 O O o CO O CD Ol CO « CM 10 CO 12 1 195 ] 12 6 62 9 33 0 33 6 28 1 22 8 46 2 170 0 228 7 112 9 763 2

CO CM O CO H 1—I 1—1 01 O to Ol i i 12 9 25 0 59 0 33 2 194 C 35 9 30 4 43 8 203 2 115 6 175 2 734 4 3 05 to i> eg CM CD K3 CM IV O t*- to i O 00 i 192 Í 12 9 21 3 49 3 31 2 30 3 to to 159 2 105 3 141 2 620 4 H to rH 01 in H CO Ol eg 00 00 eg m CM O CD j CO 92 0 36. 2 to eg O CD I 05 to 05 on 1-1

to oo « in oi oi in o « i-i i i 0 eg io in i-i i i to r» 01 05 M CM « CD 01 CM i-l I io r-i f- o m Ci Kl co oi •* tó iñ i i i i i i CO to oi to io co i i i i i i IV 00 i-l CM 10 01 eg O 10 iH 00 10 I I I 1 I I oo O to to to i i i i i i CO •H CD co M eg to H CM c 10 N to « « I I I I 1 1 1 en CD TP 10 IO I 1 I I I I I t-- in t^ H CM to

to m ol os Ol 10 « 00 I I I I I I 1 a CD * CM r-l I I I I I I IO TP CD i-l CM

O CO OO I I I I I I I to i-l CO rH I I I I I I I O! TP in i-i O o ou OB« I I I I I I I O s rH

Data concerning Internal Migration were collected orily during the last population census (1971), and they refer only to the five years preceding the census. In order to measure the expansion and the form of the internal migration during that period, all persons born before January 1966 were asked as to the place of their regular residence, namely in which municipality or commune they usually resided, in December 1965.

This information, combined with the place of usual residence during the census conduct, yielded the data on internal migration. A migrant (i.e. out-migrant and in-migrant) is any person which, in the year 1971, was living in a municipality or commune other than the one of December 1965. Data concerning internal migration refer to households members and therefore the figures given for various groups are not identical with those presented in other tabulations.

4.2. Population distribution by departments

Table 4.1 shows the evolution of the population of Greece by geographical departments during the period 1839-1971. The growth of the population is continuous, uninterrupted and rapid only in the department of Central Greece, due to the intense internal migration towards Athens, which belongs to this department. In the other departments the stagnation of the rate of -67- population growth became evident after the Second World War, and since 1961 has given place to actual decline. The decline was more marked in the departments with large segments of rural population.

4.3. Population distribution in urt -n - rural areas and in major cities

In the census of 1971 more than half of the population were residents of cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants, and almost 30 per cent were living in Greater Athens, the capital of the country. The same census has also demonstrated the hopeless shrinkage of the rural population. In 1971 only 3 percent of the population were living in villages of less than 200 inhabitants, whereas the remaining rural population was almost equally distributed in villages of 200-499, 500-999 and 1,000-

1,999 inhabitants (Table 4.2).

Table 4.3 shows the precentage distribution of population of Greece in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of the country, in the six population censuses since 1920. During the last fifty years the augmentation of urban and the shrinkage of rural population have been continuous, but they were accelerated between 1961 and 1971. The decrease of the absolute and relative size of the rural population has been accompanied by a marked distortion of its age structure (Table 4.4), which reflects, in a negative way the age structure of the population of migrants.

Thus, in rural areas only 36.6 per cent are 15-44 years old (of which 47.9 per cent males), as compared to 41.3 per cent in -68- o œ to v- 8 m

8 to

in Ó

0o0 Cl 03 E ï +3

1 0>

m CM Kl

01 iH ta •O a es •H t> EH n o u '==

H 00 H

o t

in 1O

O m DJ

e a O o -o o -H •H C •H e a, +> Ht +a> uai 3 a m H to r-t 3 3 O a, a s 0.x: « o -p O Si o -69-

Table 4.3 Percentage distribution of population of Greece in urban (cities of more than 10000 inhabitants), semi-urban (towns of 2000-9999 inhabitants), and rural (villages of less than 2000 inhabitants) areas of the country. Censuses 1920-1971

Census of Percentage distribution in areas Year Urban Semi-urban Rural

1920 26.6 9.7 63.7 1928 31.1 14.5 54.4 1940 32.8 14.8 52.4 1951 37.7 14.8 47.5 1961 43.3 12.9 43.8 1971 53.2 11.6 35.2

Table 4.4 Percentage distribution of population of Greece (census 1971) in urban, semi-urban and rural areas, by sex and age groups

Percent by age groups Percent 0-14 15-24 25-44 45-64 65+ males

Urban 23.0 16.6 29.7 2] .2 9.5 48.7 Semi-urban 26.7 14.3 27.0 20.6 11.4 49.8 Rural 27.2 12.0 24.6 22.6 13.6 48.6

Tot¿il 24.9 14.7 27.6 2.1 .7 1] .1 48.8 -70-

semi-urban areas (of which 49.8 per cent males), and 46.3 per

cent in urban areas (of which 49.7 per cent males). On.the

other hand the percentages of children and old persons are markedly higher in the rural than in the urban population,

whereas the corresponding figures for the semi-urban population

hold intermediate positions (Table 4.4). These differences are

due less to fertility and mortality differentials than to the

decrease of the active population of adults in the rural (and

semi-urban) areas of Greece.

4.4. Internal migration

Table 4.5 shows the distribution of households members

born before 1966 by sex and residence in 1971. The Table shows

also the distribution of households members belonging to these

groups according to their residence in 1965 (a) in the same mu-

nicipality or commune, or (b) elsewhere in Greece, or (c) a-

broad. Thus, the Table allows an evaluation of the extent of

internal migration in Greece in the last 5 years before the

1971 census.

About 88 per cent of households members were living in

1971 in the same municipality or commune as in 1965, whereas

10 per cent have moved to their new residence from elsewhere

in Greece and 2 per cent have moved there from abroad. The

proportion of in-migrants was highest in urban areas and par-

ticularly in Greater Salónica (20 per cent of the resident po-

pulation of 1971) and lowest in rural areas (6 per cent of the

resident population of 1971). The population of males was only -71-

Table 4.3 Households members born before 1966, by sex, residence in 1971 and residence in 1965. Numbers in thousands

Residence in 1965 Residence at the Households 1Q71 <-on a members In the same Elsewhere ia census (total) municipality in Abroad or commune Greece

Number % Number % Number % Number % Greater Athens total 2233.2 100.0 1915.7 85.8 256.1 11.5 61.4 2.7 males 1068.5 100.0 913.6 85.5 122.4 11.5 32.5 3.0 females 1164.7 100.0 1002.1 86.0 133.7 11.5 28.9 2.5

Greater Salónica total 487.4 100.0 389.2 79.9 85.0 17.4 13.2 2.7 males 237.0 100.0 186.3 78.6 43.3 18.3 7.3 3.1 females 250.4 100.0 202.9 81.0 41.7 16.6 5.9 2.4

Greater Patras total 104.9 100.0 90.9 86.7 12.7 12.1 1.3 1.2 males 50.6 100.0 43.3 85.6 6.6 13.0 0.7 1.4 females 54.3 100.0 47.6 87.7 6.1 11.2 0.6 1.1

Other urban areas total 1226.5 100.0 1041.5 84.9 168.1 13.7 16.9 1.4 males 591.9 100.0 499.1 84.3 83.4 14.1 9.4 1.6 females 634.6 100.0 542.4 85.5 84.7 13.3 7.5 1.2

Semi-urban ai'eas total 891.7 100.0 783.2 87.9 98.3 11.0 10.2 1.1 males 432.0 100.0 378.1 87.6 48.1 11.1 5.8 1.3 females 459.7 100.0 405.1 88.1 50.2 10.9 4.4 1.0

Rural areas total 2771.5 100.0 2600.1 93.8 144.3 5.2 27.0 1.0 males 1326.0 100.0 1242.5 93.8 67.1 5.0 16.4 1.2 females 1445.5 100.0 1357.6 93.9 77.2 5.4 10.6 0.7

Greece, total 7715.1 100.0 6820.7 88.4 764.5 9.9 130.0 1.7 males 3705.9 100.0 3262.9 88.1 370.9 10.0 72.2 1.9 females 4009.2 100.0 3557.8 88.8 393.6 9.8 57.8 1.4 -72- slightly more mobile.

