16 Erdkunde Band XVII

MOMBASA IN THE LAND AND SEA EXCHANGES OF EAST AFRICA *)2) With 12 Figures and 2 Tables

Irene S. van Dongen

Mombasas Rolle im Land- und See Zusammenfassung: tense Arab-Portuguese rivalry in those parts of handel Ostafrikas. eastern Africa. Subsequently, the Omani sheikhs Dieser Aufsatz untersucht das historische Wachstum und of southeastern Arabia control of Mom die von schon seit ein be gained Ausbreitung Mombasa, langem when deutender Seehafen Ostafrikas. Besonders betont wird die basa and ruled it from Muscat until 1832, was to As a Entwicklung des Hafens wahrend der europaischen Herr their capital removed Zanzibar. his nun zu schaft in Ostafrika, die ihrem Ende geht. Die drei torical seaport of some renown (Fig. 1), Mom wichtigsten Faktoren, die zu dieser bemerkenswerten Ent basa was also at times other Asian and Mombasas sind: die Orts eclipsed by wicklung beigetragen haben, a) on the western of der die sowohl fiir die Hochseeschiffahrt als Portuguese outposts margins lage Stadt, on monsoon auch fiirdie Anlage der Stadt besondereVorteile bot; b) die the Indian Ocean, all living the Art und Weise in welcher schwerere Guter in Ostafrika navigation between Africa and Asia. Chief among wurden und die zur dafi der transportiert Folge hatte, these were Mogadishu, Patta, Lamu, Malindi, Flufi des Handels sich in Mombasa brennpunktartig kon Zanzibar, Kilwa Kisiwani, Island, zentrierte; c) der wirtschaftliche und soziale Fortschritt im Mozambique and the farthest down the eastern Hinterland vom Mombasa im Vergleich zum Hinterland Sofala, point anderer Hafen Ostafrikas. African coast where the influence of the mon Die Tabellen I und II zeigen die Verteilung des ostafri soons could be felt3). kanischen Handels nach Art und nach Giitern zwischen The colonies of the East African sea Dar es Lindi und Mtwara. trading Mombasa, Salaam, Tanga, bord functioned in of their Figur 3 zeigt die Lage der Ursprungsgebiete des Seehandels largely ignorance a of im Hinterland. Ein eigener Abschnitt beschreibt die gegen backcountries, although faint pattern barter wartig zur Verfiigung stehenden Hafeneinrichtungen auf trade was woven across the mainland through a der am Kilindini Terminus der Tiefwasser Mombasa-Insel, chain of willing tribal intermediaries. At the fahrrinne und im Hafen von Alt-Mombasa, der immer noch ocean end of overland trails ivory, gold, some von Segelschiffen und einigen Kiistenschiffen benutzt wird. and slaves were received for Es kann gezeigt werden, dafi sich die Stadt Mombasa spices, Negro ship ment parallel mit der Zunahme des Umschlages des Hafens be overseas while certain products of Asian im zu ihrer deutend ausdehnte, und dafi Vergleich urspriing origin such as cloth, ironware, and beads found lichen einfachen Rolle, das Einfallstor zum ostafrikanischen their to the interior. As a the inhabi Plateau zu eine ihrer Funktionen ein way rule, sein, Differenzierung tants of coastal settlements showed little inclina getreten ist. Im Laufe der Jahrzehnte vollzogen sich auch to viele Veranderungen der iiberseeischen Beziehungen Mom tion penetrate deep inland until the first half basas mit der Aufienwelt, einschliefilich der Kustenbezie of the 19th century when their hunt for slaves Es steht aufier dafi die Kolo hungen. Zweifel, sogenannte reached the region of the great African lakes. nialperiode viel Wohlstand nach Mombasa gebracht hat. that time, theMasai warriors had swept Natiirlich erhebt sich nun die Frage, welche Auswirkungen But, by die bevorstehenden politischen Veranderungen auf Mom This is one of a series on African basa haben und welche der Bau neuer Eisen *) study tropical ports werden, Folgen con prepared under a Columbia University, New York, bahnlinien, der soeben durchgefuhrt wird, auf den Zustrom tract with the U.S. Office of Naval des ostafrikanischen Handels zum Hafen haben wird. Nach Research, Geography D. C. under the direction of W. A. dem die Mombasa-Insel offiziell nicht zum Gebiet von Branch, Washington, Hance, Professor of Economic Geography. As previously Kenya, sondern zu dem Teil des ostafrikanischen Kiisten the drafting of maps and graphs is due to the skilled landes gehort, das nach wie vor dem Sultan von Zanzibar, hand of V. Kotschar, M. A. Reproduction of all or in dem ehemaligen Beherrscher Ostafrikas, untersteht, ist der part is permitted for any purpose of the United States Besitz von Mombasa selbst noch Gegenstand von Verhand Government. Sincere appreciation is expressed here to the zwischen den unabhangigen ostafrikanischen Staaten. lungen Office of Naval Research for continued financial support and to the many officials and private individuals in East Africa and the United for their assistance On the eastern African coast, one of the pro Kingdom during the author's fieldwork in 1960. A debt of thanks minent areas of the ancient and modern special trading is acknowledged to Sir James Farquharson, then the Act as a focus of maritime world, Mombasa has stood ing Commissioner for Transport and General Manager of to his commerce for nearly one thousand years. The the East African Railways and Harbours, and all initial settlement was founded in 975 staff for unfailing courtesy, the travel facilities extended, presumably and the of much information. a of exiled Shirazi In supply intra-departmental by group (Persian) princes. 2) East Africa, as understood in this paper, applies contenders for the were recent the ensuing centuries, posses essentially to the three land units which until sion of the port-city were many and Mombasa ly known as British East Africa. war 3) See L. W. Hollingsworth, A Short History of the was repeatedly laid waste in outbursts of East Coast of Africa, London, Macmillan and Co. Ltd., fare. five hundred of the Shirazi de Thus, years Zenj 1959, 182 p; C. R. Boxer and C. Azevedo, Fort Jesus were seizure of the empire ended by Portuguese and the Portuguese in Mombasa, London, Hollis Carter, port in 1505, which initiated two centuries of in 1960, 144 p. Irene S. van Dongen: Mombasa in the land and sea exchanges of East Africa 17

other Protectorate the various kingdoms of the After the First World " " ~ " " 'r present Uganda. War, ^m0' ? MOM BAZA *'= ^ | r"^T? Great Britain's authority extended by virtue of a mandate of the League of Nations to the for mer German Colony of Tanganyika which be came a United Nations Trustee Territory under British administration after the Second World War. Through various administrative changes, Mombasa Island and the adjoining mainland strip, 10 miles in width and 52 miles in length, have continued to belong nominally to the for mer ruler of East Africa, the Sultan of Zanzibar, but have been leased to the British government against the payment of a yearly rent of ? 10,000. De jure, the coastal belt has been a separate political entity known as the Kenya Protecto rate. De facto, it was absorbed economically within British East Africa, for Mombasa Island had become the only overseas trade gateway both 1: of Mombasa in olden times Illu /*7g. Port-city (From to Kenya and Uganda and also served some parts striorum Italiae Urbium Tabulae cum Appendice Cele of At mid-20th century, all ancient briorum in Maris Mediterranei Insulis Civitatum, Amster Tanganyika. to Mombasa had and the dam, Joannis Janssoni, 1617?). port competitors gone, terminal reigned supreme over the other modern regional points of land-sea transfer: Tanga, Dar from the north into the savanna plateaus of the es Salaam, Lindi and Mtwara (see Table I). present central Kenya, displacing the former Bantu occupants4) and constantly to en seeking What causes have contributed to this pre large the grazing grounds for their herds of cat eminence of Mombasa, what position does the tle. Reports of their fierce attacks on the slave seaport hold at present in relation to other re caravans caused the disruption of the tenuous sys heads and what appears to be its future tem of communications from Mombasa. Arab gional prospects in the light of latest events in East dealers thereafter favored the routes lying Africa? This paper attempts to provide some through central Tanganyika and conveyed answers to these questions. As Kenya, Uganda, groups of captured slaves to the leading regional and Tanganyika are entering the age of indepen emporium at Zanzibar from new embarcation dence, the ownership of Mombasa Island with its points on the East African shore, just opposite precious portuary facilities looms as a highly Zanzibar and Pemba islands. The most impor controversial point on the regional scene. Tan tant were and which again Bagamoyo Pangani, may to let its trade now bid to Mombasa. ganyika actually prefer eclipse Mombasa accrue to domestic sea The fortunes of Mombasa as an ocean head passing through terminals. Landlocked has a certain were when the inte Uganda changed entirely, however, measure of choice between the and Tan rior of East Africa to be the Kenya began opened by coasts, the routes via after the Berlin Conference in ganyika although Kenya European powers and Mombasa are shorter and of 1885 and the in 1890. long-standing Anglo-German Agreement usage. But views with alarm the The area of was Kenya possibi present Kenya occupied by of not free access to the Great Britain in known as the East lity having absolutely 1895, being seaboard it has come to consider its own. The Africa Protectorate until 1920. During the deca forthcoming African government has been in de 1892-1902, the British consolidated into an sistent upon the incorporation of the coastal strip within the confines of the new state. On 4) It is generally assumed that five or six centuries after Kenya the time of Jesus Christ, a wave of Bantu peoples had the other hand, the arabicized coastal populations spilled into East Africa, wresting living space from the strongly oppose this arrangement, claiming a re original Bushmanoid hunters and some Nilotic tribes which of effective rule while the had descended in the era from the sumption by Zanzibar, pre-Christ Ethiopian Bantu tribes near the coast waver in highlands. (G. P. Murdock, Africa. Its Peoples and their purely living Culture History. New York, McGraw Hill Company, their choice of allegiance. A Commission appoint 1959, pp. 204?208, 306?313, 331?334.) The mixture of ed in 1961 to investigate the future of the Kenya some of these Bantus with the former Azanian inhabi and the Lancashire Conference in tants of the described in the famous of the Protectorate, coast, Periplus London 1962 were unable thus far Erythrean Sea, and with the Arab immigrants, formed the during early present Swahili populations of the East African seaboard. to break the deadlock of opposing opinions. 18 Erdkunde Band XVII

