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The Ashgate Research Companion to Ethics and

Patrick Hayden

Liberalism

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 vdn wanse (itrcl n cs-ae) a b dmntae, n then and demonstrated, show howthesestrengthsandweaknesses canbebestilluminated. be can case-based) and (historical and weaknesses strengths evident great liberalism’s which within categories of number a take to be has been defeated more often than it has won against liberalism (Talmon, 1961; 1961; 1971). (Talmon, Popper liberalism against totalitarianism won has it that than be often obvious more rightly defeated most been would has opinion liberalism’s liberal as optimistic an totalitarianism and enemy identified have Talmon J.L. and National Anthem has the line ‘[l]et us stand up and fight for and true true and liberty for fight and either. for up regard scant having stand while democracy’ us ‘[l]et line the has Anthem National Chinese The own. their for language liberal claimed have states totalitarian and Relations International and Ethics    other forms that have been tried from time to time’. to time from tried been have that forms other those all for except government, of Churchill’sWinston form worst ‘the definition riches. unbelievable of conditions in their live while neighbours poverty in languishing forces. billions with market distributed, unevenly of been has spread inexorable wealth but prosperous, more vastly nonetheless globe the made undoubtedly has but forcible less the by and powers imperial by exported forcibly being capitalism of because mainly the globe, across practices its spread has claims and – rich, become to liberalism of individual the legacy liberate to economic lasting major the – capitalism instance, the over advance For steady contradictions. internal up liberalism’s but show also they But slow two centuries. last liberalism’s of product the been has system domestic, global the increasingly in our as linked action, clearly are spheres and economic and created thought international of be as categories should theory These political wealth in justice’. known think is ‘distributive what they – manner how equitable and an in states; distributed and other of affairs the in intervention international the of and questions at looked individual have the liberals how between community; links the view should ‘hard liberal on the how founder of those to seems are often others) many are it there (obviously how consider to chosen I have and areas The cases’. idea liberal the of evolution the weakness. its and strength its both on is this says democracy,and and it liberty what mean to claims liberalism But them. against charges the of least Equally, I will suggest that liberalism’s main political child, democracy, is, in is, democracy, child, political main liberalism’s that suggest will I Equally, examining by so do and case, the is that why examine will chapter This Churchill, SpeechtotheHouse ofCommons,11November 1947. particular, maybejustifiable targets. in Marx and Hegel candidates, other incredulity,some his the to but open of is society open enemies key the of one as Plato of identification Popper’s that said be must It humour. No,libertyisnottheirstrongpoint.’ Engel comments: ‘And all the while we thought the Chinese leadership had no sense of either.efficiently so ‘people’quite those of many so execute not do they but China, of Republic Peoples’ the like states of machinery political efficient the match never can Engel (2008). The other endearing quality of liberal democracies like the UK is that they  Outrage there may well be in these cases, and hypocrisy is the the is hypocrisy and cases, these in be well may there Outrage 28  Many writers like Popper Karl like writers Many  Thus the approach here will here approach the Thus Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 rather than reinforces liberalism’ (Bellamy 2000, 68–76). This is a deforms view democracy partly ‘mass shared that believed Schmitt short, In respected. agenda their of more get to tend rich the that so power of hierarchies create societies Industrial necessarily not are equivalent, for example, and the rule of democracy law can be oppressive as well as liberating. and of Parliamentarianism idea time. reciprocal the over of ‘democracy’ operationalization the with problems evident few a to point to Schmitt Carl of that critique idea the uses the Bellamy large. of writ use problem the the see we in is it But origin. religious of are statements such with associated names the of many as reason without not and claims, pious such attack motivation?disinterested such of out act humans many will realists of manner All the Looking Glass’ feel to it. ‘Reciprocal justice’ has a very grand ring to it but how Marxism liberalism is all, the Whereas theory aboveof the emancipation community