Table 4.6 shows the distribution of in-migrants in the ma-

jor urban agglomerations and the other areas of the country from

elsewhere in Greece according to their residence in 1965. Of

in-migrants in Greater Athens and Greater Salónica about 45 per

cent arrive from rural areas, about 20 per cent from semi-urban

areas and about 35 per cent from other urban areas of the count-

ry. On the other hand, of in-migrants in other urban, or semi-

urban, or rural areas, about 55 per cent arrive from rural areas,

about 12 per cent from semi-urban areas, about 19 per cent from

Greater Athens or Greater Salónica, and about 14 per cent from

other urban areas. It should be added that of the 764.5 thou-

sands households members who resided in 1965 in a municipality

or commune other than that in which they were enumerated in 1971,

.340.8 resided in 1965 within the same geographical department as

in 1971.

Table 4.7 shows the distribution of households members born

before 1966, and who resided in 1965 in a municipality or commune

other than that in which they were enumerated in 1971, by sex and

area of residence in 1965. The Table also shows the distribution

of out-migrants by area of residence in 1971. When the popula-

tion of each area is taken into account, it appears that internal

migration from Greater Athens towards other areas of the country

is relatively unimportant, whereas that fron other urban areas is

at least 3 times higher, that from semi-urban areas at least 4

times higher, and that from rural areas at least 5 times higher

than the corresponding rate from Greater Athens. During the five -73-

Table 4.6 Households members born before 1966 and who resided elsewhere in Greece in 1965 by residence in 1971. Percentage distribution by residence in 1965 within groups of migrants with the same residence in 1971

Residing Percentage distribution by residence in 1965 Residence at the elsewhere in ]971 census "f^w^u" 196j! . Greater Greater Greater Other Semi-urban Rural total(thousands) urban Athens Salónica Patras areas areas areas

Greater Athens 256.1 3.5 2.3 30.9 17.7 45.6 Greater Salónica 85.0 6.3 0.1 26.3 22.7 44.6 Greater Patras 12.7 14.2 1.3 14.1 14.1 56.3 Other urban areas 168.1 14.5 3.4 0.6 13.5 12.3 55.7 Semi-urban areas 98.3 15.2 3.9 0.8 14.6 13.3 54.2 Rural areas 144.3 13.0 3.4 0.7 14.3 10.6 58.0

Greece: total 764.5 8.5 3.1 1.1 21.0 14.8 51.5 -74-

Table 4.7 Households members (census 1971) born before 1966 and who resided elsewhere in Greece in 1965 by sex and residence in 1965. Percentage distribution by- residence in 1971 within groups of migrants with the same sex and residence in 1965

Percentage distribution Residence Residing elsewhere^ by residenCe in_1971 in 1965 in Greece in 1971: Greater Other urban Semi-urban Rural total (thousands) Atnens „eae areas areas

Greater Athens Both sexes 65.2 48.4 22.9 28.7 Males 35.6 48.5 22.2 29.3 Females 29.6 48.1 23.8 28.1

Other urban areas Both sexes 193.0 48.7 27.8 9.8 13.7 Males 98.5 46.0 28.7 10.5 14.8 Females 94.5 51.3 27.0 9.1 12.6

Semi-urban areas Both sexes 113.4 40.0 36.8 9.8 13.5 Males 54.7 40.4 36.8 9.3 13.5 Females 58.7 39.6 36.8 10.2 13.4

Rural areas Both sexes 392.9 29.8 35.3 13.6 21.3 Males 182.1 30.2 37.1 13.6 19.1 Females 210.8 29.4 33.8 13.5 23.3

Greece : total Both sexes 764.5 33.5 34.7 12.9 18.9 Males 370.9 33.0 35.9 13.0 18.1 Females 393.6 34.0 33.6 12.8 19.6 -75- years preceding the last census the rate of (internal) migration from urban areas was higher among males, whereas migration from semi-urban and rural areas was higher among females. Internal migration was directed mainly towards Greater Athens (33 per cent) ana other urban areas (35 per cent) and to a lesser extent towards semi-urban (13 per cent) and rural areas (19 per cent) (in the last case, mainly towards non-mountainous villages).

Table 4.8 shows in-migrants to and out-migrants from communes belonging to the main areas (urban, semi-urban, rural) as well as to the geographical departments of the country. The

Table allows an evaluation of the effect of internal migration on the growth of the corresponding segments of the population of Greece. When the actual population of every area and department is taken into account, it appears that the net effect of internal migration is strongly positive only for Greater Athens and

Greater Salónica, slightly positive for the remaining urban areas, and strongly negative for the rural areas. As a result, in all departments except of those of Central Greece and Macedonia, where

Athens and Salónica belong, the net effect of internal migration was a reduction of the population size by up to 1 per cent per year during the five-year period under consideration (1966-1970).

Table 4.9 shows the age structure of the population in urban, semi-urban and rural areas and of in-migrants to and out-migrants from communes belonging to these areas. The high proportion of persons aged 15-24 and 25-44 among the migrants, and the direction -76-

Table 4.8 In-migrants to and out-migrants from communes belonging (a) to main agglomerations, or to other urban, or semi-urban, or rural areas of the country, (b) to the ten Departments of the country. (Internal migration deduced for 764480 households members born before 1966, from their place of residence in 1965 and in 1971). Numbers in thousands

In- Out- In- Out- Areas Departments migrants migrants migrants migrants

Greater Athens 256.1 65.2 Greater Athens 256.2 65.2 Greater Salónica 85.0 23.6 Central Greece(rest) 89.1 116.4 Greater Patras 12.7 8.6 Peloponnesos 73.3 119.7 Other urban 168.1 160.8 Ionian Islands 12.2 22.0 Semi-urban 98.3 113.4 Epirus 26.8 47.0 Rural 144.3 392.9 Thessaly 52.1 80.9 Macedonia . 173.0 176.6 Thrace 17.4 33.7 Aegean Islands 25.2 45.2 Crete 39.2 57.8

Greece(total) 764.5 764.5 Greece(total) 764.5 764.5 -77- rH to -p e FH 10 t-- 00 01 O "^ to

•ir e a E Hc •O 1 toi S •PI • 10 C H 10 r* *c IO O 10 IO ctf £0 * Pi c •* Ol 10 to Ô 3 0to1 0) H 01 IO iH O O un M r^ 1 •rEH 1 •H bO c E •ri r—[ o 0) ai 0 Ul Ol •M U -p C 0) M cq 0 co Ol O a [». •S 3 Ol O IO C1-

ban , O] •H Pi FH FH Ol 01 8 m O H œ ti s a. 0 u ¡a •cH O FH 01 m 01 r-i IO IO r» 10 0 "0S Ul H IO IO 8 Ol o> •H H iH £1 F tD O

o, ro n s 0 bO H Ol ^1 H 8 o 0] 10 01 O h O E^" -P 3 Ol 10 00 Ol IO 0 10 O Pi rH H IO 01 rH 8 •H -p 0 O r-i •a J5 Oi 10 ai -p 0 0 u> s 00 18 •fl« 3 •p u H boto ó1 H Ol Tji to (0 o •H £îl 1 1 1 1 -p u E m 10 m IO IO 0 (4 1 J H Ol CO H C 0 bO 0. •H t -78- of the wave of migration from the villages towards the cities, help to explain the augmentation of these age-groups in the urban population and their underrepresentation in the rural population. -79-

CHAI'TER V

THE LABOUR FORCE

5.1. Sources of data and clef initions

The following analysis, as well as that presented in chap- ters III and IV, is based mainly on data derived from the sample elaboration of the returns of the 1971 census (NSSG, 1973a, 1973b,

1973c). The definitions and criteria used for the analysis are summarized below.

