University of Denver Digital Commons @ DU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 1-1-2015 Wrestling with Tradition: Japanese Activities at Amache, a World War II Incarceration Facility Zachary Allen Starke University of Denver Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd Part of the Archaeological Anthropology Commons, History Commons, and the Japanese Studies Commons Recommended Citation Starke, Zachary Allen, "Wrestling with Tradition: Japanese Activities at Amache, a World War II Incarceration Facility" (2015). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1051. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/1051 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at Digital Commons @ DU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ DU. For more information, please contact [email protected],[email protected]. Wrestling With Tradition: Japanese Activities at Amache, a World War II Incarceration Facility __________ A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of Social Sciences University of Denver __________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts __________ by Zachary A. Starke August 2015 Advisor: Bonnie Clark ©Copyright by Zachary A. Starke 2015 All Rights Reserved Author: Zachary A. Starke Title: Wrestling With Tradition: Japanese Activities at Amache, a World War II Incarceration Facility Advisor: Bonnie Clark Degree Date: August 2015 Abstract I employ archaeological analyses, archival research, and oral histories to investigate traditional Japanese practices that were performed at Amache, a World War II Japanese American incarceration facility. I argue that these inter-generational practices helped to bridge a cultural gap that existed between several generations of Japanese Americans. For many incarcerated Japanese Americans, their first exposure to many traditional activities occurred during incarceration. The resulting social environment incorporated aspects of Japanese, Japanese American, and mainstream American influences, all of which were adapted to conditions during incarceration. Similarly, archaeological analyses allow for the investigation of traditional practice features. These provide evidence regarding the significance of the adapted landscape at Amache. Evidence of these practices suggests Amache internees had both a strong desire to maintain and celebrate these aspects of their Japanese heritage but they also incorporated non-traditional elements that reflected the unique living conditions during incarceration. Incarceration, I argue, created an environment in which a unique internee consciousness was formed in which the use of traditional practices was a focal point. The physical ii remains of traditional practices allow archaeologists to determine aspects of this newly formed consciousness that are not readily apparent in historical documentation. iii Acknowledgements My advisor and professional mentor Bonnie Clark deserves a gigantic debt of gratitude for her assistance in completing this thesis. Not only did Bonnie spend countless hours mentoring me as a professional academic but she works tirelessly for the benefit of her students and the success of her research projects. A significant portion of the field school was also graciously set aside to pursue my research topic for which I am eternally grateful. Thank you to John Hopper and the Amache Preservation Society for their tireless efforts at maintaining and improving the site of Amache. It is through your efforts that Amache retains its high level of significance and allows us to perform our work. The 2014 field school season would have been impossible without the dedication of our undergraduate students and volunteers. To everyone that helped make this research a success, thank you. To those who helped clear brush: I owe you all a great deal of manual labor. My friends and family provided an exhaustive supply of support over the last two years. I would especially like to recognize my in-laws, Bruce and Shelley, who were always eager to provide advice or simply listen. Your enthusiasm for my life makes all the difficult and stressful times worth bearing. Lastly, I would like to thank my beautiful wife, Sarah. If it weren’t for you I never would have believed graduate school was a possibility. Through your unending support, love, and compassion you showed me what I am capable of achieving. Thank you for being my other half. iv Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 Significance………………………………………………………………………..2 Research Questions………………………………………………………………..4 ............ Key Terms and Ideas……………………………………………………………...6 ............ Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...7 Chapter Two: Background .................................................................................................. 9 Historical Background ............................................................................................ 9 ........... Japanese American Family Structure…………………………………………….21 ............ Site Background………………………………………………………………….24 ........... Loyalty Questionnaire……………………………………………………………33 ........... Camp Closure…………………………………………………………………….35 ........... Site Integrity……………………………………………………………………...36 ........... Historic Restorations……………………………………………………………..37 ............ Current Site Uses………………………………………………………………...38 Chapter Three: Methods ................................................................................................... 41 Survey Procedure .................................................................................................. 44 ............ Recording and Analysis………………………………………………………….45 ............ Ground Penetrating Radar……………………………………………………….47 ............ Excavation Procedure……………………………………………………………48 ............ Archival Research………………………………………………………………..51 ............ Historic Photograph Collections…………………………………………………52 ............ Interviews………………………………………………………………………..54 Chapter Four: Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………...55 Practice Theory ..................................................................................................... 55 ............ Immigration Studies……………………………………………………………...60 ............ Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….63 Chapter Five: Sumo Wrestling.......................................................................................... 65 Sumo Wrestling Historic Background…………………………………………...67 Sumo Wrestling in the United States…………………………………………….70 Traditional Sumo Ring Structure………………………………………………...72 v Religious and Ritualistic Characteristics of Sumo………………………………73 Sumo Enthusiasts………………………………………………………………...74 Sumo Wrestling at Amache……………………………………………………...75 ............ Oral Interview……………………………………………………………………84 ............ Archaeological Evidence………………………………………………………...85 ............ Ground Penetrating Radar……………………………………………………….91 ............ Discussion………………………………………………………………………..92 Chapter Six: Bathing Practices…………………………………………………………..96 Historical Bathing Practices……………………………………………………..97 Ofuro Characteristics…………………………………………………………….99 Ofuro Usage in the United States……………………………………………….101 Ofuro Usage at Amache………………………………………………………...103 Archaeological Evidence……………………………………………………….105 Excavation Results – Unit 2010.5N, 2002.5E………………………………….111 Excavation Results – Unit 2012N, 2004E……………………………………...115 Excavation Results – Unit 2007N, 2000E……………………………………...119 GPR Results…………………………………………………………………….120 Block 6G Ofuro…………………………………………………………………126 Discussion………………………………………………………………………127 Chapter Seven: Bon Odori……………………………………………………………...131 Historical Background in Japan………………………………………………...131 Description……………………………………………………………………...134 Religious Connotations…………………………………………………………138 Obon in the United States………………………………………………………139 Obon at Amache………………………………………………………………..139 Photographic Evidence…………………………………………………………144 Archaeological Evidence……………………………………………………….149 Discussion………………………………………………………………………150 Chapter Eight: Japanese Drama………………………………………………………...153 Historical Background………………………………………………………….154 Description……………………………………………………………………...155 Japanese Drama at Amache…………………………………………………….158 Discussion………………………………………………………………………166 Chapter Nine: Conclusion………………………………………………………………169 vi References………………………………………………………………………………174 Appendix A: Field Forms. .............................................................................................. 190 Appendix B: Granada Pioneer Artcles .......................................................................... 207 Appendix C: Ofuro Excavation Artifacts ....................................................................... 212 Appendix D: Amache Kabuki Theater Performers and Performances…………………220 vii List of Figures Figure 1: Historic photograph of posted exclusion notices forcing Japanese Americans to leave areas around the west coast. Posted Exclusion Orders (denshopd-i151-00076), Densho, National Archives and Records Administration Collection…………………....17 Figure 2: Site map for the Amache Incarceration Facility denoting individual blocks and various places of interest. Image courtesy of the University of Denver Amache Project……………………………………………………………………………………26 Figure 3: Historic photograph of the layout of residential barracks at Amache. Granada (Amache) Concentration Camp, Colorado (denshopd-p159-00003), Densho, George Ochikubo Collection……………………………………………………………………..27