of the person. privilege excellence. that theories par be to theory said be that can conservatism and is liberalism and person, the of As C.B.Macpherson(1962)suggested,every politicaltheory requiresaconception Liberalism Defined motives are ( are these motives what determining in Kant for analysis key the liberal’s is a Reason others. of of and part actor the key of a therefore are motives moral actor’s An actors. other all for valid are that principles with accordance in act to and Kant themselves, in value having what as others of treat to us idea bids which the imperative’, ‘categorical especially the called and imperatives, ethical by and are driven they that creatures think good’; to like also the Liberals of parliamentarism’. and law of rule conception the to own commitment a as her well as society, civil and or state each of distinction strict his ‘a protecting politically, with pursue concern to ‘general ability a individual’s ’; ‘liberal of notions to the of acceptance philosophical a commitment social of ‘equality, and rationality’; liberty,principles individuality generalized a nonetheless does embodies (2000) liberalism that Bellamy accept conditions. particular social under and and within cultural epochs developed historical geographical, been different have at contexts categories societal these of particular all Richard out, as for, pointed however terms has general Bellamy in accepted be only can definition This of liberalismalways containfourbasicelements,assummedupbyJohnGray: Of course this ‘do as you would be done by’ maxim has a bit of an ‘Alice through social institutionsandpoliticalarrangements(1986,10). all of improvability and corrigibility the of affirmation its in meliorist and forms; cultural and associations historical specific to importance secondary according and species human the of unity moral the affirming universalist, beings; human among worth moral in differences of order political or legal to relevance the denies and status moral same the humans all on confers it as inasmuch egalitarian collectivity; social other any of claims the against person the of primacy moral the asserts it that in individualist, is Liberalism D onaldson 1992, 136–7). 1992, onaldson 29

Conventional definitions Liberalism Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 f niiul, hc i scrd hog te eonto ad plcto o the of application and recognition the through secured is which individuals, of autonomy and equality the for respect on based is society good view,the liberal As rights’. ‘human of that – realm cultural and social political, the into individualism of continuation natural others ontothedolequeueinnameof‘progress’. and miners of numbers vast throw to prepared was that liberalism individualistic ‘there is no dictum such Thatcher’sthing as society’Margaret where came to Britain be emblematic of in an uncaring 1980s free-market the in so especially was This ‘possessive Macpherson’s of individualism’, and heart has seen political the form in a at periodic reaction wasagainst welfarism. critique This liberalism. of fathers liberalism of (1690) and (1776), the classical political and economic eighteenth-century and seventeenth- the in roots its has and liberalism’ approach and that of the above-mentioned individualism, which predates the ‘new welfare this between tension a alwaysbeen has there But state. welfare British the 95 ti cm t ma vrat o Franklin on variants mean to came this 1945, after particularly and 1900, after period the In members. weaker their for care to societies rich of responsibilities the stressing others and (1883) T.H.Green (1964), Hobhouse L.T.century, with nineteenth the in liberalism’ ‘new the of emergence bases ofanynationalorinternationalorder(Donaldson1992). beforeeconomic isnecessary and political ‘justice’ and ‘order’ the legislation of human rights can become the necessary of international kind different a that liberal view cosmopolitan a of advocate modern notable first the was Kant it. against and liberalism within debate key a be to continued has that life international and domestic in ‘fairness’both of idea the includes also liberalism seeing of way This liberal, said in1922thatforhimliberalismdidnotjustmean British nineteenth-century great a Bryce, James sphere. international the they desire, they have to observe and try to influence not only the domestic but also how liberals have realized that to bring about the kind of ‘progress’ (or ‘meliorism’) along theroutetonow(Williams 2006,Chapters1and2). modern liberalism may be a good summary but it does not cover all of the signposts ‘good’ in the core countries of the West and far beyond. Hence, Gray’s definition of political basic a as seen now is what define to come have that concepts of number as we willseebelow. by more ardent defenders of liberalism like and J.D. Talmon, Relations International