Persons aged 10 and over (excluding those making their military service and those serving prison terms) were classified as economically active and economically non-active. A person was considered as "working" when by his work he earned his own or his household's living. Two different criteria were used for this classification.

According to the first criterion, as economically active were considered those who replied that they usually work, no mat- ter whether during the census period were working or not. Thus as economically active were considered (a) those who had lost their job, but they were looking for one (unemployed), (b) those who happened to abstain from their job, because of illness or leave of absence, (c) those who took a job a few days before the census day, (d) those periodically working in seasonal jobs, and.

(e) the unpaid family members, if they systematically work daily and at least for one third of the normal working time, within the family enterprise. All others were considered as economically -80- non-active. Most of the classifications in this chapter are made according to this criterion.

According to the second criterion, the classification of a person as economically active or economically non-active was made by. reference -to his employment situation in the week preceding the census day. Persons aged 10 and over were considered as: employed, if during the week preceding the census day had worked more than 10 hours, or less than 10 hours (or not at all) because of leave of absence, illness, lack of clients etc; unemployed, if during the week preceding the census day had worked less than 10 hours (or not at all) but they had declared that they were looking for a job; economically non-active, if during the week preceding the census day, neither had they worked more than 10 hours, nor were they looking for a job.

Although the two classifications are based on different criteria and do not coincide conceptually, they are nevertheless highly correlated and therefore their joint use, as in Tables

5.1 and 5.2 does not introduce any serious error.

•5.2. Economically active population by age. sex and employment status

Inspite of the increase, however slow, of the population of Greece in the last decade, the labour force has decreased from 3,640 thousands in 1961 to 3,284 thousands in 1971. Seve- ral factors were responsible for this decline, including the following: (a) emigration, which has reached unprecedent levels during the mid 60's, (b) decrease of participation of women in -81-

Table 5.1 Population of Greece aged 10 and over classified into economically active and non- active by sex and areas (urban, semi-urban, rural). Percentage distribution of economically active by conditions of employment during the week prior to census day (1971)

Percentage distribution of Econo- Econo- Econ- economically active by condi- mically mically mically tions of employment during the Area Sex active non-active active proceeding week (thousands) (thousands) (per cent) Employed Employed Total for 20 for up unemPx- hours or to 19 oyed more hours Greece Both 3283.9 3886.3 45.8 100.0 76.4 20.3 3.3 Males 2369.8 1029.3 69.7 100.0 80.8 16.2 3.0 Females 914.1 2857.0 24.2 100.0 65.0 30.9 4.1

Urban Both 1569.3 2278.6 40.8 100.0 84.1 12.0 3.9 Males 1202.3 613.3 66.2 100.0 86.0 10.6 3.4 Females 367.0 1665.3 18.1 100.0 78.2 16.4 5.4

Semi-urban Both 369.1 449.5 45.1 100.0 71.7 24.3 4.0 Males 279.0 115.5 70.7 100.0 76.8 19.5 3.7 Females 90.1 334.0 21.3 100.0 56.1 38.9 5.0

Rural Both 1345.4 1158.2 53.7 100.0 68.3 29.2 2.5 Males 888.4 300.5" 74.7 100.0 74.9 22.8 2.3 Females 457.0 857.7 34.8 100.0 55.0 42.2 2.8 -82-

Table 5.2 Population of Greece aged 10 and over classified into economically active and non- active by age and sex. Percentage distribution of economically active by conditions of employment during the week prior to census day (1971)

Percentage distribution of eco- Econo- Econo- Econo- comically active by conditions Sex and age mically mically mically "eedin^îTk* ^^ "^ *"" active non-active active n£_ï-Ë (thousands) (thousands) (per cent) _, , . Employed Employed for 20 for up ' hours or to 19 Oy _ _ _ more hours Male 10-14 41.7 325.8 11.3 100.0 66.6 17.2 16.2 " 15-19 156.2 164.7 48.7 100.0 78.0 14.5 7.5 11 20-24 165.6 56.4 74.6 100.0 82.7 11.1 6.2 " 25-29 220.2 16.7 92.9 100.0 85.7 11.0 3.3 ii 30-44 886.1 32.0 96.5 100.0 85.6 12.1 2.3 " 45-64 757.8 148.7 83.6 100.0 80.0 18.1 1.9 " 65* 142.3 284.9 33.3 100.0 56.9 42.5 0.6 " 10 or more 2369.7 1029.3 69.7 100.0 80.8 16.2 3.0

Female 10-14 24.2 322.2 7.0 100.0 49.6 30.6 19.8 15-19 88.7 233.7 27.5 100.0 65.5 24.6 9.9 20-24 112.4 192.8 36.8 100.0 76.2 17.3 6.5 25-29 85.2 172.3 33.1 10O.0 76.3 19.7 4.0 30-44 319.9 677.7 32.1 100.0 70.0 27.1 2.9 45-64 244.8 747.4 24.7 100.0 62.3 35.8 1.9 65+ 38.9 510.8 7.1 100.0 28.2 71.4 0.4 10 or more 914.1 2857.0 24.2 100.0 65.0 30.9 4.1 -83- economic life, due to progressive urbanization of the population, (c) prolongation of the average time spent in education and (d) improvement of the social security services, including the granting of pensions to large segments of the rural population (Center of Planning and Economic Research,1972b).

Tables 5.1 and 5.2 show the population of Greece (census

1971) aged 10 and over, classified into economically active and non-active, by sex and area class (Table 5.1) and by sex and age-group (Table 5.2). In addition, these Tables show the per-

centage distribution of economically active by conditions of

employment during the week preceding the census day in the various areas of the country (Table 5.1) and in every sex and age-

group (Table 5.2).

About 70 per cent of the male and 24 per cent of the female population of Greece are economically active. Among both men and women the percentage of economically active is highest in rural and lowest in urban areas,- and the differences remained unchanged when age-standardization was performed to account for the existing differences in the age structure of the populations compared. On the other hand, about 29 per cent in the rural,but only 12 per cent in the urban areas, of the corresponding economically active population, were employed for less than 20 hours weekly.

With respect to employment status by age and sex, it is noteworthy that the proportion of unemployed declines steadily with advancing age among both men and women. More than 80 per -84- cent of economically active men (86 per cent in the age-groups

25-44) but only 65 per cent of economically active women (76 per cent in the age-groups 20-29) were employed for more than

20 hours a week.

TaBle 5.3 shows the median value of hours of work during the week preceding the census day, among those employed during that week by sex, age, marital status and agricultural or non- agricultural occupation. It appears that men are working more than women, the young more than the old, single persons more than those ever married, and those engaged in non-agricultural occupations more than those engaged in agricultural ones (pos- sibly because of the seasonal nature of agricultural work, or because of the high proportion of employees among the non-agricultural workers).

In general, of the economically active population of Greece

(3,284 thousands) 72 per cent are males and 62 per cent are 15-44 years old. These facts emphasize the importance of the emigration wave since most of the emigrants are economically active and the large majority are 15-44 years old (Table 2.20).

5.3. Economically active population by occupation, branch of economic activity, and level of education

The distribution of the economically active population by branch of economic activity (NSSG,1971a) is shown in Table 5.4.

