Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English Language and Literature

Lenka Svorová

Foxe's Account of John Hus's Persecution in Book of Martyrs

Master’s Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Mgr. Pavel Drábek, Ph. D.

2009

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources litsted in the bibliography.

2

Acknowledgments: I owe thanks to Mgr. Pavel Drábek, Ph. D. for his encouragement and advice with the topic chosen and my husband for his patience, help and kind support.

3

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION 5

1 JOHN FOXE 7 1.1 JOHN FOXE´S BIOGRAPHY 7 1.2 FOXE´S RELIABILITY AS A HISTORIAN 11 2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 14 2.1 REFORMATION IN EUROPE 14 2.2 REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 16 2.3 THE PRE-REFORMATION VOICES 19 2.4 JOHN WYCLIFFE AND THE LOLLARDS 20 3 FOXE´S REASONS FOR WRITING ABOUT JAN HUS 21 3.1 JAN HUS AND THE CZECH REFORM 21 3.2 JAN HUS´S PLACE IN THE REFORMATION OF THE CHURCH 24 3.3 HUS´S WORK 26 3.4 JOHN FOXE´S IDEA OF THE UNIVERSAL CHURCH 26 4 THE BOOK OF MARTYRS AND ITS SOURCES 29 4.1 FOUR EDITIONS OF THE BOOK OF MARTYRS 36 4.2 FOXE’S ALLEGED SOURCES FOR BOOK OF MARTYRS 39 4.3 PETER OF MLADONOVIC 41 4.4 RELATIO DE M. JOANNIS HUS CAUSA IN CONCILIO CONSTANCIENSI ACTA 45 5 OWN FINDINGS CONCERNING FOXE´S EDITIONS AND THEIR SOURCES 46 5.1 COMPARISON OF 1563 AND 1586 EDITIONS 46 5.2 COMPARISON OF FOXE AND MLADONOVIC 50 5.3 AGRICOLA AND COCHLAEUS 52 5.4 FLACIUS AND LUTHER 54 6 CONCLUSION 60

7 SOURCES 62

8 BIBLIOGRAPHY 63

RESUMÉ 67

RESUMÉ 68

4 INTRODUCTION

The thesis is focused on John Foxe’s Book of Martyrs and his writing on Jan Hus.

John Foxe’s Acts and Monuments of these Latter and Perillous Dayes or the Book of

Martyrs, as the book was soon known, had a huge impact on its readers. There were four editions of the book published during his life. The book became greatly widespread and during the Elizabethan settlement also an obligatory component of every cathedral church and clergy house. Foxe’s work influenced many generations and became a part of the English culture. It helped to establish the Church of

England and the English national identity.

Especially because of the criticism in the centuries after Foxe´s death, his credibility as a historian was blemished. In the second half of the twentieth century the debate on John Foxe’s work was reopened and led, in many respects, to his rehabilitation.

Still, however, the negative attitude towards Foxe is quite common among scholars, especially historians. Nowadays, many scholars have been working to find the correct place of John Foxe in the English history and literature. Especially since

1990s there has been a boom of the studies on Foxe. There is a project focused on

Foxe’s work under the Humanities Research Institute at University of Sheffield called

Variorum Edition Online. Thanks to its researchers, the four editions of the Book of

Martyrs have now been available online and have still been analysed by the group of scholars. Nevertheless, there are still some areas not enough explored, such as the

Foxe´s writing on Jan Hus.

5 The thesis is going to deal with Foxe’s work, his life and possible reasons for writing this martyrology, and also his credibility as a historian. I am going to focus on the assessed sources of his martyrologies and also do my own research.

6 1 JOHN FOXE

1.1 John Foxe´s biography

John Foxe was born in 1516 in Boston, Linconshire. He studied in Oxford, where he became deeply influenced by protestant ideas, spending time with other

Protestants. In 1538 he became a fellow of Magdalen College with fellowship lasting for seven years. Five years later, he became the Master of Arts and a

College Lecturer there. His strict protestant views caused him many problems, especially in the predominantly catholic academic environment, and in 1545, the year he was supposed to take his clerical vows of celibacy, he preferred to resign on his fellowship (in a private letter likening celibacy to castration).

Two years later he married Agnes Randall, the future mother of their six children.

He moved to London where he worked as a tutor. In London he got to know the

Duchess of Richmond, a supporter of the Protestants who offered him lodging at her Mountjoy House. It was there where he got to know John Bale, the man of a profound influence on Foxe and his future work. Foxe was ordained a deacon of the Church of England in 1550. With the accession of Mary I. to the throne in 1553, the Protestants started leaving the country, even though some of them stayed not to be claimed cowardly deserters, anyway about a thousand chose to leave

England. Foxe was also urged to stay but as his life was in a real danger in

England, he and his pregnant wife fled. Most of the religious fugitives headed and settled in Rhineland Europe, and formed English exile communities there. The exiled scholars were financially supported by their patrons in England and sometimes even by the city authorities.

Foxe stayed in Strasbourg, France, where his first forerunner of the Acts and

Monuments called Commentarii rerum in ecclesia gestarum was written and published in the summer of 1554. The work recorded the accounts of martyrs up to about 1500, with accounts of John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, the Lollards. Another English exile in Strasbourg and a former Foxe´s student at Magdalen college, Edmund

Grindal, encouraged Foxe in this writing and provided him with the accounts of the

Marian persecutions, which were later incorporated in the second forerunner of the

Acts and Monuments: Rerum in ecclesia gestarum, published in Basel five years later. The two forerunners of the Book of Martyrs are also called the first and second Latin martyrology.

In autumn 1554, Foxes´ moved to Frankfurt where John ministered for the English protestant refugees and became a supporter of the Calvinistic party of John Knox.

The leader of the Protestant Reformation and the founder of the Presbyterian denomination stayed in Frankfurt, too, where he was named a minister for the refugee community. Knox and his followers employed the puritan demands in their life as well as religion. There was an attempt to form a protestant Church of

England. Two parties were formed, the supporters of John Knox (Knoxians) versus supporters of Richard Cox (Coxians) who met in Frankfurt. They held separate views on the liturgy depicted in Cranmer´s Common Book of Prayer. The two

8 parties did not come to an agreement and Knox was expelled from Frankfurt,

Knoxians left Germany for Switzerland, Foxe heading to Basle.

Basle was very generous to the exiles and supported them by enabling them to print their works there. In Basel Foxe worked for publishers Hieronymus Froben and Johannes Oporinus as a proof-reader and editor. Foxe had already met

Froben in Frankfurt. The publisher was in contact with various scholars, thinkers, publishers, etc. and Foxe took advantage of these networks later on. In the printing houses he approached and read many manuscripts and writings, such as Mathias

Flacius, Jean Crespin or John Sleidan and established other contacts with notable scholars.

Froben, a friend of Erasmus of Rotterdam, printed Erasmus´s works and books by other humanists, while Oporinus employed protestant exiles and printed their work.

Foxe lived in Oporinus’s household where he reunioned with John Bale and other

Protestants. Foxe and Bale were also enrolled in the university. In 1557, the two and several other scholars, altogether about ten of them, rented a former convent

Klarakloster from the city and moved there.

After the early death of Mary I. in 1558, her sister Elizabeth I became the Queen of

England and Ireland and the politic as well as religious situation changed again.

Elizabeth supported the establishment of an English Protestant Church, hence safe again, Foxe returned to England, but not earlier than in October 1559 because of

9 the lack of money. He was ordained an Anglican priest by his friend, now bishop of

London, Edmund Grindal in 1560. The same year Foxe and his family left for

Norwitch, where they stayed for two years while Foxe preached in the diocese and collected materials for his martyrology. They returned to London and the first

English martyrology was published by John Day on 20th March 1563. Several months later Foxe’s probably best friend, mentor and collaborator – John Bale – died. The first edition of the Acts and Monuments, almost immediately widely known as the Book of Martyrs, was a big success, and three years later Foxe started writing the second edition. Thanks to the critiques of his work, his second edition is much more elaborate. The Book of Martyrs became so famous that it was to be placed in every cathedral church and in all the houses of the church officials.

Therefore the book became greatly widespread. Foxe was until his death still busy writing and two more editions of the Acts and Monuments were published during his lifetime. John Foxe was known as a very hard-working, educated and generous person, with a great self-discipline. He was also a big humanist and has been called an early tolerationist, refusing death penalty and cruelty in general. He wrote letters to Elizabeth I. asking for reprieves for the Anabaptists (1575) and Jesuits

(1581) condemned to death. He always tried to find a way of an agreement or reconciliation. Concerning his religious belief, he was “decidedly an episcopalian, and he thought of himself as an Anglican in good standing.”1 John Foxe died in

1587, at the age of seventy. Foxe´s work influenced many oncoming generations, helped to establish the Church of England and English national identity.

1 McNeill, John Foxe: Historiographer, Disciplinarian, Tolerationist, p 221

10 1.2 Foxe´s reliability as a historian

We can discuss whether Foxe was rather an author or editor. In the article in The

Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes Foxe is understood as an author: “The mere style of the work – homely, quick and appropriate – is sufficient to account for its favour. The dramatic turn which Foxe gives to his dialogues, the vitality of the innumerable men and women, tortured and tortures, who throng his pages – these are qualities which do not fade with years”.

While in the essays by the members of the team of researchers from University of

Sheffield closely working on the Acts and Monuments it is quite obvious that most of them agreed on the fact that Foxe was rather an editor, and I fully agree with them, as he often copied large extracts from a single work, usually without mentioning it. In professor Collinson´s words: “Foxe’s history writing is essentially the compilation of original documents, sometimes of great length”2, and his colleague Dr. Freeman wrote: “Foxe was quite capable of reprinting a substantial portion of a work without supplying any indication of where it came from or even the fact that the words were not his own. More importantly, what appear to be

Foxe's opinions or commentary can simply be passages transcribed from other authors and reprinted without acknowledgement”.3 Dr. Freeman also writes about

Foxe often listing the names of sources, although they were derived from different source he used, e.g. from Flavius or Bale. Owing to it the reader of the Acts and

Monuments can think that is reading Foxe’s personal opinion, while reading

2 Patrick Collinson: John Foxe as Historian 3 Thomas Freeman: St Peter did not do thus

11 opinion of the author of Foxe’s source, which Foxe quoted without any reference.

Furthermore he is said to discuss several documents, although usually he finally reproduced just one, however, he also used other materials by the same author on the topic in question and inserted some parts into the extracted source text where it suited.

We also know that Foxe used translations done by others, transcriptions of official and ecclesiastical documents made by his copyists and also his friends´ extracts and eyewitness accounts that were sent to him. Now it could seem that the Book of

Martyrs is not very reliable source of information, but it is not true. Prof. Collinson stands up for Foxe writing: “Foxe never made anything up... He stuck more faithfully, even slavishly, to the documented record than many modern historians”.4

He just never learnt to cite properly, although his friend Bale is said to have been very particular about it.

Now, coming to the conclusion that Foxe was more an editor than author, let me mention Dr. Freeman’s understanding of Foxe´s authorship. According to him Foxe did not only systematically compiled a huge number of materials but he used the text to his own purpose: “There are factual inconsistencies, repetitions, chronological inaccuracies and faulty organisation; but the themes of the text are

4 Patrick Collinson: John Foxe as Historian

12 presented with complete assurance. It says exactly what Foxe wishes it to say, and absolutely nothing else.”5

John Foxe was indubitably a biased author. He was a committed evangelical as I mentioned above. Maybe he became even more biased due to the huge pressure he was exposed to because of his protestant views, which were even confirmed in him during Queen Mary’s persecutions and then in his exile. He wrote his martyrologies not as an impersonal historical narrative or a compilation of various documents but as a protestant book. He mentioned only those martyrs and events there that suited his purpose, he did not mention catholic martyrs, or I should rather say common papists, as Hus and Jerome of Prague were at that time of course catholics, or not in a positive way. His work could rather be called the Book of antipapist Martyrs, which would suit its content better. On the other hand, the fact that he wrote a biased history does not mean, that he wrote mendacious history.

