Carnivore

Written by John Mason and staff of ACS Distance Education Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction to Carnivore 8 Taxonomy and conservation 8 Principles of taxonomy 9 Modern Science Has Changed Taxonomy 10 Classification of carnivores 11 Key points 12 Chapter 2 Carnivore Biology and Behaviour 13 Anatomy and feeding 13 Senses 16 Range and distribution 16 Ecology 16 Longevity 17 Behaviour 17 Altruism 17 Reproduction 17 Predation 18 Pathogens and parasites 18 Sustainable management 18 Conservation case studies of iconic carnivores 19 Tiger 19 Giant panda 19 19 Chapter 3 Canines 20 Genus: Atelocynus 21 Genus: 21 Genus: Cerdocyon 24 Genus: Cerdocyon 24 Genus: Cuon 25 Genus: Lycalopex 26 Genus: Lycaon 27 Genus: 28 Genus: Otocyon 28 Genus: 29 Chapter 4 Felines 31 The Big Cats () 33 The Small Cats () 39 Chapter 5 48 Introduction 48 49 species 49 Chapter 6 Aquatic Carnivores 59 Family Odobenidae (Walrus) 59 Family Phocidae (True Seals) 60 Family Otariidae (Eared Seals, Fur Seals, and Sea Lions) 61 Chapter 7 MUSTALIDS 63 Family (, , ) 63 Genus: Taxidea 64 Taxidea taxus (American ) 64 Genus: Mellivora 65 Genus: Arctonyx 66 Arctonyx collaris () 66 Genus: 66 Meles (Eurasian Badger, , ) 66 Genus: Eira 67 Eira barbara () 67 Genus: Gulo 68 Gulo () 68 Genus: Martes () 69 Genus: Melogale 70 Genus: 70 Examples of other in this superfamily include: 71 The Domestic 74 74 Chapter 8 Other Carnivores 76 Family (, and relatives) 76 Family (Lesser Panda or ) 79 Family (Civets, Genets, Linsangs) 81 Family Herpestidae () 81 Family Hyaenidae ( and ) 84 Chapter 9 MANAGEMENT OF CAPTIVE CARNIVORES 88 Managing the Welfare of Captive Carnivores 88 Duty of Care 88 Assessing Animal Welfare 89 Preventing Disease and Injury 89 Health Checks and Observations 90 The Importance of Good Nutrition 90 The Effect of Poor Nutrition 91 Provision of Water 91 Exercise 92 Stimulation 92 Appropriate and Safe Environment 92 Controlling Pests and Diseases 93 Veterinary Prevention 93 Pet carnivores 94 Health 94 Nutrition 95 95 Cats 96 Sociability 97 Dogs 97 Cats 97 Environmental Enrichment 98 Cats 98 Training 99 Dogs 99 Cats 99 99 Dogs 99 Cats 100 Communication 100 Dogs 100 Cats 100 Considerations for Purchasing a Pet Carnivore 100 Captive carnivores 101 Principles and Ethics of Animal Management in Zoos 101 Health 102 Monitoring health 102 Hygiene 102 Diseases 102 Nutrition 103 Nutrition for Big Cats (e.g. Lions and Tigers) 104 Seasonal Changes and Food Requirements 106 Watering 107 Behaviour 108 Behaviour Management 109 Environmental Influences on Behaviour 109 Environmental Enrichment 110 Physical Enrichment 111 Feeding Enrichment 111 Cognitive Enrichment 112 Social Enrichment 112 Sensory Enrichment 112 Working Carnivores 112 Racing 113 Dog Fighting 113 Hunting dogs 114 Farm Dogs 115 Chapter 10 MANAGEMENT OF WILD CARNIVORES 116 Wild carnivores 116 Awareness of the Threats 117 Conservation of Wild Carnivores 117 Captive Breeding 117 Goals of Captive Breeding 118 Management of Diseases 119 Pest Animals 119 Wild Dogs and Cats 120 Domestication of Wild Dogs and Cats 120 Examples of Other Pest Animals 120 Wolves 121 121 Territoriality 122 Chemical Communication 122 Controlling carnivores 122 Catch and Release 122 Catch and Neuter 123 Fencing or other Barriers 123 Culling 123 APPENDIX 124 Distance learning and online courses 124 E-books by John Mason and ACS Staff 125 Printed books by John Mason 126 Useful contacts 127 ACS global partners 127 Social media 127 > BACK TO CONTENTS PAGE