It is evident that in rural areas the large majority of the economically active population is concentrated in Agriculture, whereas in the cities the distribution is more even, since Manufactu- -85-

c \ ^ m 1 O co 1 cr iS O 1 r-H 3 1 • • C -H 1 < 0 1 10 •+ 1 iH •ri -P f., 1 •* tri I ^ Si tí

733 o3, O 1 PH rs o 1 CS 0) O S rH r-^ C3 r-l E Ü3 1 b 1 r- IO 1 m O -p r-l 1 -Í- T-' 1 to CU i S 1 & 1 •* lí Ü 1 0 1 es O -n' 1 M > 1 M M 1 -P i C -p £5 es 1 0 e« [ ^ =a i 1 3" c c 1 u 1 rH o o 1 y 1 tí ic h ! ° -p '—• tn rH 1 to O CD r-l 0 3 1 * * « c- U 1 00 IO O rH •M to w to r-l tí U M

T> 3 00 r- 0 U • * CO -H 10 ce t* CO 3 fc, CM /H U) tO c ca ^* o CO co in CM o — 1 u in oï 0 r- O w TÍ* tO

H C CO 0) IN • • to o es 1 a •H sa 0 to in CN in U W O CO CO -P to oj CM » O 3 O o to •P s cá es •0 •P Ci •H 0 f IN C Cu ,_, ci -J es •* to 3 C •H á O es tí rH •«i in 00 ™ X S ÚÜ 1 • * 1 C 1 tO rH | CM o ce •ri 1 •* •* j

3 ,O rH 1 es ii 1 a > eu I o i M 1 C S ! CU 1 10 CC 1 •Jl rH 1 H -P 1 O CS 1 •^ •3 (S : 1 rH = | •p eu s\ i c r CS O 1 0 ¡S 4-1 1 1 T. fa 1 m -86-

•"JiOlOlOi-HOlOlrHOcO 01 O O O OJ O O 10 O os 00 8 0 u H

o iHOrrCOtOOtOOlcO

lOtOtOrHOlOClOlO'* O H O 1 O O 00 O H OJ rH CD 8 ó 0)

ISCMCOOJOÎOStOr-lin HtOOr-lOISHClH 10 0 27 9 rHtOCOCOmOlOJOlCJÏTj' 0 r-H ti -P X ISHtOOCOOCOrHOlr-l tí O 01 100 . a toi 369 .

to is 01 CM œ is 0 O inoooomtoinTito IS n r-i n 8 CD T3 uiioo^MHioncoco in o co rH is 01 •* in 01 O Ol es Ol I rH H M o o rH 01 to (MOJOOO'tlOHO X Oll 10 O N H O CO O ' O tO 01 o o Ol r-l M r-i 01 CD CS m toi in .Q 3 I rH •H IS tOOinOOOOrHOlcOH E O) in H r-l CJ r-4 tí M - 3 00 00 C*- O3 C~ CD c to •Q O inOcDOOrHOOOlOH- o 01 U CJ tO H rH r-l H o CD 3 tO 01 o m. u rcco^cocot>ir)*inoi C3 O xi OOcDOC-OcOOlOlrH to o o 8 CO 01 ísO to X) • c -— CS 01 Ü R. -p X 3 CJ O Ü 00 h •p 01

bO •p to c es U 01 01 T3 •ri CJ •p > C 0) •H 0> •H -P H CS s •P C -P > u to 3 0) o 01 o es u CSO 3 MM 0 1 c o C - c O •a >» r. a o U O CS "O ÍH -P .ri & !H es -P u -p to es cS -H o cj to CJ C 3 -H +û tfl U U -^ ¿S -P CJ G u c -H a 0) •ri 01 0 •r| 01 Ü •H - •rl E Ü -H 3 „ Pi 0 O U "S 0 0 ¡0 05 •H •a o es 5 rH C -rl c C w« « ¿X! S -P S es O E a 0 CS § •£ u -p 00 o -P u o CJ Ö c ä Sr4 es 0> 0 U -p u O u Eul M \A C a 0 n -87- ring occupies 27 per cent, Services 20 per cent, Trade 17 per cent and Construction and Transport 10 per cent each, of the economically active population. There are more men than women in every major branch of economic activity, but the "males to females" ratio varies considerably being highest in Mining and

Construction and lowest in Services and Agriculture.

Table 5.5 shows the distribution of the economically active population by major occupational groups (NSSG,1971b). As

expected, in rural areas the large majority of the economically

active population are Farmers (80 per cent), followed by Crafts- men and non-agricultural labourers (11 per cent), whereas in ur-

ban areas the majority are Craftsmen and labourers (45 per cent),

followed by Clerical workers (14 per cent), Merchants and sales workers (11 per cent) and Service workers (11 per cent). In urban areas 10 per cent of the economically active population hold

Professional or Administrative occupations, while in semi-urban

and rural areas the corresponding figures are 4 per cent and 2 per cent respectively.

Tables 5.6 and 5.7 show the proportions of illiterate and

those with secondary or higher education in every branch of economic activity and in every major occupational group. It is in-

teresting, that the level of education of the economically active males is not very different from that of the economically non- active, whereas among females the educational level is higher among the economically active. The difference is not wholly attributable to the existing difference in the age structure of -88-

rHOOHHOlTiO o CO 10 0 •n 45 7 fe (0 1-1 rH 00 H O! Cl o 0> (N O 1-1 N to O i-H 100 . 888 .

O O CU in CO o I •P X M OHM 0)01 HO u O 0) t> H 100 . ü 345 . o aa te

isHHiointocoo

16 OO T ai o> 01 01 IS o r-l

•O Jí 01 OO T 41 •P X 03 O 11

CO to 369 .

Oí 01 01 oowaiwooioioto O O

ü H OO T t, S loooocoinoii-i H 01 H (M o. 367 . •o O to

e 'OO T oí

al 1202 . ê O to Jí 01 « 6 05 -oP Xo 8 m

•s I OCMi-lCOtOOdO * -H 41 in rH 8 2 10

cMoiOoioisooin 05 to to 8 (0 H to 01 10 O Cl oai •p x to a O 0) 8 CO H OÍ •o to § Ü •tí X 05 -p 01 i-H 01 to 41 01 Oí 10 rH >> 3 r-l •H b Ü a IO al -P 01 01 CO Ü 3 •o s •H U (0 41 C 41 O O 2 01 c 01 01 P O -p > m -p !» o rH •H -P •H m 1-1 •H X - XI O Ü « 01- al C -P C -p 3 3 -P - 41 U 41 Ü o U Ü 01 œ 10 r-l \ -p o U -O es u tí Si •H a o e •o 41 TJ 41 -p U o> co o i-H -H U M C C y, u tB e, -H —* -p -p d bO CS -H i-H 0) CS 3 -P U! CS 41 O E H .p, O Ö U O œ H C U S w C kl p, O •H -p H •p - O 01 Ü •H hO 3 X œ 13 C 41 10 E -P •H •*"* S m Ü E u œ 0 c O H » » E H o ft '« Ü o 41 c •H £ •H 4i -P -a O IB c 3 o o «H •H U Ü > E H Cl tl 'H « n -P o o o o o u o > ¡H C •p U 41 O ¡H B 01 01 X T33 xbfl- 'HP CD CM to Ol o Ol rH 00 to CM Ü •P G *rt CS 'H 0 X U o to O 10 H fr- m CD CD in CD •r•sj h S U 3 rH rH co CM fr- co to rH 01 d^ CO O 01 01 Í? •p -P !w CQ B U o H fr- CO rH CD in to O in CD es 01 01 ï FH r-l 05 H Ol Ol CO in fr- to H •a Ü -P oo c •H to rH r-H o h M u 01 H o Pc« eu- -H to ri " X 1 il 01 S rH > M Ol to OS CD fr- Ol CM m Cl IO rH « es -H es 3 u -P -P rH CM rH •f to o CM fr- 1< t J -H U 0 co fr- H CM IO rH rH T3 w s ta -p rH rH Ol es >> h tí •p U 01 O 4> a cS X 'H P 01 X 73 bo-p m O Ol C£> 00 fr- OS M 10 01 to -P fi »ri CÖ Of o H Ol CM in rH H CM to CO •H O X Ü 0> u » CJ 3 rH to CM CM CD IO to H 01 01 k 13 •H 0H to o oi rH t-1 01 •H •p -P cS B h CQ IO 01 01 fr- (0 to rH C0 CM CD o fr- 01 O o -p 0 iH O m CM CM in IO CM O rH IO in tl r•H H Î. rH 01 rH fr- CU -H