Main factors in the Rise of Mombasa monsoon trade considerably after 1870, while the advent of the steamship on the international mar the various causes which Outstanding among itime scene called for roomier and deeper an assisted the remarkable of Mombasa since growth chorages than those afforded by most East Afri 1895 have been the the maritime following: 1) can creeks. On the Kenya coast the former port and land advantages of its natural site, which cities of Lamu, Patta, and Malindi with their permitted easy development of modern portuary silted sea arms and shallow waters were eventu of the facilities; 2) the sequence heavy transport ally downgraded to the status of minor shipping in East an excel layout Africa, early providing points visited only by the monsoon ?dhows" and lent of routes to the ocean system feeding head; coasters; only Mombasa could offer modern economic of 3) the size, population, and progress ocean carriers a superior harbor. In Tanganyika, its hinterland as to the hinterlands of ? compared three new ports Tanga, Dar es Salaam, and ? other East African ports. Lindi arose under the German administration to handle the seaborne trade of the northern, cen tral, and southern of the territory res Natural Site and Its Utilization portions pectively. Of these three, only Dar es Salaam had From Ras Kiambone to the border of Somalia fair marine features. When the East African ter ritories were assembled under the rule of a to Cape Delgado in northern Mozambique, the single the natural of Mombasa were coastline of East Africa (see Fig. 3) offers a good nation, advantages much better example of a recent submergence shore showing already being complemented by facilities and feeder routes so that these frequent drowned valleys, a generally narrow handling elements came to in favor of the coastal lowland, and, fringing the shore, a wide operate Kenya terminal even in to trade. barrier reef of coral. The Kenya seaboard shares regard Tanganyika's called at Mombasa in these features5). In the days of sailing ships Deepsea shipping frequently with destined for coastal in with a moderate size and draft, the submerged cargo points Tanga and the of the main steam river mouths provided adequate shelter for visit nyika, representatives lines the East African seabord had ing vessels and were accessible through constrict ship serving their head offices in Mombasa From the ed openings in the barrier reef where the stream's city. the was distributed to discharge adversely affected the coral growth. Kenya terminal, cargo either coaster in the case of The settlements that developed beside such har Tanganyika by or, the rail. This bors frequently chose an insular site for easier de Tanga, by connecting applied par to of fuels. fense against possible hostile attacks by themain ticularly regional supplies petroleum ? 3 in and 2.5 land tribes witness, beside Mombasa itself, the Mombasa Island is miles length miles in and is set into an indentation of port-cities of Lamu, Patta, and Kilwa; other fac width, were the mainland Access to it is tors influencing their establishment the pres (Fig. 2). provided by a 1.2-mile in the coral between the ence of a fresh water supply, the availability of opening shelf, Leven reefs. The entrance some cultivable land to grow immediate food Andromache and the channel branches into two needs, and sometimes the presence of good build winding deepwater which follow the lines of natural drain ing materials. The basic factor in their existence, passages In these are constricted however, was the system of alternating monsoon age. places, passages by some coral but the latter does not pre al winds operating off the African and Asian growth, sent a serious obstacle to and the chan shores. From about December into February the navigation monsoon to East Africa nels are well free of silt the nor gentle northeast brought fairly kept by mal scour. Known as Mombasa Har the trading ships from southern Arabia, the Per officially the inlet to the east is narrower 300 sian Gulf, and thewestern shores of India. During bour, (some across, on the somewhat shallow themonths of May to October, a reversal inwind yards average), and more to the sea. At its northern end, direction occurred and the rougher southwest er, open to Asian it forms a called Port Tudor which monsoon sped the visitors home the large lagoon has a number of side-creeks but which has never mainland after the leisurely completion of their been of value as because of the trade exchanges. great harborage difficulties inmanoeuvring a ship into it through Gradual tightening of anti-slavery laws in too channel bends. The inlet to the west, East Africa, after the first abolition bill was pas many known as Kilindini is wider and sed in the British Parliament in 1817, cut the Harbour, deep the er starting with its seaward section. Beyond Kilindini reef, it expands to an average width of See H. L. "The drowned of the coast 5) Sykes, valleys 600 yards and deepens to 6?20 fathoms. The of The of the East Africa and Uganda Kenya", Journal name of Kilindini means ?the place of Natural Society, Nos. 38 and 39, May?August actually History Port a westward 1930, pp. 1?9, and October 1931, pp. 1?9. deep waters". Reitz, spacious I?*

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appendage with 5?15 fathom depths, is able be adopted, and several long-term port expansion moreover, to provide extra room for anchorage. plans were drawn. Another pair of deepwater The eastern arm was the one used by ancient berths entered construction stage in the mid-fif was sail navigation because the western inlet ties. Their completion was delayed by some mis found troublesome to negotiate with the prevail haps but they were finally put into service in ing wind directions and the high velocity (2?4 1958. Saturation of available frontage on the knots) of the in-going tidal current. The old port west shore of Mombasa Island was thus reached, city of Mombasa was clustered on the south and further wharf expansion inKilindini Harbour eastern shore of the Island drawing upon its coral could be obtained only by turning to the main stone foundation for building the town walls, land shore, as will be seen later. houses, and the famed Fort Jesus that was erect ed the between 1593 and by Portuguese governors Development of Feeder Routes toMombasa 1635 to guard the harbor entrance. Water was se The cured from nearby wells and much of the island basic layout of the present transport sys tem was was planted to coconut palm and citrus fruit feeding Mombasa (Fig. 3) practically a whose requirements were well met under the an completed by the early 1930's. In former study, the of East trans nual rainfall of 50?60 inches characterizing that gradual unfolding the African to was section of Kenya's coastal belt. The primitive portation pattern up 1953 examined, and ? the to to landing facilities inMombasa Harbour which reader is referred that work avoid repe still serves what remains of the historical mon tition6). Only a condensed version of the events will be here. soon trade as well as some steam coasters (locally presented - route to called "schooners") and coastal dhows met the The building of the rail the interior, was not transport needs of the East Africa Protectorate begun fromMombasa Island in 1896, de to East Protectorate which up to 1898. The need for better handling of the signed open the Africa the coastal of the Sultan of construction materials arriving from 1895 on for adjoined possessions but to Great Britain's hold the construction of the Uganda Railway, how Zanzibar, consolidate on on ever, soon led to the installation of a small jetty the distant kingdom of Buganda the north at Mbaraki in the Kilindini arm. ern shores of Lake Victoria. The densely popu lated and advanced was at the Makupa Creek, separating Mombasa Island relatively Buganda a British-German-French from the mainland, was early bridged to support time focus of rival poli interests of ac the rail line inland. In 1907 a lighterage wharf tical and anti-slavery missionary the East was added on the western island shore as hopes tivities. In contrast, the lands of Africa blossomed for the success of African cotton culti Protectorate, across which the railroad was to as a recent vation in Uganda and a fruitful development of pass, lay seemingly empty, epidemic of a and a locust visitation Kenya by immigrant European settlers. In 1913, small-pox, famine, had decimated those and Kamba theMagadi Soda Company built their own small Kikuyu popula wharf for the needs of soda traffic. Construction tions that had escaped the hand of theMasai. At the end of the 589-mile known of the first two deepwater berths on the Kilindini 1901, line, on island shore was started in 1921; friable sand and as the Uganda Railway, reached Kisumu the eastern Lake Victoria where a small sandstone formations outcropping there allowed shore of steamer to imme easy excavation of port space and depths along had just begun circulate. This to over side demanded a minimum of dredging. There diately re-oriented Mombasa whatever at seas traffic was then from or destin after, deepsea shipping operations Mombasa forthcoming were concentrated in Kilindini Harbour. Du ed for the lake margins. Formerly, it had gone was on the southern lake ring the ensuing interwar years, quayage through Mwanza, shores, and over the Arab caravan route of central Tan increased to five deepwater berths, coal handling a to and from the of A facilities were provided at Mbaraki, and sepa ganyika port Bagamoyo7). at rate wharf for petroleum fuels was installed saw the build Shimanzi. The Second World War 6) I. S. van Dongen, The British East African Trans of of ing of two more berths. After that war, serious port Complex ("University Chicago, Department as a a tre Geography Research Papers", No. 38), Chicago, December congestion gripped the port result of 175 pp., pp. 10?73. The official history mendous increase in the flow 1954, particularly import brought of East African railroads is also covered by M. F. Hill a consumer the about by heightened demand, by in Permanent Way, Vol. I (1951) and Volume II (1959), and 582 and requirements for the internal development pro Nairobi, East African Railways Harbours, p. 296 grams, and a temporary stockpiling at an up p. by See V. C. R. The Trade of Lake Victoria, of British 7) Ford, country depot military equipment ("East African Studies", No. 3), Kampala, East African A evacuated from former Asian bases. phasing Institute of Social Research, 1955, 66 p., particularly to 36?37. scheme, particularly in regard to cement, had pp. 18?20 and Irene S. van Dongen: Mombasa in the land and sea exchanges of East Africa 21

v------orconsideration WW < Railroadsunder construction 1 ===== Principa,roads ^^B!^^s i^7^& oKltgum \ . EAR.&H. water routes I-1 Hinterland \guluW/K?*** ? 1-1 ofMombasa (SCiT",.H \ EAR.&H. road services