The Book of Martyrs is predominantly a compilation of authentic documents, which were entirely reproduced there, such as records of ecclesiastical processes.

5 Thomas Freeman: John Foxe: a biography

13 2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

2.1 Reformation in Europe

During Foxe’s early years, in Europe there was formed and pushed ahead a movement that created a border between the Middle Ages and modern times. It was a movement arising from disorder concerning ecclesiastical-political situation as religion and politics were intertwined. The discontent had been in the Church obvious for a longer time and even the internal reform was going on, when Martin

Luther strongly formulated his ideas, for which there were timely conditions.

Europe was strongly influenced by Erasmus and his humanistic ideas, and so was

Luther. Erasmus prepared Europe for change, for reform but within a catholic church. He preached a return to Greek and roman classical writers, church fathers,

Hebrew and Greek Bible. He criticized morality of church and unclearness of the middle-ages theology.

Luther went much further and walked different way from Erasmus – he preferred diunity and division from the Church and the at first genuine search for God and theological truth became with age his fight against church itself, and with age he became more snappish and spread in his later writings hatred against the Jews, claiming himself an authority of a prophet and true teacher of the true faith.

In 1517 he wrote a letter to some bishops concerning indulgence, his famous The

Ninety-five Theses. It is not true that he nailed them to the church’s door, but were

14 printed without Luther’s permission and soon were spread in all Germany. By his writing he was asking for debate and reform, but his letter triggered a wave of discontent among wider public and he was placed in a position of a heretic. A year later he was excommunicated, refused the Pope’s bull and became a farther of protestant reformation.

At the same time, there was a scholar called Ulrich Zwingli in Curych, who independently on Luther started reformation in Switzerland, being the founder of the Swiss Protestantism, who prepared way for the much more famous Jean

Calvin. Important cities of Reformation were Strasbourg and Geneva where Calvin lived and worked after the authorities of the city of Geneva asked him to stay there.

The Scottish reformer John Knox admired Geneva under Calvin’s authority. One more name is worth mentioning in this context, and that is Philip Melanchton. He was a close friend and the printer of Luther, but later on he took the side of

Erasmus.

So arose two main types of Protestantism in Europe – Lutheran and Calvinistic

(reformed). Although their ideas were very similar, they did not reach a consensus on several crucial points and (have?) stood in opposition.

Protestant ideas quickly spread into other countries and soon reached also insular

England. Already in 1526 William Tyndale secreately printed the New Testament in

English and was called a “father of the English Bible”. He was caught, strangled

15 and burnt in Brusel in 1536, although his dream came true as Henry VIII. allowed the print of the English Bible in 1535 and ordered its placement in every English church. All English Bibles are till present day only revised versions of Tyndale´s

Bible.

2.2 Reformation in England

John Foxe lived in the period of the reign of the most important and influential

Tudors, which was marked by huge and far-reaching changes of England. He grew up in England that was differentiating itself from other countries and powers, the

England of Henry VIII who ruled from 1509 to 1547, it means most of Foxe´s life.

During Henry VIII reign England was separated from Rome. It was after his failure to have his marriage annulled he asked theologians from universities in England as well as abroad to consider validity of his marriage to his first wife Catherine and then with their testimonial he asked the parliament to announce his divorce. When he married Ann Boleyn in 1533 he was excommunicated and that was the beginning of the break-up with the Catholic Church represented by the Pope.

Under Henry VIII, the Church became subject to the state power, and religion and politics were concentrated in the hands of the ruler.

The first English reformers, such as Thomas More or his friend John Colet, wanted to reform Roman Catholic Church’s decadence, but never thought of the detachment. They wanted to reform the church peacefully, by knowledge not

16 violence, influenced by their mutual friend Erasmus of Rotterdam. Sixteenth century England, still influenced by John Wycliff´s heritage, was religious, but strongly anticlerical. Henry VIII was also very religious; he was catholic and was even called “defensor fidei” (the defender of faith) by Pope in 1521, after he wrote a treatise disproving Luther’s theses. But it was soon to change, after the Pope wasn’t willing and due the circumstances even able to annule the ruler’s marriage.

In 1529-1536 there was the Reform parliament, which gradually transferred the ecclesiastical power into Henry’s hands, making him Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1532.

Lies and rumours were spread about the monks and religious life in their monasteries and afterwards presented to the Parliament, getting allowance to dissolute some of them. Soon it were not only some of them, but all of them - in

1536 the dissolution of monasteries started, their property was confiscated, the monks expelled. Soon all the monasteries were dissoluted, their property immediately confiscated and sold, and grounds given to the nobles. Those clerics who survived usually left the country, because most of the people hated them and was not willing to help or support them, so widespread and generally accepted the anticlerical opinion was.

Henry wanted to keep some kind of a national catholic church, refusing

Protestantism rising in Europe at that time, hence the Anglican Church arose. He at first executed those who declined to accept him as the Head of the Church

17 instead of the Pope and later on he executed those who accepted protestant ideas, instead of his idea of the English “Catholic” church.

Henry VIII had three children from three different marriages, Edward, Mary and

Elizabeth. After Henry´s death in 1547, Edward VI inherited the throne, but being only a child, his uncles ruled the country instead of him. He was very religious,

Protestant as well as his sister Elizabeth, standing in opposition to their sister Mary

Tudor, rigorous Catholic. Protestant ideas were vital not only between common people but influenced also the Parliament and the Catholics were pursued and persecuted. But five years later Edward was dead and his sisters came to London and it was Mary who ascended the throne, called Mary I. or later Bloody Mary famous for her “Marian Persecutions.” This devoured Roman Catholic queen promised neutrality on her return, but soon she started her mission – she strived to return England back to Rome. Roman rite was immediately restored. Now the situation changed again and recently persecuted Catholics were safe, while the

Protestants were pursued. The law against heretics was restored and Foxe was among those who went to exile to save their live. During Marian persecutions about three hundred Protestants were burned. Accounts of their persecutions were delivered to Foxe in his exile and enlarged the second edition of the Acts and

Monuments. As André Maurois said, Mary’s persecutions gave protestants what they were missing, i.e. heroic and emotional traditions6. While Henry´s persecutions of catholic clergy were widely accepted by the common public, Mary

6 Dějiny Anglie, p 202

18 unintentionally gave the English their martyrs. When she died in 1558, Elizabeth was prepared to ascend the throne. During her long reign, Elizabeth I. restored internal stability of England and transformed it to a maritime power. She was a protestant and a very good diplomat and most of her subjects loved and remained loyal to her during her long rule. Protestantism was codified in the form of the

Anglican Church in 1563. Elizabeth tolerated secret Catholics - she even had a cross hanged on the wall of her own chapel - but formally they could not manifest their denomination. Anyway, after she was excommunicated in 1570, together with the disturbances in Europe and some threatens of her murder, she agreed to let many catholic priests and her opponents to be killed and quartered.

It seems that most of the English people did not really care what exactly the form of their religion would be. They were anti-papists, but they were used to the Roman

Catholic rite and tradition. They hoped in their independence on Rome but on the other hand the preservation of a basic rite. However, they generally “tolerated” and followed their monarch’s decision (as they usually had no other choice if they wanted a calm life), even though it meant the modification of their denomination and religious customs with every change of their ruler.

2.3 The Pre-reformation voices

As I have already said in the chapter on the Book of Martyrs, Foxe believed and claimed that the revival of the Church and the unmasking of the Antichrist within

19 the Church started about 1400 with John Wycliffe and Jan Hus. The two renowned scholars, theologians and critics of the morals and practises of the Church were precursors of the Protestant Reformation that was to fully manifest about a hundred years later with Luther, Zwingli, Bucer, Knox, etc.

The Protestant movements remained separate, forming the Hussites, the Lollardy, the Lutheranism, the Calvinism and others, but their common belief was a prominent place of the Bible in the life of every Christian and its priority as a touchstone for every Church’s practise and doctrine. They did not accept the authority of the Pope as the head of the Church – at first Hus and Wycliffe denying obedience to the Pope living in the mortal sin, later on to every Pope.

2.4 John Wycliffe and the Lollards

John Wycliffe, widely known as the "Morning Star of the Reformation" was born about 1330 and there are many speculations about his early life. He studied in

Oxford for many years. He developed an impressive academic career there, around 1360 he became the Master of Balliol, some ten years later he received his doctorate, already known as a leading theologian and philosopher. His first open attack on the papacy called Determinato quśdam de Dominio was written in 1366.

During 1370s he openly attacked the doctrine of the Church, such as transubstantiation, and criticised the possessions of the Church. As the highest authority and the measure of everything he claimed to be the Bible, so refusing the

20 tradition of the Church, including papacy as a human invention. So he also denied obedience to the Pope and the validity of the excommunication. Wycliffe had merit in translation of the Bible into English as he believed that all the people should be able to read it. But due to his escalating radical opinions he was finally accused of heresy and expelled from Oxford but never punished. Even when the Pope ordered his imprisonment, his influential friends, especially John of Gaunt, ensured him protection and he died naturally of stroke in 1384. Before his death his followers, colleagues from Oxford and gentry, formed a group, which constituted a heretic movement called Lollardy. There were attempts to subdue the movement by passing a law against heretics in 1401 and culminating in 1414 in the rising led by

Sir John Oldcastle, but it was suppressed and Oldcastle was burned as a heretic three years later. After the rising the Lollards became a secret movement. The

Lollards was a belief with no common doctrine. Their teaching was summarized in the Twelve Conclusions they wrote and made public in 1395.

3 FOXE´S REASONS FOR WRITING ABOUT JAN HUS

3.1 Jan Hus and the Czech reform

Jan Hus, the Czech theologian and scholar was influenced by John Wycliffe. He owned, read and even translated some of his books and sympathized with some of his ideas. Jan Hus was born around 1372 and studied at Prague’s University, obtaining his Master’s degree in 1396. He was ordained a priest in 1400 and two

21 years later started to preach in the Bethlehem chapel, where usually advocates of the Church’s reform summoned. The following year Prague’s University denounced

Wycliffe’s Forty-Five Articles, also due to the advantage and disproportion of the

German votes, but many scholars, including Hus, refused to deny entire Wycliffe’s teaching. The same year he also became rector of the Prague’s university. Now

Hus was at the head of the Czech reform movement, not preaching Wycliffe’s teaching about transubstantiation, but he also criticized clergy’s vices, and believed in predestination. Moreover it was at the time of the schism, when not only the

Church was innerly divided. Hus was supported by Prague’s Archbishop Zbynek

Zajic until the situation was getting worse. There were rumours that Wycliffe’s ideas and heresy is spread in the Czech lands and the archbishop was also urged to intervene. Also the King Wenceslaw was blamed to sympathize and support the heresy in his kingdom. At first the archbishop in 1406 and 1408 and then the king again in 1408 convened synods to find out whether there are any heretic opinions propagated in the Czech lands. The resolution from July 1408 claimed that there is no heresy. The schism in the Church divided the Czech lands into two camps, where the archbishop still supported Pope Gregory XII while King Wenceslaw, supported by cardinals and the Wicliffites refused him obedience. The Archbishop

Zbynek thought of Hus as one of his enemies and tried to suppress the Wicliffites heresy and finally reported him to the Pope and finally forbid Hus to preach. He also ordered to burn all Wycliffe’s books. Hus continued preaching and also wrote to John XXIII, the result of which was, that the archbishop excommunicated him. In

March 1411, the report of Hus’s excommunication was made public in all churches in Prague. He should also go to Rome but instead he sent his advocate.