and Ethics A last area that is both distinctly ‘liberal’ and also distinctly ambiguous lies in the The idea of ‘fairness’ has been a feature of much liberal thinking ever since the since ever thinking liberal much of feature a ‘fairness’been of has idea The of that is critics their and definitions these by addressed not is that area One a encompass to said be can liberalism caveats, clear these Notwithstanding be theguidingaims. other,the of expense the shall at one of aggrandizement the and rivalry their then rather nations and men of cooperation the which in world a today, see that rather but … we which progressthat than morehappy and more enlightened world a for aspiration human of certainty the in faith blind that … avid Forsythe (2000, 3) has put it: ‘In the classical the ‘In it: put has 3) (2000, Forsythe David 30 ln Roeets ‘New Roosevelt’s Delano a’ or Deal’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 the 1790s reflected what Jennifer Welsh calls his conservative ‘ and its and ‘empiricism conservative his calls Jennifer Welsh what reflected 1790s the of democracy becoming totalitarian. Burke’s opposition to the French Revolution in one of their great prophets, prefigured de Tocqueville in seeing the potential48–9). , who has been claimed by both liberals dangers and conservatives as ( relationships’ human natural more warmer,humanity, and of idea a broader community, of form new activity, cultural and political unparalleled of future potential outcome for American democracy, namely, ‘the possibility of a democratic the present-day US, but Kaledin stresses that de Tocqueville also saw a more happy by mild, will-less ruminants … a benevolent totalitarianism’ (Kaledin 2005). equalityillusoryandan freedomworlda …without beliefconviction, or inhabited alsoleadthedown-treadingto thenativeof population andultimately ‘perfectato the fortherulelaw,of andfreedom speechof could give risethesublime to rhetoric of all things [ Europethe peoples’ voice was rarely heard while inthe US‘the people dominate in [ ground difficult onwalking was [he] that ‘knew He States. United the – existencein democracy real one onlyarguably was there when time a atplanet the ideological politicaldominantonfutureforcesand most the of one reflected1833–35. liberal belief that Itindemocracyhis it wrote be provewould to he whenbraveone dominant worldpowerstheawas be Russianstowould come constitutional the arrangements oftheyoung American Republic(seeDoyle1997). on influence rhetorical great a had nonetheless Locke Britain. seventeenth-century pre-industrial in democracy parliamentary embryonic very a of context the in place took liberalism about theorizing whose Locke, than age modern the of man a of more much thus wascentury. He nineteenth early the in democracy liberal American new a of emergence the also and Revolution French the in democracy of side negative the hand close at observed had he that in point while not denying their Bentham’sfundamental theories virtues. Locke’sand both of critiques encompasses it that in useful is known ‘fathers’ of liberalism like John Locke and , but his approach of the liberal credo. It might seem strange to emphasize him rather than the better- tenet basic the using oppress also can they how and liberated be can communities practices that‘others’ findabhorrent? However, should those who live in glasshouses throw stones – surely we also have punishment) but that it is alright elsewhere as ‘they’ have different cultural norms. obviously not tolerate certain practices (female circumcision, child-beating, capital that brutally,if essentially disagree says, ‘we’that that argument an wouldrelativism’, ‘cultural can who pie, apple and ‘good’a of are charges rights to Toimmediately thing? open us lays otherwise say motherhood like But comprise. should these what of ideas ‘their’ to compared as are, rights what of views ‘our’ impose to personal rights’. Again, we can point can we Again, rights’. attention personal for to synonym a is liberalism … person that of rights legal fundamental Many might say they see this world reflected in the consumerist nightmare of nightmare consumerist the in reflected world this see they say might Many the ‘Anglo-Américains’ and the that Tocqueville, de by prediction main The how of understanding an for thinker seminal a is Tocqueville de Alexis D eclaration of Independence of 1776 and the Constitution of 1784, but they could sans obstacles ]’ (Tocqueville 1981; Guellec 2005). Universal suffrage, support 31