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trickle of foreign trade involving the northern Actually, thevery first rail building inEast Africa and western reaches of Uganda moved also along had been undertaken by Germans from Tanga in the waterway of the Albert Nile and the Nile 1893, also in the direction of Lake Victoria, but proper through Sudan und Egypt. that railroad progressed so slowly that itwas to 22 Erdkunde Band XVII

arrive at Moshi, 219 miles inland, only in 1911. branches off the central mainline, one from Ta Another German line was begun, in 1904, from bora toMwanza, the other fromManyoni to Ki Dar es Salaam, aiming at opening the central pla nyangiri (the latter was later lifted due to insuf teau at of Tanganyika and eventually securing ficient traffic offering). By 1938, the Tanganyi a through its Lake Tanganyika terminal share ka Railways and Ports, also a government agen of the mineral flow expected to cross the lake cy, controlled 1,481 miles of open-rail track, 289 from Belgian Katanga. Offshoots toward Ruanda miles of lake routes, and serviced certain points Urundi and Lake Victoria were contemplated. along the coast by small steamer. Whatever over The 113-mile central Tanganyika line reached seas trade offering moved on the Tanganyika Kigoma just on the eve of the First World War. heavy transport system, however, had to be shar re In the meantime the British had been able to ed between the three Tanganyika ports and with inforce the pull of theUganda route toMombasa. Mombasa, since the latter had secured most of the The navigable expanse of Lake Kioga was tied to traffic of the Lake Victoria shores and of the Ki on a services available Lake Victoria by 61-mile limanjaro-Meru region 8). line, the Busoga Railway, between Namasagali After the late 19305s, the attention of local trans was to and Jinja; Lake Kioga further linked the port planners was definitely directed away from means waterway Albert Nile-Lake Albert by of rail construction to the expansion of motor trans road services the adminis operated by railway port. Uganda already enjoyed a fairly reputable Port and Addi tration between Masindi Butiaba. road net which had yet to be brought to standards a 91-mile branch had been laid in Ke tionally, sufficient tomeet the requirements of postwar traf from Konza to Lake to the nya Magadi exploit fic. Kenya and Tanganyika, on the contrary, had lake's vast of sodium carbonate. deposits long suffered from poor and mediocre roads and the First World an offshoot was During War, the absence of good road-building materials ren from Voi on theMombasa built by Kenya troops dered the task of improvement very slow. To mainline to close to border Taveta, Tanganyika's provide some badly needed long-distance trans to facilitate themovement of In military supplies. portation at low cost to the users, the railway ad the British attempt to carry the offensive into ministration introduced their own motor services German that rail was extended to link territory, on a few routes in Tanganyika. Before another with the northern railroad existing Tanganyika significant phase of rail laying in East Africa was from to Moshi. The connection was not Tanga again started during the late fifties only two rail at end of the war one of the lifted the and, thus, road projects succeeded in obtaining official ap most of was economically promising parts Tanganyi proval for implementation. Each urgently the fertile northeastern around Mt. ka, highlands required for the exploitation of important min Kilimanjaro, was drawn into the transport orbit eral resources. The so-called Western Extension of where it has remained until of Mombasa today. 208 miles from Kampala to Kasese allowed the In interwar rail construction of a the years, working of copper-cobalt ores in the foothills of new was in to trunk line begun Kenya branching the Ruwenzori Range, at Kilembe; the 141-mile west and the of Nakuru reaching progressively branch from Kaliua on the central Tanganyika Tororo across the and Eldoret, Uganda border, rail opened the lead mines of Mpanda. The rail on the Mbulamuti the Busoga Railway. Jinja, and port construction in the Southern Province head of the was link Lake Victoria Busoga line, of Tanganyika in 1948?52 was an entirely pri with at last a ed in 1929?32 Kampala, allowing vate project of the ill-fated Overseas Food Cor movement from the heart of through-rail Ugan poration. When their Groundnut Scheme col to That traffic flow had da the Kenya seaboard. lapsed, both Mtwara port and the rail line toNa been to two previously subject transhipments, chingwea were rather reluctantly taken over by one at Port Bell and another at Kisumu. Branches the East African Railways and Harbours (E.A.R. were in and from Nai also built Kenya Uganda & H.) sucessor in 1948 to the former Kenya to toThomson's robi Nanyuki (145miles), Gilgil Uganda and Tanganyika transport bodies with to Solai Falls (48 miles), Rongai Lake (27 mi.), in the framework of the new East Africa High to Leseru to Kitale (41 miles), Kisumu Butere (43 Commission. and Tororo to Soroti miles), (200 miles). By 1938, During the late 1950's and 1960?61, while and and the Kenya Uganda Railways Harbours, fully engaged in the improvement of territorial a trans a governmental body, controlled heavy road systems, the East African authorities under port network consisting of 1,625 miles of open rail track, 3,853 miles of waterway routes, and The for the trade of these two areas 75 miles of motor services all on 8) competition converging between the two transport administrations of East Africa the same interwar rail Mombasa. During period, is best described in J. R. Farquharson, Tanganyika construction in Tanganyika was limited to two Transport, Dar es Salaam, Government Printer, 1945, 96 p. Irene S. van Dongen: Mombasa in the land and sea exchanges of East Africa 23

took for the first time since the thirties, wide minals shared between them a national hinterland spread rail construction. A long-debated link of of some 347,000 square miles in area, but with a central Tanganyika with the Southern Highlands population not exceeding 7.5 million of which Province, to join eventually with the Rhodesia 140,000 were non-Africans; urbanized popula Railways, via Tunduru, began to be implement tion centers contained therein were only 12 in ed by sections. A first 44-mile section from Kilo number. After many economically depressed sa to Mikumi was completed in 1960, and work years, the seaborne overseas trade of that hinter started for an extension to Msolwa to bring into land had finally reached in 1960 the sum of full productivity the promising Kilombero val ? 81.1 million (U.S. $ 220.0 million)11). As a to ley; possibly the line is to be continued later consequence, the volume of goods trade flowing Mbeya. A rail extension was begun in Uganda through Mombasa in that year represented 70 per from Soroti to Lira (76 miles) and subsequently cent of all land-sea transfers on the East African to Gulu, with ultimate plans to link further with seaboard (see Table I). Dar es Salaam, the main the waterway of the Albert Nile, near Pakwach. Tanganyika port, drew sufficient strength from A 45-mile cutoff between Jinja and Bukonte was servicing the needs of Tanganyika's capital city also laid, to improve operation and to shorten and the largest share of national territory to the distance on themainline route toKampala. In claim 22 per cent of East African maritime ex Kenya, several secondary branches are now being changes. But Tanga, handicapped by Mombasa's planned: one of 100 miles from Kisumu rail to capture of the Moshi-Arusha area, and Mtwara Kisii, and two shorter ones from theNanyuki rail and Lindi, engaged in strenuous competition for to Meru (inKenya) and toEmbu9). But the most the meager traffic flow of the undeveloped significant recent rail building, in so far as Mom southern area, could account respectively for on basa is concerned, has been the laying of a 117 ly 5.2 per cent, 2.5 per cent, and just below 1 per mile connection between the northern line of Tan cent of the East African total12). Regional goods ganyika and the central line just west of Dar es movements involving the interior and the rail ter Salaam; we will elaborate on the potential con minals of Mombasa, Dar es Salaam, Tanga, and sequences of this construction for the future of Mtwara were of the ratio of 119:28:5:1. In pas Kenya's terminal in the final section of this study. senger traffic, Mombasa was likewise ahead of other East African seaports with about 60 per cent of all East African entries and The Hinterland of Mombasa and its Trade departures by sea. the late the hinterland of Mombasa By 1950's, The economic strength of Mombasa's hinter was in British East Africa (see Fig. 2) embracing land has been derived for several decades: a) from a land area of some miles with a 368,000 square the cotton and coffee (chiefly the robusta variety) of 15 of which about 0.5 mil population million, grown inUganda (Fig. 4 and 5) which were pro lion were non-Africans and (Asians Europeans). viding in recent years for as much as 80 to 87 per It contained 34 urbanized population centers of with some varied size 645,300 residents of all gold transfers; 17 cities and townships with an estimated 1960 races. The combined overseas trade of that area population of 466,80 persons. Northeastern Highlands of Tanganyika (Moshi and Arusha districts), and most of handled the port in 1960 could be ? by roughly shores of Lake Victoria Area valued at ? 185.5 million $ 522.2 mil Tanganyika's 34,800 sq. (U.S. mi.; estimated population 1,600,000 (c. 1,552,000 Africans, the four ter lion) 10).By comparison, Tanganyika 15,000 Asians and other non-whites, 4,250 Europeans); about ? 7.3 million of coffee exports, the amount of imports 9) On these new rail extensions, see Northern being unobtainable from local statistical sources; 2 town ? Uganda, Communications A Report on Rail and Road Communi ships, Moshi and Arusha, with a recorded 1957 population to cations in the North and North-West of the Uganda of 13,760 which should probably be added V2 of Mwan Protectorate, Entebbe, Government Printer, 1956 138 p; za's population of 19,811. Kenya, Report of the Committee to Carry Out the Sources: E. A. High Commission, E. A. Statistical Economic Survey of South Nyanza and Kericho District: Department, Economic and Statistical Bulletin, ? Quarterly With a view to advise whether the Economic potential No. 52, June 1961, Tables A. 1?A. 3, pp. 2?4; Uganda would Justify Rail Development, Nairobi, Government 1960 Statistical Abstract, Table U. B. 3 (b), p. 7; Kenya c. 150 Printer, 1957, p. Statistical Abstract 1959, Table 14, p. 12; Tanganyika 10) The component parts of Mombasa's hinterland con Statistical Abstract 1959, Table C. 8, p. 19. Entebbe Nai - tributing to these totals being as follows: Uganda Area robi, and Dar es Salaam, 1961 and 1959. 94 000 estimated sq. mi.; population 6,682,000 (6,590,000 n) A definite distinction is to be made for Tanganyika Africans, 80,500 Asians and other non-whites, 11,700 between general overseas trade and seaborne overseas external of ? 69 Europeans); trade million, exclusive of trade, because the national diamond production, equivalent gold transfers; 15 cities and townships with a recorded in certain years to over 10 per cent of total export ? value, 1959 population of 158,200 persons. Kenya Area is shipped to the U. K. by air. estimated ? 225,000 sq. mi.; population 6,551,000 (6,264,000 12) See I. S. van Dongen "Tanga, Lindi, Mtwara Africans, 219,000 Asians and other non-whites, 67,700 Outlets of Northern and Southern Tanganyika", forth Europeans); external trade of ? 110.1 million exclusive of coming. 24 Erdkunde Band XVII