Credits

© Copyright 2017 John Mason The information in this book is derived from a broad cross section of resources Written By: (research, reference materials and Staff of ACS Distance Education personal experience) from the authors and editorial assistants in the academic Photos: department of ACS Distance Education. John Mason and Stephen Mason It is, to the best of our knowledge, composed as an accurate representation Layout & Illustration: of what is accepted and appropriate Stephen Mason information about the subject, at the time of publication. Editorial Assistants/Contributors: Kara Wight B.Sc. (Bioscience and The authors fully recognise that Zoology), HND (Animal Care). knowledge is continually changing, Dr Robert Brown B.Sc., PhD. and awareness in all areas of study Sarah Partridge B.S.Chs.(Zoology). is constantly evolving. As such, we John Mason Dip.Hort.Sc. encourage the reader to recognise Peta Jinnath Abdul B.Sc., Grad.Dip. that nothing they read should ever Ed., M.Creative Writing. be considered to be set in stone. They should always strive to broaden Published by: their perspective and deepen their ACS Distance Education understanding of a subject, and before acting upon any information or advice, P.O. Box 2092, Nerang MDC, should always seek to confirm the Queensland, Australia, 4211 currency of that information, and the [email protected] appropriateness to the situation in which www.acsbookshop.com they find themselves.

P O Box 4171, Stourbridge, DY8 2WZ, As such, the publisher and author do not United Kingdom accept any liability for actions taken by [email protected] the reader based upon their reading of www.acsebooks.com this book.

ISBN: 978-0-9954356-4-3

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Carnivore Taxonomy

In general, carnivores are animals that eat other animals; though there are plenty of exceptions to that fact. The Order consists of at least 286 living species. The Order Carnivora evolved about 60 million years ago, from an ancestor that was a 1kg arboreal that likely ate insects and smaller .

Fox - belongs to the family

Taxonomy and or authorities may use different conservation nomenclature; this does not mean that they are inaccurate. It is important to When meaningfully discussing any recognise the Linneaus ranking system subject, it is important that it is clearly is still the most accurate and widely defined. As you study carnivores you used way of identifying different types may sometimes encounter conflicting of animals. Above all, it provides an information concerning nomenclature, extremely useful tool for understanding, or their common and scientific names studying, managing and protecting the and therefore identity. As you study diversity of animal life on earth. carnivores you may sometimes encounter conflicting information Advanced conservation plans consider concerning nomenclature. Books the continuance of genetic variation

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within a species as the primary goal. Each species had a binomial name Conservation measures require consisting of its Generic (genera) understanding of the genetic status of name with a capital and specific a species i.e. how genetically distinct a (species) name i.e. the domestic cat population is as an evolutionary distinct is (Generic name) catus (specific unit (EDU). That includes genetically name – Cat). Note: Scientific names distinct populations (GDPs), often are preferably italicised, but may not morphologically distinguishable, be underlined. and behaviourally distinct populations (BDPs) such as those that have Linneaus system of classification did learned to access food sources not assume evolutionary theory or behaviourally. An example of a BDP is genetics, as these sciences were still not vultures dropping bones from height founded. However, the ranks were highly to extract marrow. GDPs, if visually suggestive of a progressive development distinguishable would once have been of species from a common ancestor. referred to as sub-species or varieties. The Linneaus system of classifying was based on observations of organism’s similarities in morphology, such as hair, Principles of taxonomy scales, feathers, wings, legs, feet, fins, bone structure, and somewhat on habitat. In the 18th century, scientist Carl Linnaeus began a revolution in the way New scientific knowledge placed further we name living organisms, dividing demands on taxonomy to reconcile the everything into three Kingdoms: nature of species. This knowledge was animals, plants and minerals. partly developed through palaeontology showing that organisms in the fossil ●● The Linneaus system also organised record showed increasing complexity living organisms into a series of (as the age of fossils became more different levels of classification, recent). This observation, combined which he called ranks. The result with the observation that organisms was a tree like structure with the produce far more progeny than needed Kingdom at the base then diverging to maintain populations, consolidated through the different ranks: into evolutionary theory as published by Charles Darwin’s 1859 book On the ●● The Kingdom of animals was divided Origin of Species. into Classes such a fish, mammals or birds. Around the same time, Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) a Christian monk, ●● Classes were divided into Orders established the principles of heredity. His work was not discovered until ●● Orders into Families the early 20th Century and created the science of modern genetics. This ●● Families into Genera eventually resulted (between the 1930-50’s) in a broad consensus in ●● Genera into Species which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.