to problems that arise when we try and try we when arise that problems to De Tocqueville is also a useful starting terrain brûlantterrain Liberalism ]’ for in for]’ ibid., Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 American direction. or British under be it shown whether sphere, best international is the in This liberalism’sactions by burden. special their as liberal epochs of respective contradictions their the of all greatness carries power liberal great the US twentieth, the the with in so century, nineteenth the in Britain with As fascination. enduring their lies therein and encourage the or of deny to terms regimes in liberal for represents potential France, indeed or US, the what of view dualistic our scientific congressesthroughouttheNapoleonic Wars (2002,34). and Calais between link to Europe of lot ‘liberate’ a it being invading two obvious and examples) but head there King’s was a the regular off Anglo-French done boat (chopping have areas may some they in that so out points Brown Chris 2002). in Brown breached (ibid.; flagrantly 1790s so the French the that rules accepted generally to according existed that states of worked which ‘Christendom’) society as known often the (also Revolution French the up before broken it, saw he as having, French the by revolutionaries sentiments, in ( ‘revolution opinions’ French moral the and manners to opposed as tradition’ a ‘within one as Revolutionthe American for support His wasone. there ever if idea metaphysical a ‘liberty’, for desire the American of supporter major a also was he but 11), 1995, “good”’(Welshthe constitutes what of discussions metaphysical of denunciation Relations International and Ethics  we have heard many times since, in Marxism, other forms of socialism and endlessly Peace’ as he put it in a celebrated tract of 1794 (Brown 2002, 40–46). This is a cry that religion and intolerance and bring us into a new era of emancipation and ‘Perpetual an international system would be one that would sweep principles.aside Thethe way oldthat thisobscurantism Enlightenment philosopher,of and his ‘cosmopolitan’brethren,andliberal saw proto-worldonsuch government baseda republics, even on is the liberal philosopher most associated with a society of states that would‘good’. be basedKant, whose thinking on the international has already been mentionedneedtheglobalfor solutions above,basedlanguagetheon rights of searchtheand thefor claimed Liberalismhas impact.global andlasting a such had have to said be can allother ideologies. Not even Soviet Marxism, and certainly not National Socialism, more strongly. Liberalism has been the most active playera ‘failedon state’the internationalor deal stagewith a of ‘humanitarian disaster’, this statement internationalcomes to spherelife and eventhe perceived need to intervene to ‘keep the peace’, propinevitable up cross-border ramifications. When the record of liberalism is applied to the Aswe have by now seen, liberalism, an ideology with aclear idea of the ‘good’, has Liberalism, War, InterventionismandImperialism Of course, both de Tocqueville’s and Burke’s visions have continued to epitomize The nextfewparagraphsdraw onWilliams (2007,300–304). , not their initial ideological impulse. He wasHe impulse. outraged ideological also initial their not behaved, over (the ‘packet’) and British participants at Parisian at participants British and ‘packet’) (the Dover 9) a mil de o h wy h French the way the to due mainly was 93) ibid., 32  Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 North Africa. Mill’s 1859 tract this was his seeking the invasion and suppression of the Barbary pirate kingdoms of Mill for his ‘imperialism’ (Jahn 2005, 599–618), though it askedmust‘How Liberal bewas John Stuartsaid Mill?’ that (1995, 109–22), the while Beate basisJahn attacked for JohnStuart Mill hasnot escaped opprobrium onthese grounds. Joseph Hamburger thus put themselves beyond the pale ( ofnature’. Theformer arethose whoseemingly obey andrespect noclear laws and states’ treatment of those populations who exist in a ‘state of war’with the termand ‘liberalism’. those Lockein has beena accused‘state of creating a distinction in liberal waysame astheydo? the in moralize or reason not do others that forget they that take to course ‘moral’ the find to duty a ‘reason’and on emphasis Kantian much that so put is liberals zeal this for reason one Maybe Conclusion). 2007, Williams (see Iraq and ’liberal ‘militant ‘Islamo-fascism’against actions and in Afghanistan rightly,more perhaps or,‘’ named wrongly the in found be can Cook in 1997 (Smith and Light 2001). The latest version of this liberal ‘proselytizing’ with the declaration of an ‘ethical foreign policy’ as by British years, Foreign hundred Secretary twoRobin last the over force by democracy and ‘ethics’ or ‘morality’ self-defined their spread to desire their in zeal excessive for seen pilloried ‘Anglo-Americans’themselves have hegemonic the especially and states, Liberal 201). that ‘international affairs have been the nemesis of liberalism’ (cited in Smith 1992, sacrosanct of liberal icons can now be assailed. Mark Hoffmann has rightly written beneficiary of such thinking, for example. clear a is NationsUnited