Fig. 4: In recent years green coffee grown by African farmers has been the most valuable Uganda export via Mombasa. Here, the robusta bean is being sun-dried on straw mats prior to dispatch to a hulling and conditioning plant. Courtesy Uganda Department of Information

5: Fig. Cotton has always been the most voluminous, and was for long the most valuable export commodity of Uganda. This raw cotton awaits transport to a central ginnery from which it will be forwarded in bales to Mombasa. Courtesy East African Railways and Harbours Irene S. van Dongen: Mombasa in the land and sea exchanges of East Africa 25 cent of the Protectorate's export earnings; b) from from former Ruanda-Urundi. Even fewer imports the plantation crops of Kenya such as coffee for those countries have moved through Kenya (mostly the arabica variety), sisal, tea (Fig. 6) and and Uganda. In the 1950's, total Belgian African pyrethrum, which similarly have supplied lately transit traffic was 11,000 tons; the highest vol from 60 to 70 per cent of that territory's annual ume on record, in 1959, was 24,000 tons, whereas export values; and c) from coffee raised in the two Dar es Salaam benefited through the same period ? as tons tributary areas of Tanganyika principally Bu from as much 65,000?90,000 of Congo koba on the western shore of Lake Victoria and transit shipments per year13). Prior to 1958, the was the Moshi-Arusha region in the north. The share Congolese trade passing through Mombasa on of mineral production on the national export list either trucked from the port of Goma, the has always been small from both Kenya and northern shore of Lake Kivu, to Kampala rail ter or Uganda. The agricultural exports of the two head, via Mbarara-Masaka, shipped from Ka across ritories have enabled them, in turn, to finance senyi and Mahagi ports Lake Albert, via overseas. - - the purchase of their import needs from the Butiaba Masindi Namasagali route. Since These have comprised a wide range of consumer then, the Congolese traffic has largely favored re in goods, petroleum fuels for the ever-expanding the Kasese terminus of theWestern Extension new quirements for motive power, and capital equip Uganda, feeder roads for that purpose ment for both the government and the private having been constructed by the Belgian admin sectors of economy in order to complete a succes istration just before their departure from the sion of territorial development programs initi Congo. ated in the late 1940's. A more favorable natural environment for an In contrast with some other ocean terminals of agriculture, notably in regard to adequate the middle African belt, e.g. Beira, Lobito, Lou nual rainfall, has permitted Uganda to lead in the renco Marques, or even Dar es Salaam, Momba sa of its to the movement has owed little growth 13) Specific exports and imports of Belgian Africa of transit trade to and from extra-national areas, at Mombasa and Dar es Salaam were examined in W. A. Hance and I. S. van Focus the term national being synonymous with British Dongen, "Matadi, of Belgian African Transport" and "Dar es Salaam, the East Africa. a limited export volume, Only again Port and its Tributary Area", Annals of the Association has from the chiefly in coffee, been forthcoming of American Geographers, Vol. 48, Nos. 1 and 4, pp. or 2 in Matadi article. parts of ex-Belgian Congo adjoining Uganda 41?72 and 419?435, notably Table

one overseas Fig. 6: Africans picking tea at a plantation in Kenya. Tea is of that country's leading exports passing East and Harbours through the terminal of Mombasa. Courtesy African Railways 26 Erdkunde Band XVII

Table I: Comparative trade, passenger, and shipping movements at main East African Ports in 1938, 1948, 1958 and 1960 *) = Harbor ton 2,240 lbs.

1938 1948 1958 1960

Volume of cargo handled Mombasa 1,251.5 2,344.1 3,022.3 3,265.7 (in 1000 harbor tons) Dar es Salaam 185.0 504.0 920.0 1,053.6 Tanga 130.0 205.6 274.4 297.6 Lindi 30.0 102.0 51.5 45.3 Mtwara **) n. a. 28.4 81.7 88.6 Passengers landed and Mombasa 76.3 83.5 embarked (in 1000 Dar es Salaam 47.7 46.3 persons) Tanga n.a. n. a. 6.1 5.4 Lindi 9.6 3.4 Mtwara **) 3.0 1.8

Number of ships Mombasa Deepsea 493 bURn, 925 1,030 entered***) Coastal 218 230 300 (units) Dar es Salaam Deepsea 7n7 on, 686 802 Coastal 707 806 517 361 Deepsea ,n. ,A7 425 492 Tanga Coastal 604 647 296 166 Lindi Deepsea 1/in 107 29 17 Coastal 140 127 127 144 Mtwara **) Deepsea 7Q *bc/- 99 85 Coastal 78 63 66 Registered tonnage Mombasa Deepsea 2,172.7 7 n 3,827.8 4,392.7 Coastal 81.7 Z'^'U 56.8 78.2 of shipping Dar es Salaam 3,079.2 3,481.7 entered***) Deepsea i,/iu.j171n, (1000 net tons) Coastal u6 9 12g 4 Tanga Deepsea QA1Q Q[.~ Q 1,785.2 2,065.3 Coastal V41*y 92.2 66.3 Lindi Deepsea 221'3011 ; 215,2oic^ 84.4 151.3 Coastal 71.3 63.1 Mtwara **) Deepsea QQQ Q1 1 343.6 319.3 Coastal 38.6 32.1

? General on the Ad *) Sources: 1938 Kenya and Uganda Railways and Harbours, Report of the Manager & Govern ministration of the Railways and Harbours for the Year Ended 31 December, 1938, Part I II, Nairobi, on the ment Printer 1939, pp. 56?59; Tanganyika Railways and Port Services, Report of the General Manager Dar es Govern Administration of the Railways and Port Services for the Year Ending 31 December 1938, Salaam, ? Commissioner for ment Printer, 1939, pp. 45, 48?49. 1948 East African Railways and Harbours, Reports of the on of the East African Rail Transport, East Africa High Commission, and the General Manager the Administration 117?118. 1958 ways and Harbours for the Year Ended 31 December, 1948, Nairobi, Government Printer, pp. 50, ? 1958 and Mom and 1960 East African Railways and Harbours, Chief Ports Manager's Annual Reports 1960, Nos 45. basa, E. A. R. & H. (mimeo), 1959 and 1961 Statements Nos. 4, 10?11 and to in these the trade **) For 1938 and 1948 the data shown are relevant Mikindani harbor which handled years later directed to the new Mtwara deepwater port. ***) Steam and motor ships other than motorized "schooners" and dhows.

outdistan volume of exports at Mombasa. Kenya's agricul contrast, Uganda has been consistently overseas tural output has been restricted by the arid and ced by Kenya in the volume of imports over This has reflected in the semi-arid conditions prevailing three-fifths through Mombasa. part, structure main of the national land space. Also a significant population of Uganda consisting African farmers who have a lim share of its produce, notably from the European ly of small only cash income and who live on food farms in the Highlands of central Kenya, and ited largely own from the African-maize granary of the Nyanza staples raised in their holdings. Moreover, to have Province on the eastern shores of Lake Victoria, the figures of imports ascribed Kenya included as much as 30 to 40 cent has been diverted from possible overseas destina sometimes per which find their to tions towards the feeding of urban centers and of goods eventually way the firms lo deficiency-areas in the other two territories. In Uganda through large distributory Irene S. van Dongen: Mombasa in the land and sea exchanges of East Africa 27

