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Role Mongolian Rise Mongol Empire to the Fall of Dynasty Ortoy Merchants in the Mongolian Court 91 90 Bozian to be ortaq, the Persian urtaq, and the Chinese wo-t'o. 3 Given the span of the empire, multiple languages were spoken so it makes Role sense for terminology to vary across them after centuries of use. Despite the translations, the original Turkic word ortaq can be Mongolian Rise traced back to at least the eleventh century.4 Mongol Empire to the Fall of The ortoy originally functioned as a vvay to pool risk. The Mongols demanded goods from China and Persia, but long Dynasty distance trade was both risky and expensive. Ortoy contracts solved this issue in two ways: first, merchants now had easy access PETER BOZIAN to capital to afford these trips, and second, merchants had limited risk for large trips because any loss was split between the merchant and the investors. Ortoy associations made it such that a single Introduction failed caravan could no longer put a merchant out of business. The The Mongol Empire originated in the steppes of Central contractual basis of an ortoy is not clear, but more often, at least in Asia. Nomadic people, the original Mongols relied on trade ~nd its beginning stage, it is considered an agreement where the pillage to provide them with the necessi~ies which ge?graph1cal investor gave capital to the merchant for a commercial venture and restrictions made difficult to acquire. The importance of trade was afterwards the merchants returned the capital with a share of the stressed from the creation of the empire. When Cinggis Qan profits. Through ortoy associations, the Mongols found a way to conquered new tribes, he kept the natives who.~ew .trad.eand ~raf~ use their new riches to both earn profit and promote commerce in well and often gave them administrative pos1t1ons m his empire. the empire. Much of the commercial success of the Mongolian As ;he empire grew, the need for successful trade increased. The empire was a result of ortoy, so much so that H.F. Schmmann Mongol ruling elite sought to facilitate trade. The Mongol~ were refrmed to the ortoy as, "one of the most extraordinary systems of rich with newly acquired loot but, because they had been raised as capitalism. "5 soldiers, they lacked the con-ect skills set and knowled~e to Mongols never worked as merchants because they were conduct trade. Therefore, the creation of the ortoy was essential to unfan1iliar with the newly conquered territories. The majority of the promotion of trade. merchants were Muslims and Uighars because they knew the local The term ortoy, as stated by All sen, "is best defined as a and surrounding lands well. As the empire expanded and merchant operating with capital supplied by a M~ngo~i':11prince. or commerce boomed, it was necessary to give the merchants government official. 112 Ortoy is a word of Turkic ongm m:anmg significant influence in the Mongolian court. In addition, "partner"; however, the tenn is more ~om~1only considered knowledge of surrounding areas was increasingly valuable to Mongolian than Turkic. The Turkic translatrnn 1s generally agreed 3 Allsen, "Merchant Pruiners," 85. 4 Elizabeth Endicott-West, "Merchant Associations in Yuan China: The "Ortoy"," Asia Major 2, no. 2 ( 1989): 129. I John D. Langlois and Morris Rossabi, China under Mongol Rule (Princeton, 5 Etienne Balazs and Herbert Franz Schurmann, "Economic Structure of the NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), 263. Yuan Dynasty. Translations of Chapters 93 and 94 of the Yuan Shi," 2 Th T Allsen "Mongolian Princes and Their Merchant Pminers, 1200- on1as . , ~ The Journal of Asian Studies 19, no. 3 (1960): 326. 1260," Asia Major 2, no. 2 (1989): 119. 92 Bozian Ortoy Merchants in the Mongolian Court 93 politics as more territory was acquired; thus, Muslim merchants making and lawless behavior," 7 stay in a position of power? In the were given powerful positions so their experience could be fully following pages I will follow the role of the ortoy from its creation. 6 utilized. I will explain how the Mongols' desire to remain a nomadic The Mongols wished for their growing empire to remam empire allowed ortoy merchants to rise to such a position of power, centered in the steppe. As a result, the Mongols depended on where they were able to nearly bankrupt the entire empire. I will merchants to supply the empire with mass quantities of necess~ry detail how, even after this reign of destruction, ortoy merchants goods. The success of trade was vital to the success of the empire. were able to remain privileged and influential in the Mongol The Mongols took steps to accommodate trade and appeal to Empire for another century. I will argue that there was a merchants and merchants were given more power in the Mongol preexisting culture of extravagance and excess in the Mongolian court to h~lp facilitate these accommodations. In addition,. many court that allowed the ortoy to keep their influence and continue to, members of the Mongol