22 1570 edition, Book 5, p701 the Bohemians commyng therby to the knowledge of Wicleffes bookes here in England, began first to tast and sauoure of Christes Gospell, till at length by the preachyng of Iohn Hus, they increased more & more in knowledge. In so much that pope Alexāder the v. hearyng thereof, began at last to styrre coales, and directeth his Bull to the Archbishop of Suinco, requiring him to looke to the matter, and to prouide that no person in churches, scholes, or other places should mainteyne that doctrine, cityng also Iohn Husse to appeare before hym.

The conflict went so far that the Pope ordered Hus´s imprisonement, the

Bethlehem chapel should be destroyed, and he threatened to impose interdict on

Prague if Hus stayed there. Hus left Prague for the south Bohemia, where many of his most famous works were written. The schism in the Church should be solved out at the Council in Constance, convened for November 1414. A brother of king

Wenceslaw, the Emperor Sigismund (Zikmund) of Luxemburg, invited Hus to

Constance and promised him safe-conduct for his way there and back.

1570 edition, Book 5, p710 Sigismunde by the grace of God kinge of the Romaines, of Hungary and Denmarke, Croatia. &c: To all princes aswell Ecclesiasticall as Seculer, Dukes, Marques and Earles, Barrons, Captaynes, Borowmaisters, Iudges and Gouernours, officers of townes, burgages and villages, and vnto all rulers of the cominalty, and generally to all the subiectes of our Empyre, to whom these letters shall come grace and all goodnes: We charge & cōmaund you all, þt you haue respect vnto Iohn Hus, þe which is departed out of Boheme, to come vnto þe generall councell, þe which shalbe celebrate and holden very shortly at þe towne of Constaunce. The which Iohn Hus we haue receiued vnder our protection and safegard of the whole Empire, desiring you that you wil chearefully receiue him when he shall come towardes you, and that you intreate & handle him gently, shewing him fauour & good will, and shew him pleasure in all thinges, as touching þe forwardnes, ease and assurance of his iourney, as well by lande as by water.

23 But soon after his arrival to Constance he was imprisoned and he was enabled the first public hearing not before 5 June, 1415 after his health deteriorated a lot in the prison and Nobles of Boheme, due to a stimulus by Peter of Mladonovic, wrote their supplications unto the council. From his first public hearing there was one month remaining to his martyrdom. What happened next is in detail described by

Foxe.

1563 Edition, p190 HERE FOLOWeth the Historie of Maister Iohn Hus, no lesse famous then lamentable, wherein is set out at large the whole order of his comming vnto the councell of Constance, with the actes and proces against him there, and finally his moste cruell death and Martyrdome, for the testimonie of the truthe of our Lorde Iesus Christ.

Hus was finally condemned by the Council of Constance as a heretic, and burned at the stake 6 July, 1415.

3.2 Jan Hus´s place in the reformation of the Church

Hus´s place in the history of Reformation is different from other reformers. He is the only one whose right place in the Catholic Church is still looking for. There has been no such privilege for Wycliffe or Luther, because their negative approach towards Catholic Church was already obvious during their lifetime. But Hus claimed for all the time that he wanted to obey the Church – under the condition, that they would teach him better than he had learnt from the Scriptures. That is one of the reasons why Hus has been such a controversial figure in the ecclesiastical history.

24 In 1990 and then more explicitly in 1999, the Pope John Paul II expressed his sorrow upon the trial with Hus at the Council of Constance. He claimed, that Hus was a big reformer and induced theologians to find Hus´s right place among other reformers of the Church. For many people this was a shocking proclamation by the head of the Catholic Church and there is still very common distaste on both sides of the Christians – Catholics as well as Protestants, to accept the changed point of view. Catholics are often not willing to accept the “troublesome” Hus and some

Protestants do not want to “share” Hus with the others.

On the basis of the Pope´s proclamation, the first symposium took place in

Bayreuth in 1993. Soon an ecumenical commission was summoned to rehabilitate

Jan Hus, called: Komise pro studium problematiky spojené s osobností, životem a dílem M. Jana Husa (The Commission for study of M. Jan Hus´s personality, life and work) under the Czech Catholic Church with the Archbishop Miloslav Vlk as its president. In Tomáš Halík´s words, a member of the commission, Hus stands between confessions, nations and centuries and only ecumenical, international and interdisciplinary dialog can lead to a better understanding of his personality and work.7 After several years, the commission defined Hus´s place in the Catholic

Church. But I have not noticed any changes, any noticeable reconciliation among various Christian denominations.

7 Tomáš Halík: Hus a český katolicismus

25 3.3 Hus´s work

It is difficult to study Hus´s work as none of his work was retained in his own handwriting, so it is difficult to determine what his treatise really is. Manuscripts in the Middle Ages were often not accurately transcribed, the penmen often cut out some parts or translated them differently when they were not sure of their meaning.

Moreover, and it is not widely known, some of Hus´s treatise have not been published yet and are available only in well protected manuscripts, not accessible to common public. For instance some treatises have been available only in

Flacius´s publication up to these days! Besides, not all the documents in the publicatin are written by Hus and not all the transcribed manuscripts attributed to

Hus are sure to be reliable. We also do not know all his documents, some other can still be hidden somewhere in Europe. Consequently, without the certainty that all the works attributed to Hus (and especially those more controversial) are really his work, it is difficult to define Hus´s right place among the reformers within the

Catholic Church or among those who stepped out and in the opposition.

3.4 John Foxe´s idea of the Universal Church

John Foxe´s idea of the “ideal” church was not a protestant church as such. It was a “Universal Church”, the “True Church” of the “true” Christians standing in opposition to the Catholic Church which Foxe understood as false and corrupted, the church of the Antichrist.

26 1570, Book 4, p 295 Thus we neuerr see any great corruption in the churche, but that some sparkle yet of the trewe lyght of the Gospell, by Gods Prouidence dothe remayne. What so euer doctor Augustinus, Reinerius, Siluius, Crāzius with other in their popish histories, doo wryte of them, diffaming thē throughe misreport and accusyng them to magistrates, as disobedient to orders, rebells to the catholik churche, and contemners of the virgin Mary: Yet they that cary iudgment indiferent, rather trusting trueth, then wauering withtimes, in weying their articles, shal find it other wyse: that they mainteined nothing els, but the same doctrine, whiche is now defended in the Churche. And yet I suppose not contrary, but as they did with the articles of Wickelif, and Hus: So the Papistes did in like maner with their articles also, in gatheringe and wrasting them otherwise, then they were ment.

The universal church was to have no national limits, formed by the invisible body of

Christ.

1583 edition, Part 1 The which Church, because it is vniuersall, and sparsedly through all countreys dilated, therfore in this history standing vpon such a generall argument I shall not be boūd to any one certaine nation, more then an other…

It is probable that Foxe understood the idea in the way that Hus used it in his defence in Constance, i.e “the universal company of all the predestinates.”

On the other hand it is interesting that he did not omit the word “catholike”. The reason is, that Hus really considered himself a catholic and tried to live in concord with the catholic doctrine.

1563 edition, Preface, p 214 The first article. There is but one holy vniuersall or catholike churche, which is the vniuersall company of all the predestinates. I doo confesse that this proposition is mine & is confirmed by þe saying of s. Augustin vpō s. Iohn.

27

Hus and Wycliffe were judged at the same Council, although Wycliffe had already been more than three decades dead. His teaching, summarized by a German scholar into so called Forty-five Articles, was condemned exactly one month before

Hus had his first public hearing, and the Wycliffe´s articles were also a part of

Hus´s accusation.

For Foxe, the two theologians and reformers were two people with the same goal and teaching. Foxe did not take into account the differences among them. Jan Hus was condemned at the Council of Constance as well as Wycliffe, but, however he was Wycliffe’s follower in many respects, he did not stand in the opposition to the

Church. Most of the time during his hearings he was asking the council for remedy if his opinions were not correct. He considered himself a good catholic. He was not aware of the situation, that he stands in front of the court, not a theologians he should debate with, but that is not so important. Hus´s trial and condemnation in

Constance does not place him next to Wycliffe, which is something what Foxe had not realized.

1570 Edition, Book 5, p711 I Maister Iohn Husnetz, do signifie vnto all men, that I am ready to come & stand before þe face of my Lord the Archbyshop, and to aunswere to all thinges wherof I am falsly accused in the next conuocation of Bachelers, & chieflye to this point, that in many places they do reporte me an hereticke, not hauyng respect vnto iustice or to lawe, neither yet to my merites or desertes. Therfore since that you whiche do neuer cease to sclaunder & backbite me with your woordes do vnderstand & know these thinges, come forth openly before the face and presence of the Lord Archbishop, and with an open mouth, declare & shewe forth

28 what false doctrine or other things you haue hearde me teache contrary to the catholicke fayth,…

4 THE BOOK OF MARTYRS AND ITS SOURCES

John Foxe wrote about forty works both in Latin and English during his life but the most famous and influential one is the martyrology. It was the most read book of the Elizabethan era and was crucial during the Elizabethan settlement, reinforcing the anti-papist and anti-catholic opinion for a very long time. Together with the

Bible it was permanently placed in churches to be available to everyone and it was used for methodical reading as was the Bible. The paradox of John Foxe´s life and work is that he wished to establish a truly universal church, while his most famous work – The Book of Martyrs – helped to build English Protestantism.

Foxe was primarily a Latin writer. He “had command of Latin, Greek and Hebrew and was additionally very well versed in both the biblical texts and the copious writings of the early church fathers“.8 The four editions published under the title

Acts and Monuments were written in English, but they had their two Latin forerunners compiled by Foxe in his exile. It was especially the second Latin martyrology, called Rerum in ecclesia gestarum which was essential for the

English martyrologies. I will talk about that later.

8 John Wade: John Foxe the Latinist

29

The Book of Martyrs was based on an idea inspired by John Bale and then exercised by Foxe. Bale edited martyrological works in the 1540s. Freeman wrote on this account: “„Whatever Bale´s motivations in writing them, his martyrological works were exceptionally important. He virtually created English Protestant martyrology.9” The idea that enourmosly influenced Foxe was the one of the true and false Church, as it is described in the Book of Revelation of St John, the last book of the New Testament. Bale and later also Foxe believed that the false

Church of the Antichrist is the Catholic Church, while the Protestants represent the true Church of Jesus Christ, where Protestant martyrs fight and die for the victory of the “true Church”.

Revelation of St. John 13,2 10 I know thy works, and where thou dwellest, even where Satan's seat is: and thou holdest fast my name, and hast not denied my faith, even in those days wherein Antipas was my faithful martyr, who was slain among you, where Satan dwelleth.

The representatives of the true Church in the middle ages were for Foxe various heretic sects, such as the Waldensians, Lollards or Hussites.11 It partly explains why he incorporated continental martyrs, such as Jan Hus and Jerome of Prague, into his martyrology.

9 Freeman: Martyrs and Martyrdom in England, p12 10 King James Bible 11 Peter Nockles: The nineteenth Century Reception

30 Foxe believed that the Church had gone through five periods of development since its origin in the first century. According to Foxe, the first three hundred years were marked with suffering of the first Christians. The only “flourishing” time came between 300 and 600 AD. Then the decline came, continuing for another 300 years, culminating with an access of the Antichrist to the Church for 400 years.