Table II: Comparative volumes of selected commodities handled at main East African Ports in 1960 *) = In thousand harbor tons (1 ton 2,240 lbs.) es Mombasa_Dar_ Salaam_Tanga_Lindi_Mtwara A. Exports ? Green coffee173.0 26.70.4 0.9 ??? Cotton fiber 164.6 79.8 ? ? Cottonseed2.1 4.9 0.8 Sisal, fiber and tow 102.6 110.8 198.1 12.05.6 ? 33.6Tea 10.0 2.5 ? ? ? ? ? Pyrethrum, flower and extract 4.6 ? ? Wattle, bark and extract 22.7 6.3 1.5 Oilseed and cake 74.8 27.4 0.9 0.4? ? ? Maize, grain 27.5 25.4 8.0 ?? ? Maize, meal 5.5 0.9 116.7Beans 0.3 0.71.3 0.9 ? Cashew nuts4.7 10.0 5.4 25.6 Groundnuts11.6 11.0 0.1 2.40.9 ? ? Hides and skins 18.6 9.2 0.3 ? 9.1Timber 5.3 3.0 10.6 ? ? Meat, canned and frozen 3.8 5.7 3.7 Butter 4.2 ? ? ? ? ?? ? Fruit, canned 5.3 0.1 Cement 54.0 ? ? ? ? ? Soda ash 115.0 ? ? ? ??? Other mineral products **) 22.9 14.8 Scrap metal_377_9_3_L2_?_? Total exports_1,215.7_474.8_236.3_305_62.0 B. Imports General cargo928.2 332.6 44.4 14.89.9 ? Petroleum fuels in bulk 1,023.6 234.7 16.7 15.9 Coal_427_1J_?_?_? Total imports_2,021.5_567.5_6L1_1A8_25.8 C. Transhipment cargo All goods_28^_1U_02_O0_08_ *) Source: E. A. R. & H., Annual Report of the Chief Ports Manager for 1960, Mombasa, 1961, Statements Nos. 4, 8,9. **) Copper ingots for Mombasa, lead concentrates for Dar es Salaam.

cated in the of cities Nairobi and Mombasa14). The In Table II are indicated the comparative ship nascent manufacturing in Kenya has also called ments of typically East African export commodi for the of certain raw importation materials for ties passing through the five main regional sea which are products again marketed partly in ports. Clearly apparent is the control by Momba other East African countries15). Lastly, the higher sa of almost the entire coffee trade of East Afri incomes and more tastes sophisticated of the lar ca, aided by the marketing and green-bean pro non-African in ger element Kenya has created de cessing arrangements along the feeder routes to mand for many goods whose consumption is still the port; most of the small volume of coffee ex restricted in Uganda16). ? The of Coffee in Story Kenya, and Cream Country and The of Story Kenya Cooperative Creameries, Ltd., Nairobi, Such are made 14) arrangements possible by the existence East Africa Standard Ltd. 1957, 210 p. and 118 p.; of a common East African Customs T. A. E. No ? agreement (See Huxley, Easy Way A History of the Kenya Kennedy and D. and the Eco Farmers' Walker, "Imports Uganda Association and Unga, Ltd., Nairobi, East Africa in Saben's Commercial ? nomy", Directory and Handbook Standard, 1958, 225 p., and "A New Earth An Ex of in Uganda, 1960?61, Kampala, 1960, pp. 37?50). periment Colonialism", London, Chatto & Windus, 1960 In close to one-third of 228 15) 1960, Kenya's total export p.; Kenya, Economic Survey 1960, Nairobi, Govern value was directed to and in the ment 46 Tanganyika Uganda Printer, 1960, p.; Kenya Tea Board, Tea in Kenya, form of tobacco and wheat and foot 48 N. C. products, clothing Nairobi, 1959, p.; Pollock, "Industrial Develop wear, cement, tea, butter and and cleans ment in beer, ghee, soap East Africa", Economic Geography, Vol. 36, No. 4, ing sisal aluminum steel October preparations, bags, ware, doors 1960, pp. 344?354. For Uganda, see C. C. and etc. sold 10 cent and and windows, Uganda only per Wrigley, Crops Wealth of Uganda: A Short Agrarian 5 per cent of their total to sister Tanganyika only exports History, Kampala, East Africa Institute of Social Research, territories of East Africa A. Economic and 84 (E. Quaterly 1959, p.; varied articles in Saben's... op. cit., and Statistical No. March Table C. 19 Bulletin, 41, 1960, [a]). International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 16) The economic and social of is well The Economic background Kenya Development of Uganda, Baltimore, Johns covered in recent works M. F. by Hill, Planter's Progress Hopkins Press, 1962, 475 p. 28 Erdkunde Band XVII

ported through Dar es Salaam is actually of non Mombasa Island by means of Nyali pontoon domestic origin and represents transit shipments bridge and Likoni Ferry (see Fig. 2) have to from Rwanda-Burundi and some areas of ex meet the competition of coastal vessels inmoving a Belgian Congo. Furthermore, it can be seen that the limited traffic offering of few European or Mombasa handles two-thirds of all ginned cotton sisal coconut estates, and the copra output of exported from East Africa, all pyrethrum, close scattered African villages. Only the plant of Brit at to three-quarters of all tea and wattle exports, ish Standard Portland Cement Co., Ltd. Bam east and the largest share of hides and skins shipments, buri, 8 miles of Mombasa, accounted in the oilseed cake, and maize meal. The port is also the last years for substantial transfers by road to the area leading East African outlet for manufactured Kilindini port until, in 1961, bulk loading or installations for cement were on the foods products of mineral origin. Despite the completed shore of the Mombasa Harbour at importance of Kenya's sisal production, both mainland Old The share which do not Tanga and Dar es Salaam overtake Mombasa in English Point. of imports the level of East African sisal trade and some use the rail route is somewhat larger, however, of the of Mombasa as a Tanganyika ports also show higher timber or because importance city center for overseas cashew nut shipments. consuming goods. In the absence of more data as to the Before and immediately after the Second precise World War, Mombasa handled almost four times exact points of origin and destination of East African trade the re as much general cargo imports as Dar es Salaam. passing through Mombasa, cords of handled at various rail The subsequent rise of manufacturing plants in freight tonnages or lake stations on the E.A.R. & H. Kenya eliminated the need for imported cement, system repre sent the most valid and accurate source of infor beer, and a number of hardware items. By 1960, mation as to the areas in the hinterland the volume of general imports at the Kenya port specific was down to less than three times Dar es Salaam's of the port, which contribute the most to its trade. These records are in level. In the receiving of bulk petroleum fuels, presented graphically the total volume of traffic at however, the 4 to 1 proportion between the two Fig. 8. Both goods and the volume of that ports continued to prevail, partly because of ship each point, specific point's with Mombasa are indicated there bunkering functions at Mombasa and a consider interchanges in on the of 1959 the total volume able distribution therefrom of petroleum fuels in basis figures, in the coastwise trade. Petroleum products in bulk ac being useful indicating generally produc tive or stretches of Mombasa's count actually for one-third of total Mombasa improductive One note in that portuary traffic and one-half of all imports. backcountry. may that, particu lar some 3.8 million tons of traffic Previously high in-shipments of coal have been year, public were moved on the combined and drastically reduced by the almost universal switch Kenya-Uganda northern sections of the E.A.R. & H. to petroleum as a source of motive power, and Tanganyika are connected with Mom now coal is brought only for a few needs of system, which directly that total 55 cent had over E.A.R. & H. and of the cement plant in the vicin basa; of per passed the Kilindini wharfs. ity of Mombasa. It can be seen from Fig. 8 that Nairobi, Kam are far the most pala, and Magadi by important movements. Inland Sources of Mombasa's Flow contributors in tonnage to Mombasa This reflects, for the first two localities, the size The E.A.R. & H. trunk line to the interior is and the consuming power of their urban popula of their the main route of the inward and outward tion together with significance goods as cent and export- collecting roles flow through Mombasa. Only 2.5 per of the import-distributory to the commercial cities of Kenya and port's total exports are delivered the Kilindini leading move movements at these wharfs by motor transport, much of it in Uganda (see Fig. 9). Import two stations are twice as as the ments between the city and the port. Westward actually heavy ismade essen of the seabord where Mombasa Island is located, export movements. Magadi traffic of sodium carbonate a broad stretch of waterless, almost barren coun tially of outgoing shipments the from the lake. try (Fig. 7) separates the coastal strip from is not condu The of Nakuru (the heart of the productive interior highlands, and townships Rift Eldoret center of cive to traffic offering to short-distance road Kenya's Valley), (another motor on the Uasin-Gishu Plateau of haulers; on the other hand, restructive li white-farming truck Kisumu of populous censing in Kenya prohibits long-distance Kenya), (the headquarters routes. Within the and present indus ing along the alignment of rail Nyanza Province), Jinja (the over North trial hub of can also be out for coastal strip itself, truck carriers the Uganda) singled of their with Mombasa and South Coast Roads, which connect with the volume interchanges Irene S. van Dongen: Mombasa in the land and sea exchanges of East Africa 29