liberalism. The of deniers supportersand of sorts all for for ‘them’. ‘good’necessarily not us, ‘right’for is do to need we what because act we – home strikes liberalism interventionist on attack communitarian the Again self-defence. liberal is seemingly always being thrust back onto ‘realist’ actions by necessity and is now being used to justify dealing with ‘failed states’ in Africa and elsewhere. The The same logic used by Mill to such defend ‘illiberal’ attacks on other states and peoples with Protect’ to justification? ‘Responsibility the whatever that, just intervention not is (WelshBut thinking 2004). the as Resolution Assembly General UN a in enshrined now 2000), (Wheeler intervention’ ‘humanitarian compared have in Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003 was not used with irony or distaste. Others imperialism’‘liberal epithet Blair’sthe describe of policy to use foreign His (2004). convert book his recent in does a he as intervention, is selective justifying Cooper to Robert advisor policy foreign Blair’s Tony Minister or the Shia militias of Moqtadr el-Sadr, we might ask? (Brownetal.2002, 486). What could bemore obviously ‘primitive’ than theTaleban norm,dealingbut with‘primitive peoples’ constitutecan exceptionan thisnormto liberalpolicy-makers andthinkers whobelieve thatnon-intervention shouldthe be This has arguably long been the case when the epithet ‘imperialism’ is juxtaposed But as a result of the mixing of liberal ideas, power and influence, even the most But must ‘intervention’ therefore always be ‘imperialist’? Former British Prime British Former ‘intervention’‘imperialist’? must alwaysbe But therefore A Few Words on Non-Intervention D oyle 1997, 216–26; Williams 2006, 21–4). Even 33 The Breaking of Nations of Breaking The has clearly influenced Liberalism Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 Ethics and International Relations International and Ethics realist canon (as for example by example for (as canon realist Kennan, George the of Niebuhr, members Reinhold key or some Butterfield Wight, as Herbert Martin lineage political same the in being as seen often is he that in ‘realist’a clearly was yet thought’, political Victorian of horizons imaginative the broadening for responsible most individual the being to claim ‘good a had Seeley John Robert Seeley, the Victorian ‘public intellectual’ and historian, shows this well. years. hundred a over by era modern the pre-dates and collapse’ (Morefield2005,1).Onanother occasionin1921hewrote: practice of liberal principles early will save European society from Prominent imminent revolutions for. fought sincere the be but ‘Nothing to opined: Murray Gilbert occasion liberal British twentieth-century on has liberty that belief the in lies war,answerOne practice? in success any had having as seen be that can how then to recourse constant without relations, international doing of way better a about bring to trying as seen be to liberalism wishing in sincere were above comments Bryce’sJames If politics. national and international of leveller great the itself, war agency’. Ithas,inotherwords, norealitywithoutpractice. “techniques of transformation” [and it] can only be a project embodied in a political those achieving desirable ends to and arrangements’, barriers it ‘involves the the use of of account certain characteristic political and ‘sociological a include to has It project’ is not just ‘the production of theoretically justified ends and arrangements’. others? not but of realistthought’ (Bell2005,567). might now call “nation-building” does not find prominent place in the constellation As Bell goes on to say: ‘Once again, such a heavily moralized concern with what we modernity’. Indian of midwives the as act to were is, that British, The progress…. for quest the in people Indian the example] [for support to obligation ‘moral a it within having ‘civilizing’and as Empire the saw which one liberal, typical the of of a ‘federal Greater Britain and a reunion with America’. His imperialism was that other and ideas of Kantian federation, in line of with many supporter liberals the of his great day and in since, a even wasto the violence point He liberation’. political national of for struggle utilization the supported [Seeley] he liberals, many late of nineteenth-century thinkerswholaudedthedevelopment oftheBritainEmpire. tradition ‘martialist’ the calls (1999) Nabulsi Karma what into subsumed h taiin f sn lbrl rnils o utf ‘meils’ rcie thus practices ‘imperialist’ justify to principles liberal using of tradition The A greater test than imperialism of such practice is surely liberalism’s attitude to So how can Seeley (or for that matter Mill, Locke or Blair) be a liberal in some ways ‘[l]ike and ‘progress’ in believer fervent a also was he out, points Bell as But h snee rcie f iea picpe wl sv Erpa scey from society European