After that a “true church” members came to reveal and defeat its true face and the reformation and purification of the Church began. At first there had been some individuals to correct some “errors” of the church, before the “right” reformer

Wycliffe came.

1563 Edition, book 2, page 85 An. 1371. Althoughe it be manifest and euident inough, þt there were diuers and sondry before Wickliffes time, whiche haue wrasteled and laboured in the same cause & quarel, that our countreyman Wickleffe hath done: whom the holy ghost hathe from time to time, raised and stirred vp in the churche of God, to vanquish and ouerthrow the great errours which daily did grow and preuayle in the world.

But as the first “purificators” of the Church Foxe understands John Wycliffe and

Jan Hus. In his martyrologies these two reformers often appear next to each other.

Foxe´s idea of the division of the Church´s history:

Following extract is Foxe´s idea of the division of the Church´s history since its very beginning. (Some parts are omitted from the extract)

Reader, I haue thought good first, begynnyng from the tyme of the primitiue Church, & so continuyng (by the Lordes grace) o these latter

31 yeares, to runne ouer the whole state and course of the Church in generall, in such order as digesting the whole tractation of this history, into fiue sundry diuersities of tymes: 1. The suffering time of the church which continued from the Apostles age about 300 yeres.

2. The florishing time of the Church which lasted other 300 yeares

3. The declining time of the church which comprehendeth other 300 yeares, vntill the loosing out of Sathan, which was about the thousand yeare after the ceasing of persecution. During which space of tyme, the Church, although in ambition & pride, it was much altered from the simple sinceritie of the Primitiue tyme, yet in outward profession of doctrine and religion, it was somethyng tollerable, & had some face of a Church: notwithstanding some corruption of doctrine, with superstition and hypocrisie was then also crept in. And yet in comparison of that as followed after, it might seeme (as I sayd) somethyng sufferable.

4. The time of Antichrist in the Church and loosing of Sathan, or desolation of the Church, whose full swyng conteineth the space of 400. yeares. In which tyme, both doctrine and sinceritie of life, was vtterly almost extinguished, namely, in the chiefe heades and rulers of this West church, through the meanes of the Romaine Byshops, especially countyng from Gregory the vij. called Hildebrand, Innocentius the iij. and Friers which with him crept in, til the tyme of Iohn Wickliffe, & Iohn Husse, duryng 400. yeres. Fiftly and lastly, after this tyme of Antichrist, raigning in the Church of God by violence and tyranny, followeth the reformation & purgyng of the church of God,

5. The reformation of the Church. wherein Antichrist begynneth to be be reuealed, and to appeare in his coulors, and his Antichristian doctrine to be detected, the number of his Church decreasing, and the number of the true Church increasing. The durance of which tyme hath continued hetherto about the space of 280. yeres, and how long shall continue more, the Lord and gouernour of all tymes, he onely knoweth. For in these fiue diuersities & alterations of tymes, I suppose the whole course of the Church may well be comprised. The which Church, because it is vniuersall, and sparsedly through all countreys dilated, therfore in this history standing vpon such a generall argument I shall not be boūd to any one certaine nation, more then an other: yet notwithstandyng keepyng mine argument aforesayd, I haue purposed principally to tary vpon such historicall actes and recordes, as most appertaine to this my country of England and Scotland.

32

On the other hand it is evident that although Foxe explained these five stages of the Church´s development in detail not before his last edition, he wrote his previous martyrologies with this division in mind, as he already in the first edition dates the first decline of the Church into 600 AD and the “loosening of Satan” to

500 years before writing the martyrology, i.e. to about 1000 AD.

1563 Edition, Part 1 Although then the Churche and sea of Rome was not altogether voyde and clere from al corrupciō, during the whole time of the first thousand yeares after Christe our Sauiour, but eftsones before the full thousand was expired, certayne enormites and absurdites began to crepe in to the heades of the cleargie: As apperid both by the patriarche of Constantinople Anno 600 seking to be called oecumenicall or vniuersall Byshop, & especially by Romane Prelates vsurping afterward the same title, which before they disproued in others.

1563 Edition, Part 1 IF theise later times of the Churche, which haue ben so horrible & perilous, according to the true forewarning of thapostls, had not wanted writers & historiciās more then writers mighte haue lacked matter copious to worke vpon: so many notable thynges worthy of knowledge, which haue hapned in þe time of these 500 yeres, since Sathan broke loose, had not so escaped and passed without memory, in the church of Christ.

In the Book of Martyrs, Foxe was describing in detail the degradation and humiliation during execution of clerical protestant martyrs. Their bodily as well mental sufferings, torments, humiliation and mutilations should prove that they are the true Christians – followers of Christ. After Nicholas Harpsfield, under the pseudonym of Alan Cope, published in Antwerp in 1566 the book Dialoge sex with his harsch criticism of Book of Martyrs, Foxe revised his second edition and also

33 added explanatory paragraphs applying to Harpsfield´s criticism. One of them is also in our part on Hus (see below).

Two prophets from the Revelation

In the Book of Revelation, chapter 11, John the Evangelist describes two witnesses of the Lord, prophesying about three years, finally killed by the beast, but after three days resurrected.

Revelation 11.3 ¶And I will give power unto my two witnesses, and they shall prophesy a thousand two hundred and threescore days, clothed in sackcloth. 4 These are the two olive trees, and the two candlesticks standing before the God of the earth. 5 And if any man will hurt them, fire proceedeth out of their mouth, and devoureth their enemies: and if any man will hurt them, he must in this manner be killed. 6 These have power to shut heaven, that it rain not in the days of their prophecy: and have power over waters to turn them to blood, and to smite the earth with all plagues, as often as they will. 7 And when they shall have finished their testimony, the beast that ascendeth out of the bottomless pit shall make war against them, and shall overcome them, and kill them. 8 And their dead bodies shall lie in the street of the great city, which spiritually is called Sodom and Egypt, where also our Lord was crucified. 9 And they of the people and kindreds and tongues and nations shall see their dead bodies three days and an half, and shall not suffer their dead bodies to be put in graves. 10 And they that dwell upon the earth shall rejoice over them, and make merry, and shall send gifts one to another; because these two prophets tormented them that dwelt on the earth. 11 And after three days and an half the Spirit of life from God entered into them, and they stood upon their feet; and great fear fell upon them which saw them.

34 At first I thought that Foxe ment by the two prophets Jan Hus and John Wycliffe. It seemed logical, as they are often mentioned together in Book of Martyrs.

The beast would be surely interpreted by Foxe as the Church and the prophetess’s resurrection could be their teaching resurrected during the Reformation.

But later on I realized that the second prophet was not Wycliffe, but Jerome of

Prague as can be understood from the excerpts mentioned below.

The prophecie of Iohn Hus, touching the reformation of the Church. And first, to begin with the prophecie of Iohn Husse, and Hierome, it is both notable, and also before mentioned, what the sayd Iohn Hus at the tyme of his burnyng, prophecied vnto hys enemies, saying: that after an hundreth yeres come and gone, they should geue account to God and to hym, &c.

Where is to be noted, that countyng from the yeare. 1415. (in the which yeare Iohn Hus was burned) or frō the yere. 1416. (when Hierome did suffer) vnto the yeare, 1516. (when Martin Luther began first to write) we shal find the iust number of an hundreth yeres expired.

(An other prophecie by Iohu Hus.) Also in his 48. Epistle, he seemeth to haue a lyke propheticall meanyng, where he sayth: That he trusted, that those thinges which he spake then within the house, should afterwarde be preached aboue the house toppe. &c.

The church, he (Hus) sayth, can not be reduced to hys former dignitie & reformed, before all thinges first be made new (the truth wherof appeareth by the tēple of Salomō) as well the clergye & priestes: as also the people and laitie. Or els, except all such as now be addicted to auarice from the least to the most, be first conuerted and renewed, as wel the people, as the clerkes, and priestes, thinges can not bee reformed. Albeit, as my mynde now geueth me, I beleue rather the first: that is, that then shall rise a new people, formed after the new man, which is created after God. Of the which people, newe clerkes and Priestes shal come forth and be taken, which all shall hate couetousnes, and glorye of this life, labouryng to an heauenly conuersation. Notwithstandyng all these thinges shall be done and wrought in continuance and order of tyme dispensed of God for the same purpose.

35 With this prophecie of Iohn Hus aboue mentioned, speaking of the hundreth yeres, accordeth also the testimony of Hierome his felow Martyr, in these woordes: And I cite you all (sayd he) to aunswere before the most high and iust Iudge, after an hundreth yeares. (1576, p 804)

And in K. Henry 7.: Prophesies concerning the Turkes and Antichrist (1576) After this, Sybilla writyng (as it semeth) of Antichrist, importeth these wordes: And it shall come to passe, that an horrible beast shall come out of the East, whose roryng shall be heard to Aphrike, to the people of Carthage, Whiche hath vij. heades, and scepters innumerable, feete. 663. He shall gaynstand the lambe, to blaspheme his Testament, encreasing the waters of the dragon. The kynges and princes of the world he shall burne in intolerable sweate, and they shall not diminishe his feete. And then ij. starres like to the first starre, shall rise agaynst the beast, and shall not preuaile, till the abhomination shall be come, and the will of the Lord shalbe consummate. And again speakyng of the same matter, he inferreth these wordes of the foresaid ij. starres aboue mētioned. And toward the latter dayes two bright starres These two starres seme to meane Iohn Hus, & Hierome, who beyng put to death by the pope, their doctrine rose agayne more strongly then before. shall arise, raysing vp men lying dead in theyr sinnes, beyng lyke to the first starre, hauing the face of the 4. beastes which shal resist the beast, and the waters of the dragon, testifieng (or preaching) the name and law of the lamb the destruction of abhomination and iudgement, & shall diminish his waters, but they shalbe weakened in the bread of affliction, and they shall rise agayne in stronger force. &c.

4.1 Four editions of the Book of Martyrs

I have already mentioned the two forerunners of the Book of Martyrs, written and published in exile in Latin language – Commentarii and Rerum, where Rerum is the reprint of Comentarii, enlarged by the additions from Flaucius and Bale. The

36 second Latin martyrology had a vast influence on the continental scholars and historians, who used it as their source.

The first Latin martyrology published in Strasbourg in 1554 comprises the history from Wycliff up to about the end of the 15th century, with English as well as continental martyrs of pre-reformation and Reformation.

The second Latin martyrology published in Basle in 1559, was updated, including also the accounts of the Marian persecutions. The second Latin martyrology is the product of a long-lasting project that took place in Basle and was led by Edmund

Grindal, who asked Foxe to take part in this project. Two parallel editions should have been written, one in Latin and one in English. Foxe was responsible for the

Latin version and other exiles gathered data for the English one. Foxe´s outcome was the Rerum in ecclesia gestarum, but the English version was never finished and Foxe was given the documents that the other exiles gathered and used them for his English martyrology.

The first English edition of the martyrology was published by John Day in 1563 called the Actes and Monuments of these Latter and Perillous Dayes. The edition consisted of about 1800 pages, that was about three times more then Foxe´s second Latin martyrology. It was published hastily, under the pressure of Day, and many mistakes and errors were present in the edition.

37 The second edition of 1570 underwent big changes, mainly due to the criticism the first edition was exposed to especially by some catholic scholars. Winters writes:

No book has met with a more fierce and merciless race of critics than the ―Acts and

Monuments‖ of the Church.12 Based on the critiques, Foxe supported his narratives with their sources if possible and the disputable and problematic passages simply cut out. Many errors from the first edition were corrected and the work became more complex. It was enlarged with the accounts of the early church and other materials, making the book of about 2,300 pages. But his risen caution concerning his sources and their reliability is evident from his introductory paragraph of those editions.