Fig. 7: E. A. R. & H. main line in the semi-arid subcoastal zone which extends behind Mombasa. Note the barren, hilly character of the countryside which the rail has to traverse before reaching the productive areas of Kenya, and Uganda. Courtesy East African Railways and Harbours

for the same reasons as Nairobi and Kampala, outgoing shipments of canned and frozen meat but the tonnages involved are considerably lower from the Kenya Meat Commission plant and due to lesser size of these population centers and some cement from a plant installed there in the more limited radius of their economic influence. mid-fifties. Fig. 8 also brings out fairly conspic Jinja also presents a better balance between in uously the importance of traffic derived by coming and outgoing movements, because its Mombasa from Moshi and Arusha in northern shipments overseas include not only some proces Tanganyika, which could be served by the port sed crops but as well the output of the Kilembe of Tanga; the function of Kasese as the Congo mines, received by rail from Kasese, in form of lese transit traffic head; the contribution to copper concentrates, and smelted at Jinja into Mombasa port movement by the existing steamer blister copper with the power available from the and barge services on Lake Victoria, picking up nearby Owen Falls hydroelectric plant. and delivering freight at such points as Bukakata, The points of Thika, Nanyuki, Kitale, Lum Bukoba, or Kisumu Pier; and the low traffic of bwa, Mbale, and Soroti are, on the other hand, fering to Mombasa along the combined Lake notable as export contributors to Mombasa be Kioga-Lake Albert-Albert Nile route. Although cause they function as mainly as local collecting the steamer based on Butiaba ascends the Albert centers for sisal, coffee, maize, tea, hides, or cot Nile as far as Nimule, there are no direct book ton crops obtained in the surrounding rural areas. ings whatsoever for Mombasa beyond Rhino to The significance of Athi River station is due Camp. 30 Erdkunde Band XVII

" :|^Tfc-. ' I olllli^ C^^^^

F/g. #: Traffic exchanges of Mombasa with localities in its hinterland. Irene S. van Dongen: Mombasa in the land and sea exchanges of East Africa 31

Present portuary facilities of Mombasa ond World War, just opposite the main wharf and on the southern shores of Port Reitz, except Kilindini Harbour for a few short jetties and an explosives depot. The main deepwater quay, known as the Ki To serve the trade of the port's tributary area, lindini wharf, is 5,290 feet in length with 33-foot the terminal facilities in Kilindini Harbour minimum alongside depths and offers berthing (see Fig. 2) now comprise: a) a section of deep accommodation for nine ocean-going vessels water wharfage extending along the western (Fig. 10). In the lower port area, which was re northwestern shore of Mombasa Island from Ras peatedly re-modelled through the last decade, are Kilindini up to the entrance of the Makupa nine goods sheds totalling 608,000 square feet of Creek; b) a lighteragewharf adjoined by sundry covered space (inclusive of a cold store for perish port installations which occupy the western shore ables, having a 700-ton capacity, and of a new south of Ras Kilindini down to the entrance of passenger hall where baggage undergoes customs the Kilindini arm; and c) the new Kipevu deep inspection). Extensive space for stacking cargo water wharf on the mainland, north of the en that can be left exposed is available around trance into Port Reitz, which is connected with the sheds. The grounds and sheds are well served the wharfs on the Island over the Kipevu cause by a grid of rail tracks and an imposing array of way. Little remains today of various installations mechanized equipment comprising mobile and put up by the British Admiralty, during the Sec fixed cranes, trailers, fork-lifts and platform

Fig 9: Nairobi, the capital of Kenya, is the leading inland destination of the import flow throughMombasa and over the E. A. R. & H. mainline. In the foreground is seen a section of the city's railroad station with the E. A. R. & H. head officesoccupying the lower center. Courtesy East African Railways and Harbours 32 Erdkunde Band XVII

trucks; palletization is widely used17). In the aged fuels and lubricants are disembarked into an port's higher level zone, on a bluff, more sheds adjoining stacking area. extend the covered storage capacity by about The lighterage wharf is 1,280 feet in length, one one-half; of the sheds, formerly owned by with nine lighter-handling points, and there are Magadi Soda Company, is equipped with two five storage sheds with some 186,300 square feet to gravity conveyors expedite the loading of of total floor space. The part played by lighter bagged soda ash and maize. At the northern end, ing operations at Mombasa, however, is relative the Kilindini wharf passes into the Shimanzi oil ly minor as compared to a number of large Afri a wharf with jetty for receiving bulk petroleum can ports. In 1960, total capacity of the 28 light fuels which are pumped into tank farms at the ers, barges, and pontoons available was 6,500 to rear, belonging the three main distributors of tons of cargo, with 4 tugs for towing. Down petroleum products in East Africa: Shell Co. of stream from the lighter wharf are located some East Africa, Ltd., Caltex (Africa) Ltd., and small dockyards with a slipway that can handle Standard-Vacuum Oil Co. (E.A.), Ltd.; the pack craft up to 2,200 tons; usually it deals with port tugs, pilot boats and some coasters. Still further toward the Kilindini entrance is a coal wharf 17) See East African Railways and Harbours, Annual with a storage capacity up to 12,000 tons. Report 1961, Nairobi, E. A. R. & H. and Government The new wharf at on the Printer, 1962, p. 54 for a detailed inventory of Mom deepwater Kipevu basa's cargo handling equipment. mainland has a quay of 2,400 feet for four ves

.....- -"7X-^

Fig. 10: A detailed view of the Kilindini deepwater wharf area on the western side of Mombasa Island. Lower right section shows a part of the lighterage wharf. In the distance can be seen the Makupa causeway and the ex panse of Port Tudor. Courtesy East African Railways and Harbours Irene S. van Dongen: Mombasa in the land and sea exchanges of East Africa 33

sels. Only two of its berths, however, have been Union in the mid-fifties. In 1959, a Board of In equipped with sheds (160,000 square feet of coy quiry was set up to examine the working condi ered space in total) and are in service. The re tions; publication of its report enabled remedying mainder of the wharf was left in an unfinished some grievances and improvements were achieved as a reserve state, at its inauguration in 1961, for in the labor situation although pressure for higher future port development. Total handling capaci wages continues. All unskilled and semi-skilled ty for dry cargo should at present approximate port laborers are Africans, one-third being derived 2.5 million tons per year in Kilindini Harbour from coastal tribes and two-thirds from tribes of with the Shimanzi wharf accounting for another the interior. Clerical port staff is half-Asian, half million tons capacity for bulk petroleum fuels. African. The supervisory and executive European un In this regard, Mombasa is in the process of personnel numbered about 200 in 1961. an was dergoing great changes, for agreement signed in 1959 between the Kenya government Mombasa Harbour and the Shell Oil interests for constructing a large On the eastern side of Mombasa Island, port refinery at Changamwe, behind the Kipevu facilities available for foreign trade shows and the shore. The establishment of this refinery, which heterogeneous motorized or sail craft belonging should go on stream in 1963-64, means that in to Greeks, Indians, and Africans who engage in stead of finished fuels Mombasa will be receiving unscheduled coastwise in East Africa of crude oil for carriage receiving large quantities pro have not been for some time a crude oil wharf is in the improved (Fig. 11). cessing. Consequently, consist of two short a concrete rein a They jetties, process of being built in Port Reitz and deep forced slope with flat recesses for stacking cargo, access channel is to be dredged through Kilindini and an old customs house; the area is simply Harbour to allow the of to entry up 65,000-ton fenced off from the town streets. There is no tankers. Now the western arm can be used only connection with themain rail system of Mombasa vessels not tons. The same by exceeding 45,000 Island so is moved trucks rede freight by private Changamwe area will be utilized for the loading and unloading in the cramped open space ployment of E. A. R. 8cH. rail marshalling yards in front of the port's gate. Ship to shore transfer as soon as the freight haulings offMombasa Island is all done manually by African labor, there being reach a total of 150,000 tons per month. no cranage. The of cargo handling in Kilin organization No of the old port's dini Harbour differs from that in some reorganization operations sensibly or of installations is The other African where all the are improvement planned. ports operations monsoon dhow visitors from Asia and the Somali performed by the port's own administration. dhow trade have been dwindling18). The While the E.A.R. 8t H. own and maintain the steadily few coastal steamers which service the installations and deal with the and regular port incoming East African seaboard and the islands in inside the transit sheds and in outlying outgoing cargo that of the Indian Ocean use wharf-rail the of between part normally transfers, moving goods Kilindini Harbour. Unscheduled carriers are not the and the shed is done a firm of ship by private and work the with their and Co. East demanding cargo mostly contractors, Landing Shipping of own crews to at a minimum. Ltd. All work is keep expenditures Africa aboardship performed Since a small on contract to the 1961, however, specially-built by stevedoring companies steamer, the Baobab of Southern Line, Ltd., has firms or their Private initiative shipping agents. been in to load cement for coastwise and is also in the of coming prominent warehousing cargo island distribution at the wharf built in the main which is now allowed to remain at low rates but land, just across the dhow port, by the Bamburi for a minimal period of time in the E. A. R. 8cH. company. The two cement silos, located there and transit sheds in order to keep the traffic flowing. having a total capacity of 4,000 tons, are supplied Substantial warehousing capacity was erected, directly from the plant by the company's 15-ton after 1956, in different locations on the level high trucks. zone, about one third of overseas imports usually Mombasa City remaining for some time inMombasa before being shipped inland. From the old "Walled Town" of Mombasa The port labor force has, since the late 1950's, which still thrives around the dhow harbor, in the consisted of about 6,000 men employed perma shadow of Fort Jesus, and shelters in its twisted nently and semi-permanently in the operations at 307 dhows in from 50 to Kilindini, which are handled on a two 18) foreign (ranging capacity normally 300 and 1.051 local dhows from 1 to 10 shift basis. strikes on several occasions tons) (usually tons) Sporadic entered the old port in 1948. By 1958, only 71 foreign the smooth of the terminal disrupted functioning dhows and 631 local dhows were registered. (Information after formation of the Mombasa Port Workers' courtesy Mombasa Old Port Customs.) 34 Erdkunde Band XVII