pe : 0) rH S>> •• 1 r-l 01 fr- fr- n OH >H IO O •* to m O CD to IO Cd 3 tí C8 *H CCt 1(0 O Ü -P -P IO Ol m CM to m fr- ei >a U -H O O H Ol CM IO fr- 8 10 co -P 0c1 Cd E es -P CD to CM CM CM CM •H Ü S3 co > >> h B •H -P U 01 O in +i 01 S CJ CJ 1 01 X T33 xbo 'H-P « § 01 u •p B -H es H CM rH fr- O CD tO fr- rH 10 to rH 01 'H O X CJ u ï O 3 rH Ol Ci O m CM m rH ^" CO XeS -Au 01 01 &H T3 rH * CM CM m in to rH EH g ô ft oo o oi S ta œ 01 0 01 -p Ü X •P es O) CD CM •<* H CD IO O CM in to CM IO CM o CO Ol O o X •H H Jí -p U r-l CO •p O 01 rH O n CU -ri X c CJ •H 1 rH 01 to O Ol O o H H CM CD Ol eCS QQ O rH > rH O rH 01 in in O to CO 01 rH ro fiu a OB CesJ -H-P e-sp IO CM (0 CM m IO rH r- O CD CD Ü 'H Ü O to in ci to CM ^< CM •a 1 ¿1 E es -P i-H IO a Ü

) 0 •H j2a u b0 •P s o C o CS o -p •H -p U +> •H u co 01 •ri 01 ->p 01 'M C » ü •H > CO 3 01 CS 0) •H s> rH 3 M tí rH tí •H o- tí rH •rt 0 U 01 •H o U 01 rH -P rH a •a U •p •A M U rH O es tí Ï c •H -P Ü •P to tí tí -P CJ o CO u -P as 3 o CJ ti B CO rH ü • ri •ri 01 •H rH U • H 3 o O • H 01 Ü •H •• E X E 3 bO CS U IH Q. •> Ü 01 E oi 0 a u o U C c s c •H • H 3 CJ to "O tí > B -H o es o U C 01 Ü te U -P O -p ü u box rH o u 01 O U U

Ü Ma n 2 [2 0) a 01 < X m o EH H 1a en z M es -90- >5 fclC l

ta si -H (N -SMP C -H (51 H.o) n io onto tD H O Si U a œ cq r-i Ü 3 c u -a •H .G M O 0)

-p 03 tí u OOnUHMO OJ a H 10 H •o

O 1-1 c ta O U n C3 tO U O O to CO 00 CO 63 a -p VÎIHSI •o ^ j] O c c «¿•ri to 15 TJ M+> 1 O -P c -H ¡a 'H Oí Ul CO 05 ID CM rH •P Ü 3 I tí 0) U S " 1H 10 O O O •p tu •H -p ta -H t- O) -p H OOOHMO*IO C 0) 10 Ü 3 10 'M C <3 O O I iH O o< u O i-l > rH c ta -H ta 0IOlDCM«5^O Oï o u -p -p CMOItDOCTfiTjiOltO to C CJ U -H Ü O rH i-H rH H CO CO to CO U 63 E ta -p OÍ Cl -p H a)o d SÄ to t- OJ H U C o ta O, n o h .a I H (U OH >H £§ C t5 -H ea (DdOlHCOOtOO) to O Ü -P -P mrj^nonioio CO ta z U 'H Ü O r-l CM CJ OJ tO O) CM *§• W E rt -P to tS o X Ml o 10 h

E ai o > >> •H h -p ü > rH 3 U !>> C o, o >5 ¡a rH M 3 -H rH +> rH O -P •H O IS C h (5 ri t8 -P o, ai U u o •H •• •H -H 3 X E V o > •p C 'H O -P 4-1 O -91- the two groups. It is also interesting that in several branches of economic activity female workers are frequently more educated than males. As expected the level of education is relatively high in Professional, Administrative, and Clerical occupations and relatively low among Farmers, Craftsmen and labourers, and

Service workers.

5.4. Economically active population by occupational status

Table 5.8 gives the distribution of economically active population according to occupational status in urban, semi-urban, and rural areas of the country, in males and females, in broad age-groups, and in the major occupational groups.

Employers represent a mere 4 per cent of the economically active population. They are proportionally more in urban areas and among males. Salary and wage earners form the largest part of the economically active population in urban areas (68 per cent), whereas in rural areas the proportion of own account workers (mainly males) and unpaid family members (mainly females) reaches 84 per cent.

Age is an important determinant of the distribution by occupational status. Before the age of 30 the majority of the economically active population are salary and wage earners, followed by the group of unpaid family members. With increasing age both these groups becone less important in proportional terms, while the percentage of own account workers (and to some extent of employers) rises sharply. Thus in the age-group 45-64 the proportions of salary and wage earners and unpaid family members are -92-

Table 5.8 Economically active by (a) urban, semi-urban and rural areas, (b) sex, (c) age groups and (d) major groups of occupations. Percentage distribution by occupational status. Greece, census 1S71

Econo- Percentage distribution mi callv ^v occupational status Classification „ ^ . . ft"—} Employers Recount Unpaid Salary and workers lamily wage earners members Greece 3283.9 4.4 35.7 17.7 42.2

Urban 1569.3 7.1 22.2 2.9 67.8 Semi-urban 369.2 3.4 44.2 18.3 34.1 Rural 1345.4 1.5 49.1 34.9 14.5 Male 2369.7 5.5 42.9 7.6 44.0 Female 914.2 1.5 16.7 44.1 37.7

10-29 894.1 2.1 13.9 26.2 57.8 30-44 1206.0 5.2 34.7 15.3 44.8 45-64 1002.6 5.4 49.6 13.7 31.3 65+ 181.2 5.3 71.2 14.3 9.2

Professional,technical,etc 186.2 4.-3 20.3 1.6 73.8 Administrative,executive,etc 22.4 21.0 4.3 0.4 74.3 Clerical,etc 249.4 0.3 2.5 0.8 96.4 Merchants and sales 231.7 16.0 51.5 5.7 26.8 Service 228.0 4.4 21.2 3.8 70.6 Farmers,loggers,etc 1330.5 1.6 54.0 39.6 4.8 Craftsmen and labourers* 966.2 6.2 22.4 2.6 68.8 Not determined/not declared 69.5 3.5 31.7 5.2 59.6

(not in agriculture) -93- about half the corresponding proportions in the age-group

10-29. By contrast the percentages of own account workers and employers in the age-group 45-64 are 3.5 and 2.5 times higher than the corresponding figures in the earlier age- group.

The distribution according to occupational status in the major groups of occupations is rather predictable. Among

Merchants and sales workers 52 per cent are own account workers and 16 per cent are employers, while among Farmers, loggers etc,54 per cent are own account workers and 40 per cent are unpaid family members. In all other major occupational

groups the large majority are salary and wage earners.

5.5. Economically non-active population

The economically non-active population comprises 30.3

per cent of the male population and 75.8 per cent of the female population, aged 10 and over. Proportionally, it is

larger i-n urban than in semi-urban or rural areas and it varies

considerably by age and sex (Tables 5.1 and 5.2).

