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Surface Engineering of Coinage Dies H University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2001 Surface engineering of coinage dies H. Yasbandha University of Wollongong Recommended Citation Yasbandha, H., Surface engineering of coinage dies, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, Faculty of Engineering, University of Wollongong, 2001. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1838 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact Manager Repository Services: [email protected]. SURFACE ENGINEERING OF COINAGE DIES A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY From UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG By H. YASBANDHA, BSc, M.Eng. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING Acknowledgment The author acknowledges assistance from the following organisations; • Commonwealth Department of Employment, Education and Training for providing APRA (Australian Postgraduate Research Award) industry scholarship. • Royal Australian Mint (RAM) for sponsoring the APRA industry scholarship and generous annual commitment to the research training in cash and kind. • ANSTO for many discussions, supervision and valuable contributions on various facets of this work with Dr G. Collins, and Dr J. Tendys. • BHP steel, in Port Kembla for the use of their facility. • University of Wollongong, Department of Materials engineering for giving me the opportunity to gain a higher degree and the use of their facility. • Finally, the author is grateful to his supervisor Dr Masoud Samandi for many valuable discussions, supervision, and guidance in the course of this work. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT I INTRODUCTION IV 1.0,2.0, & 3.0. LITERATURE REVIEW 1-84 1.0. MINT 1 1.1. HISTORY of COIN MAKING 1 1.1.1. Evolution in Coining Process 2 1.2. METAL FORMING 6 1.2.1 Coining Process 7 1.3. BLANK MATERIALS 8 1.3.1 Coins Classification 10 1.3.2 Circulating Coins 11 1.3.3 Uncirculating Coins 11 1.3.4 Proof Coins 11 1.4. BLANK PREPARATION 12 1.4.1 Rimming 12 1.4.2 Annealing 12 1.4.3 Pickling 13 1.5. COINING PROCESS 13 1.6. COINABILITY of METALS 14 1.7. CRITERIA for DIE MATERIALS 15 1.7.1 Hobbability 15 1.7.2 Polishability 16 1.7.3 Hardenability 16 1.7.4 Compressive Strength 17 1.7.5 Cost 17 1.8. DIE DESIGNS 18 1.9. DIE PREPARATION 18 1.10. CLASSIFICATION of DIE SURFACE FINISH 19 1.10.1 Production Die 20 1.10.2 Uncirculating Die 20 1.10.3 Proof Die 20 1.11. HEAT TREATMENT of DIE STEELS 21 1.12. SELECTION of DIE STEELS 22 1.12.1 Traditional Die Steels 22 1.12.2 Latest Die Steels 23 2.0. SURFACE ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES 26 2.1. Classification of Surface Coating Processes 28 2.1.1. Pysical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Processes 30 2.1.1.1. Sputtering 31 2.1.1.2. Magnetron and Unbalanced Magnetron Sputtering 32 2.1.1.3. Evaporation Processes 33 2.1.1.4. Conventional Evaporation 34 2.1.1.5. Activated Reactive/Bias Activated Evaporation 34 2.1.1.6. Low Voltage Electron Beam 35 2.1.1.7. Triode High Voltage Electron Beam 37 2.1.1.8. Cathodic Arc Evaporation 42 2.1.1.8.1. Macroparticles 44 2.1.1.8.2. Macroparticles Emission 44 2.1.1.8.3. Arc Initiation 46 2.1.1.8.4. Arc Source Design and Macroparticle Control 47 2.1.1.8.5. Shielding ' 47 2.1.1.8.6. Magnetic Steering 48 2.1.1.8.7. Magnetic Filtering 50 2.1.1.8.8. Filtered Arc Deposition System (FADS) 52 2.1.2. Microstructure and TiN Film Morphology 53 2.1.3. Temperature Control 5 5 2.1.4. Effect of Substrate Bias 56 2.1.5. Adhesion of the Coatings 57 2.2. Classification of Surface Treatments 59 2.2.1. Thermal Treatments 59 2.2.2. Thermochemical Treatments 60 2.2.2.1. Nitriding Methods 61 2.2.2.2. Gas Nitriding 61 2.2.2.3. Plasma Nitriding 62 2.2.2.4. Ion Implantation 63 2.2.2.5. Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation (PL*) 65 2.2.2.6. Advantages of PI3 Compared to Ion Implantation 67 TRIBOLOGY 69 3.1 Law of Friction 69 3.2 Mechanisms of Friction 70 3.2.1 Plastic Deformation in Friction 72 3.2.2 Elastic Deformation in Friction 72 3.2.3 Friction Fluctuations 74 3.2.4 Significance of Stick-Slip 75 3.2.5 Variation of friction with load 75 3.3 WEAR DEFINITION 75 3.4 WEAR MECHANISMS 76 3.4.1 Adhesive Wear 78 3.4.2 Abrasive Wear 78 3.4.3 Surface Fatigue 80 3.4.4 Oxidation Wear 81 3.4.5 Lubricated Wear 81 3.5 Friction, Wear and Failure in Coinage Die 82 3.5.1 Aspect of Die Life 84 0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 86 4.1 Microscopical Examination 86 4.2 Surface Roughness Determination 87 4.3 Hardness Measurements 89 4.4 Tribological Characterisation 92 3.4.1 Characterisation of Worn Surfaces 95 0 SELECTION OF TOOL STEELS 97 5.1 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 97 5.1.1 Tool Steels 97 5.1.2 Microstructural and Fractographic Examination 97 5.2 RESULTS and DISCUSSION 98 5.2.1. Shock Resistant Tool Steels 98 a) SI00 Tool Steel 98 b) SI Tool Steel 101 c) Viking 103 5.2.2. Air Hardening Tool Steels 104 d) A2A (XW10) Tool Steel 104 e) A6A Tool Steel 105 5.2.3. Powder Metallurgy Tool Steel 106 f) ASP 23 Tool Steel 106 5.2.4. Hardness Measurements 108 5.3 CONCLUSIONS 109 0 EVALUATION of PLASMA IMMERSION ION IMPLANTATION (Pl3) PROCESS 123 6.1. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 123 6.1.1 PI3 Processing Parameters 123 6.1.2 Structural Analysis 123 6.1.2.1. Glancing Angle X-Ray Diffraction 123 6.1.2.2. Taper Section 124 6.1.3. Microhardness Determination 124 6.1.4. Surface Roughness 125 6.1.5. Tribological Characterisation 125 6.2. RESULTS and DISCUSSION 126 6.2.1. Surface Roughness 126 6.2.2. Microhardness Determination 128 6.2.3. Microstructural Examination 129 6.2.4. Tribological Behaviour 130 6.2.4.1. Measurement of Friction Coefficient (u) 131 6.2.4.2. Wear of Discs 132 6.3. CONCLUSIONS 134 EVALUATION of PHYSICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION (PVD) PROCESSES 155 7.1. EEPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 155 7.1.1. Type of PVD Processes 155 7.1.1.1 Balzers Process 155 7.1.1.2 Filtered Arc Deposition System (FADS) 156 7.1.2. Surface Roughness 157 7.1.3. Wear testing 157 7.1.4. Scratch Testing 158 7.1.5. Ball Cratering 159 7.2. RESULTS and DISCUSSION 160 7.2.1. Surface Roughness 160 7.2.2. Microhardness Determination 161 7.2.3. Adhesion Measurement 162 7.2.4. Sliding Wear Behaviour 164 7.3. CONCLUSIONS 166 COINING TRIALS for PRODUCTION and PROOF DIES 187 8.1. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 187 8.1.1. Materials 187 8.1.2. Surface Engineering Techniques and Process Parameters 188 8.1.2.1 PI3 treatment 188 8.1.2.2 TiN Coatings (Balzers and FADS) 189 8.1.2.3 Cr-Plating 189 8.2 RESULTS and DISCUSSION 190 8.2.1. PERFORMANCE of PRODUCTION DIES 190 8.2.2. Examination of Surface Integrity and Die Life 190 8.2.3. Evaluation and Failure Mode (s) of the Coated/Treated Dies 192 8.2.3.1. Chromium Electroplated Dies 192 8.2.3.2. PI3 Treated Dies 195 8.2.3.3. PVD TiN Coated Dies 197 8.2.4 PERFORMANCE of PROOF DIES 198 8.2.5 Examination of Surface Integrity and Die Life 199 8.2.6 Evaluation and Failure Mode (s) of the Coated/Treated Dies 201 8.2.6.1. Cr-Plated dies 202 8.2.6.2. TiN Coated Dies 203 8.3. CONCLUSIONS 205 8.3.1. Production Dies 205 8.3.2. ProofDies 206 9.0. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, PRACTICAL IMPLICATION and FUTURE WORK 249 10.0. REFERENCES 253 11.0. APPENDIX 265 I ABSTRACT In this work, the feasibility of applying surface engineering technologies to enhance the life of coinage dies has been investigated. This project was essentially conducted in four stages or phases. The first phase of this investigation involved microstructural characterisation, fractographic examination and, hardness measurement of six different tool steels, as part of the screening program to select the best tool steel(s) for further processing. The tool steels were characterised, in terms of size, shape and morphology of carbides, inclusions, and porosity. The steels were screened according to the requirements at Royal Australian Mint (RAM) for coinage dies e.g. cleanliness and homogeneity of microstructure free from large carbides, pores, cleanliness, hobbability, polishability, impact strength, coinability, cost, and suitability for the surface coating/treatment. In general, the most uniform and homogeneous structure was observed in the Viking steel (double electro-slag refined shock resistant tool steel supplied by ASSAB), which had no trace of banding and was largely free from undissolved primary carbides. This steel was very clean and only a few non-metallic inclusions were noted and was deemed to meet the stringent standards of cleanliness, homogeneous structure free from large carbides, pores, and high impact strength required for coinage dies. Furthermore, the fact that Viking tool steel is capable of being tempered at high temperature (540°C), thus allowing the application of surface engineering technologies such as Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation (PI3) and Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) coating, rendered it the most suitable contender for proof dies.
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