11: Fig. The old port in Mombasa Harbour, on the eastern side of Mombasa Island, showing some monsoon dhows at anchorage and "schooners" moored before the landing jetty. The Old Town clusters on the shore. Courtesy East African Railways and Harbours

alleys the less-prosperous Arab, Indian, and Until about a decade ago, Mombasa city func Swahili residents of the port-city, the urban tioned essentially as an important transit point on growth has extended in the last five decades to the seabord with local shipping and trade hand the entire Mombasa Island. Not long ago it began ling interests acting as intermediaries to facilitate to overflow the bounds of the insular site with the flow of goods to and from the interior over European residential development consolidating the single E. A. R. & H. rail route. Retail trade, in theNyali section of the mainland and African chiefly in the hands of Indians and Arabs, housing going up in the Kisauni, Mwandoni, and catered to the necessities of the Island's inhabitants Changamwe sections (see Fig. 3). The upsurge in and passing tourists. At the end of the first rail population has closely paralleled the rise in climb onto the East African plateau (some 5,400 volume of themodern port's trade. In the 1920's, feet in 330 miles), Nairobi, which had expanded with the trade nearing 500,000 tons, Mombasa's from a railroad camp put up in 1899, stood as the population approximated 20,000. Between 1938 real gateway to the productive areas of Kenya to and 1958, the trade increased from 1.25 million and Uganda, and represented the "center of gra 3.0 million tons and the population passed from vity" of East Africa in administrative functions, to 53,000 145,000 persons. With the expansion, commerce, land and air routes, conglomeration of in 1959, of the area under the control of themuni non-native population, and cultural amenities20). cipal government from the previous 33 square Nascent regional manufacturing was also showing miles to 100 square miles, Mombasa municipality a tendency to concentration inNairobi, before it was to 1960-61 some was estimated contain in 160,000 realized that the processing of some foreign on people of whom 116,000 lived the Island raw materials at the place of the break of bulk on proper. A master plan for further development the seaboard was more economical since it avoided foresees 200,000 residents by 1970 and 250,000 by 198019). peans 3.0 per cent, others 2.8 per cent (All information on the city's population is courtesy Municipal Council of Mombasa). ? 19) At present, the racial composition of Mombasa's 20) See R. W. Walmsley, Nairobi The Geography of population is: Africans 62 per cent, Indian and Pakistani a New City, Nairobi, The Eagle Press (East African Lite 18 per cent, Arab 13 per cent, Goans 1.2 per cent, Euro rature Bureau), 1957, 56 p. Irene S. van Dongen: Mombasa in the land and sea exchanges of East Africa 35

extra rail charges and allowed an easier distribu sea contacts were maintained with the European tion of surplus production to a number of markets coast of the Atlantic until the first regular steam in the Indian Ocean area. ship service was inaugurated in the 1870's be The expansion of industrial activities at Mom tween England and Zanzibar, as the latter island basa is evidenced by the records of electric power was then the entrepot for East African over and water consumption for industrial uses between seas trade. The North American Atlantic, Gulf the years 1948 and 1958. During that period, the Coast, and Pacific seaboards established firm to electricity consumption rose from 4.8 million shipping connections with East Africa in the 38.5 million kwh; water consumption increased 1930's. But the sea links with the South American from 369.3 million to 618.8 million gallons. realm continue to be almost non-existent. A survey made inKenya in 1957 placed industrial The increase in number and registered tonnage at cent employment in Mombasa 21 per of the of shipping entering the five main East African industrially-employed labor force of the nation ports from 1938 to 1960 can be seen in Table I. at 22.5 cent and the number of establishments per Of all the terminals, Mombasa gained most in of the national total21). The corresponding per shipping traffic during the period. At present, at were 58.5 cent centages forNairobi 60.5 and per least 23 steamship lines22) engaged in deepsea trade respectively. Products manufactured inMombasa maintain monthly or more frequent schedules of now cement and vicinity include (Bamburi), steel calls at the Kenya head, several of them having door and window frames, aluminum ware, metal actually multiple service routes involving the port. containers, matches, paper bags, glass bottles, Most of these deepsea vessels, tankers excepted, bricks and tiles, paints and polishes, insecticides, now call both at Mombasa and Dar es Salaam, beer, processed meats, vegetable oils and soap, though the volume of cargo loaded and unloaded various types of flour, confectionery, ices and soft per shipping entry at Dar es Salaam is only about some drinks. There is also coffee curing associated one-third of Mombasa's volume. Tanga has not with the flow of East African coffee via the to port, been able attract much deepsea shipping be grain conditioning, wood and coir industries. The cause of its closeness to Mombasa and because of radius of distribution of these Mombasa's manu the existence of alternate rail route from its hinter the East African factures reaches well beyond land from the better equipped Kenya port. to and the frontiers Zanzibar Pemba, Seychelles, Fig. 12 shows ship and cargo movements at Aden, Somalia, Ethiopia, Comores and Mada Mombasa by rational registry for 1938 and 1960. and sales are sometime made in the Rho gascar, The section relevant to cargo carriage applies via the seaboard. The indus to desias, Mozambique strictly dry goods and packaged fuels because trial significance of Mombasa should further detailed port records do not effect a breakdown increase in the future for it is to set planned up, by national marines for bulk petroleum products; in addition to the at Chan petroleum refinery usually, however, the tankers supplying Mombasa an mill and a are gamwe, aluminium-rolling rayon British or Dutch. The impressive overall show textiles factory. of the British shipping at the port is the outcome of the political control of Kenya and Uganda by Mombasa and its sea exchanges the United Kingdom, the first rank occupied by the metropolitan country in regional overseas Indian Ocean shipping, particularly from the trade, and the of the British merchant northwestern and northern of that ocean, strength margins marine on the world seas. British connections with has long played a major role in the maritime life Europa are via Suez. Western is of Mombasa for Arab, Persian, and Indian vessels largely Germany at the second commercial are believed to have visited the eastern African present leading partner of Kenya and the fourth of Uganda, but German seaboard as early as A. D. 80, even before the foundation of the port-city. Remains of Chinese coins and found in coastal pottery, excavations, 22) These lines being: Union-Castle Mail Steamship Co., are Ltd. also conducive to thinking that some trade (U. K.); British India Steam Navigation Co., Ltd. known as Bank Line Ltd. with the shores of the Pacific, through theMalacca B.I.S.N.; (U.K.) inclusive of Indian-African Line and Pakistan-African Line; Clan Straits, took place in theMiddle Ages. The Atlan Hall-Harrison Lines (U. K.); Holland-Afrika Lijn; Royal tic Ocean entered the local scene with navigators Inter-Ocean Line (Neth.); Nedllyod Line (Neth.; K. P. M. the arrival of Vasco da Gama at Mombasa in Line (Neth.); Deutsche Ost-Afrika Linie; Messageries Ma 1498, after his the of Good ritimes (Fr.); Lloyd Triestino (It.); Compagnie Maritime rounding Cape Hope or C. M. on his to the Indies. Beige B.; Scandinavian East Africa Line (Norw.); way Henceforth, intermittent Svedel Line (Swed.); Osaka-Shosen-Kaisha (Jap.); Nip pon-Ysen-Kaisha (Jap.); Baron-Ino Line (Jap.); East Ship and Protectorate. of 21) Kenya Colony Kenya Survey ping Corporation, Ltd. (India); Zim Lines (Israel); Chri Industrial Government stensen Production, 1957, Nairobi, Printer, Canadian African Lines (Norw.); Parrel Lines 1959, tables 18 and 75 and 76. principally 19, pp. (U.S.A.); Robin Line (U.S.A.); and Lykes Lines (U.S.A.). 36 Erdkunde Band XVII

shipping has never been able to recover in East America (both the Atlantic and the Pacific coast), Africa the relative position it held before the the Persian Gulf, and the Far East and Australia ? Second World War, and much of the cargo ex as well as bringing much of bulk petroleum to ? changed with Germany is now transported by Mombasa by tankers they are active in coastal Dutch vessels. The Dutch operate with particular trade with a small steamer and barges. For the energy at Mombasa, though their own trade with French as well as for the Italians, Mombasa is the northern half of East Africa does not exceed not so much a cargo port as stepping stone on 3.5?4 per cent of the total regional trade value. their important sea routes to Madagascar and Besides four Dutch-registry lines connecting with southern Africa respectively. Europe (either via Suez or via the Cape), North The traditional orientation of East Africa toward the Asian shores has resulted in a consi derable variety of sea routes being offered in that Wet direction as far eastward as in the | registeredtons]Thousands Japan; fact, number of possible service routes to Asia exceeds the number of service routes available in the direction of Europe but the frequency of schedules is lower. Over two-thirds of the passenger flow through Mombasa is also in interchanges with India since the - Asia, specifically proliferating U.S.A.-3800? Indian community occupies a position of promi nence in the commercial activities of East Africa = *B. P. Bulkpetroleum _ _ 3600? and travels either for business or family reasons p||| by sea. The still underdeveloped state of many Asian countries with the corresponding lack of internationally significant merchant marines has not, however, allowed Asian shipping to reach thus far a forceful expression at Mombasa, except for The tonnages of cargo loaded and ,_,Number ofships | \\}?A\ Japan. -if?? unloaded in with Asia further 2800 I exchanges have, 1 JLULJJjl Cargo-tonscarried Vesses 1 more, shown marked fluctuations. For instance, - -~26oo? the customarily large exports of Uganda's cotton to be worked in Indian textile mills had to be ' curtailed in the mid-fifties because of currency GER;: others ^; difficulties; only very recently was India able to . ?. - nop_U-S-A- 2200_^ffefej move to second rank in trade. . again Uganda's ^n8P :ger. Wi&. Although Japan remains the third trading partner 1000-- of it lost a share of its u.S.A.-|?p-20(10-?0 Kenya, good prosperous illll11 iiditiif textile marked inUganda when theNyanza Tex 900--Iliull -1800-W$& tiles, Ltd. began, in 1956, to manufacture cotton - - - at Iran and the 800- mm -I600 yard goods Jinja. Nonetheless, Persian Gulf countries continue to be the main 7m? ~ ? source of East African fuel requirements and China has bid lately for a substantial share of cotton ^sl^f'y^|^ ^j^^ ^^B^ Uganda's exports. United States' shipping entries doubled in number and net registered tonnage from 1938 to 1960, as that country moved in 1960 to fourth place in Kenya's and third place in Uganda's overseas trade, through large purchases of coffee, pyrethrum, and sales of machinery or transport equipment. In total volume of seaborne cargo handled by Mombasa, the three U.S. lines were yet unable to increase their share over the last 22 years by more than 50 per cent. North American services Mombasa via the as an ? ? shipping Cape W^t 1960 1938 I960 1960 extension of their run to South Africa, and for each of their lines Mombasa is the turning point Fig. 12: World shipping at Mombasa, 1938 and 1960. for the voyage homeward. Irene S. van Dongen: Mombasa in the land and sea exchanges of East Africa 37

