Chapter Two Environmental Problems Related to Space Activities

Space exploration is a polluting industry in various ways and in all its phases.1 As is typical for all industrial production, the production of space technology and the transport of its products on Earth are far from being environmentally friendly activities. Also, the launching stage is a polluter: it produces noise pollution, dust and emissions. A recent example of the adverse effects of launch activities is provided by a study which claims that launches at Russia’s space base in Baikonur, Kazakhstan, cause serious health problems among people living below the rockets’ flight path. For instance, the levels of endocrine disease and blood disorders in children are reported to be over twice the regional average. This is due to highly toxic propellants (notably hydrazine) which are dumped onto the land located along the flight trajectories: by a rough estimation, dozens of liters of unburned fuel is sprayed over several square kilometers of land with every launch. Local environmental groups have campaigned against the polluting launches, but with little success.2 Baikonur Cosmodrome is operated by the Russian Space Agency (Rosavi- akosmos) which leases it from Kazakhstan. Also both NASA and ESA pay to have craft launched from Baikonur.3 Considering that Baikonur ranks among

1 As the UNESCO Working Group on the “Ethics of Outer Space” pointed out, “space technology … represent[s] a factor of damage to the circumsterrestrial [sic], terrestrial and planetary environments”. The Ethics of Space Policy 2000,p.7. However, it can also provide an effective tool for the protection of the environment. E.g., Lebeau 2000,pp.62–63. 2 “Russian Space Agency Denies Launch Site Causes Sickness Among Local Chil- dren” 2005. 3 These agencies explain that they only buy services at Baikonur and cannot be held 29 30 Chapter Two the busiest launch sites in the world (being the world’s largest space launch facility) and, accordingly, is a considerable source of income for the Russian government, it is no surprise that Rosaviakosmos rejects the conclusions of the study indicating health problems:4 according to Rosaviakosmos, space activities at Baikonur do not impact directly on the health of nearby residents. However, the agency confirms that heptyl, a substance used for launches, causes environ- mental degradation. Nevertheless, Rosaviakosmos points out that all possible rocket fuels are environmentally harmful and declares that it does not intend to replace heptyl with other substances.5 Instead, it professes to be improving the ecological characteristics of existing launch vehicles6 and has signed an agree- ment with Kazakhstan which calls for the creation of an “ecologically safe space rocket complex”.7 Furthermore, on its way to outer space, a space vehicle necessarily travels through the atmosphere, where discharges from rocket motors deteriorate the ozone layer, diminishing the protection for life on Earth against ultraviolet radiation. Another environmental impact in this respect is acid rain. All rockets releaseorcreateproductsthatcontributetodepletionoftheozonelayer,such as oxides of nitrogen.8 The potential threats to the ozone layer associated with responsible for possible problems associated with the site. Giles 2005.Consideringthat most other major launch bases used by these agencies send rockets out over the sea, one could even get the impression that for NASA and ESA the health of the Kazakh people is not among the top priorities. 4 Ibid. 5 “Officials Deny Russian Spaceport A Threat” 2005. 6 Unlike the current Proton rocket, which uses a toxic fuel, new Russian rockets are to be powered by a cleaner fuel mixture of liquid oxygen and kerosene. See “Kazakhs, Russians Create Space Venture” 2005, and “Russia and Kazakhstan to Build Commercial Rocket” 2005. 7 However, the primary purpose of the Russian-Kazakh agreement was apparently to enable Russia to continue to use Baikonur. “Space Complex Bill Sent to Duma” 2005. Considering the volume of launch activities in Baikonur, prospects for any improvements in the health of the local residents seem rather poor: in 2004, Russia carried out approximately 40 per cent of all rocket launches in the world. Of these about three-fourths (approx. 30 per cent of all launches globally) were conducted at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. “Russia Led In 2004 Space Launches” 2005.Moreover, Kazakhstan has announced a plan to build another space complex for launching small civilian spacecraft into low Earth orbit. “Kazakhs Plan New Space Complex” 2005. 8 Rothblatt 1993,p.308. However, solid-fuel rockets, such as have been utilized in launches of the US Space Shuttle and Titan-4, as well as the Ariane 5 (ESA), are the biggest source of rocket pollutants that damage the atmosphere. The solid fuels contain, i.a., chlorine, which is a major contributor to depletion of the ozone layer. Christol 1995,pp.254, 258. Another particularly harmful component of solid rocket propellants is aluminum, aluminum oxide being produced as a major exhaust by-product. Such