elite, including the emperor, were deeply even after the Mongol Empire split in 1260, reap profits at the cost invested in ortoy merchants. It was in the best financial ~nterest .of of the state. a large portion of the court to promote merchants m sp~crnl Historiography privileges and status. Ortoy merchants found then:iselve.s ~n a Sources covering this topic have primarily described the position of substantial power without restrictions. Dun_ng th1_s_t1me, role of ortoy merchants and their political relationships. This topic ortoy merchants were accused of wrongfully using their pos1t10nto is not particularly popular and most of these documents search to exploit the northern Chinese Mongol population for profit. It h~s consolidate the information around a specific subtopic rather than been argued that while traveling, merchants falsely reported their provide an argument. That being said, in 1956 Herbert Franz goods stolen and would, using their privileged status, force local Schurmann translated the two economic-focused chapters of the families to reimburse them. At the same time, the ortoy operated as Yiian -Shih, or "The History of Yuan". To analyze Schurmann's both tax farn1ers and moneylenders. They would demand 8 resulting book: Economic Structure of the Yuan Dynasty , I've unreasonable tax quotas from the population, and when they could relied on scholarly reviews and citations to understand some of its not afford the quota, the merchants would loan them the money at content. The book is chiefly an informative study and provides usurious rates. more explanation than subjective commentary. That being said, Ogodei eventually recognized what was going on and Schurmann generally discuss the role of the ortoy positively, but removed merchants from the tax bureaus. Chinese observers describes their role as dependent on their relationship with the accused the ortoy of causing the Mongols severe debt and of government. When discussing the success of the Mongol Empire abusing the population; however, they were not punished. In fact, refers to the ortoy as, "one of the most extraordinary systems of less than a year later, they were able to return to the same schemes capitalism," 9 and later refers to ortoy associations as, "a complex for another decade. Even after they were restricted, the ortoy 10 permanent relationship profitable to both [Mongols and Turks]" . remained closely connected with the Mongolian court for another century. How did these merchants with a reputation, "in the 7 Endicott-West, "The Ortoy," 127. Chinese sources of the Yuan period for apparently limitless profit- 8 Herbert Franz Schurmann, Economic Structure of the Yiian Dynasty. Translation of Chapters 93 and 94 of the Yiian Shih, by Herbert Franz Schurmann (Cambridge: Mass., Harvard University Press, 1956). 9 Balazs, "Economic Structure," 326. 10 6 Allsen, "Merchant Partners," 93-94. Schurmann, "Economic Structure," 4. 94 Bozian Ortoy Merchants in the Mongolian Court 95 Schurmann sees the purpose of the ortoy as beneficial but he notes profitable and \Vere an attractive investment for the newly wealthy that their role in the empire fluctuated. In Balazs' s review, he notes Mongol elite. By the mid-1230s the court was highly involved in that the merchants briefly experienced a period of tax farming and financing the ortoy. Ailsen believes the court's involvement in exemption from taxation before losing their privileged status. 1:,1erchantactivity gave merchants influence on imperial policy. Schurmann describes this time as a period of political Ogodei spent a significant portion of his rule accommodating decentralization. 11 The period of decentralization ended with the merchants and ensuring their ventures' profitability. Allsen states reign of Qubilai Qan. Qubilai was able to work with merchants. that merchants experienced maximum profit between the early Schurmann believes that past historians were wrong to assume that 1230s and the beginning of Mongke's reign. He refers to this the Mongol conquest ruined economic growth in the Yiian. period as the "golden age." The profitability they experienced was Instead, Schurmann believes that Mongol encouragement led the not solely from trade, but predominantly from tax farming, usury, Yuan to experience a period of further growth and development. and exploitation, all at the cost of the population. The economic He believes the ortoy played a major role in the growth of regime they imposed was self-destructive, and only Mongke was commerce. However, Schurmann states that in the later history of able to successfully centralize authority and curtail the privileges 14 the dynasty, the Yuan administration struggled to control of the ortoy. commerce. Still, Twitchett's criticizes Schurmann for not Allsen's analysis ends in 1260, thus his article is seen as answering many of the questions he had about the ortoy, so we complementary to Elizabeth Endicott-West's Merchant 12 look to Allsen's piece 23 years later for some answers.
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