Coastwise trade in East Africa is more signi The Future ofMombasa ficant along the seaboard than that Tanganyika The uncertainties of he climate in of Kenya owing to a greater length of coastline political East Africa overshadow the future of Mombasa. and more coastal population centers. In both cases, One can about the next ten or it ranges beyond the East African coast to the only speculate fifteen years ahead. Yet it is certain that some outlying islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, the important factors will have their say in Seychelles and the Comores, and even includes at regional the or of the times Mauritius, Reunion, or Madagascar south determining prosperity stagnation These factors are the recent ward, and Somalia or Aden northward. The distri seaport. transport to a bution of Bamburi cement, for example, to these developments leading potential competition between the and seaboards for destinations is done by the small steamers of Kenya Tanganyika the of overseas trade, the level of Southern Line, Ltd. which has operated since 1953 routing general economic activities inMombasa's and the most efficient coastwise services for freight hinterland, the outcome of on the administrative from Mombasa. A bi-monthly schedule by a negotiations status of coastal coaster of B. I. S. N. that ensured passenger and Kenya's strip. freight transport between Mombasa and the Tan Potential Competition between Kenya ganyika ports was finally abandoned in 1960, and Tanganyika Seaboards after some 30 years of operation, because most of the potential passenger traffic offering was more Foremost among recent transport developments and more attracted by the inter-territorial services in East Africa is the present construction of of the East African Mnyusi-Ruvu link between the northern and Airways (E.A.A.) operating ? fromMombasa's airport at Port Reitz. Passenger central rail systems of Tanganyika which also means a transport between the coastal localities in Kenya connection between the Kenya-Uganda normally takes place by private car or Indian bus. and the main Tanganyika systems because of the existence of the Voi-Kahe link. Although itwas If one includes "schooners" sailcraft, and officially designed to encourage inter-territorial monsoon with dhows together the regular coastal exchanges and to enable the E. A. R. & H. to effect steamers in the total of vessel entries at Mombasa a movement free of freight cars through East the number of coastal shipping movements at the Africa in order to cope with the seasonal rushes of port would approximate the number of deepsea produce movements, which occur at different movements. The shipping tonnage involved in times in the northern and southern halves of that ? coastal trade of course, much lower less than new is, area, the link may play a far-reaching role 2 cent of Mombasa's total per shipping tonnage; for Mombasa in case separatist national policies the volume of coastal loaded and unloaded cargo prevail in the future instead of Kenya, Uganda, reach 3 to 4 cent of all move may per port cargo and Tanganyika being held in some form of fede ment. The main on outgoing commodities the ration. The loss of revenue due to the capture of coastal routes continue to be petroleum fuels, bulk the Moshi-Arusha traffic by Mombasa to the and certain foods from cement, Kenya. Incoming detriment of Tanga has long been a sore point for commodities collected on the at Kenya seaboard Tanganyika transport. Up to now, conditions at Lamu, Kipini, Malindi, Kilifi, and Vanga are Tanga did not encourage the northern Tan for largely mangrove poles ("boriti") African ganyika coffee shippers to switch to another ocean house construction, citrus and mango fruit, straw head. But, once a new national route is offered some cotton mats, copra, and cashew nuts. Most toward Dar es Salaam whose port was at last of these items are destined for local consumption provided with excellent deepwater facilities in rather than overseas. From transshipment the 1955, that coffee flow may be routed there, if seaboard also come fresh Tanganyika may pro railage rates are favorably construed. Coercion duce or, sisal. Somalia and on occasionally, Aden the part of Tanganyika government may be send in bottled usually salt, gas (from the refinery also employed. in cattle and from Aden), goats; ivory poachers Another development with possible influence in the Northern Frontier Province of on Kenya, Mombasa is the opening of a modern lake port which is into also reaches the at Mwanza 1960. smuggled Somalia, in These works and the impro special ivory auctions at Mombasa under the vement of wharfs at Kisumu head which handles Somali label. The monsoon dhow with trade Asia, the ever increasing traffic on Lake Victoria were which could at almost be considered as an to present needed expedite lake interchanges, and to fit extension of East African coastwise in the E. A. & H. to trade, R. plans establish a ferry-service volves and cars dates, clay products, carpets inward; for freight between these two points as a and "boriti" coconuts, soap, poles, rope, and cloth complementary measure to the movement over outward. the new Mnyusi-Ruvu link. But in a divided East 38 Erdkunde Band XVII

Africa, Uganda, which has often chaffed under the on the northern Uganda overseas traffic offering. thought of dependence on Kenya for access to the Chances are also that the Congolese transit trade world markets, could easily be tempted to divert via the Uganda heads will show increases, once some of its trade via the new facilities at Mwanza peace is restored in the Congo Republic. to the central route, as in pre-Euro ? Tanganyika pean times not to of the Bukoba coffee speak The Ownership of Kenya's Coastal Strip which is also likely to use Dar es Salaam. As mentioned earlier in this paper, no agreement as to the future status of the Pro Economic Prospects political Kenya tectorate has thus far been reached. Continuation in theHinterland ofMombasa of the lease arrangement does not Traffic losses in to the Moshi-Arusha present appeal regard to African considered and Bukoba with a reduc Kenya's politicians, being areas, together possible as a of the former colonial rule. tion inMombasa's volume of coastwise trade with legacy Outright annexation force an Kenya ? which would follow con by by independent Tanganyika upon will almost arouse the of a certainly fighting spirit struction of a proposed petroleum refinery and ? ? the arabicized coastal population forMombasa cement plant at Dar es Salaam would not be still represents the leading Arab community on welcomed Mombasa. even if a ? by Nevertheless, the eastern African seaboard and would restore shrinkage in size of the former port's hinterland to the Island its former surname, Mvita (the did occur, a in traffic could still satisfactory growth "Island of In the strife, the be the African leaders of War"). ensuing superb achieved23) provided facilities be and the flow of and are concerned port might damaged Kenya Uganda sufficiently trade to and from interior would be choked. A with their national economies rather strengthening sale of the coastal the Sultan than with tendencies for negotiated strip by encouraging disruptive of Zanzibar to for ? or Such Kenya government 775,000 the sake of tribal racial supremacy. a (U. S. $ 2.2 million) has also been suggested in healthy advances have been made in the African recent report24). The latter would call formutual agricultural sector inKenya, under the Swynner cooperation and trust between the two govern ton Plan started in the mid-fifties, that a substan ments, and for guarantees on the part of the tial rise is assured in the exports at the Kenya Kenyans as ot the treatment of local Arabs; un seaboard of and several other crops. tea, coffee, this and trust have thus of the settlers and firms who fortunately cooperation Many European far been to lacking. have so greatly contributed in the past Kenya's to In an East African Federation offering fair development would join in a general effort to all mainland components as well as maintain an economically viable new state, partnership Mombasa Island could find an enviable were the necessary assurances for personal protec Zanzibar, as themainland's chief gateway to the ocean tion and preservation of their enterprises given. place lanes. In a divided East Africa a certain order in Outside sources of capital, European and Ameri a the transport flow and the protection of can, would certainly be attracted under stable regional the valuable regional transport system inclusive government, to finance further Kenya develop at Mom of Mombasa can still be expected as long as the ment resulting in an expansion of traffic East and Harbours con basa. African Railways body tinues to operate; since the of Tan The same considerations apply to Uganda independence in December 1961, the former East where the premises of a substantial expansion ganyika, Commission of which it was a part exist in cotton cultivation for which, very prob Africa High was into the East Common markets could be found in the Asian coun transformed African ably, Services What would to the tries. The new Soroti-Gulu rail, for example, is Organization. happen terminal of Mombasa, if the distruptive forces in bound to have a bolstering effect in a few years its hinterland shatter the whole established econ East omic fabric of East can be the 23) In an E. A. R. & H. report, The Economy of Africa, only object ? Africa A Study of Trends prepared by the Economist of purely fortuitous conjecture. an annual Intelligence Unit, October 1955, pp. 230?234, future rate of increase of 3.9 per cent for exports and Summarized in News 4 per cent for imports was forecast for Mombasa during 24) Kenya Calling (Weekly Digest), 23d December 1961. the period 1954 to 1974. Nairobi,