While in 1563 edition he claimed a total credibility of the materials he gathered, claiming to use only “the true copies and wrytings certificatory”, we can see how he rewritten the paragraph in the subsequent version – there is no mention at all of the credibility of the materials used.

1563 edition: ACTES and Monumentes touching things DONE AND PRACTISED BY THE Prelats of the Romishe Churche, specially in this Realme of England and Scotland, from the yeare of our Lord a thousand vnto the tyme nowe present. Wherin is liuely declared þe whole state of the Christian Church: with such persecutions, and horrible troubles, as haue haypened in these last and pearilous dayes. Faithfully gathered and collected according to the true copies and wrytings certificatory, aswell of them that suffered: as also of the others that were the doers and workers therof. by. I. F.

1559 edition:

12 John Foxe the Martyrologist and his Family

38 ACTES and Monumentes of the church, containing the ful History of thinges done and practised in the same, from the time of the first Christened King Lucius, King of this Realme of England, which is from the yeare of our Lord 180. vnto the tyme now present.

The third version published in June 1576 was full of typographical errors as the first one; there was less investment into the publication at the expense of quality. Some new materials were added, but it did not much differentiate the 1570 version.

The last edition published during Foxe´s lifetime was released in October 1583 and contained about 2,100 pages. It was printed in a hurry because of the declining health of the Foxe´s publisher John Day. There was no time for proofreading.

Some parts were omitted, others added, such as data from the Tower records and the Acts of the Privy Council.

For the first time there was also introduced the great project and the long-lasting work by Foxe inspired by Bale: the application of The Book of Revelation on the interpretation of the history of church (see 3).

4.2 Foxe’s alleged sources for Book of Martyrs

Foxe used an enormous number and range of sources for his martyrologies, unprecedented at that stage at that time. Not only continental writings and chronicles, but he also had an access and used archival resources from all over

England, including Tower records.

39 When writing Acts and Monuments, Foxe was inspired by Eusebius of Cesarea who was the first to write about the history of the Church as a different matter from political history in his Ecclesiastical History. Foxe often used chronicles, such as

Chronica majora by Matthew Paris, Anglo Saxon Chronicle, the Saxon law codes, etc., anyway; if possible, Foxe used original materials instead of chronicles. He also often used Continental sources, especially protestant chronicles. His most important source was John Bale´s Catalogus, works by Matthias Flacius Illyricus and Magdeburg centuries.

John Bale´s most important work shortly known as Catalogus was an extraordinary collection, a chronological catalogue of British authors and their works which comprised fourteen centuries. Bale also provided Foxe with valuable manuscripts and his own compiled data, and encouraged him to write his first martyrology.

Another great source of data and also ideas was a Lutheran theologian Matthias

Flacius. His work Catalogus testium veritatis was published by Oporinus in Basle in

1556, where Foxe worked at that time. The most often cited source was

Magdeburg centuries, a project initiated by Flacius. It was an ecclesiastical history divided into thirteen centuries, ending in 1298. It was compiled by a team of

Lutheran researches and writers in Magdeburg city. Flacius also anonymously edited Ioannis Hus et Hieronymi Pragensis confessorum Christi Historia et

Monimenta. It was printed in Nuremberg in 1558 and it is supposed to be a main source for Foxe on Jan Hus. On account of Hus, Foxe also used Flacius´s source by Ulrich Richtental Chronicon concilii Constatiniensis (German Chronicle of the

40 council of Constance (1414 – 1418) published in 1536 in Augsburg, and also

Johannes Cochlaues13´s Historiae Hussitarum Libri Duodecim published in Mainz in 1549.

Worth mentioning is also Foxe´s French counterpart Jean Crespin who was writing

French protestant histories and whose martyrological essays Foxe used. Crespin wrote Livre des martyrs in 1554 and made many borrowings, or to be more precise, plagiarised Foxe´s Commentarii rerum in ecclesia gestarum (which seems to be quite a common practise at that time, because even Foxe frequently transcribed other authors´ works without acknowledgement). It was much more complicated for them to mutually plagiarize their works when they published them only in their mother’s tongue (such as Acts and Monuments), because they did not speak one another’s language.

4.3 Peter of Mladonovic

Peter of Mladonovic was Hus´s devoted supporter, friend and the eyewitness of his trial and execution, who recorded most of what we know today about Hus´s last months of his life. Majority of the writings about Hus are based on files, copies of the documents and letters took down by Mladonovic and later on incorporated into his work. Thanks to him we have got the detailed account of Hus, known as Relatio de M. Joannis Hus causa in concilio Constanciensi acta, or shortly Relatio.

13 also known as Johann Dobneck

41 Mladonovic was born around 1390, he studied in Prague and became the bachelor of Arts in 1409. Jan Hus was at that time the chancellor at Prague University and was at Mladonovic´s examination. When Hus set out to Constance in 1414, there were two envoys of Prague University to accompany him there and back: John of

Chlum and John of Rejnštejn. Peter went with them as a scribe or rather a secretary to John of Chlum. It means that Mladonovic was most of the time with

Hus. After his imprisonment he was helping and supporting him, and still kept in touch with him. He is said to bribe the prison guards to enable him contacts with

Hus and after his imprisonment he provided him with fur and the breviary.

When in Constance, Mladonovic was the originator of several interpellations. For instance he was the author of the letter of the Nobles of Boheme, concerning especially the bad treatment of Hus in prison and the breach of the Sigismund´s letter of safe conduct. He read it himself to the council.

Mladonovic was the intermediary between Constance and Bohemia, taking action whenever needed. He very probably saved Hus´s life on 5 June, when he prevented the Council to sentence Hus without a public hearing earlier granted to him, as he promptly understood that they want to read him their final judgement instead of the hearing, thus giving him the only possibility to withdraw or to be burned to death. But Peter let the king Sigismund know about that dirty trick and the king ordered to grant Hus the hearing.

42 „By chāce there was then present, a certeyn notary, named Peter Mladoniewitz, þe which bare great loue and amity vnto the said Hus, who assone as he perceiued that the Bishops and Cardynals were al ready determined & apoynted to condemne the saide Articles in the absence of Ihon Hus, he went withal spede vnto master Wencelate de Duba, and Ihon de Clum, and tolde them all the matter, who incontynent made report therof to themperor, who vnderstanding their intent, sent Lewes the county Pallatine of Heydelberge, and the Lord Fredericke.―

After Hus´s death Mladonovic returned to Prague and started working on the redaction of his records, at the latest at the beginning of 1416.

It is sometimes questioned how close Hus and Mladonovic were. I would like to show here, that they were very close. Already in January 1415, it means only about three months after Hus´s journey to Constance he called Peter “the trusty man” and another month Hus already writes him a letter, confirming his total trust in him and also the fact that most if not all the letters from and to Hus went through his hands. After Hus´s imprisonment we may see the mutual respect and love.

Mladonovic did his best to help Hus´s case. In his penultimate letter to Prague

University he recommends Peter to them (and Mladonovic really became the chancellor of the university later on) and in his last letter, a kind of the last will and testament, he not only calls Mladonovic “Peter, my dearest friend” but he also honours him by putting him on the first place in his will.

43 XLI. To John of Chlum (Blackfriars, January 1415)14 Gracious lord, please get me a Bible, and send it by that trusty man of yours. If your secretary Peter hath any ink, I should like to have it, with some pens and a small inkhorn.

XLIII. To Peter Mladenowic (February 1415) I have not as yet written a letter with news of my imprisonment, except the one in which I asked the Bohemians for their prayers —if indeed you sent it on. Perhaps you know about the letter which I wrote to Master Jakoubek, in which these words occurred, ―My enemies have stated that no hearing shall be granted to me, unless I first pay 2,000 ducats by way of indemnity to the ministers of Antichrist.‖ Michael hath got hold of a copy of this as well as the lengthy and methinks outspoken reply of Master Jakoubek. (…)

LXIII. To his Bohemian Friends (shortly after June 8, 1415) I am very pleased about Peter. I do not keep his letters, but destroy them at once. Big sheets should not be sent to me, for I am afraid of the risk to the messenger and other persons.

LXXVIII. To the University of Prague (June 27, 1415) I pray you to love the Bethlehem and put Gallus in my place; for I trust that the Lord is with him. Amen. I commend to you Peter Mladenowic, my fathful and loyal comforter and supporter.

LXXXII. To his Friends in Bohemia (June 29, 1415 – his last letter) I pray this for God’s sake, dear Master Peter, Superintendent of the Mint, and Mistress Anna! I entreat you also to live a good life and obey God, as I have often told you. … Peter, dearest friend, keep my fur cloak in memory of me.

What is very interesting about Foxe´s account on Hus in Book of Martyrs is the fact, that until his death Foxe had no idea who the eyewitness and the author of the report had been. He writes in his second as well as his last edition that it the eyewitness and the author of the story was robably Ioanes Przibram (i.e. Jan z

Příbrami), an important spokesperson of the Prague´s masters after Hus´s death.

14 All the Hus´s letters here are from Workman, Pope. Letters of John Hus. 1904. 44 What was the name of this authour which wrote this story, it is not here expressed. Cochleus in his second booke contra Hussitas, supposeth his name to be Ioānes Przibram, a Bohemian. Who afterward succeeding in the place of Iohn Hus at Prage, at last is thought to relent to the Papistes. (1570, p 741)

Przibram did not even go to Constance, let alone to be the eyewitness of all the trials and the person with the access to the Council, legal documents, Hus himself and his correspondance.

4.4 Relatio de M. Joannis Hus causa in concilio Constanciensi

acta

Mladonovic presumably called the work Historia de sanctissimo martyre Iohanne

Hus or Historia M. Iohannis Hus. But the work had no official title until František

Palacký called it M. Petri de Mladenowitz Relatio de M. Joannis Hus causa in concilio Constanciensi acta. The work consists of five separate parts that were not written chronologically. For example the depiction of Hus´s martyrdom (the fifth part) was very probably written immediately after Mladonovic´s return to Prague.

Nonetheless, there exists only the concordance among scholars15 how Mladonovic wanted his work to be put together.

There were probably two different redactions done by Peter, the first of them in

1415 after his return from Constance and the second one until 1417; but he did not

15 However Fiala disagrees with and changes Novotny´s division taken from Palacký

45 finish either of them. The most widespread part was the fifth one, often called

Passio martyris gloriosi, or only Passion. This part was used independently, copied and spread the most and has been preserved in many manuscripts. It describes the events of the last two days of Jan Hus´s life, 5th and 6th July 1415, that´s why it is called the “Passion”, to liken it to the Passion of Christ. When Hus died he was soon admired as a saint and martyr among people and there was a need to have a writing that could be read in churches. And Mladonovic´s Relation served it very well. Its translation from Latin to Czech was made soon, by 1420 probably by Peter himself, and it was read instead of the gospel in churches on Hus´s holiday till

Battle of White Mountain. Peter was also called “Hus´s evangelist”.

5 OWN FINDINGS CONCERNING FOXE´S EDITIONS AND THEIR SOURCES

5.1 Comparison of 1563 and 1586 editions

At first I compared the titles of 1563 and 1583 edition. They seem to be more or less the same, only with different opening parts and sixteen letters added in the later editions16 (1570-1583) behind the narrative. However, when I compared the first edition that seemed to be the same with the first part of the second edition, I realized that two letters are missing in the later versions. It is “An instrument of

Testimoniall…” and “The copy of publicke testimonial of the hole university of

46 Prage.” It led me to an idea that there were different models for the editions. After a juxtaposition of the two editions with the first letter I could see that some parts are again identical (see bellow). I assumed that Foxe himself rewrote the letter in the second edition to make the narrative more readable. Yet the second letter is really left out from the next edition and it raises questions why would Foxe do that. Was it only a mistake (in all three subsequent editions) or we can claim that Foxe used at least two different models for his editions?