In Table 5.9 data concerning the distribution of the eco-

nomically non-active population according (a) to reason for

not working and (b) to main source of sustenance, are summari-

zed. With respect to "reason for not working", comparisons

are hindered by the high and variable between sub-groups proportion of persons not working for reasons "other or not declared". Nevertheless it appears that in the total economically non-active population of Greece of both sexes, slightly more -94- •31 -P ail fi l< o - - •H a a O IO Cî O CM Cl rH r-H rH -H W O CM CM rH CM CM rH CM CM CM n cN cj

to ai ai to I ü u -p- E e -H B a! 00 00 in rH IO [> Cl ^ tO o S * a ai •H ai one rH CM H CM tO rH rH tO rH -p -p rH 01 3 10 XI 3 •ri CO U •a h -P >H rH Ol 10 o £ B i XI +> Ol CJ • il O toi 10 « I ts O to in ( to ci TC in O) CO tO 3 u an CO ts co cû D- CO CO 60 3 00 e-1 C*- CD 00 a o s -sp to 0) B •p Ü -H U ai ai E D- Cl CM ^ 00 Cl ^ tu CD o u CM tO CM CM tO rH to 10 oi to •H

fcD CM00O IDOCM GOTf' CD •p CD O O • in 1 tO ID Cl C rH IO rH 1 10 1 rH CM ^ ^ o rH CM iH

v -p ai a. t, o l, 01 B a C1- CO CO Ä M •P u u Cl CC CM Ci r-i r-H t^ fll rH 01 01 ^ ai O o ai - PH IO rH rH 10 rH H tO r-i to •Ol •a W B B ci § O -ri Cï O t^ I in ^1 H in ID CD IO tO SU m CM to ' Cl CM co to to 00 co co 3 O rH « .a * 2 ä B » B Cl CJ CM O CM ID in -Cl •H o e H •a u 1 to IS rH in H to H CM O O rH 0 03 o •p rH ai Cl if rH ai ö ai P-, to - u u a> - o &>, C ai ce ai • Cl CO • 00 in • to CM • H • CO rH rH • Cl CO • in g ID in ' R in ID 10 O s a c

. . . to a a>> -a o -H g to CO 10 10 in in o •ri •*> d 3 Su 10 CD Cl l> 00 10 in ci in * 00 Q t- ai B O « rH 3 00 CM m C1- rH CO in o in fi I C« O 00 o 00 CM CO IO H tO CO 'H «H o c -p J= IO H CM CM rH -P O U O O -P o ta c -p—' S ai B S o 3 B o 0) 0) to to ai a 01 tO rH ama J5 ai d •P rH S •P rH Ë O to 01 O a e ta 3? s. CQ S I*.

o -a O B II ê et -95- than one half are occupied with the housework and slightly- more than one quarter are pupils or students, while the actual proportion of invalids may be slightly higher than 6 per cent. On the other hand, the main source of sustenance for the economically non-active is Household for 77 per cent, Pen- sion for 16 per cent, Property income for 3 per cent, and Al- lowances and benefits for 2 per cent. The lack of reliable comparable data for the past make it difficult to attribute the proper significance to these figures. -96-

CHAPTER VI

POPULATION PROJECTIONS

6.1. Total population by age

This chapter- presents a series of population projections prepared by the Center of Planning and Economic Research (1972b).

Population projections for Greece have also been prepared by the

National Statistical Service of Greece (1966) and Siampos (1969) and another series ,is now in preparation by Professor Valaoras

(1974b) and the National Statistical Service. The projections presented in this chapter were based on the population of Greece as of 1.1.1970, estimated by the National Statistical Service and extended to the year 1985 and in less detail up to the year

2000. Population was projected from 1970 onward at five-years intervals. The evolution of the forces of mortality, fertility and migration in the period 1960-1969 were extrapolated into the future. Three different assumptions regarding fertility (optimistic, median and pessimistic) and one concerning the evolution of mortality and migration were used. The assumptions on which the population projections were based are given in Table 6.1.

Assumptions on fertility

(a) Optimistic assumption

According to this assumption the slight increase of the number of children per woman from 2.19 in 1960-1964 to 2.34 in

1965-1969 will continue its upward movement up to 2.79 in 1980-

1984. -97-

en o i 8 S 8 1O O) CO IO CM 05

05 I o O 2.9 5 C5 2.4 9 2.0 3 71.7 O! 76. 3

O 05 o co r- CD 10 o 1 05 co rf 01 in o O o í-i in CM CM Cl r- IN IN 05 i-I C O5 K> o co G5 CM H O i

U O d in CM Ci oj 500 0

a IN £- CO o o * CM CM O IN 05 lO CM CM O5 CD IN CM 3 a, 05 o CO co I CO CM in OJ CD co CM rH CO X! -P 05 r- eS H =H O CO O5 05 CM r-H c O o CD IN CM 05 co IN -op OJ X! C -o -p cS T) o h E OJ ¡4 •H o -p OH XI cS a •H -p Í. es a a OJ O teP ^ =H •H C ai 10 O. -wp -p -P O E ta •H 3 •p H es to •i-i •H ¡0 C C I—{ •p OJ U -p T! 10 a es a ü w i-l •H OJ Pi OJ 01 es U OJ o es -P n O S OH a H E H ^ •p •H 0 CS OJ a 3 • • • 01 01 EL, eS Ü -p Q, O Tí ! -98-

(b) Median assumption

In view of the great uncertainty of long-term trends, it is assumed that fertility will continue its upward trend, but in a shighter degree, so that the number of children per woman will be only 2.43 in 1980-1984 and 2.52 in 1995-1999.

According to this assumption the recently noted upward movement of the fertility levels is temporary and it is believed that fertility will resume its downward course reaching a low level of 2.10 in 1980-1984.

Assumptions on mortality

It is believed that the downward course of mortality will continue in the future. The increase of the expectation of life at birth will be slightly higher for females than for males.

It is also assumed that the rate of increase will be higher up to 1985 than thereafter up to 2000. Thus it is assumed that the expectation of life for the first period will increase by 0.7 years for males and 1.0 years for females for each five-years interval. For the second period the increase will be 0.4 years for males and 0.5 years for females. According to these assumptions the expectation of life will be 70.9 years for males and

75.2 years for females in 1980-1984 and 72.0 and 76.6. in 1995-

1999.

It is of particular interest that the expectation of life at birth in 1970 was recently estimated to exceed clearly the corresponding figure of the adopted assumptions for the period -99-

1970-1974 (section 2.4 page 26). Furthermore additional improve-

ment In life expectancy at birth may be readily achieved in

Greece, since infant mortality, which responds easily to so-

cial and hygienic measures, is still relatively high.

Assumptions on migration

The data on migration are incomplete since data on repa-

triation exist only from 1968 onward. Furthermore the most

unpredictable component of population projections is usually

migration. The present .series of projections were based on

the assumption that net migration will follow a downward trend.

Thus it was assumed that the annual net migration will be 20,000 for the period 1970-1974, 15,000 for the period 1975-1979, 5,000

for the period 1980-1984 and zero net migration from 1985 to 2,000.

It is rather unrealistic to assume that the notoriously through-

out its history mobile Greek population will eventually stop mi-

grating. However, these assumptions were based on the steady

decrease in Greece's net migration losses during the last few

years.

The three sets of population projections according to the

three assumptions on fertility are given in Tables 6.2, 6.3 and

6.4. The following conclusion may be drawn from the study of

these projections.

(a) The computed total population of Greece around 1985

will range from 9.9 to 9.7 and 9.5 millions, under the optimi-

stic, median and pessimistic assumptions respectively. It will

be around 10.7 millions in 2000 under the median assumption. -100-

o •H CO Cl CM Cl P o, 00 1 1 1 IO to rH to 1 1 rH IO rH o J 1 1 CM to •H to 1 1 1 Ci to rH aai Ci u •rH co o p- CM Cl c- H Cl • CM Ci Cl •p 10 IO Cl Ci Oi IO iH tO •* o to rf Ó H CM to e IO rH H CM to ri te Cl Ci •op, rH u o o. 01 si O IO IO to CM Cl Cl si p p I !> O co Tf Oi IO o IO CM rH CM to o H CM to a r- M

o ci 01 905 2 •a 01 to to IO tO H rH Cl O to IN to IO M Cl O to en CO ira à IO CM ^ Cl to IO o IO H CM to CO rH CM to rH oo •H Oi co

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ft 1070 7 CO O oo IO IN 03 M CO O D- to to CM CS i-l H CM CO 10371 . •H T3 10 O5 CM i—1 C-. CO ts Ol CO O O to iH rH i-l rH CO rH 0) -P C o iH o H H CO IS IS -o pj IS o es to rH cu IS rH rH CM CD i-f 09 CD a> o CM CO 00 O O (M CO o 1 o iH CO 05 [N. «ï rH CM CO rH CM CD rH I to Ol •* O CO Oi Ol o Iß rH IS 05 CU CD CD O) IS O H E CO |H CM CO rH fi O O es U O> CU IO 10 CO to O) O o cu CM IO O) IS IO O cu H CO rH u CO ca o 00

es a t h rH 3 IS œ . CU -p +> •— ft 3 o O •P cS CS o eS Oí K cu ft ,d 6o «H -p a O '—' -H -P c c (S H ü Ü o a CU -H c •H —i -H O Q (B U H co o -p bO -P I I + es cu •H ft rH fi è cu cu to o io io ••+-> O ft CU -p 3 3 rH CO CU O fi cu CU • T-3 CU -P 60 O eu CU Q CM to •* 10 -102-

(b) The net growth rate will vary around 0.8%, 0.6% and

0.5% for the period between 1970-1985 under the above three assumptions.