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As time progressed, this evolutionary Modern Science Has theory became accepted as a rule. If Changed Taxonomy organisms interbred between each other, they would be in the same species. We understand evolution of animal There are exceptions called hybrids that species more than ever. From the use are uncommon in nature but frequently of genetics to determine phylogeny, used in industry - particularly to produce increasing detailed knowledge of domestic plant varieties. morphology and knowledge of the fossil record and geology. At extremes, some With the development of modern argue strongly for a “rank free” system genetics to determine phylogeny, and of classification but the clear majority electron microscopes to reveal micro- still broadly support and use the use of structure, we can now classify species Linnaeus’ system. Scientists currently with greater certainty. The most powerful consider the higher-level ranks, above of these are regions of ribonucleic acid Order, consist of Domains Bacteria and in mitochondrion, the energy factories Archaea (no distinct nucleus, bacteria of cells, that mostly mutate at random. etc.), and the Eukaryota (distinct nucleus). Therefore, the interspecies differences Eukaryota are divided into the Kingdoms seen in ribonucleic acids, tells us if there of animals, plants, protozoa and fungi. is any relation between the species and even when they diverged from a The International Commission for common ancestor. Zoological Nomenclature acts as a global authority for managing the The assessment of individual genes naming of animals internationally. They gives even more power to ascertaining produce and manage any changes to evolutionary theory. Currently scientific the International Code for Zoological teams are working globally to sequence Nomenclature and provides a central DNA of thousands of species to further reference that all animal taxonomists the Tree of Life. can refer to. Because of the low cost of genetic analysis, the description Taxonomy at the species level has of a new species now must include a previously been a disordered field of phylogenetic genetic analysis. science, with many species receiving multiple names, type specimens As we learn more about animals and being lost, ambiguous and inept understand the genetic, chemical and descriptions of species. Among scientific anatomical similarities and differences, communities or individuals, there has our perception of the relationships been competition to ‘name’ a species. between different organisms continues At the species level and in higher ranks to grow. The current avalanche of there have been numerous re-naming knowledge has resulted in vibrant, and re-ranking. and sometimes heated, debate among scientific schools of thought, especially in terms of higher classification (ranks), and generally more certainty and ironically sometimes uncertainty at the species level.

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Classification ●● Ailuridae (red panda or of carnivores lesser panda) ●● Mustelidae (otters, weasels, The Grandorder Ferae includes one badgers, mink) single order: Carnivora. The Carnivores. ●● (-previously part This group includes dogs, wolves, bears, of Mustelidae) racoons, cats, weasels, hyenas, seals, sea lions and . ●● Viverridae (civets, genets)

Two living superfamilies of carnivores are ●● Herpestidae (mongooses-often usually recognised: considered part of Viverridae)

1. the Arctoidea (or Canoidea), with ●● Hyaenidae (hyenas, aardwolf) the families Canidae, Ursidae, Procyonidae, and Mustelidae ●● (cats, lion, tiger)

2. Aeluroidea (or Feloidea), with the ●● Odobenidae (walrus) families Viverridae, Hyaenidae, and Felidae. The Pinnipedia with families ●● Phocidae (true, earless, or Odobenidae, Phocidae, and Otariidae hair seals)

The Carnivore families are the: ●● Otariidae (eared seals, sea lions)

●● Canidae (dogs, jackals, , wolves) Carnivores have strong jaws and powerful muscles in the head and neck ●● Ursidae (bears, panda) and a heavy skull. These characteristics enable them to use the incisor teeth ●● Procyonidae (raccoons) more effectively.

Otaria flavescens Patagonian

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Carnivores are Fissiped or , of infanticide with the carnivores. characteristics that refer to their feet. Most carnivores have toes that are separated. The evolutionary history of a species These animals are known as Fissipeds, and evolutionary processes that guided and they include cats and wolves. There evolution, such as the conditions under are some species, those that are aquatic, which they evolved and adapted, that have toes that are joined, a feature are also helpful for predicting the that helps with swimming. These “fin capacity of a species to survive footed” types are called . Seals under different climatic conditions and sea lions are examples of pinnipeds. and how they will cope with predicted environmental changes. Case study - maritimus (Polar Bear) Key points:

The polar bear has become an iconic ●● It is important to accurately species for conservation issues ascertain the taxonomic status of concerning the effects of global warming. species both for identification and The Arctic region is the habitat of the for conservation. polar bear and is suffering some of the greatest warming. The impact of ●● Taxonomy is a rapidly developing diminishing ice coverage and melting science mainly due to increased of ice is the reduction of the platform genetic and fossil evidence. of sea ice from which polar bears hunt their prey of seals. One aspect of ●● Taxonomy is dependent on a conservation important for this species is hierarchical phylogenetic trees their evolutionary distinctiveness, that is (charts) with their classical final how genetically distinct are they are. unit being a species, and now as evolutionary significant units. The issue of polar bear conservation has led to intense genetic studies to ●● Taxonomic status also correlated ascertain their taxonomy. Until those to the previous adaptive genetic studies it was thought that history of species and species polar bears diverged from brown bears behavioural traits. relatively recently about 50-150 thousand years ago. Studies have now shown that brown and black bears diverged about 4-5 million years ago, and the sister species brown and polar bears almost simultaneously, then hybridized at 600,000 years ago, and then again diverged with the last major hybridisation and divergence 160,00 years ago.

Some important behavioural traits are Ursus maritimus (Polar Bear) also highly hereditable. This is the case

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Chapter 2 Carnivore Biology and Behaviour

Anatomy and feeding mass. The smallest seals are about 150cm in length and 68kg in weight, Terrestrial carnivores range in length with the largest the southern elephant from the least 13-25cm to seal (Mirounga leonine) weighing up to the polar bear at 3.1m and in mass 5000kg and 6.9m in length. The size 1000kg. Males carnivores are of carnivores that predate individually commonly larger than females. Aquatic on other individual animals is adapted carnivores have a smaller size range to their prey size, but not so much with but greater maximum size, due to their pack hunting carnivores. Most tend aquatic habitat demanding greater to be medium size animals - if too thermoregulation through larger body small they wouldn’t be big enough to size with layers of protecting fat and overpower and kill prey. being able to supporting high body

Canis lupus signatus (Iberian Wolf)

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Carnivores are anatomically some completely carnivorous (tigers, adapted to their various habitats polar bears, cheetahs, dog packs), to provide for locomotion, feeding, others are omnivorous (, skunks, and thermoregulation and for sexual badgers, bears), filter feeder of krill competition. Adaptations for locomotion (some seals), or even herbivorous (giant provide for migration and predation pandas). All aquatic carnivores live and so depend on the carnivore’s entirely on animal prey including krill habitat, ranging from aquatic, through (monk seals, Lobodon carcinophaga), terrestrial to arboreal. These include shellfish and benthic organisms (walrus, elongated legs for grassy plains in the Odobenus rosmarus), and the shark (Chrysocyon brachyurus), ratfish, flatfish, crab, squid, octopus for hunting on high grassy plains, or (southern ). Carnivores with cheetahs for speed. All terrestrial that only eat meat are termed obligate predators are covered with shiny hair carnivores or hypercarnivores, species and fur of colours ranging from black include many cats. Mesocarnovores to white, and in many shades of red/ such as racoons, coyotes and foxes brown that may also include manes. normally have a diet consisting of about Giant pandas ( melanoleuca) 50% meat and are omnivorous in their which diverged from other bears 23 dietary habits. Carnivores that have million years ago, have evolved a 6th diet that include less than 30% meat thumb from their wrist bone for grasping are termed hypocarnivores, an example bamboo, and their molars are smoother is the giant panda. Adaption’s to their and larger than those of other bears to skulls and teeth reflect carnivore’s diets. crush bamboo but their canine teeth Some species such as the filter feeding remain large for defence. have specialised krill- filtering cusp teeth, and walrus have After the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass greatly extended canines in the form extinction, including the dinosaurs, there of tusks. was a rapid diversification of ancestral mammals during the early Palaeocene period (65-55 million years ago). The rapid evolution and diversification of the Carnivores finally resulted in a wide range of terrestrial and aquatic species. Terrestrial carnivores have four legs, however, in seals the legs have become adapted to flippers from locomotion. All carnivores have claws made of keratin that may be non-retractable (dogs), semi non-retractable (cheetahs) or retractable (cats); retraction refers to withdrawal into a sheath not into a pocket.

This diversification included feeding habits driven by carnivore size and Fox skull potential prey. Of terrestrial carnivores,

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