An Instrument of Testimoniall how maister Hus and his procurer were denied entrance into the publique procuration celebrated and holde in tharchebyshops court.

1563 1583

Finally all the prelates and clergie assembled Finally, all the Prelates and Cleargie assembled together in the towne of Prage in tharchbyshop together in the Towne of Prage, in the his court, where as Iohn Hus made also a request Archbishop hys Court, where as appeared that he or his procurour Iohn Iessemits doctor of personally the worshipfull maister Iohn the decretals, might be admitted to enquire & Iesenitz, Doctour of decretals and procurer, in demaund of the prelates & clergy to vnderstand the name and behalfe of the honourable man & know if ther were any amōgst thē which wold maister Iohn Hus, impute or lay any error vnto him, but he was not admitted to þe conuocatiō.

An instrument of Testimoniall how maister Hus and his procurer were denied entrance into the publique procuration celebrated & holdē in tharchebyshops court. IN the name of God Amen. In þe yeare of his natiuitie 1414. The vii. Indiction on Monday the. 27. day of the monthe of August at iii. Of the clocke or there about. In the fift yeare of the bishoprike of our most holy father & lord, the lord Iohn by the grace and prouidence of GOD, Poope the xxiii. Of that name in the lesser citie of Prage, before þe Archebyshops of Prages court.

16 By „later editions“ I always mean editions published during Foxe´s life, except the first one from 1563, e.i. editions from 1570, 1576 and 1583.

47 The moste reuerend father in Christ the Lorde Conrade by the grace of God Archbishop of

Prage & legate of thapostolike sea & all other Lordes, abbots, Priors, presidētes, deanes, Archdeacōs, schollers, Cannons, prebendaries, & all other prelates of the citie & dioces of Prage, celebrating & holding a solemne congregation for diuers causes in his court aforesaid: There appeared personally the worshipfull maister Iohn Iesenitz doctor of the decretals & procurer, in the name & behalf of þe honorable mā maister Iohn Hus bacheler, formed of diuinitie, by the commission of whose procuration, it is euident enough vnto me the publique notarie within written, that he knocking at the porch or gate of archebyshop his court aforesaid, required þt either the said maister Iohn Hus, or that he in the requiring that either the sayde mayster Iohn name and behalf of the said maister Iohn Hus his Hus, or that hee in the name and behalfe of maister, might be suffered to come in to the sayd hym, might bee suffered to come into the sayde archbishops court, to the presence of the said Archbishops Court, to the presence of the Archbishop, and the Prelates which were there Lorde archebishop and the prelates whiche were congregated together, for somuch as maister there congregated together, for so muche as Iohn Hus is readye to satisfie all men which maister Iohn Hus is ready to satisfie all men shall require hym to shew any reason of his whiche shal require him to shew any reason of faith or hope, which he holdeth, and to see and his faith or hope, whiche he holdeth, & to see & heare all and singular, whych were there heare all & singuler, which wer there gathered gathered together, that is to saye, the Lord together, that is to say, þe Lord archebishop & Archbyshop and Prelates, or any of them, prelates or any of them, whiche wold lay any whych would lay any maner of obstinacie, or maner of obstinacie, of error, or heresie vnto errour, or heresie vnto hym, that they should him, that they should there write in their names, there write in their names, and according both and according both vnto gods lawe and mans, & vnto Gods lawe and mans, and the Canon law, the Canon law prepare thē selues to suffer like prepare themselues to suffer lyke punishment, punishement if they could not lawfully proue any if they could not lawfully prooue any obstinacie of errour or heresie against him: vnto whome obstinacie of error or heresie against him, vnto altogether he would, by Gods helpe, aunswere whome altogether he would by Gods helpe before the sayd Archbyshop and the Prelates in aunswere before the sayd Lord archebyshop and the next generall Councell holden at Constance, the prelates in the next generall councell holden and stand vnto the law, and according to the at Constance, & stande vnto the lawe, and Canons and Decretals of the holy Fathers, according to the canons and decretals of the holy shewe foorth and declare hys innocencie in the fathers, shewe forth and declare his innocency in name of Christ: Vnto the which maister Iohn of the name of Christ, vnto the whiche maister Iohn Iessenetz Doctour, one called Vlricus Swabe of de Iessnetz doctor, a certaine famous man called Swabenitz, Marshall of the sayde Archbyshop, Vlricus Swabe of Swabenitz, marshal of þe said comming foorth of the sayd Court, did vtterly Lord Aechebishop, coming fo coming forth of deny vnto the sayd maister Doctour and his the sayde court, did vtterly denie vnto the saide partie all manner of ingresse and entrance into the Court, and to the presence of the maister doctor and his partie al maner of ingresse Archbishop aforesayd, and of the Prelates there & entrance into the same court, and to the gathered together. Pretending that the presence of the archebishop aforesaid, and of the Archbyshop, with the Prelates aforesayd, were

48 prelates there gathered together. Saying & occupied about the Kings affaires, requiring the affirming the Lord archebishop with the prelates sayde maister Doctour, that hee woulde tary in aforesaid, to be occupied about the kinges some place without the sayd Court, that when affaires or busines requiring notwithstanding the the Archbyshop and the Prelates had finished said maister doctor that he would tary in some the Kings affaires, hee might then returne, and haue libertie to come into the Court there. The place without the said court, that when the said maister Iohn Hus, and the Doctour of lawe archbishop and the prelates had finished the tarried a while, intreating to bee admitted into kings affayres, he might then retourne, and haue the Archbyshops Courte. But seeing hee coulde libertie to come into the court there: the saide preuayle nothyng, he made there a solemne maister Iohn Hus and the doctor of lawe taried a protestation of hys request, that both hee and while, intreating to be admitted into the said also maister Iohn Hus and his part, could not be archebishops court. But seing him self to preuaill suffered to come into the Archbyshops Court, nothing, he made there a solēpne protestation of to the presence of the Archbyshop and the his request, that bothe he and also maister Iohn Prelates. Requiring of the foresayde Notarie, Hus and his part, could not bee suffered to come publicke instruments to be made of the same, into tharbishops court, to the presence of the which also was done. archebyshop and the prelates. But that they were vtterly denied therof, desiring me the publique notary here vnder wrytten vpon the premisses to make hym one or many puklicke instrumentes.

These thinges were done the yeare indiction, daye, monthe, houre, byshoprike, and place, aboue written, these honorable and wysemen being there present Symon Tysnoue Bacheler of diuinitie, Symon de Rochezana, Proctor of Pilsna, Nicholas de Stogitzin and Iohn de Partizibrā, maisters of art. Also Frana Etzotronis & Ierome Osrolonis of Prage, Iohn de Nichintz, & Ierome de Vgezd, studentes of the dioceses of Prage and Litomistens, as witnesses of the premisses. And I Iames Moles sometime son of Ambrose of Prage, by thimperiall autoritie also ofal the maisters doctors & scolers of the famous vniuersitie and study of Prage, beyng sworne publique notary, was present at all þe affaires aforesaid, and did see and heare them all to be done in forme abouesaid. But beyng occupied about other weightie busines, I haue caused this same to be faithfully writtē by another Notary, and haue subscribed and publyshed it with mine own hand, & haue reduced it into this publique forme, & confirmed it with my accustomed marke and name, being desired and required to beare witnes of all and singuler the premisses. And these were the things which were done And these were the things which were done, before Iohn Hus toke his iourney to the generall before Iohn Hus tooke hys iourney to the councel of Cōstance, the which I minded briefly generall Councell of Constance, the which I to rehearse wherunto I wil also anexe somewhat, minded briefly to reharse, whereunto I will also annexe somewhat, as touching his iourney

49 as touchinge his iourney thetherwardes. thetherwards. (p 598) (pp 194-5)

5.2 Comparison of Foxe and Mladonovic

I compared Foxe´s 1583 edition with Mladonovic´s full version.

The story of Bohemians starts on page 588, but our Relatio starts in Foxe on page

596 with Sigismund’s safe-conduct. What follows is almost a verbatim translation of

Mladonovic. It is interupted only with Foxe’s answer to „Alan Cope“(Harpsfield), explaining the previous part of the narrative as a reaction to Cope’s criticism in

Dialoge sex. Then Foxe continues with Relatio, including a paragraph that seems to be Foxe’s commentary but in fact it is only a translation (p 597). Then there is a change against the 1563 edition, as “An instrument of Testimoniall how maister

Hus and his procurer were denied entrance into the publique procuration celebrated and holde in tharchebyshops court” is retold instead. Then Hus goes to

Constance and here Foxe leaves out two letters17 and continues with “The copy of the letters which Iohn Hus set vp in the common places of the Cities which he passed thorough going to the Councell.“ Instead of another Hus´s letter Foxe again retold it (p 599). Then he leaves out four letters to Bohemia and continues with

Hus´s interrogation and imprisonement. There are two paragraphs left out and again – we can see Mladonovic´s Relatio behind Foxe´s work. I could continue, but

17 One of them is „An other letter of Iohn Husse“ (Foxe 1583, p 630).

50 I think it is enough if I say, that there is no doubt that Foxe used a Mladonovic´s copy for his work.

Only at the very end of Foxe´s narration there are two quite interesting details.

1. Foxe in his 1583 edition confuses names, as he writes: „Lodouicus Duke of

Bauaria, with another Gentleman with hym, whiche was the sonne of Clement“, but in the 1563 version he has it right, as he writes „Emperours maister of the horse be of Oppenheim and an other Gentlemā with hym.“

1563 edition 1583 edition

But before the wood was set on fyer, the But before the wood was set on fire, Emperours maister of the horse be of Lodouicus Duke of Bauaria, with Oppenheim and an other Gentlemā with another Gentleman with hym, whiche hym, came and exhortyd Iohn Hus, that was the sonne of Clement, came and he should yet be myndefull of his exhorted Iohn Hus, that he would yet sauefegard and renounce his errours. (p be mindfull of his safegard, and 241) renounce his errours. (p 624)

But this cannot be taken as the evidence for a different model, but rather a disregard of a Foxe´s copyist, as there is another mention about Lodouicus earlier at that page. In Relatio there is also added, that Lodouicus was the son of

Clement, which is omitted at the same place by Foxe.

51 2. In the description of Hus´s burning there is no mention of burning his clothes.

That is a very important detail for getting closer to what manuscript or work Foxe used. Mladonovic added the detail of burning Hus´s clothes only to his second version.18

When all the wood was burned and consumed, the vpper parte of the body was left hanging in the chaine, the which they threwe downe stake and all, and making a newe fire burned it, the heade being first cut in small gobbets, that it might the sooner be consumed vnto ashes. The heart, which was founde amongest the bowels, being well beaten with staues and clubbes, was at last pricked vppon a sharpe sticke, and roasted at a fire a parte vntill it was consumed. Then with great diligence gathering the ashes together, they cast them into the riuer of Rhene, that the least remnaunt of the ashes of that man shoulde not be left vppon the earth, whose memorie notwythstanding cannot be abolished out of the minds of the godly, neither by fire, neither by water, neither by anye kinde of torment.

It means that Foxe owned a copy of the first edition of Mladonovic´s Relatio. This edition of Mladonovic has been preserved only in its german translation by

Johannes Agricola, but was used also by Luther and Flacius (see bellow).