(d) The crude birth rate will increase only under the optimistic assumption.

(e) All used assumptions imply a progressive ageing of the

Greek population.

The computed figures may vary within large margins because they are the final products of lengthy elaborations based on in- herently weak data. However they roughly illustrate the alternative patterns of evolution of the main demographic characteristics of the population of Greece.

6.2. Labour force

According to the optimistic assumption (section 6.1) which was considered as realistic by the Center of Planning and Econo- mic Research (1972b) the labour force will increase annually by

1.10 per cent until 1985 and by 1.25 per cent afterwards and until 2000. These desired changes are expected to be accomplished through higher fertility and repatriation rates, as well as by the increasing participation in economic life of a few special population groups (married women, students etc) due to introductior and wider acceptance of flexible patterns of part-time employment.

The increasing participation of women in the' labour force, the prolongation of the average period devoted to education, and -103- the voluntary earlier retirement age, will cause important changes in the age and sex structure of the economically active population. Thus the proportion of women in labour force will increase from 28 per cent in 1971, to 31 per cent around 1985, and to 33 per cent in 2000. The age group 10-24 will decrease from 17 per cent in 1971, to 8 per cent in 1985 and to 7 per cent in 2000. The age-group 25-64 will increase from 77 per cent in 1971, to 88 per cent in 1985 and to 90 per cent in 2000.

Finally the age-group 65 or more will decrease from 6 per cent in 1971, to 4 per cent in 1985 and to 3 per cent in 2000.

Although the labour force will expand annually by 1.10 per cent until 1985 and by 1.25 per cent afterwards the total labour supply (in working hours) will increase by only 0.80 per cent until 1985 and by only 0.90 per cent afterwards. The discrepan- cy will reflect the progressively increasing proportion of part- time workers. Nevertheless, the total amount of working hours is expected to increase from 7 billions hours annually in 1971, to about 8 billions hours in 1985 and 9 billions hours in 2OOO. -104-

CHAPTER VII

POPULATION POLICY

7.1. Position of the Church

The Greek Orthodox Church, which is the official Church of the country, prohibits, condemns, and punishes not only the practice of abortion but also the avoidance of procreation.

(Old Testament, Chapter 38, Genesis, lines 8 etc). The Church does not allow abortion even under medical grounds.

According to the &Y' Rule of the Elvira's Synod the woman who induces abortion is punished with prohibition from the holy communion for a lifetime-that is until her last moments before death, when she is allowed to receive it. The punishment of a

10-year prohibition from the holy communion is imposed by 3asil the Great and others, while, according to Fasting John, 5-year and 3-year penalties are imposed on married and unmarried women, respectively. The penalty not only condemns the pregnant woman but includes also the physician who performs the abortion and all those who participate in any aspect of it.

The Greek Orthodox Church believes that every human being, including the fetus, is entitled to life. Only God can give life, and therefore nobody has the right to take life away, not even from the fetus. According to the moral rules, in very exceptional cases when the life of the pregnant woman is in danger and the physician faces the so-called confrontation of duties is he permitted to save the life of the mother by sacrificing the life of the fetus. -105-

The Greek Orthodox Church prohibits and condemns the use of abortifacient drugs as well as the means of controlling conception. The (married) woman who takes measures to prevent conception is punished by a 3-year forced abstention from the holy communion (21st Rule of Fasting John). The pregnant woman who uses abortifacient drugs, as well as her physician or anybody else who provides them, are condemned to a 10-year abstention from the holy communion (91st Rule of "Penthekti Synod"). Eu- nuchism is also prohibited and condemned according to the eighth

Rule of the "Protosecond Synod". A legendary example is that of

Origenes who as a teacher of young women castrated himself for reasons of self-control and was condemned by the Church.

The prohibition and condemnation of all those who avoid child-bearing is illustrated in Chapter 38 of Genesis of the

Old Testament with the episode of Avnan and his wife Thamar who was the widow of his brother. Avnan did not want to have a child with her, and for this reason he let his seed pour on to the earth. God considered that as an evil deed and punished him with death.

Despite the general strictures of the Greek Orthodox Church against contraception, many religious leaders feel that because of the large number of illegal abortions in Greece they may have to be more realistic about contraception. Of course abstinence is openly accepted and the rhythm method is not condemned. Among enlightened priests there seems also to be a widespread attitude to advise that "instead of ending with an abortion God gave you the mind to prevent conception". -106-

After the publicity given in recent years to the epidemic nature of illegal abortions in Greece, the Church has been greatly concerned with the subject. Through a special committee created within the Holy Synod the problem of abortions was reviewed and examined in detail. An encyclical, which was distributed among the priests, provided the necessary information and stated the position of the Church on abortion. The encyclical stressed mainly that "the murderous trend of inducing abortion is threaten- ing the nucleus of the family unit and endangering the survival of our nation". Other points were also considered: the financial problem, the psychological consequences, and the medical complications.

The encyclical urged the believers against "this destructive trend" and asked them "to realise that children in a family are a bles- sing not a curse" (Louros, Danezis and Trichopoulos,1974).

7.2. Contraception, contraceptives, and abortion laws

There is no special legislation concerning the importation and distribution of contraceptives in Greece. All pharmaceutical products have to be approved by the "State Laboratory for the Con- trol of Pharmaceutical Products", acting similarly to the Food and

Drug Administration of the U.S.A. Although many oral contraceptives are available in Greece none is manufactured by Greek pharmaceutical industries or tested locally by either government or private organizations.

Condoms are freely sold throughout Greece. Diaphragms and spermicides have recently been introduced but their circulation is limited. Only one type of intrauterine device is available. -107-

Oral contraceptives were introduced in 1963; they are not ad- vertised as contraceptives but only for their gynecological effects and can be obtained without a physician's prescription.

Male sterilization is not practiced. Female sterilization is practiced on a limited number of women on strictly medical grounds.

The modern aspects of control of conception are not formally included in the medical curriculum. Furthermore legal fertility control services are not yet provided in governmental programs of public health. Therefore, knowledge among practicing physicians about family planning and contraception is frequently inadequate. As a result, only a small proportion of Greek women make use of the modern and reliable methods of contraception, and the effectiveness and side effects of these methods are frequently unknown.

Abortions are illegal in Greece. Their legal status is covered by the following articles of the Criminal Code.

A pregnant woman who purposefully destroys by abortion or otherwise the embryo she is bearing, or who allows someone else to do so, is punishable by imprisonment of up to three years. V/hoever, with the approval of the pregnant woman,brings about the embryo's death or provides to her the means for doing so is punishable by imprisonment of at least 6 months. If, furthermore, he performs abortions on a regular basis he is punishable by imprisonment of ten years maximum. Whoever, without the knowledge of the pregnant woman or against her desires, purposefully brings about the embryo's death, is punishable by imprisonment of a minimum of 5 years. The act is not unjust and remains unpunished when performed by a physician with the purpose of avoiding an otherwise unavoidable threat to the life, or a serious and permanent damage to the health of the pregnant woman, provided that the need for abortion is also certified by a second physician. -108-

Also unpunishable is an abortion performed by a physician, with the approval of the pregnant woman, when, conception took place subsequent to rape, or to violation of a woman unable to resist, or of a girl under 16 years of age, or incest. Whoever, in public, or by circulating pamphlets, pictu- res, or designs, proclaims or advertises, even if subtly, drugs or other objects, as capable of causing abortion, or similarly makes available his own or someone else's services for performing or assisting in an abortion, is punishable by imprisonment of one year maximum.