imminent revolution save andcollapse(1921,5–6). will principles Liberal of practice sincere the but nothing that now believe I and Liberal, a was I war [Great] the Before has been too much war, and too much of too many things that go with war…. I start from the profound conviction that what the world needs is peace. There avid Williams (2001) has suggested that liberalism as a ‘political a as liberalism that suggested has (2001) Williams David eudney 2001). Bell shows how Seeley has been has Seeley how shows Bell 2001). Deudney 34 uncan Bell’sDuncan on article (2005) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 2005; MacGinty and Williams 2009). One of the key accusations is that liberalism that is accusations key the of One 2009). Williams and MacGinty 2005; Richmond (see destroyedit be by will that places to capitalism or it handle cannot of the‘liberal’ (or‘democratic’) peace inattempts tobringdemocracy tostatesthat imposition unthinking an to led Warhas Cold the in Westerntriumph that claim Kantian the of contradictions evident the on concentrated has critique that sphere international the In 10). 2006, Hayden and el-Ojeili (see politics emancipatory of to attack liberalism on its own turf of excessive ‘possessive individualism’ and lack acts’‘speech such denounce to theory’up ‘critical sprung and has reborn been has industry whole a Nietzsche’s 1992 of Since figure Man’. the ‘Last in consumerism, excessive of dangers the book’sabout his title in warning by triumphalism liberal recognition’ (1992, 139, 204). But even he and encapsulated economics the of inherent pillars pessimism twin of the all on resting … state homogenous a and ‘universalbecome on now from will world the that and contradictions’ of free is … state hasbeen ofHistory’ ‘End The announced by Francis triumphed. Fukuyama with his finally claim that had ‘the modern liberal liberalism democratic that declared of others,forthebetter. works those and lives their only change to it democracy by empowered themselves feel people liberal the when for despair’, [and] ‘apathy to lead to indeed was enjoy’ they powerineffective which and political limited paralysis Such 17). (1937, very the with disappointment acute of stage a through said: passing are he ‘Democracies when wrong not was Spender doomed. was democracy liberal that felt who Westernintellectuals young of generation whole a represented he guidance, Party strict to conform to predictably,unable being, for expelled was he as brief, was Britain Great of Party Communist the with flirtation his Although Liberalism. entitled tract a write to Spender Stephen led – system liberalism Soviet of the counter-promise – the be to seemed time, the at what, of emergence global of climate change. results Such apocalyptic thinking apocalyptic was not the the preserve of theologians. and The ‘’ emerging call was now economic would we the what dictatorships, in totalitarian the of rise the in saw he (Lovin 2008, 158). These forces would be both political and economic. The political unending progress that seemingly had of produced age such the liberty to of end thought an and action put wouldin thought the he West that then even developing predicted the end of the age of liberalism was nigh in 1934 in that there were forces bought totheirlowest ebb’ (1964,110). movement great that of fortunes the saw close its yet Liberalism, of age the called be might century nineteenth ‘The even1914: trouble wouldbefore in liberalism be a way that would have been unthinkable before 1914. L.T. Hobhouse predicted that order of the day, and government interference in economic life became accepted in the ‘planning’became UK the and US the of heartlands the came In strain. great democracy under and Europe of much across collapsed seemingly capitalism as shaken I by experience. course The 1930s ( were ‘Of necessary’a was period Germany; it of particular believe against challenge I for warwar. liberalism, the the supported supporting in problem no had had He In the contemporary era after the end of the Cold War, several pundits have pundits several War, Cold the of end the after era contemporary the In Another prophet of doom, Reinhold Niebuhr, the celebrated theological ‘realist’, 35 ). This belief was once again once was belief This ibid.). Forward From Forward Liberalism Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 figuratively and actually always put emphasis on both economic efficiency and Smith’s efficiency Adamjustice. economic both on emphasis put always actually and figuratively Along with its desire to bring peoples into Locke’s ‘civil society’, liberalism has both Distributive ‘Justice’ and Williams 1997). the in process self-destructive is and and also destructive ‘identity’, of the local ‘other’ (see, often for example, is Krause which transform, to seeks it what of nature verythe misunderstands