5.3 Agricola and Cochlaeus

I knew that Foxe used a copy of Relatio for his work, hence I also took into consideration a German translation of Mladonovic´s Latin version by Johannes

18 Novotný, p 221

52 Agricola Eislebensis called History und wahrhafftige Geschicht (..) and the work several times mentioned in the later editions by Foxe himself - Historia Hussitarum written by Johann Cochlaeus.

It was not so difficult to exclude the possiblity of Cochlaeus´s publication as Foxe´s model, when I did not find Relatio in his chronicle. But without any doubt Foxe read

Cochlacheus´s chronicle (or its parts) and incorporated some information from it into his work.

But to determine whether Agricola´s book could be the one Foxe used as his model was more difficult. Foxe, as well as Agricola used for their work a copy of the first Mladonovic´s redaction (I explain that below). However, Agricola at the very beginning of the translation writes about his assumption that the author of the work is “Petrus der Notarius”, while Foxe even in his last edition, it means more then ten years later, guesses that it could have been M. Iohn Przibram. And I do not think that Foxe would not notice that at the short Agricola´s preface, considering the fact that he noticed even the tiny reference in Cochlaeus about

Przibram.19 I have one more prove that Foxe did not use Agricola´s version. In this publication were made several mistakes caused by misconception of the original.

One of them is a confusion of the speakers during the garthering of the Barons of

Boheme at the abbey of St James - and Foxe´s version is correct.

19 Cochlaeus: „…rem Bohemico confirmare testimonio. Etenim Magister Ioannis Przibram…“ (p 74)

53 5.4 Flacius and Luther

I will start with the last paragraph of the first edition:

I know very well that these things are very sclenderly wrytten of me as touching the labours of thys most holy Martyr Iohn Hus, with whome the labors of Hercules are not to be compared. For that auncient Hercules slew a few monsters: but this our Hercules with a moste stout and valiant courage hath subdued euen the worlde it selfe, the mother of all monsters and cruell beastes. Thys story were worthy some other kind of more curious handling, but for so muche as I cannot otherwise perfourme it my selfe, I haue endeuored according to the very truth, as the thing was in deede, to commend the same vnto al godly mindes: neither haue I heard it reported by others, but I my selfe was present at the doing of all these things, and as I was able I haue put them in wryting, that by thys my labour, and indeuor howsoeuer it were, I might preserue the memory of this holy man and excellent Doctour of the Euangelicall truth. (1583, p 625) 20

I went through many writings on Hus to find out who the author of this last paragraph was. I knew about the same ending in Flacius´s Ioannis Hus et

Hieronymi Pragensis confessorum Christi Historia et Monimenta (1558), but could not find any other. By chance (described below) I found another book with the same final paragraph. It was Luther´s Epistolae quaedam piissimae & eruditissimae Iohannis Hus, printed in 1537.

Martin Luther´s work Epistolae quaedam piissimae & eruditissimae Iohannis Hus printed in 1537 is nowadays the only existing publication of the work. However, there were at least six other editions writen in Latin and German, printed in 1536 and 1537.21 I do not know which letters were in the previous works, but

20 For comparison see: Flacius p 76 21 See Letters of John Hus. Workman, Pope. 1904.

54 Bonnechose in her “preliminary notice” to her translation of Luther´s letters says that the first publication consisted of Luther´s translation of four Hus´s letters written in Bohemia and the letters of the Nobles of Bohemia and Moravia addressed to the council.

At first I thought that Epistolae was the book that Foxe used for his second and other editions, because it starts with the first part of Relatio.22 I compared

Mladonovic and Luther´s publication and it is obvious that Luther copied

Mladonovic´s second Latin edition. Relatio is in Luther followed by letters by Hus and his friends during his imprisonment. But its final part was to my big surprise

Flacius´s publication. The third part of Luther and the first part of Flacius are almost identical.23 Moreover Luther´s preface from Epistolae is reprinted at the beginning of Flacius. Flacius then continues with other prefaces by Luther till page 20, where the story called Historia Sanctisimis Martyris Ioannis Hvs (…) starts. I supposed that Flacius copied Luther´s version, printed twenty years earlier, or that both of them had the same model.

That is why I made a detailed comparison of the two publications to find out which of them was used by Foxe for his 1563 edition.

22 Luther pp 21 - 52 23 Luther pp 179 - 355; Flacius pp 20 - 76

55 Here are the most important differences between the third part of Luther and the first part of Flacius24:

 There are different letters placed before The Bishop of Nazareth testimoniall.

 After the letter just mentioned, two letters are left out in Luther: An instrument

of recognition or protestation of the Lorde Inquisitour of Heresies and An

instrument of Testimoniall how maister Hus and his procurer were denied

entrance into the publique procuration celebrated and holde in

tharchebyshops court.

25  There is an equivalent letter in both these works with different title.

After this comparison it is easy to conclude which source Foxe used for his 1563 version, because point no 1 and 2 are the same in Foxe. Moreover the letter missing in 1583 edition which I mentioned at the beginning of this chapter can be found in Flacius on page 37. It seems that Foxe´s account of Hus (1563, pp 190 –

240) was translated from Flacius´s Ioannis Hus et Hieronymi Pragensis confessorum Christi Historia et Monimenta (pp 20 – 76).

24 The names of the letters are English translations from Foxe.

56 Letters in 1570-1583 edition

The order of the letters placed after the narrative (Relatio) is totally different from

Flacius as well as Luther. For example the first letter in Foxe26 is in Flacius placed under number LII on page 170. And the first letter in Flacius is penultimate in

Foxe.27

Foxe made references to three letters in his later versions.

 Epistle XXXIII. This letter is in Flacius but its number is XXXIV.

 When Foxe speaks about Hus´s prophetical vision of the reform of the

Church, he refers to Epistle XLIV. Under this number there is described

Hus´s dream in Foxe, hence this one is correct.

 When Foxe quotes Hus´s speech in Latin, he refers to Epistle XLVIII. This

one is under the same number in Flacius.

Treatises in 1570-1583 edition

This Iohn Hus being in prison, wrote diuers treatises, as of the commaundements, of the Lordes prayer, of mortal sinne, of matrimony, of the knowledge and loue of God, of 3. ennemies of mankinde, the world, the flesh, and the deuill, of penaunce, of the Sacrament of the body and bloud of the Lord: of the sufficiencie of the lawe of God to rule the church. &c. (Foxe 1583, p 625)

25 Flacius: Exemplum Illius scripti… p 41, Luther: Hic fecutum eft exemplum…p 236 26 Foxe 1583: A letter of the Lorde Iohn de Clum concerning the safeconduict of Iohn Hus 27 Foxe 1583: An other letter of Iohn Husse

57 These treatises were part of Relatio28, but Mladonovic enumerated them in his writing in a different order. Also in Flacius they are incorporated in a different order and in Luther they are not included at all.

Considering the fact that Foxe was used to copy everything word by word, including somebody elses opinions without adding a sentence that it is not him but his source who is saying that, this is very strange. There are two explanations for that. The first one is that these were Foxe´s words and he enumerated the main twelve treatises by heart, but in a different order. The other explanation is that he had in front of him a text, which wasn´t printed by Flacius.

To summarize it, as far as Luther´s publication is concerned, there is another possibility. Luther might print the full version (as it occurred in Flacius) in one of his lost publications. But we will probably never learn that.

In spite of the fact that Flacius´s publication is considered to be the main Foxe´s source on all the editions, I dare say, considering all the deviations, anyhow ambiguous they are, that Foxe probably used a different source for his 1570 - 1583 editions, a source that comprises Hus´s letters in the order recorded in Foxe. But it is still probable that Foxe used Flacius for his 1563 version. I am also aware of the fact that Foxe because of the lack of time and the huge size of his martyrologies would surely use his former translations, which explains why the versions are almost identical. He might revise the second version by comparing it with a

28 Zpráva o mistru Janu Husovi v Kostnici. 1965, p 91.

58 manuscript or print of a Mladonovic´s copy which he had not have in his disposal before, but also Hus´s letters and treatises. That would explain the letter he left out as well as the different order of the letters and treatises.

59 6 CONCLUSION

In spite of the fact that there are mistakes and errors in the Acts and Monuments and even though Foxe was not conscientious in citing (which was quite common at that time) it does not mean that his work is of a low credibility and historical value.

Foxe was a biased editor, but he was also a great historian, does not matter what the public opinion was for some four hundred years after his death. He was able to summon and put together a huge number of data, and due to his labours he also saved some data for us unavailable anywhere else nowadays.

Foxe based his Book of Martyrs on his idea coming from the Book of Revelation and he implied it on the church’s history. By the two prophets from the Revelation he was writing about he surely ment Jan Hus and Jerome of Prague. The Book of

Martyrs did not accomplished Foxe´s dream of creating the “true Church” of the true Christ’s followers. The denominations in England changed with every change of their ruler, and the English were happy to have the Book of Martyrs helping them to establish their national identity. But as they were generally adaptive during the

Tudor’s reign, whatever religion and practises were required of them, they, in my opinion, were not those people Foxe was writing for. The “true, universal Church”

Foxe hoped for and which was on his mind while writing the Book of Martyrs, remained hidden.

Concerning the sources Foxe used for his work, there is no doubt that Foxe used one of the copies of Mladonovic´s Relatio de M. Joannis Hus causa in concilio

Constanciensi acta. Nonetheless, Foxe did not learn about the author, and until his

60 death he thought that the eyewitness of the trial and the author was Ioannes

Przibram. I proved that Foxe´s original text was the first redaction of Mladonovic work, however it was not Agricola Eislebensis´s translation of Mladonovic´s

Relatio. After my thorough comparisons of Foxe, Mladonovic, Luther and Flacio I came to the conclusion, that Foxe very likely used Flacius´s work Joannis Hus, et

Hieronymi Pragensis confessorum Christi for his 1563 edition, but I do not think that he used only the source for the other editions. It is because I know that Foxe habitually transcribed large portions of some texts word by word, but there can be found some diviations between 1563 edition and those following, and between

1570 – 1583 editions and Flacius, such as a different order of the letters and treatises or the omitted parts. In my opinion there existed a manuscript or a book, the same version as Luther´s last part of Epistolae quaedam piissimae & eruditissimae Iohannis Hus (…) and the first part of Flacius, which included also the letters printed in Foxe´s 1570 - 1583 editions, and which Foxe used to revise and enlarge his 1563 edition.

61 7 SOURCES

Ioannes Cochlaeus. Historiae Hussitarum XII Libri. Mainz, Francisci Behem, 1549,

Illyricus Flacius. Joannis Hus, et Hieronymi Pragensis confessorum Christi Historia et Monumenta, partim annis superioribus publicata, partim nunc demum in lucem prolata et edita, cum scriptis et testimoniis multorum , qui sanctorum Martyrum doctrina praeclare instituti, tandem tractationum omnium in Synodo Constantiensi conscij, et crudelium ac indignissimorum suppliciorum spectatores fuerunt. Norimbergae: Officina Ioannis Montani & Ulrici Neuberi, 1558. Available at: http://knihovna.phil.muni.cz/dl/oldbooks/historia-et-monumenta-jeronym-hus-1558

John Foxe. Acts and Monuments […]’. The Variorum Edition. [online]. (hriOnline, Sheffield version 1.1. - 2006). Available at: http://www.hrionline.shef.ac.uk/foxe/.

Jan Hus, Martin Luther. Epistolae quaedam piissimae & eruditissimae Iohannis Hus, quae solae satis declarant Papistarum pietates . . . . Wittenberg, 1537. Original from the Bavarian State Library. Available at: http://books.google.com/books

Jan Huss, The Letters of John Hus. With Introductions and Explanatory Notes by Herbert B. Workman and R. Martin Pope. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1904. Available at: http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1994.