Inspite of the legal definitions and obligations and the great number of abortions performed (Valaoras,Polychronopoulou and Trichopoulos,1970) only about 20 to 30 cases are brought to court every year, and then only if the woman dies or a dis- agreement arises among the persons involved (Louros, Danezis and Trichopoulos,1974). This implies that abortions in Greece are "legally illegal".

1.3. The development of population policy

The rapid population growth has never been considered a catastrophic threat in Greece. One reason for this relaxed attitude is that during the last 150 years the Greeks have been obliged to fight several wars for their independence -another that emigration has always been relatively high. Indeed it was the recent decline, not increase, of the rate of population growth that has drawn the attention of officials and the public to the problems of population. Environmental concerns have also been expressed relatively late in Greece and they are United to the industrialization of the country, and the concentration of the population in the cities, rather than to the fairly small rate of population growth. -109-

Fertility rates began to decline in the 1930s but it was not until about 1960 that the extent of the reduction was ful-

ly realized. This delay is accounted for by the fact that during the period 1940-1954 the registration of vital events was

very incomplete and in many areas of the country nonexistent.

A number of field surveys and scientific studies, undertaken

during the next few years, showed that the low birth rate was

achieved mainly through the wide practice of illegal abortions

and to a lesser extent through the general-but inefficient-

practice of contraception (Valaoras, Polychronopoulou and

Trichopoulos,1965, 1970, Polychronopoulou and Trichopoulos,

1969).

Therefore the major demographic issues in Greece after the

mid-1960s were: low fertility rates, high frequency of abortions,

high emigration rates, and uncontrolled urbanization.

The demographic situation in Greece has been extensively

covered during the following years by the mass media, and the

demographic problems have received sufficient attention from

both government officials and the general public. It is not dif-

ficult to account for this expressed interest in view of the very

large number of abortions performed every year (about 75,000 a-

mong married and about as many among unmarried women) and the

huge waves of emigration and internal migration toward the ci-

ties. Furthermore many Greek experts are apparently convinced

that the present fertility rates are too low for a country with

the geopolitical position of Greece (NSSG,1966, Hellenic Euge- -110- nic Society,1967, Valaoras,1967., Katsouyiannopoulos,1970, Cen-

ter of Planning and Economic Research,1972b, Valaoras,1973,

1974a).

The interest of the scientific community in the demogra-

phic problems has been expressed in many ways. Besides the

field surveys already mentioned, several theoretical studies

about the population trends and future projections were under-

taken (NSSG,1966, Siampos,1969, Valaoras,1973, 1974a, 1974b,

Louros, Danezis and Trichopoulos,1974, etc). Furthermore, se-

veral Institutions and University Departments' became involved

in scientific activities in the field of Demography (Pressât,

1971, CICRED,1974).

Governmental concern was expressed in 1968 with the appoint-

ment, by the Minister of Coordination, of an ad hoc Committee on

Demographic Policy, consisted mainly by governmental officials

and a few experts from the medical community. The committee was

asked to study the nature, the dimensions, and the probable cau-

ses of the problems of Greek population and to propose ethically,

socially, and economically acceptable corrective measures. The

following were some of the proposals of the committee:

Population Division of the National Statistical Service of Greece, Hellenic Eugenic Society, National Center of Social Research, Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology of the Uni- versity of Athens Medical School, Department of Hygiene of the University of Thessaloniki Medical School, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics of the Athens School of Hygiene, Department of Economics of the Technical University of Athens, and several others. -111-

(a) Foundation of family planning units throughout the country. Each unit should be organized as a consultation center for marriage, birth, fertility and sterility, and related family conditions and problems. (b) Education of the public on basic aspects of human reproduction. (c) Decentralization of the health services. Creation of .additional units for protection of maternity and child health, in the rural areas of the country. (d) Prevention of migration through decentralization, creation of new job opportunities, and introduction of various economic measures. (e) New legislation favoring an increase of the birth rate of the Greek population.

In 1968 there was no legislation with explicit demographic objectives. Before World War II a number of laws for the protection of maternal and child health (e.g. maternal leave of about 4 months) were introduced, but they were based on humani- tarian rather than demographic grounds. These laws provided for the unmarried pregnant woman or mother and for the unpro- tected or illegitimate children. They also guaranteed for the

"large" families (families with 5 or more children): (a) free education of all children at all levels, (b) free medical care,

(c) special tax exemptions, (d) exemption of the first-born from the obligatory military service, and (e) housing accommo- dations. After World War II a variety of new family assistance measures were introduced in Greece. They include marriage pay- ments (an allowance between 5 to 10% of the salary), maternity benefits (between $50 and $200 for each delivery irrespectively of parity), children allowances (between 3 and 6% of salary) and various tax benefits.

Two additional official studies, undertaken in 1968 and -112-

1970 by the Ministry of Coordination, have confirmed the findings of earlier studies and have reached similar conclusions. These later studies have stressed particularly, however, the decay of the rural population, brought about by the huge internal migration and emigration and by the decreasing fertility of; that segment of the population.

When the statistical data for the year 1970 were assembled and evaluated, it became apparent that the birth rate had reached the lowest point in the demographic history of modern Greece and the emigration rate one of the highest (Tables 2.9 and 2.20).

Furthermore, the 1971 census had plainly demonstrated the uncontrolled growth of the population of Athens and Salónica and the hopeless shrinkage of the rural population. It was under these conditions that population policy was formulated in the fall of 1971. The objectives of the official population policy were and continue to be: higher birth rates; higher repatriation and lower emigration rates; decentralization and redistribution of the population.

Among the measures taken for the decentralization of the population and the slowing down of internal migration were the division of the country into areas with high degree of administrative autonomy and the takinç of measures for the decentralization of the health services and the higher education. Very few people have argued against the objectives of these measures, but many were sceptical about their effectiveness.

In order to combat subfertility, a law was enacted in 1972 -113- according to which for every child born to a family with at least two other children a monthly allowance of about $20 is paid.' Additional tax benefits have been introduced for families with three or more children. These decisions have been well received by most concerned parties, and they have been favorably editorialized in the mass media. Some people have argued, however, that the population problem in Greece is mainly a migration problem and that only a migration-oriented solution can be effective (Louros, Danezis and Trichopoulos,

1974). It should also be noted that in Greece children of lar¿e families, and particularly those born in birth orders beyond the third child, fall behind other children of the same sex, age and socio-economic class v/ith respect to both phy- sical development and school performance (Papoutsakis, Pimeni- dou, Kalapothaki et al,1972, Giokas,1974). Nevertheless, the opinion of most people in Greece was that it was indeed necessary to take some measures, and that those already taken had to prove their effectiveness before any change should be considered.

With respect to the two other major population issues, i.e., emigration and illegal abortions no official action has been taken as yet. The short-term and long-term consequences of emigration are now being intensively studied, with particular emphasis to the resulting sub-fertility and the lack of sufficient labour force to meet the demands of the expanding industry.

The average income per capita per year in Greece in 1972 was about $1100 -114-

The problem of induced abortions seems more complicated.

On the one hand legalization does not appear feasible; on the other enforcement of the existing prohibitive legislation would have serious and unpredictable consequences. The other visible alternative, that is the establishment of a state- supported population planning program, involving a national network of consultation centers, has to overcome the object- ions of the Greek Orthodox Church and of many conservative

Greek sociologists and physicians. -115-

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