it that practices, and cultures overlocal roughshod rides Relations International and Ethics century, through Kant and Mill in the eighteenth and nineteenth, and Rawls (1971; idea of American ‘welfare-state liberalism’. So liberals from Locke in the pursued unusually have the to said be seventeenth might who writer another ‘leftist’ is (1998), a as, himself described and as, Rorty,seen Richard is principle. US this the in who Rawls’s book to the economic as well of as political Liberalism fairness. In New recent years, as the has been and mentioned, John nineteenth practice) century (which and led to thinking even liberal more of in the same) turn showed a welfarist clear commitment should why So 9). there be‘distributive justice’ notonlywithinstatesbutalsointernationally? (2002, rights ‘social’ not sovereigns’ of rights the for ‘respect of it. Brown makes a similar point: international ‘justice’ meant for many centuries end the of mode ‘new’liberal the in than century nineteenth the of beginning the (1989, 3–9). This view of justice is much more in the utilitarian mode of Bentham of expect to get more but in the stronger sense that they cannot reasonably reasonably cannot they that sense the in merely affairs not accept can of people that one state … just a ‘is only not order pecking the down lower those for that in ‘impartiality’on based be should justice that says Barry it, second about thinking the of way In prudence’. ‘rational of a policy conflict, than better is cooperation therefore that and inevitable is hierarchy that accept to asked are advantage’we are ‘unequal relations between people’, the ‘high’ and the ‘low’. In justice as ‘mutual observationthat the derivefrom Both impartiality’. as justice … and advantage mutual as ‘justice this, of versions two keen on the second; liberals argue about how to balance the two. distributed. Socialism,and created it has both often beenbe suggested,can wealthis bad onhow the firstis, count,that but terms; very economic indelivered be can (2007,question524).Thealwayshas justicethis continuehowwill been,be,and to encourage peace. As Jacoby has succinctly put it: ‘Living freely is thus trading freely’ thinking about comparative advantage ever since, as well as the idea that trade links advantage’.encouragementThe playedsignificanttradehas ‘comparativeof a liberal this in role of notion the though society of classes all benefit wouldcapitalism followers could see no problem with the idea that increasing the economic pie through ’s attack on Benthamite (which led toamore led (which utilitarianism Benthamite on attack Mill’s Stuart John But we also need to ask what ‘justice’ means. Brian Barry suggests that there are A Theory of Justice of 1971 is seen as the most stimulating statement of elh f Nations of Wealth all societies and also and societies all in f 76 n hs lsia eooi liberal economic classical his and 1776 of 36 across societies there societies claim more’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 Greatwarproclaiming (1910) betweenIllusion impossible therefore and illogical as (Bellamy 2000,Chapter2). and ‘negative’ (‘not being prevented from choosing as I do by other men’) one’smaster’) being own in consists which ‘positive’between(‘freedom clash the as Berlin Isaiah by up summed liberalism, of heart the at tension a is It 1992) Swift and (Mulhall will free own their of it choose not do who those on imposed be to it of liberalism is, again not directed at overthrowing its tenets but rather not wanting contradictions within the liberal impulse itself. Much of the communitarian critique individuals and polities that do not want such interference, which leads to internal livesof the in interfere to be may thinking such of consequence inevitable the that given problem a again is politics of personalizing this example, Walzerfor (1992), in domestic and, though Rawls does not claim this, international society. For Michael challenge tothepriorityofrightover thegood’the (seeMulhallandSwift1992). ‘on debate a as up it summed Sandel Michael debate communitarian this on comment a In meaningless. was liberty individual institutions such without that and state, the of role liberating the through come only that could justice and posited freedom Hegel G.W.F. and Rousseau Jean-Jacques centuries nineteenth and eighteenth the In counter-arguers. their evoked has idea basic that of reiterations these of Each principles. liberal of application the by just more can or fairer communities made be that idea the had all have centuries twentieth late the in 1993)  Sorel was railing. that capitalism liberal triumphant seemingly a of complacency the against was it and above, quoted Hobhouse, did liberalism’as of (2000), age ‘golden the century destroy liberalism as a reality’ (2008, 32). Richard Bellamy has called the nineteenth and Britain, liberalism as war-making, divisive ideology is once again being used to to the White House in November it will be liberalism’s last fling. In the United States beginning of the twentieth century, asserted that ‘[s]hould Obama beat John McCain a British periodical that has its roots firmly embedded in the liberal tradition of the be could that Utopia a given’ of Pilger,John 33). 