Jan Hus, Émile de Bonnechose, Martin Luther. Letters of John Huss written during his exile and imprisonment. W.Whyte, 1846. Original from Harvard University. Available at: http://books.google.com/books

Petri de Mladoniowitz relatio de Magistro Johanne Hus. In Prameny dějin českých VIII (Historické spisy Petra z Mladoňovic a jiné zprávy a paměti o M. Janovi Husovi a M. Jeronymovi z Prahy). Václav Novotný. Praha 1932.

Johann Agricola Eisleben. History und wahrhafftige geschicht (…). In Prameny dějin českých VIII (Historické spisy Petra z Mladoňovic a jiné zprávy a paměti o M. Janovi Husovi a M. Jeronymovi z Prahy). Václav Novotný. Praha 1932.

Zpráva o mistru Janu Husovi v Kostnici. Universita Karlova, Praha 1965.

62 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jan Hus mezi epochami, národy a konfesemi. Sborník z mezinárodního sympozia v Bayreuthu. Ed. Jan Blahoslav Lášek. Česká křesťanská akademie. Praha Alfaprint 1995.

August Franzen. Malé církevní dějiny. Zvon 1992.

Thomas S. Freeman. Martyrs and Martyrdom in England, c.1400-1700 (Studies in Modern British Religious History). Boydell Press 2007.

Jaroslav Kadlec. Přehled českých církevních dějin 1. Zvon 1987.

Jiří Kejř. Jan Hus známý i neznámý. Nakladatelství Karolinum, Praha 2009.

Jiří Kejř. Z počátků české reformace. Brno: L.Marek, 2006.

Jiří Kejř. Husův proces. Vyšehrad, 2000.

Tony Lane. Dějiny křesťanského myšlení. Návrat domů, Praha 1999.

Václav Novotný. Prameny dějin českých VIII (Historické spisy Petra z Mladoňovic a jiné zprávy a paměti o M. Janovi Husovi a M. Jeronymovi z Prahy). Praha 1932.

Václav Novotný. Hus v Kostnici a česká šlechta. Praha, 1915.

Ashley Null. The Marian Exiles in Switzerland. Heinz Duchhardt (Hrsg.), Malgorzata Moraviec (Redaktion) 2006.

André Maurois. Dějiny Anglie. Nakladatelství Lidové noviny, 2000.

Petr z Mladoňovic. ‘Zpráva o mistru Janu Husovi v Kostnici’. (translated by František Heřmanský). Universita Karlova, SPN, 1965.

Essays from The Variorum Edition

63 Patrick Collinson. John Foxe as Historian. in John Foxe, Acts and Monuments [...]. The Variorum Edition. [online] (hriOnline, Sheffield, version 1.1. - 2006). Available at: http://www.hrionline.ac.uk/johnfoxe/apparatus/collinsonessay.html. [Accessed: 18.12.2007].

Thomas Freeman. John Foxe: a biography. in John Foxe, Acts and Monuments [...]. The Variorum Edition. [online] (hriOnline, Sheffield version 1.1. - 2006). Available at: http://www.hrionline.ac.uk/johnfoxe/apparatus/freemanessay.html. [Accessed: 18.12.2007].

Thomas Freeman. St Peter did not do thus. Papal history in the Acts and Monuments', in John Foxe, Acts and Monuments [...]. The Variorum Edition. [online] (hriOnline, Sheffield version 1.1. - 2006). Available at: http://www.hrionline.ac.uk/johnfoxe/apparatus/freemanStPeterpart1.html. [Accessed: 27.12.2007].

Mark Greengrass and Thomas Freeman. The Acts and Monuments and the Protestant Continental Martyrologies, in John Foxe, Acts and Monuments [...]. The Variorum Edition. [online] (hriOnline, Sheffield version 1.1. - 2006). Available at: http://www.hrionline.ac.uk/johnfoxe/apparatus/greengrassessay.html. [Accessed: 18.12.2007].

David Loades. The Early Reception, in John Foxe, Acts and Monuments [...]. The Variorum Edition. [online] (hriOnline, Sheffield version 1.1. - 2006). Available at: http://www.hrionline.ac.uk/johnfoxe/apparatus/loadesearlyreceptionessay.html. [Accessed: 27.12.2007].

John Wade. John Foxe the Latinist, in John Foxe, Acts and Monuments [...]. The Variorum Edition. [online] (hriOnline, Sheffield version 1.1. - 2006). Available at: http://www.hrionline.ac.uk/johnfoxe/apparatus/wadeessay.html. [Accessed: 31.12.2007].

Electronic journals and web sites:

Lollard." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Aug. 2009 .

"Jan Hus." New Advent. Available at: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07584b.htm. [Accessed: 10.8. 2009].

Projev papeže Jana Pavla II. k účastníkum Římského mezinárodního sympozia o Mistru Janu Husovi [http://www.janhus.net/dokumenty_1999-janpavel2-omluva.html]

64

Ra McLaughlin. JOHN WYCLIF: Morning Star of the Reformation. IIIM Magazine Online, Volume 2, Number 32, August 7 to August 13, 2000.

D. Andrew Penny (1997). John Foxes Victorian Reception. The Historical Journal, 40 , pp 111-142.

Thomas S. Freeman. Research rumour and propaganda: Anne Boleyn in Foxe's ‘Book of Martyrs. The Historical Journal, Volume 38, Issue 04, Dec 1995, pp 797-819 doi: 10.1017/S0018246X0002046X (About doi), Published online by Cambridge University Press 11 Feb 2009.

John T. McNeill. John Foxe: Historiographer, Disciplinarian, Tolerationist. Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture, Volume 43, Issue 02, Jun 1974, pp 216-229. doi: 10.2307/3163953(About doi), Published online by Cambridge University Press 12 Jan 2009 .

Palle J. Olsen. Was John Foxe a Millenarian? The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, Volume 45, Issue 04, Oct 1994, pp 600-624 doi: 10.1017/S0022046900010782 (About doi), Published online by Cambridge University Press 06 Feb 2009.

William Winters. John Foxe the Martyrologist and his Family. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society , Volume 5, doi: 10.2307/3677947 (About doi), Published online by Cambridge University Press 12 Feb 2009.

Gretchen E. Minton. “The same cause and like quarell”: Eusebius John Foxe and the Evolution of Ecclesiastical History. Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture, Volume 71, Issue 04, Dec 2002, pp 715-742. doi: 10.1017/S000964070009627X (About doi), Published online by Cambridge University Press 12 Jan 2009

Walter E. Bauer. Foxe's Martyrs. Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture, Volume 3, Issue 04, Dec 1934, pp 249-266. doi: 10.1017/S0009640700001402 (About doi), Published online by Cambridge University Press 12 Jan 2009

Warren W. Wooden. John Foxe. Twayne's English Authors Series. Boston: Twayne Publishers 1983. xi + 144 pp. - Frederick H. Shriver. Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture, Volume 53, Issue 04, Dec 1984, pp 532-532 doi: 10.2307/3166131 (About doi), Published online by Cambridge University Press 12 Jan 2009

65 John Foxe: An Historical Perspective. Edited by David Loades. Aldershot U.K.: Ashgate 1999. xii + 256 pp. - Gretchen E. Minton. Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture, Volume 69, Issue 04, Dec 2000, pp 902-904 doi: 10.2307/3169362 (About doi), Published online by Cambridge University Press 28 Jul 2009

John Foxe and His World. Edited by Highley Christopher and John N. King. Aldershot: Ashgate 2002. xix + 298 pp. cloth. - Gretchen E. Minton. Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture, Volume 71, Issue 04, Dec 2002, pp 896-898 doi: 10.1017/S000964070009658X (About doi), Published online by Cambridge University Press 28 Jul 2009

John Foxe and the English Reformation. Edited by David Loades. St. Andrews Studies in Reformation History. Aldershot: Scolar Press 1997. xii + 340 pp. - Richard L. Greaves. Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture, Volume 67, Issue 01, Mar 1998, pp 163-164. doi: 10.2307/3170813 (About doi), Published online by Cambridge University Press 12 Jan 2009

Elizabeth I of England, in Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc). Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England. [Accessed: 30.12.2007].

John Bale (1495-1563), in Online encyclopedia (Originally appearing in Volume V03, Page 249 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica). Available at: http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/BAI_BAR/BALE_JOHN_1495_1563_.html. [Accessed: 27.12.2007].

Chroniclers and Antiquaries: John Foxe, in The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1907–21; New York: Bartleby.com, 2000, Available at http://www.bartleby.com/213/1509.html. [Accessed: 18.12.2007].

Magdeburg Centuries, in Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc). Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdeburg_Centuries. [Accessed: 30.12.2007].

66 RESUMÉ

Tato diplomová práce se zabývá knihou Johna Foxe Book of Martyrs a především té části této knihy, která pojednává o Janu Husovi.

První část práce je zaměřena na osobní i veřejný život Johna Foxe, především na jeho život v exilu v Evropě. Začleněn je i popis politické situace v Anglii, která měla na Foxův život nesmírný vliv. Posléze následuje část s otázkou Foxovy důvěryhodnosti coby historika, způsob jakým pracoval se svými zdroji, a zda-li byl nezaujatým autorem.

Druhá část nabízí čtenáři historické pozadí dané doby, tedy období reformace v

Evropě a Anglii. Je zde též krátké pojednání o Wycliffovi a lolardech, neboť jsou v

Book of Martyrs s Husem často spojováni a citováni.

Třetí část se zaměřuje na důvody, kvůli kterým byl Jan Hus zařazen do Book of

Martyrs. Je zde nastíněno, jak probíhala reformace v Čechách a jako úlohu v ní sehrál Jan Hus a jeho učení. Dále je zde zmíněno dnešní postavení Husa v katolické církvi. Na konci třetí kapitoly je vysvětleno Foxovo chápání “univerzální církve”, což je hlavní myšlenka na pozadí Book of Martyrs, a také spojovací článek s Husem.

Čtvrtá a pátá část pojednávají o různých rukopisech a knihách, které mohl mít

Foxe k dispozici. Čtvrtá část se zabývá údajnými zdroji a poslední část je vlastním výzkumem a srovnáním různých vydání dostupných mezi rokem Husovy smrti

(1415) a posledním vydáním Book of Martyrs v roce 1583.

67 RESUMÉ

This Master thesis deals with John Foxe’s Book of Martyrs and especially the part of this book that tells the story of Jan Hus.

The first part of this thesis is focused on John Foxe´s personal as well as public life, especially on his life in exile in Europe. The description of the political situation in England is also incorporated as it had a crucial influence on Foxe’s life. Then follows a part dealing with today’s understanding of John Foxe’s credibility as a historian, it means the question of how he worked with his sources and whether he was unbiased author or not.

The second part gives the reader the historical background of the time, it means the time of the reformation in Europe and England. There is also added a brief part on Wycliffe and Lollardy, as they are often connected and cited with Hus in Book of

Martyrs.

The third part deals with reasons for incorporating Hus into Book of Martyrs. There is outlined the development of the reformation in the Czech lands and Hus´s part in it. There is also incorporated today’s understanding of Jan Hus´s place in the

Catholic Church. At the end of the third chapter there is explained how Foxe understood the term “Universal Church”, which is the hidden idea behind the Book of Martyrs, and also a link to Jan Hus.

The forth and the fifth part deal with various manuscripts and publications, Foxe could have at his disposal. The forth part deals with its alleged sources and the last

68 part is own research and comparison of various publications available between

Hus´s death (1415) and the last Foxe´s edition printed in 1583.

69