9, (1941, the for journalist prominent a examples best the of one is economy political Liberal … projects his by presented difficulties great the of account no takes he because the Sorel wrote that ‘the optimist in politics is an inconstant and even dangerous man, through way the All ideology, times. contested, many ‘optimism’twentiethits century Georges deluded. or dangerous deemed been has if very vibrant, dead a declared such been for that has is liberalism this of all in striking is What Conclusions: SimperingIdealistsorMonstrousImperialists? Others have also seen problems in Rawls’s absolute belief in the need for fairness e ih js a wl hv be cmliig bu Nra Agl in Angell Norman about complaining been have well as just might He elm dne Bri’ cam ht il s rpeettv o ‘oiie fedm and freedom ‘positive’Green of‘negative’. of representative a is Mill that claim Berlin’s denies Bellamy  37 , itself Statesman, New Liberalism The Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 Bell, Barry, B.(ed.)(1989),TheoriesofJustice , vol. I (Hemel Hempstead:Harvester). it by accepting inevitable moral compromises. moral inevitable accepting by it achieveto try wehaveto that therefore and a perfection no is there that recognition – justice’ enough ‘good terms (1997) Rose Gillian when philosopher best what its pursues international at it is and liberalism Perhaps century. domestic past the the in of politics of light experience in especially ‘fairness’, and ‘justice’ of prosecution and the defence? Liberalism has been widely attacked for its conflation emancipation. the ‘real’ motives of a dominant capitalist bourgeoisie, with the fine words ofup hypocrisy,covering liberal of of accusations easy the Hence resort’. last ‘the is claims always it what in violence to resorts always which liberalism, criticizing for basis the formed has national reasoning of way the This Mussolini. Benito indeed or Hitler or Adolf socialists Sorel syndicalist violence the by purificatory advocated class, working necessary the by the misunderstanding have always or violence’, politics ‘structural Western in Left and Right simultaneously accused Europe. liberalism of perpetrating what of Johan Galtung (1969) powersterms great the Relations International and Ethics  (1910), N. Angell, References its totaldemiseanytimesoon. as it is now, liberalism is put on the back foot. But it would be dangerous to predict most of the nineteenth century, liberalism flourishes. When the West is despondent, cited above the ‘pessimists’. When the West feels good about itself, as in 1990–92 or thinking in the West about the possibility of political agency, with Sorel and others this one prove to be its last? Maybe liberalism just represents the ‘optimistic’ side of 2006). If the liberal credo has Laurent been (see declared promote dead to much in so error did over France three that Man centuries, of might Rights the of principles that French, talk the about the problems of ‘hyper-liberalisme’ like and the ‘détournement ‘liberal’, themselves consider would who nations are there still rears its head, and increasingly so, in China and Russia. More worrying is that nationalism violent potentially and Extreme does. she or he and Indeed rights. human democracy of norms the of acceptance triumph widespread seeming the the and in globalization slay of to dragons more has knight liberal the if ask to be might way Another them. in wallow to tendency its in inertia, poststructural and world’s ills, ‘fix’ the to desire its in hubris liberal both counters and world, the at of InternationalRelations’, ReviewofInternationalStudies31:3,559–80. 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— unpublished manuscript. Bush (Manchester:ManchesterUniversity Press). Routledge). Society (2007), (Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press). . (2001), ‘Liberal Theory and Liberal Practice in International Politics’, International in Practice Liberal and Theory ‘Liberal (2001), D. Failed Imagination? Anglo-American New World Orders from Wilson to Wilson from Orders World New Anglo-American Imagination? Failed ieaim n Wr Te itr ad h Vanquished the and Victors The War: and Liberalism aig tagr: uaiain nevnin n International in Intervention Humanitarian Strangers: Saving 41 Liberalism (London: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:58 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315612935, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315612935.ch2 This pagehasbeenleftblankintentionally